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$  Princeton,  N.  J. 


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TIIEOLOi 


COXTAIXI.NG 


DEFpiTIpNSOF  ALL  RELIGIQUS  grHiRSl6f  / 

A  COMPREHENSIVE  VIE^' OF 

EVERY  ARTICLE  IN  THE  SYSTEM  OF  DlVINITYj 

AN  IMPARTIAL  ACCOUNT 

OF  ALL  THE  PRIJ^'CIPAL  DEJyOMmATIOXS 

WHICH  HAVE  SUBSISTED  IN  THE  RI2.IGI01IS  WORLD,  FROM  THE  BIRTH  ' 
OF  CHRIST  TO  THE  PftEfENT  DAY: 

TOGETHER   WITH  >^ 

AN  ACCURATE  STA-feMENT  Ot 


REMARKABLE  TRANSACTIONS  AND  EVENTS 

RECORDED  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY. 

y 

BY  THE  LATE  REV.  CHARLES  BUCK. 


TWO  VOLS.  IN  ON-E. 


woodwahd's  enlarged  and  improved  aherica.v,  from  the  last  London  edition  ;  to  which  is 

added,  an  account  of  the  cumberland  presbyterians,  and  an  appendix,  containing 

an  account  of  the  methodist  episcopal  church  ix  the  united  states,  &c. 


PUBLISHED  BY  JOSEPH  J   WOODWARD, 

NO,   279  MARKET   STREET, 


1826. 
[Stereotj'i^e'  edttion.] 


EASTERN  PtSTRICT  OF  PENNSTLV4NIA,  TO  WIT. 

^ BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  That  on  tlK'  tliirteenlh  day  of  February,  in  the 

1  L.  S.  I  fiftieth  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  A.  D.  1826, 

V )     Joseph    J.    Woodward,  of  tlie  said  District,  hath  deposited  in  this  office 

the  title  of  a  book,  the  riglit  whereof  he  claims  as  Froprietor,  in  the  words  following,  to 
■wit : 

"A  Theological  Dictionary,  containing  definitions  of  all  reli^^ious  terms  :  acompreheu- 
"sive  view  of  every  article  in  tlie  system  of  Divinity:  an  impartial  account  of  all 
"the  principal  denominations  which  have  subsisted  in  the  religious  world,  from  the 
« birth  of  Christ  to  the  present  day :  together  with  an  accurate  statement  of  the 
"  most  remarkable  transactions  and  events  recorded  in  ecclesiastical  history. — By " 
"the  late  Rev.  Charles  Bttck.  Two  volumes  in  one.  Woodward's  enlarged  and 
"improved  American,  from  the  last  London  edition;  to  which  is  added,  an  account 
"  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterians,  and  an  Appendix,  containing  an  account  of  the 
"  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  the  United  States,  &c." 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled,  "  An  act  for 
the  encourao-ement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the 
authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies  during  tlie  times  therein  mentioned  ;"  and  also  to  the 
act  entitled,  "An  act  supplementary  to  an  act,  entitled  'an  act  for  the  encouragement  of 
learnino-,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprie- 
tors of  such  copies  during  the  times  therein  jnentioned;'  and  extending  the  benefits  there- 
of to  Uie  arts  of  designing,  engi-aving,  and  etching  historical  and  other  prints." 

D.  CALDWELL,  Clerk  of  the 
Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


37—  ^ 

PREFACE 


J\.NO^^XED(iE,  in  a  great  measure,  foi-ms  the  tni^  dignity  aiid  happiness  of 
man :  it  is  that  by  wliich  he  holds  an  honourable  rank  in  the  scale  of  being,  and 
by  which  he  is  rendered  capable  of  adding  to  the  felicity  of  his  fellow-creatui-es. 
Every  attempt,  therefore,  to  enlarge  its  boimdaries,  and  facilitate  its  acquisition, 
must  be  considered  as  worthy  of  our  attention  and  regard.  The  present  work 
is  designed  to  promote  these  valuable  and  important  ends. 

The  plan  of  conveying  knowledge  by  dictionaries  has  been  long  estab'ished,  and 
well  received  in  the  republic  of  letters.  A  dictionary,  however,  of  a  religious  and 
ecclesiastical  nature  was  still  a  desideratum  in  the  religious  world ;  for  although 
we  have  had  dictionaries  which  explained  Scripture  terms,  yet  it  is  evident  these 
could  not  embrace  the  history  of  the  chui-ch  since  the  sacred  canon  was  con- 
cluded, nor  explain  the  numerous  terms  which  have  been  used;  nor,  indeed,  point 
out  the  various  sects  and  denominations  which  have  subsisted  since  that  time.  I 
do  not  mesxn,  by  these  remarks,  to  depreciate  the  valuable  works  above  referred 
to:  I  am  sensible  of  their  excellencies,  and  I  have  no  wish  to  undervalue  them  in 
order  to  exalt  my  own.  This  work,  however,  is  of  a  different  nature,  as  the  reader 
will  easily  see,  it"  he  takes  the  trouble  to  compare  and  examine. 

There  may,  doubtless,  be  defects  in  this  publication  which  may  have  escaped 
my  attention;  but  whoever  considers  the  various  books  that  must  have  been  con- 
sulted ;  the  discriminations  that  were  necessary  to  be  made ;  the  patient  investi- 
gation required ;  and  the  toil  of  selecting,  transcribing,  and  coniposing,  must  be 
convinced  that  it  has  been  attended  with  no  small  difficulty.  The  advantages, 
however,  which  my  own  mind  derived  from  the  v/ork,  and  the  probability  of  its 
being  useful  to  others,  greatlj-  encouraged  me  in  its  prosecution.  Besides,  to  be 
active,  to  be  useful,  to  do  something  for  the  good  of  mankind,  I  have  always  con- 
sidered as  the  honour  of  an  intelligent  being.  It  is  not  the  student  wrapt  up  in 
metaphysical  subtilties ;  it  is  not  the  recluse  living  in  pei'petual  solitude;  it  is 
not  the  miser  who  is  continually  amassing  wealth,  that  can  be  considered  as  the 
greatest  ornaments  or  the  gi-eatest  blessings  to  human  society : — it  is  rather  the 
useful  than  the  shining  talent  that  is  to  be  coveted. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  said,  the  work  is  tinctured  too  much  Avith  my  own  sentiments, 
and  that  the  theology  is  too  antiquated  to  please  a  liberal,  philosophising,  and  re- 
fined age.  In  answer  to  this,  I  obsen-e,  that  I  could  do  no  other,  as  an  honest  man, 
than  conmiunicate  what  I  believed  to  be  the  tnith.  It  is  a  false  liberality  to  ac- 
quiesce -vs'ith  every  man's  opinion,  to  fall  in  with  e^^ery  man's  scheme,  to  trifle 
with  error,  or  imagine  there  is  no  difference  between  one  sentiment  and  another; 
yet,  notwithstanding  this  declaration,  I  trust  the  features  of  bigotry  ai-e  not  easily 
discernible  in  tliis  -work ;  and  that,  while  I  have  endeavoured  to  cany  the  torch, 
of  Truth  in  my  hand,  I  have  not  forgotten  to  walk  in  the  path  of  Candour. 

It  is  almost  needless  here  to  say,  that  I  have  availed  myself  of  all  the  writings 
of  the  best  and  most  eminent  authors  I  could  obtam.  Whatever  has  sti-uck  me  as 
important  in  ecclesiastical  history ;  whatever  good  and  accurate  in  definition ; 
■whatever  just  views  of  the  passions  of  the  human  mind;  whatever  terms  used  in 
the  religious  world;  and  whatever  insti-uctive  and  impressive  in  the  systems  of 
divinity  and  moral  philosophy,  I  have  endca\'oured  to  incoqiorate  in  this  work. 
And  in  order  to  prevent  its  being  a  dry  detail  of  terms  and  of  dates,  I  have  given 
the  substance  of  what  has  been  generally  advanced  on  each  subject,  and  occa- 
sionally selected  some  of  the  most  interesting  practical  passages  from  our  best 
and  celebrated  sei-mons.  I  ti-ust,  therefore,  it  will  not  only  be  of  use  to  inform  the 
mind,  but  impress  the  heart ;  and  thus  promote  the  real  good  of  the  reader.  The 
critic,  however,  may  be  disposed  to  be  severe  ;  and  it  will,  perhaps,  be  easy  for 
him  to  obsen^e  imperfections.  But  be  this  as  it  may;  I  can  assure  him  I  feel  my- 
self happy  in  the  idea  that  the  work  is  not  intended  to  serve  a  party,  to  encourage 
bigotry,  nor  strengthen  prejudice,  but  "  for  the  service  of  Truth,  by  one  who 
would  be  glad  to  attend  and  grace  her  triumphs ;  as  her  soldier,  if  he  has  had  the 
nonour  to  serve  successfully  under  her  banner ;  or  as  a  capti'.  e  tied  to  her  cha- 
riot wheels,  if  he  has,  though  undesignedly,  committed  any  offence  against  her." 
After  all,  however,  what  a  learned  author  said  of  another  work  I  say  of  this: — 
*'  If  it  have  merit,  it  will  go  doAvn  to  posterity ;  if  it  have  none,  the  sooner  it  dies 
and  is  forgot  the  better  " 

CHARLES  BUCK. 


THEOLOGICAL    DICTIONARY. 


A. 


ABB 


ABB 


ABBA,  a  Syriac  word,  signifying  Fa- 
ther. It  is  more  particulai-ly  used 
jn  the  Syi-iac,  Coptic,  and  Ethiopic 
churches,  as  a  title  given  to  the  bishops. 
The  bishops  themselves  bestowed  the 
titlp  Abba  more  eminently  on  the  bishop 
of  Alexandria,  which  occasioned  the 
people  to  give  him  the  title  of  Baba  or 
Papa;  that  is,  Grandfather;  a  title 
which  he  bore  before  the  bishop  of 
Rome.  It  is  a  Jewish  title  of  honour 
given  to  certain  Rabbins  called  Tana- 
ites:  it  is  also  used  by  some  writers  of 
the  middle  age  for  the  superior  of  a 
monastery.  St.  Mark  and  St.  Paul  use 
this  word  in  their  Greek,  Mark  xiv.  36. 
Rom.  viii.  15.  Gal.  iv.  6.  because  it  was 
then  commonly  known  in  the  syna- 
gogues and  the  primitive  assemblies  of 
the  Christians.  It  is  thought  by  Selden, 
Witsius,  Doddi-idge,  and  others,  that 
Saint  Paul  alluded  to  a  law  among  the 
Jews  which  forbade  servants  or  slaves 
to  call  their  master  Abba,  or  Father; 
and  that  the  apostle  meant  to  convey 
the  idea  that  those  who  believed  in 
Christ  were  no  longer  slaves  to  sin;  but 
.being  brought  into  a  state  of  holy  free- 
dom, might  consequently  address  God 
as  their  Father. 

ABBE.  The  same  with  Abbot, 
which  see.  Also  the  name  of  curious 
popular  characters  in  France ;  who  are 
persons  who  have  not  yet  obtained  any 
precise  or  fixed  settlement  in  church 
or  state,  but  most  heartily  wish  for  and 
would  accept  of  either,  just  as  it  may 
happen.  In  the  mean  while  their  pri- 
\Tleges  are  many.  In  college  they  are 
the  instnictors  of  youth,  and  in  pri- 
vate famihes  the  tutors  of  young  gen- 
tlemen. 

ABBESS,  the  superior  of  an  abbey  or 
convent  of  nuns.  The  abbess  has  the 
same  rights  and  authority  over  her  nuns 
that  the  abbots  regular  have  over  their 
monks.  The  sex,  indeed,  does  not  al- 
low her  to  perform  the  spiritual  func- 
tions annexed  to  the  priesthood,  where- 
with the  abbot  is  usually  invested ;  but 
there  are  instances  of  some  abbesses 
Vfho  have  a  right,  or  rather  a  priA^ilege, 


to  commission  a  priest  to  act  for  them. 
They  have  even  a  kind  of  episcopal 
jurisdiction,  as  well  as  some  abbots  who 
are  exempted  from  the  visitation  of 
their  diocesan. 

ABBEY,  a  monastery,  governed  by  a 
superior  under  the  title  of  Abbot  or 
Abbess.  Monasteries  were  at  first  no- 
thing more  than  religious  houses,  whi- 
ther persons  retired  from  the  bustle  of 
the  woiid  to  spend  then-  time  in  solitude 
and  devotion :  but  they  soon  degenerated 
from  their  original  institution,  and  pro- 
cured large  privileges,  exemptions,  and 
riches.  They  prevailed  greatly  in  Bri- 
tain before  the  reformation,  particular- 
ly in  England ;  and  as  they  increased  in 
i-iches,  so  the  state  became  poor,  for 
the  lands  which  these  regulars  possess- 
ed could  never  revert  to  the  lords  who 
gave  them.  These  places  were  wholly 
abolished  by  Heniy  VlII.  He  first  ap- 
pointed visitors  to  inspect  into  the  lives 
of  the  monks  and  nuns,  which  were 
found  in  some  places  very  disorderly ; 
upon  which  the  abl)ots,  perceiving  their 
dissolution  unavoidable,  were  induced 
to  resign  their  houses  to  the  king,  who 
by  that  means  became  invested  with  the 
abbey  lands;  these  were  afterwards 
granted  to  different  persons,  whose  de- 
scendants enjoy  them  at  this  day :  they 
were  then  valued  at  2,853,000/.  per  an- 
num; an  immense  sum  in  those  days. 
— Though  the  suppression  of  these 
houses,  considered  in  a  religious  and 
political  light,  was  a  great  benefit  to 
the  nation,  yet  it  must  be  owned,  that, 
at  the  time  they  flourished,  they  were 
not  entirely  useless.  Abbeys  were  then 
the  repositories  as  well  as  the  semina- 
ries ot  learning:  many  valuable  books 
and  national  records  "have  been  pre- 
served in  their  libraries ;  tlie  only  pla- 
ces wherein  they  could  have  been  safe- 
ly lodged  in  those  turbulent  times.  In- 
deed, the  historians  of  this  countiy  are 
chiefly  beholden  to  the  monks  for  the 
knowledge  they  have  of  fomier  nation- 
al events.  Thus  a  kind  Providence 
overi-uled  even  the  institutions  of  super- 
stition for  good.  See  Monastery. 


ABE 


ABS 


ABBOT,  the  chief  ruler  of  a  monas- 
tery or  abbey.  At  first  they  were  lay- 
men, and  subject  to  the  bishop  and 
ordinary  pastors.  Their  monasteries 
being  remote  from  cities,  and  built  in 
the  farthest  solitudes,  they  had  no  share 
in  ecclesiastical  affairs ;  but,  there  being 
among  them  several  persons  of  learning, 
they  were  called  out  of  their  deserts  by 
the  bishops,  and  fixed  in  the  suburbs  of 
the  cities;  and  at  leaigth  in  the  cities 
themselves.  From  that  time  they  de- 
generated, and,  learning  to  be  ambitious, 
aspired  to  be  independent  of  the  bishops, 
whicli  occasioned  some  severe  laws  to 
be  made  against  them.  At  lengthy  how- 
ever, the  abbots  carried  their  point,  and 
obtained  the  title  of  lord,  with  other 
badges  of  the  episcopate,  particularly 
the  mitre.  Hence  arose  new  distinctions 
among  them.  Those  were  termed  initred 
abbots  who  were  privileged  to  wear  the 
mitre,  aiid  exercise  episcopal  authority 
within  their  respective  precincts,  being 
exempted  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishop.  Others  were  called  croskred 
abbots,  from  their  bearing  the  crosier, 
or  pastoral  staff.  Others  Avere  styled 
cscumenical  or  universal  abbots,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple, while  othei'S  were  termed  cardinal 
abbots,  from  their  superiority  oa  er  all 
other  abbots.  At  present,  in  the  Roman 
catholic  countries,  the  chief  distinctions 
are  those  of  i-egiilar  and  commendato- 
ry.  The  former  take  the  vow  and  wear 
the  habit  of  their  order;  whereas  the 
latter  are  seculars,  though  they  are 
obliged  by  their  bulls  to  take  orders 
when  of  proper  age. 

ABELIANS,  or  Abelonians,  a  sect 
which  arose  in  the  diocese  of  Hippoo 
in  Africa,  and  is  supposed  to  have  be- 
gun in  the  reign  of  Arcadius,  and  ended 
in  that  of  Theodosius.  Indeed,  it  was 
not  calculated  for  being  of  anv  long  con- 
tinuance. They  regulated  marriage  af- 
ter the  example  of  Abel,  who,  they 
pretended,  was  married,  but  lived  in  a 
state  of  continence:  they  therefore  al- 
lowed each  man  to  many  one  woman, 
but  enjoined  them  to  live  in  the  same 
state.  To  keep  up  the  sect,  when  a 
man  and  woman  entered  into  this  socie- 
ty, they  adopted  a  boy  and  a  girl,  who 
were  to  inherit  their  goods,  and  to  mar- 
ry upon  the  same  terms  of  not  having 
children,  but  of  adopting  two  of  differ- 
ent sexes. 

ABESTA,  the  name  of  one  of  the  sa- 
cred books  of  the  Persian  Magi,  which 
they  ascribe  to  their  great  founder  Zo- 
roaster. The  Ahesta  is  a  commentary 
on  two  others  of  tlieir  religious  books, 
called  Zend  and  Fazend ;  the  tluee  to- 


gether including  the  wh.ole  system  of 
the  Ignicold,  or  worshippers  of  fire. 

ABILITY.  See  Inability. 

ABLUTION,  a  ceremony  in  use 
amo!ig  the  ancients,  and  still  practised 
in  several  parts  of  the  world.  It  con- 
sisted in  washing  the  body,  which  was 
always  done  before  sacrificing,  or  even 
entering  their  houses.  Ablutions  ap- 
pear to  be  as  old  as  any  ceremonies, 
and"  external  worship  itself.  Moses  en- 
joined them,  the  heatliens  adopted  them, 
and  Mahomet  and  his  followers  have 
continued  them.  I'he  Egyptians,  the 
Greeks,  the  Romans,  the  Jews,  all  had 
them.  The  ancient  Christians  had  their 
ablutions  before  communion,  which  the 
Romish  church  still  retain  before  their 
mass,  and  sometimes  after.  The  Sy- 
rians, Copts,  &c.  have  their  solemn 
washings  on  Good  Friday;  the  Turks 
also  have  their  ablutions,  their  Ghast, 
their  Wodou,  Aman,  &c. 

ABRAHAMITES,an  order  of  monks 
exterminated  for  idolatry  by  Theophi- 
lus,  in  the  ninth  century.  Also  the  name 
of  another  sect  of  heretics  who  had 
adopted  the  errors  of  Paulus.  See 
Pauhcians. 

ABSOLUTION  signifies  acquittal. 
It  is  taken  also  from  that  act  whereby 
the  priest  declares  the  sins  of  such  as 
are  penitent  remitted.  Tlie  Romanists 
hold  absolution  a  part  of  the  sacrament 
of  penance :  and  the  council  of  Trent  and 
tha.t  of  Florence  declare  the  form  or 
essence  of  the  sacrament  to  lie  in  the 
words  of  absolution.  "I  absolve  thee 
"  of  thy  sins."  According  to  this,  no  one 
can  receive  absolution  without  the  pri» 
vity,  consent  and  declaration  of  the 
priest;  except,  therefore,  the  priest  be 
willing,  God  himself  cannot  pardon  any 
man.  This  is  a  doctrine  as  blasphe- 
mous as  it  is  I'idiculous.  The  chief  pas- 
sage on  which  they  ground  their  power 
of  absolution  is  that  in  John  xx.  23: 
"  Wliosesoe^'er  sins  ye  rem  it,  they  are  re- 
mitted unto  them,  and  whosesoever  sins 
ye  retain,  they  ai-e  retained."  But  this 
IS  not  to  the  purpose ;  since  this  was  a 
special  commission  to  the  apostles  them- 
selves, and  the  first  preachers  of  the 
Gospel,  and  most  probably  referred  to 
the  power  he  gave  them  of  discerning 
spirits.  By  virtue  of  this  power,  Peter 
stmck  Ananias  and  Sapphira  dead,  and 
Paid  struck  Elimas  blind.  But,  sup- 
posing the  passage  in  question  to  apply 
to  the  successors  of  the  apostles,  and  to 
ministers  in  general,  it  can  only  import 
that  their  office  is  to  preach  pardon  to 
the  penitent,  assuring  those  who  believe 
that  their  sins  arc  forgiven  through  the 
merits  of  Jesus  Chris't;  and  that  those 


ABS 

-.vho  remain  In  unbelief  ai-e  in  a  state  of 
condemnation.    Any  idea  of  authority 
given  to  fallible,  uninspired  men  to  ab- 
solve sinners,  different  from  this,  is  un- 
sci-iptural ;  nor  can  I  see  much  utility 
in  the  terms  minisrerial  or  declarative  \ 
absolution,  as  adopted  by  some  divines,] 
since  absolution  is  wholly  the  preroga- 1 
tive  of  God;  and  the  terms  abuve-men- ! 
tioned,  may,  to  say  the  least,  have  no  i 
good  influence  on  the  minds  of  the  igno- 1 
i-ant  and  su])erstitious.  | 

ABSTEMII,  a  name  given  to  such| 
persoTis  as  could  not  partake  of  the  cup 
of  the  eucharist,  on  account  of  their 
natural  aversion  to  wine. 

ABSTINENCE,  in  a  general  sense, 
is  the  act  of  refraining  from  something 
which  we  have  a  propension  to  or  find 
pleasure  in.  It  is  more  particularly 
used  for  fasting  or  forbearing  of  neces- 
sary food.  Among  the  Jews,  various 
kinds  of  abstinence  were  ordained  by 
their  law.  Among  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians, some  denied  themselves  the  use 
of  such  meats  as  were  pi-ohibited  by  that 
law ;  others  looked  upon  this  abstinence 
with  contempt ;  as  to  which  Paul  gives 
his  opinion,  kom.  xiv.  1.  3.  The  coun- 
cil of  Jerusalem,  which  was  held  by  the 
apostles,  enjoined  the  Christian  converts 
to  abstain  from  meats  strangled,  from 
blood,  from  fornication,  and  from  idola- 
tr\".  Acts  XV.  Upon  this  passage.  Dr. 
Doddridge  observes,  "that  though  nei- 
ther things  sacrificed  to  idols,  nor  the 
flesh  of  strangled  animals,  nor  blood, 
have  or  can  have  any  moi'al  evil  in 
them,  which  should  make  the  eating  of 
them  absolutely  and  universally  unlaw- 
ful ;  yet  they  were  forbidden  to  the  Gen- 
tile converts,  because  the  Jews  had  such 
an  aversion  to  them,  that  they  could  not 
converse  freely  with  any  who  used  them. 
This  is  plainly  the  i-eason  which  James 
assigns  in  the  very  next  words,  the  21st 
verse,  and  it  is  abundantly  sufficient. 
This  reason  is  now  ceased,  and  the  ob- 
ligation to  abstain  from  eating  these 
things  ceases  with  it.  But  were  we  in 
like  circumstances  agaui.  Christian  cha- 
rity would  surely  require  us  to  lay  our- 
selves under  the  same  restraint."— The 
spiritual  monarchy  of  the  western  world 
inti'oduced  another  sort  of  abstinence, 
•which  may  be  called  ritual,  and  consists 
in  abstaining  from  particular  meats  at 
certain  times  and  seasons,  the  niles  of 
■which  are  called  rogations.  If  I  mis- 
take not,  the  impropriety  of  this  kind 
of  abstinence  is  clearly  pointed  out  in  1 
Tim.  iv.  3. — In  England, abstinence  from 
flesh  has  been  enjoined  by  statute,  even 
since  the  reformation;  particularly  on 
Fridays  and  Saturdays,  on  vigils,  and 


ABY 

on  all  days  commonly  called  fish  days. 
The  like  injunctions  were  renewed  un- 
der queen  Elizabeth ;  but  at  tl\e  same 
time  it  was  declared,  that  this  was  done 
not  out  of  motives  of  religion,  as  if  there 
were  any  difference  in  meats,  but  in  fa- 
\oin-  of  the  consumption  of  fish,  and  to 
multiply  the  niunber  of  fishermen  and 
mariners,  as  well  as  to  spare  the  stock 
of  sheep.    See  Fasting. 

ABSTINENTS,  a  sat  of  heretics  that 
appeared  in  France  and  Spain  about  the 
end  of  the  third  century,  They  are  sup- 
posed to  have  borrowed  part  of  their 
opinions  from  the  Gnosiics  and  Mani- 
cnceans,  because  they  opposed  man-iage, 
condemned  the  use  of  fiesh  meat,  and 
placed  the  Holy  Ghost  iii  the  class  of 
created  beings. 

ABYSS,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes 
something  profound;  in  its  literal  sense 
it  signifies  without  a  bottom ;  in  a  more 
particular  sense  it  denotes  £.  deep  mass 
or  fund  of  waters.  In  this  last  sense  the 
word  is  used  in  the  Septuagint  for  the 
water  which  God  created  at  the  begin- 
inng  with  the  earth,  which,  our  transla- 
tors render  by  deefi.  Thus  it  is  that 
darkness  is  said  to  have  been  on  the  face 
of  the  abyss,  Gen.  i.  2.  Abyss  is  also 
used  for  an  immense  cavern  in  the  earth, 
wherein  God  is  supposed  to  have  col- 
lected all  those  waters  on  the  third  da>', 
which  in  our  version  is  rendered  the 
seas,  and  elsewhere  the  great  deep. 
Abyss  is  likewise  used  to  denote  the 
grave  or  common  receptacle  of  the  dead, 
Rom.  X.  7:  also  hell,  or  the  bottomless 
pit,  Luke  viii.  31.  Rev.  ix.  1.  Rev.  xi.  7. 

^pp  TJF'T  ttct** 

ABYSSINIAN     CHURCH,     that 
which  is  established  in  the  empire  of 
Abyssinia.    They  are  a  branch  of  the 
Copts,  with  whom  they  agi-ee  in  ad- 
mitting only  one  nature  in  Jesvs  Christ, 
and  rejecting  the  council  of  Chalcedon ; 
whence  they  are  also  called  I^Ionophy- 
sites  and  Eutychians,  which  see.    The 
Abyssinian  church   is   governed  by   a 
bishop  st)led  abuna.     rhey  have  ca- 
nons  also,  and  monks.    The  emperor 
Ij  has  a  kind  of  supremacy  in  ecclesiastical 
|:  matters.    The  Abyssinians  have  at  di- 
;,vers  times  expressed  an  inclination  to 
libe  reconciled  to  the  see  of  Rome;  but 
i  rather  from  interested  views  than  any 
]  other  motive.    They  practise  circumci- 
||  sion  on  females  as  well  as  males.  They 
'•\  eat  no  meats  prohibited  by  the  law  of 
"Moses.    They  obsei-ve  both  Saturday 
land  Sunday  sabbaths.  Women  are  obh- 
;[ged  to  the  legal  purifications.  Brothers 
]  marry  brothers'  wives,  &c.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  celebrate  the  Epiphany -with 
I  peculiar  festivity;  have  four  Lents;  pray 


ACA 

for  the  dead;  and  invoke  angels.  Ima- 
t^es  iii  painting  they  venerate;  but  abhor 
all  those  in  relievo,  except  the  cross. 
1'hey  admit  the  apocr>q)hal  books  aiid 
the  canons  of  the  apostles,  as  well  as 
the  apostolical  constitutions,  for  genuine. 
They  allow  of  diA  orce,  which  is  easily 
granted  among  them,  and  by  Uie  civil 
judge ;  nor  do  their  civil  laws  prohibit 
polygamy. — They  have,  at  least,  as 
many  miracles  and  legends  of  saints  as 
the  Romish  chiu'ch.  The)^  hold  that  the 
soul  of  man  is  not  created;  because, 
say  they,  God  anished  all  his  works  on 
the  sixth  day.  Thus  we  see  that  the 
doctrines  and  ritual  of  this  sect  form 
a  strange  coaipound  of  Judaism  and 
Christianity,  ignorance  and  superstition. 
Some,  indeed,  have  been  at  a  loss  to 
Xnow  whether  they  are  most  Christians 
or  Jews :  it  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that 
there  is  little  beside  the  name  of  Chris- 
tianity among  them.  Should  the  reader 
be  desirous  to  know  more  of  this  sect,  he 
may  consult  Father  Lobo's  Voyage  to 
jibyssinia;  Bruce's  Travels;  Ludol/ih's 
Uist.  of  Ethiopia;  and  Diet,  of  Arts  and 
Sciences,  vol.  i.  p.  15. 

ACACI ANS,  a  sect  of  heretics  in  the 
4th  century;  so  named  from  Acacius, 
bishop  of  Cxsarea,  who  denied  the  Son 
to  be  of  the  same  substance  with  the 
Father,  though  some  of  them  allowed 
that  he  was  of  a  similar  substance.  Also 
the  name  of  another  sect,  named  after 
Acacius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in 
the  fifth  century,  who  favoured  the  opi- 
nions of  Eutych'us.    See  EuTYCHiANs. 

ACADEMICS,  a  denomination  given 
to  the  cultivators  of  a  species  of  philo- 
sophy onginally  derived  from  Socrates, 
and  afterwards  illustrated  and  enforced 
by  Plato.  The  contradictoiy  systems 
which  had  been  successively  urged  upon 
the  world  Avere  become  so  numerous, 
that,  from  a  view  of  the  variety  and  un- 
certainty of  human  opinions,  many  were 
led  to  conclude  that  truth  lay  beyond 
tlie  reach  of  our  comprehension.  The 
consequence  of  this  conclusion  was  ab- 
solute scepticism :  hence  the  existence 
of  God,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the 
preferableness  of  virtue  to  vice,  were 
all  held  as  unceitain.  This  sect,  with 
that  of  the  Epicureans,  were  the  two 
chief  that  were  in  vogue  at  the  time  of 
Christ's  appearance,  and  were  embra- 
ced and  supported  by  persons  of  high 
rank  and  wealth.  A  consideration  of  the 
principles  of  these  two  sects  [see  Epi- 
cureans] will  lead  us  to  form  an  idea 
of  the  deplorable  state  of  the  world  at 
the  time  of  Christ's  birth ;  and  the  ne- 
cessity there  was  of  some  divine  teacher 
to  convey  to  the  mind  true  and  certain 


ACC 

I  principles  of  religion  and  wisdom.  Je- 
'  sus  Christ,  therefore,  is  with  great  pi-o- 
priety  called  the  Day  Sprmg  fiom  on 
High,  tlse  Sun  of  Righteousness,  that 
arose  upon  a  benighted  world  to  dispel 
the  clouds  of  ignorance  and  error,  and 
discover  to  lost  man  the  path  of  happi- 
ness antl  heaven.  But,  as  we  do  not 
mean  to  enlarge  much  upon  these  and 
some  other  sects,  which  belong  rather 
to  philosophy  than  theolog}',  we  shall 
refer  the  reader  to  Bttddens^s  Intro- 
duction to  the  History  of  Fhilosofihy  ; 
Sta7iley's  Lives;  Brucker's  History  of 
Philosophy  ;  or  (which  is  more  modem) 
Enfield's  Abridgment. 

ACCLAMATIONS,  ecclesiastical, 
were  shoutsof  joy  which  the  people  ex- 
pressed by  way  of  approbation  of  their 
preachers.  It  hardly  seems  credible  to 
us  that  practices  of  this  kind  should  ever 
have  found  their  way  into  the  church, 
where  all  ought  to  be  reverence  and  so- 
lemnity. Yet  so  it  was  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. The  people  were  not  only  jjerrait- 
ted,  but  sometimes  even  exhoi-ted,  by 
the  preacher  himself,  to  approve  his  ta- 
lents by  clapping  of  hands,  and  loud  ac- 
clamations 01  praise.  The  usual  words 
they  made  use  of  wei'e,  "Ortliodox," 
"Third  apostle,"  &c.  These  acclama- 
tions being  carried  to  excess,  and  often 
misplaced,  were  frequently  prohibited 
by  the  ancient  doctors,  and  at  length  ab- 
rogated. Even  as  late,  however,  as  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
we  find  practices  that  were  not  very  de- 
corous; such  as  loud  humming,  frequent 
groaning,  sti-ange  gestures  of  the  bod)-, 
&c.  See  articles  Dancers,  Shaker's. 
ACCOMMODATION  OF  SCRIP- 
TURE is  the  application  of  it,  not  to  its 
literal  meaning,  but  to  something  ana- 
logous to  it.  rf  hus  a  prophecy  is  said  to 
be  fulfilled  properly  when  a  thing  fore- 
told comes  to  pass ;  and,  by  way  of  ac- 
commodation, when  an  event  happens 
to  any  place  or  people  similar  to  what 
fell  out  some  tune  before  to  another. 
Thus  the  words  of  Isaiah,  spoken  to 
those  of  his  oa\ti  time,  are  said  to  be  ful- 
filled in  those  who  lived  in  our  Sa\'iour's, 
— "Ye  hypocrites,  well  did  Esaias  pro- 
phesy," &c. :  which  same  words  St.  Paul 
afterwards  accommodates  to  the  Jews 
of  his  time.  Is.  xxxix.  14.  Matt.  xv.  8. 
Acts  xiii.  41.  Great  care,  however, 
should  be  taken  by  preachers  who  are 
fond  of  accommodating  texts,  that  they 
first  clearly  state  the  literal  sense  of  the 
passage. 

ACCURSED,  sometliing  that  lies  un- 
der a  curse  or  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation. In  the  Jewish  idiom,  accursed 
and  crucified  were  synonymous  •  among 


^ 


ACT 

tivevTi,  every  one  was  accounted  accursed 
who  died  on  a  tree.  This  senses  to  ex- 
plain tlie  difficult  passage  in  Rom.  ix.  2, 
where  the  apostle  wislies  himself  uc- 
cursecl  aftrr  the  mariner  of  C'hrist;'  i.  e. 
ciMcitied,  if  happily  he  might  hy  sucli  a 
<leath  save  his  countrymen.  I'h'c  pre].io- 
sition  cta-s  here  made  lise  of  is  vised  in  the 
same  sense,  2  Tim.  i.  3.  where  it  obvi- 
ously signifies  after  the  manner  of. 

ACEPHALl,  such  bishops  as  Avere 
exempt  from  the  discipline  and  jurisdic- 
tion of  their  ordinary  bishop  or  patri- 
arch. It  w^as  also  the  denomination  of 
<~ertain  sects;  1.  of  those  who,  in  the  af- 
fair of  the  council  of  Ephesus,  refused 
to  follow  either  St.  Cyril  or  John  of  An- 
tioch ;  2.  of  cei-tain  heretics  in  the  fifth 
cent\iry,  who,  at  first,  followed  Peter 
Mongus,  but  afterwards  abandoned  him, 
upon  his  subscribing  to  the  coimcil  of 
Chalcedon,  they  themselves  adhermgto 
the  Eutychian  heresy ;  and,  3.  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  Severus  of  Antioch,  and  of  all, 
in  general,  who  held  out  against  the 
council  of  Chalcedon. 

ACOEMETiE,  or  Acometi,  an  or- 
der of  monks  at  Constantinople  in  the 
fifth  century,  whom  the  writers  of  that 
and  the  following  ages  called  Anot/uerxi ; 
that  is,  Watchers,  because  they  per- 
formed divine  service  day  and  night 
without  intermission.  They  divided 
themselves  into  three  classes,  who  al- 
ternately succeeded  one  another,  so  that 
they  kept  up  a  pei'petual  course  of  wor- 
ship. This  practice  they  founded  upon 
that  passage- — "pray  without  ceasing," 
1  Thess.  v.  17. 

ACOLYTHI,  or  Acoluthi,  young 
people  who,  in  the  primitive  times,  as- 
pired to  the  ministry,  and  for  that  pur- 
pose continually  attended  the  bishop. 
In  the  Romish  church,  Acohthi  were  of 
longer  continuance ;  but  their  functions 
were  different  from  those  of  their  first 
institution.  Their  business  was  to  light 
the  tapers,  cany  the  candlesticks  and 
the  incense  pot,  and  prepare  the  wine 
and  water.  At  Rome  there  were  three 
kinds;  1.  those  who  waited  on  the  pope; 
2.  those  who  served  in  the  churches; 

and  others,  who,  together  with  the 
deacons,  officiated  in  other  parts  of  the 
citv. 

Act  of  faith  {Juto  da  Fe,)  in 
,the  Romish  church,  is  a  solemn  day  held 
by  the  Inquisition  for  the  punishment  of 
heretics,  and  the  absolution  of  the  inno- 
cent accused.  They  usually  contrive  the 
Auto  to  fall  on  some  gieat  festival,  that 
the  execution  may  pass  \f'-x\i  the  more 
awe ;  and  it  is  always  on  a  Sunday.  The 
Auto  da  Fe  may  be  called  the  last  act 
of  the  Inquisitorial  tragedy:  it  is  a  kuid , 


ACT 

of  gaol-delivery,  a])pointed  as  often  as  a 
comjjetent  number  of  prisoners  in  the 
Inquisition  are  convicted  of  heresy,  ei- 
ther l^y  their  own  voluntary  or  extorted 
confession,  or  on  the  evidence  of  ceitain 
witnesses.  The  process  is  this : — In  the 
morning  they  are  brought  into  a  great 
hall,  where  "they  have  certain  habits 
put  on,  which  they  arc  to  wear  m  the 
procession,  and  by  which  they  know 
their  doom.  The  procession  is  led  up 
by  Dominican  friai-s,  after  which  come 
the  penitents,  being  all  in  black  coats 
without  sleeves,  and  barefooted,  with  a 
wax  candle  in  their  hands.  These  are 
followed  by  the  penitents  who  have  nar- 
rowly escaped  being  burnt,  who  over 
their  black  coats  have  flames  painted, 
with  their  points  turned  dOv»nwai'ds. 
Next  come  the  negative  and  relapsed, 
who  are  to  be  burnt,  having  flames  on 
their  habits  pointing  upwards.  After 
these  come  such  as  profess  doctrines 
contrary  to  the  faith  of  Rome,  wlio, 
besides  flames  pointing  upwards,  have 
their  picture  painted  on  their  breasts, 
with  dogs,  serpents,  and  devils,  all  open- 
mouthed,  about  it.  Each  prisoner  is  at- 
tended with  a  familiar  of  the  Inquisition ; 
and  those  to  be  burnt  have  also  a  Jesuit 
on  each  hand,  who  are  continually 
preaching  to  them  to  abjure.  After  the 
prisoners,  comes  a  troop  of  familiars  on 
horseback ;  and  after  them  the  Inquisi- 
tors, and  other  officers  of  the  court,  on 
mules :  last  of  all,  the  Inquisitor-general 
on  a  white  horse,  led  by  tv/o  men  with 
black  hats  and  green  hat-bands.  A 
scaffold  is  erected  big  enough  for  two  or 
three  thousand  people ;  at  one  end  of 
which  are  the  prisoners,  at  the  other  the 
Inquisitors.  After  a  semion  made  up  of 
encomiums  of  the  Inquisition,  and  in- 
vectives against  heret'cs,  a  priest  as- 
cends a  desk  near  the  scaffold,  and,  hav- 
ing taken  the  abjuration  of  the  penitents, 
recites  the  final  sentence  of  tiiose  who 
are  to  be  put  to  death,  and  delivers  them 
to  the  secular  ami,  earnestly  beseech- 
mg  at  the  same  time  the  secular  power 
not  to  touch  their  blood,  or  put  their 
lives  in  danger  !  !  !  The  prisoners,  be- 
ing thus  in  the  hands  of  the  ci\  il  magis- 
trate, are  presently  loaded  with  chams, 
and  carried  first  to  the  secular  gaol,  and 
from  thence,  in  an  hour  or  two,  brought 
before  the  civil  judge ;  Avho,  after  ask- 
ing in  what  religion  they  intend  to  die, 
pronoLUices  sentence  on  such  as  de- 
clare thev  die  in  the  communion  of  the 

j  church  of  Rome,  that  they  shall  be  first 
strangled,  and  then  burnt  to  ashes; 
or  such  as  die  in  any  other  faith,  that 
they  be  burnt  alive.     Both  are  imme- 

1  diately  carried  to  the  Ribera,  the  place 
B 


ACT 


10 


ADM 


of  execution,  v/liere  there  are  as  many 
stakes  set  up  as  there  are  prisoners  to 
be  buint,  with  a  quantity  of  dry  furze 
about  them.  The  stakes  of  the  profess- 
ed, that  is,  such  as  persist  in  the  heresy, 
are  about  four  yaixis  high,  having  a 
small  board  towards  the  top  for  the 
pnsoner  to  be  seated  on.  The  negative 
and  relapsed  being  first  strangled  and 
bunit,  the  professed  mount  their  stakes 
by  a  ladder,  and  the  Jesuits,  after  seve- 
ral repeated  exhortations  to  be  recon- 
ciled to  the  church,  part  with  them; 
telling  them  that  they  leave  them  to 
the  devil,  who  is  standing  at  their  elbow, 
to  receive  their  souls,  and  carry  them 
with  him  to  the  flames  of  hell.  On  this 
a  great  shout  is  raised ;  and  the  cry  is, 
"Ze^  the  dogs'  beards  be  made  l"  wftich 
is  done  by  thrusting  flaming  furzes  fast- 
ened to  long  poles  against  their  faces, 
till  their  faces  are  burnt  to  a  coal,  which 
is  accompanied  with  the  loudest  accla- 
mations of  joy.  At  last,  fire  is  set  to 
the  furze  at  the  bottom  of  the  stake, 
c\'er  which  the  professed  are  chained  so 
high,  that  th.e  top  of  the  flame  seldom 
reaches  higher  than  the  seat  they  sit  on ; 
so  that  tiiey  rather  seem  roasted  than 
i)in-nt.  There  cannot  be  a  more  lament- 
able spectacle :  the  sufterers  continually 
cry  out,  Avhile  they  are  able.  "Pity,  for 
the  love  of  God!"  Yet  it  is  beheld,  by 
all  sexes  and  a^es,  with  transports  of 
joy  and  satisfaction — O  merciful  God  I 
IS  this  the  benign,  humane  religion  thou 
hast  given  to  men.''  Surely  not.  If  such 
v.'ere  the  genius  of  Christianitv,  then  it 
would  be  no  honour  to  be  a  Christian. 
Let  us  however,  rejoice  that  the  time 
is  coming  when  the  demon  of  Persecu- 
tion shall  be  banished  out  of  this  our 
world,  and  the  true  spirit  of  benevolence 
and  candour  per^'ade  tlie  vmiverse; 
when  none  shall  hurt  or  destroy,  but 
the  earth  be  f^.lled  with  the  knovvledge 
of  the  Lord,  as  the  waters  cover  the 
sea!     See  IxQuisiTioN. 

ACTION  FOR  THE  PULPIT.— 
See  Declamation. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  one 
of  the  sacred  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment containing  the  history  of  the  infant 
church  during  the  space  of  twenty-nine 
or  thirty  }'ears  from  the  ascension  of 
our  Lord  to  the  year  of  Christ  63.  It 
was  written  by  Luke,  and  addi^essed  to 
Theophilus,  the  person  to  whom  the 
evangelist  had  before  dedicated  his  gos- 
pel. The  style  of  ^his  work,  which  was 
originally  composed  in  Greek,  is  much 
])urer  than  that  of  the  other  canonical 
writers.  For  the  contents  of  this  book 
we  refer  the  reader  to  the  book  itself. 

There  have  been  several  acts  of  the 


ajjos-tles,  such  as  the  acts  of  Abdias,  oi 
Peter,  of  Paul,  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
St.  Andrew,  St.  Thomas,  St.  Philip,  and 
St.  Matthias;  but  they  have  been  all 
pro\  ed  to  be  spui'ious. 

ACTS  OF  PILATE,  a  relation  sent 
by  Pilate  to  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  con- 
cerning Jesus  Christ,  his  death,  resur- 
rection, ascension,  and  the  crimes  of 
which  he  was  convicted  before  him.  It 
was  a  custom  among  the  Romans,  that 
the  pro-consuls  and  governors  of  pro- 
\inces  should  draw  up  acts  or  memoirs 
of  what  happened  in  the  course  of  their 
government,  and  send  them  to  the  em- 
peror and  senate.  The  genuine  acts 
of  Pilate  were  sent  by  him  to  Tiberius, 
who  reported  them  to  the  senate ;  but 
they  were  rejected  by  that  assembly, 
because  not  immediately  addressed  to 
them ;  as  is  testified  by  Tertullian,  in 
his  Apol.  cap.  5,  and  20,  21.  The  here- 
tics forged  acts  in  imitation  of  them; 
but  both  the  genuine  and  the  spurious 
are  now  lost. 

ADAMITES,  a  sect  that  sprang  up 
in  the  second  century.  Epiphanius  tells 
us,  that  they  were  called  Adamites,  from 
their  pretending  to  be  re-established  in 
the  state  of  innocence,  such  as  Adam 
was  at  the  moment  of  his  creation, 
Avhence  they  ought  to  imitate  him  in 
going  naked.  They  detested  marria^-e ; 
maintaining  that  the  conjugal  union 
would  never  have  taken  place  upon 
earth,  had  sin  been  unknown.  This  ob- 
scure and  ridiculous  sect  did  not  last 
long.  It  was,  however,  revived  with  ad- 
ditional absui'dities  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. About  the  beginning  of  the  fif- 
teenth centui-y,  these  errors  spread  in 
Germany  and  Bohemia:  it  found  also 
some  pjirtisans  in  Poland,  Holland,  and 
England.  They  assembled  in  the  night ; 
and  it  is  said,  one  of  the  fundamental 
maxims  of  their  society  was  contained 
in  the  following  verse : 

.lura,  perjura,  Sficretuni  prodcre  noli. 

Swear,  forswear,  and  reveal  not  the  secret. 

AD  ESSEN  ARIANS,  a  branch  of  the 
Sacramentarians;  so  called  from  the 
Latin  Adesse,  to  be  present,  because 
they  believed  the  presence  of  Christ's 
bodV  in  the  eucharist,  though  in  a  man- 
ner'different  from  the  Romanists. 

ADIAPHORISTS,  a  name  given  in 
the  sixteenth  century  to  the  moderate 
Lutherans  who  adhered  to  the  senti- 
ments of  Melancthon;  and  aftcrvyards 
to  tliose  who  subscribed  the  interim  of 
Charles  V.  [See  Intkrim.]  The  woi-cl 
is  of  Cireek  origin  (a(ft«<f>ogof)  and  signi- 
fies indifference  or  lukewarmness. 

ADMIRATION  is  that  passion  of 
the  mind  which  is  excited  by  the  dis- 


ADO 


11 


ADO 


c.oveiy  of  aiiy  great  excellence  in  an 
ubject.  .  It  has  by  some  writers  lx;cn 
used  as  synonymous  with  surprise  and 
wonder ;  but  it  is  evidv^nt  tliey  arc  not 
the  same.  Surprise  refers  to  something 
unexpected;  wonder, to  soniethine  gi-eat 
or  sti-ange ;  but  iulmiration  includes  the 
idea  of  high  esteem  or  respect.  Thus, 
we  say  we  admire  a  man's  excellen- 
cies, but  we  do  not  say  that  we  are  sur- 
prised at  them.  We  wonder  at  an  cx- 
traordinaiy  object  or  event,  but  we  do 
not  always  admire  it. 

ADMONITION  denotes  a  hint  or 
adA'ice  given  to  another,  whereby  we 
I'eprove  him  for  his  fault,  or  remind  him 
of  his  duty.  Admonition  was  a  part  of 
the  discipline  much  used  in  the  ancient 
clunxh  :  it  was  the  first  act  or  step  to- 
wards the  punishment  or  ex])ulsion  of 
delinquents.  In  case  of  private  offences, 
it  was  performed  according  to  the  e\an- 
gelical  m\e,  Ju'ivately ;  in  case  of  public 
offence,  o/tejily  before  the  church.  If 
eithei"  of  these  sufficed  for  the  recovery 
of  the  fallen  person,  all  further  pro- 
ceedings, in  a  way  of  censure,  ceased  ; 
if  they  did  not,  recoin\se  was  had  to  ex- 
communication.— Tit.  iii.  10. 1  Thess.  v. 
14.  Eph.  vi.  4. 

ADONAI,  one  of  the  names  of  the 
Supreme  Being  in  the  Scriptures.    The 

S roper  meaning  of  the  word  is  "  Jni/ 
,ords,"  in  the  plural  number;  as  Adoid 
is  my  Lord,  in  the  singular.  The  Jews, 
who  either  out  of  respect  or  superstition 
do  not  pronounce  the  name  of  Jehovah, 
read  Adonai  in  the  room  of  it,  as  often 
as  they  meet  with  Jehovah  in  the  He- 
brew text.  But  the  ancient  Jews  were 
not  so  sciupulous ;  nor  is  there  any  law 
which  forbids  them  to  pronounce  the 
name  of  God. 

ADONISTS,  a  party  among  divines 
and  critics,  who  maintain  that  the  He- 
brew points  ordinarily  annexed  to  the 
consonants  of  the  word  Jehovah  are  not 
the  natural  points  belonging  to  that 
word,  nor  expi'ess  the  tnie  pronuncia- 
tion of  it ;  but  are  the  vowel  points  be- 
longing to  the  words  Adonai  and  Elo- 
fiim,  applied  to  the  consonants  of  the 
ineffable  name  Jehovah,  to  warn  the 
readers,  that  instead  of  the  word  Jeho- 
rah,  which  the  Jews  were  forbid  to  pro- 
nounce, and  the  tnie  pronunciation  of 
which  had  long  been  unknown  to  them, 
they  are  always  to  read  Adonai.  Thej^ 
are  opposed  to  Jehovists,  of  whom  the 
principal  are  Dinisius,  Capellus,  Bux- 
torf,  Alting,  and  Reland. 

ADOPTIONISTS,  the  followers  of 
Fehx  of  Urgil  and  Epiland  of  Toledo, 
who,  towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, advanced  the  notion  that  Jesus 


Christ  in  his  human  nature  is  the  Son  of 
God,  not  by  nature,  but  by  adoption. 

ADOPTION,  an  act  whereby  any 
pcreon  receives  another  into  his  family, 
owrs  him  for  li^is  son,  and  appoints  him 
hisheiri  2,  Spiritual  adoption  is  an  act 
of  God's  free  grace,  whereby  we  are 
received  into  the  number,  and  have  a 
right  to  all  the  privileges  of  the  sons  of 
(iod. — ^3.  CUoTious,  is  that  in  which  the 
saints,  being  raised  from  the  dead,  are 
at  the  last  day  solemnly  owned  to  be  the 
children  of  God,  and  enter  into  the  full 
possession  of  that  inheritance  provided 
for  them,  Rom.  viii.  19.  23.  Adoption  is 
a  word  taken  from  the  civil  law,  and 
was  much  in  ixse  among  the  Romans  in 
the  apostles'  time ;  when  it  was  a  cus- 
tom for  persons  who  had  no  children  of 
their  own,  and  were  possessed  of  an 
estate,  to  prevent  its  being  divided,  or 
descending  to  strangers,  to  make  choice 
of  such  who  wei-e  agreeable  to  them, 
and  beloved  by  them,  whom  they  took 
into  this  political  relation  of  cliildren ; 
obliging  them  to  take  their  name  upon 
them,  and  to  pay  respect  to  them  as 
though  they  were  their  natural  parents, 
and  engaging  to  deal  with  them  as  though 
they  had  been  so ;  and  accordingly  to 
give  them  a  right  to  their  estates,  as  an 
inheritance.  This  new  relation,  founded 
in  a  mutual  consent,  is  a  bond  of  affec- 
tion ;  and  the  privilege  arising  from 
thence  is,  that  he  who  is  in  this  sense  a 
father,  takes  care  of  and  provides  for 
the  person  whom  he  adopts,  as  though 
he  were  his  son  by  nature  ;  and  there- 
fore civilians  call  it  an  act  of  legitima- 
tion, imitating  nature,  or  supplymg  the 
place  of  it. 

It  is  easy,  then,  to  conceive  the  pro- 
priety of  the  temi  as  used  by  the  apos- 
tle in  reference  to  this  act,  though  it 
must  be  confessed  there  is  some  differ- 
ence between  civil  and  spiritual  adop- 
tion. Civil  adoption  was  allowed  of  and 
provided  for  the  relief  and  comfort  of 
those  who  had  no  children  ;  but  in  spi- 
ritual adoption  this  reason  does  not  ap- 
pear. The  Almighty  was  under  no 
obligation  to  do  this ;  for  he  had  innu- 
merable spirits  whom  he  had  created, 
besides  his  own  Son,  who  had  all  the 
perfections  of  the  divine  nature,  who 
was  the  object  of  his  delight,  and  who 
is  styled  the  heir  of  all  things,  Heb.  i.  3. 
Wlien  men  adopt,  it  is  on  account  of 
some  excellency  in  the  persons  who 
are  adopted ;  thus  Pharaoh's  daughter 
adopted  Moses  because  he  was  exceed- 
ing fair.  Acts  vii.  20,  21 ;  and  Mordecai 
adopted  Esther  because  she  was  his 
uncle's  daughter,  and  exceeding  fair, 
Est.  ii.  7 :  but  man  has  nothing  in  him 


ADO 


IZ 


ADO 


that  merits  this  divme  act,  Ezek.  xvi.  5.  ] 
In  civil  adoption,  thovigh  the  name  of  a 
son  be  given,  the  nature  of  a  son  may 
not;  this  relation  may  not  necessarily  he 
attended  with  any  change  of  disposition 
or  temper.  But  in  spiritual  adoption  we 
ai'e  made  partakere  of  the  di^•ine  na- 
ture, and  a  temper  or  disposition  given 
us  becommg  the  relationship  we  bear, 
Jer.  iii.  19. 

Much  has  been  said  as  to  the  time  of 
adoption.  Some  place  it  before  regene- 
ration, because  it  is  supposed  that  we 
must  be  m  the  family  before  we  can  be 
partakers  of  the  blessings  of  it.  But  it 
is  difficult  to  conceive  of  one  before  the 
other;  for  although  adoption  may  seem 
to  precede  regeneration  m  order  of  na- 
ture, yet  not  of  time ;  they  may  be  dis- 
tinguished, but  cannot  be  separated. 
"As  many  as  received  him,  to  them 
gave  he  power  to  become  the  sons  of 
God,  even  to  them  that  believe  on  his 
name,"  John  i.  12.  There  is  no  adop- 
tion, says  the  great  Charnock,  without 
regeneration.  "  Adoption,"  says  the 
same  autlior,  "is  not  a  mere  relation; 
the  pri\ilege  and  the  image  of  the  sons 
of  God  go  together.  A  state  of  adoption 
is  never  without  a  sepaiation  from  de- 
filement, 2  Cor.  vi.  17,  18.  The  new 
name  in  adoption  is  never  given  till  the 
new"  creature  be  formed.  '  As  many  as 
are  led  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  they  are 
the  sons  of  God,'  Rom.  viii.  14.  Yet  these 
are  to  be  distinguished.  Regeneration, 
as  a  physical  act,  gives  us  a  likeness  tq 
God  in  our  nature  ;  adoption,  as  a  legal 
act,  gives  us  a  right  to  an  inheritance. 
Regeneration  makes  us  formally  his 
sons,  by  conve\  ing  a  principle,  1  Pet.  i. 
23;  adoption  makes  us  relatively  his 
sons,  by  con\e}"ing  a  power,  John  i.  12. 
By  the  one  we  are  instated  in  the  di- 
vine affection^  by  the  other  we  are  par- 
takers of  the  di\dne  nature." 

The  privileges  of  adoption  are  eveiy 
'Way  great  and  extensive.  1.  It  implies 
great  honour.  They  have  God's  name 
put  upon  them,  and  are  described  as 
"his  people,  called  by  his  name,"  2 
Chron.  vii.  24.  Eph.  iii'.  15.  They  are 
no  longer  slaves  to  sin  and  the  world ; 
but,  emancipated  from  its  dreadful  bon- 
dage, are  raised  to  dignity  and  honour. 
Gal.  iv.  7:  1  John  iii.  1,  2. — 2.  Inexhaus- 
tible provision  and  riches.  They  in- 
herit all  things.  Rev.  xxi.  7.  All  the 
blessings  of  a  temporal  kind  that  are  for 
their  good  shall  be  given  them.  Psalm 
Ixxxiv.  11.  All  the  blessings  of  grace 
are  treasured  up  in  Jesus  Christ  for 
them,  Eph.  i.  3.  All  the  blessint;s  of 
glory  shall  be  enjoyed  by  them,  Col.  i. 
27.    "All  things  are  yoiirs,"  says  the 


apostle,  "  whether  Paul,  or  Apollos,  nr 
Cephas,  or  the  world,  or  life,  or  death, 
or  things  present,  or  things  to  come,  all 
are  yours,  1  Cor.  iii.  22. — 3.  Divine  pro- 
tection.   "In  the  fear  of  the  Lord  is 
sti'ong  confidence,  and  his  children  shall 
have  a  place  of  refuge,"  Prov.  xiv.  26. 
As  the  master  of  a  family  is  engaged  to 
defend  and  secure  all  under  his  I'oof, 
and  committed  to  his  care,  so  Jesus 
Christ  is  engaged  to  protect  and  defend 
his  people.    "  They   shall  dwell  in  a 
peaceable  habitation,  and  in  sure  dwell- 
mgs  and  quiet  resting  places,"  Isa.  xxxii. 
'  18.  Heb.  i.  14. — 4.   Unspeakable  felicity, 
i  They  enjoy  the  most  intimate  commu- 
nion with  the  Father,  and  with  his  Son 
I  Jesus  Christ.    They  have  access  to  his 
i  throne  at  aU  times,  and  under  all  cir- 
'  cumstances.    They  see  diA  ine  wisdom 
[regulating  every  affair,  and  rendering 
i  every  thing  subsei*vient  to  their  good. 
Heb.  xii.  6 — 11.  The  laws,  the  liberties, 
the  privileges,  the  relations,  the  pro- 
visions, and  the  security  of  this  family 
are  all  sources  of  happiness ;  but  espe- 
cially  the  presence,  the   approbation, 
and  the  goodness  of  God,  as  the  gover- 
nor thereof,  afford  jov  unspeakable  and 
full  of  glory,  1  Pet.  i.  8.     Prov.  iii.  17. 
Heb.  iv.  16. — 5.  Eternal  glory.   In  som e 
cases,  civil   adoption  might  be    made 
null  and  void,  as  among  the  Romans, 
when  against  the  right  of  the  ponti- 
fex,  and  without  the  decree  of  the  col- 
lege ;  but  spiritual  adoption,  as  it  is  di- 
vine as  to  its  origin,  so  it  is  pei-petual  as 
to  its  duration.    "The  Son  abideth  in 
the  house  for  ever,"  John  viii.  35.  "  The 
inheritance  of  the  saints  is  incori-uptible, 
undefiled,  and  never  fadeth  away,"  1 
Pet.  i.  4.    "Now  are  we  the  sons  of 
God,  and  it  doth  not  jet  appear  what 
we  shall  be :  but  we  know  that  when  he 
shall  appear,  we  shall  be  like  him,  for 
we  shall  see  him  as  he  is,"  1  John  iii.  2. 
In  the  present  state  we  are  as  children 
at  school ;  but  in  heaven  we  shall  be  as 
children  at  home,  w^here  we  shall  al- 
'  wavs  behold  the  face  of  our  heavenly 
!  Father,  for  ever  celebrating  his  praises, 
i  admiring  his  perfections,  and  enjoying 
i  his  presence.    "  So  shall  we  be  ever 
1  with  the  Lord."  1  Thess.  iv.  17. 
I       The  evidences  of  adoption  are,   1. 
j  Renmrciation  of  all  former  depende^i- 
cies.  Wlien  a  child  is  adopted,  he  relin- 
!  quishcs  the  object  of  his  past  confidence, 
and  submits  himself  to  the  will  and  plea- 
sure of  the  adopter ;  so  they  who  are 
,  brought  mto  the  family  of^  God,  will 
evidence  it  by  giving  up  every  other 
I  object  so  far  as  it  interteres  with  the 
j  Will  and  glory  of  their  heavenly  Fathei-. 
I "  Ephraim  sliall  say,  VSHiat  have  I  to 


ADO 


l: 


ADU 


Jo  auy  more  Avitli  idols  ?"  Hos.  xiv.  8. 
"  Other  lords  have  had  dominion  over 
us;  but  bv  tliee  only  will  \re  rpake 
mention  of  thv  name."  Is.  xxvi.  13. 
Matt.  xiii..45,  46,  Phil.  iii.  8.-2.  ^'(ft'c- 
lio/K  This  may  not  always  apply  to 
civil  adoption,  but  it  ahvavs  does  to  spi- 
ritual. The  cliildi'en  of  God  feel  a  ix-- 
eai"d  for  hin\  above  every  other  object. 
His  own  excellency,  his  unspeakable 
goodness  to  them,  his  promises  of  future 
blessings,  are  all  grounds  of  tlie  stroni^est 
love.  "  \Miom  ha\'e  I  in  heaven  but 
thee?  and  there  is  none  upon  earth  that 
I  desire  besides  thee."  Psalm  Ixxiii.  25. 
"  Thou  art  mv  portion,  saith  my  soul, 
therefore  will  1  nope  in  thee."  Lam.  iii. 
24.  Luke  vil  47.  V-S-  xviii.  1. — 3.  ylccesf; 
to  God  nvith  a  holy  boldness.  They  who 
are  children  by  adoption  are  supposed 
to  have  the  same  liberty  of  access  as 
those  who  are  children  b)'  nature ;  so 
those  who  are  partakers  of  the  blessings 
of  spiritual  adoption  will  prove  it  by  a 
reverential,  yet  familiar  address  to  the 
Father  of  spirits :  they  will  confess  their 
unwortliiness,  acknowledge  their  de- 
pendence, and  implore  the  mercy  and 
Favour  of  God.  "  Because  ye  are  sons, 
God  hath  sent  forth  the  Spirit  of  his 
Son  into  )our  hearts,  crying,  Abba,  Fa- 
ther." Gal.  iv.  6.  "Through  Jesus 
Chi-ist  we  have  access  by  one  Spirit 
unto  the  Father."  Eph.  ii.  18.  Having 
such  a  privilege,  they  "  come  boldly  to 
the  throne  of  gi'ace,  that  they  may  obtain 
mercy  and  find  gi'ace  to  help  in  time  of 
need."  Heb.iv.  16. — 4.  Obedience.  Those 
who  are  adopted  into  a  family  must 
obey  the  laws  of  that  family;  so  be- 
lievers prove  themselves  adopted  bv 
their  obedience  to  the  word  and  ordi- 
nances of  God.  "Ye  are  my  friends, 
if  ye  do  whatsoever  I  command  you." 
John  XV.  14.  "Whoso  keepeth  his 
word,  in  him  verily  is  the  love  of  God 
perfected :  hei'eby  know  we  that  we  are 
m  him.  He  that  saith  he  abideth  in 
him,  ought  himself  also  to  walk  even  as 
he  walked."  1  John  ii.  4,  5. — 5.  Patient 
ijet  joyful  exjiectation  of  the  inheritance. 
In  civil  adoption,  indeed,  an  inheritance 
is  not  alwavs  certain;  but  in  spiritual 
adoption  it  'is.  "  To  them  who,  by  pa- 
tient continuance  in  well  doing,  seek  for 
glorv,  and  honour,  and  immortality, 
eternal  life."  Rom.  ii.  7.  "We  look 
not  at  the  things  which  are  seen,  but  at 
the  things  which  ai-e  not  seen ;  for  the 
things  which  are  seen  are  temporal,  but 
the  things  which  ai-e  not  seen  are  eter- 
nal." 2  Cor.  iv.  18.  Rom.  vi.  23.  Heb. 
xi.  26,  27.  From  the  consideration  of 
the  whole  of  this  doctrine,  we  may  learn 
that  adoption  is  an  act  of  free'  grace 


through  Jesus  Christ.  Eph.  i.  5.  Ap- 
plied to  believers  by  the  Holy  Spirit, 
Gid.  iv.  6.  Rom.  viii.  15,  16.  A  blcs-sing 
of  the  greatest  importance,  1  John  iii. 
1,  and  lavs  us  under  an  inviolable  obli- 
gation of  submission.  Heb.  xii.  9;  iinitU' 
tion,  Eph.  v.  1 ;  and  dependence.  Matt. 
vi.  32.  See  Ridgki/s  and  Gill's  Body 
of  Div.    art.    Adoption ;    Char?tock  s 

Works,    vol.    ii.    p.    32 — 72 ;   Flavel's 

Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  601;  Brown's  System 
of  A'at.  and  Rev.   Religion,  p.  442; 

JVit.iii  Econ.  Feed.  p.  165. 

ADORATION,  the  act  of  rendering 
divine  honom-s,  including  in  it  reverence, 
esteem,  and  love :  this  is  called  supreme, 
or  absolute.  The  word  is  compounded, 
of  ad,  "  to,"  and  os,  oris,  "  mouth  ;"  and 
literally  signifies  to  apply  the  hand  to 
the  mouth,  "to  kiss  the  hand;"  this 
being  in  the  eastern  countries,  one  of 
the  great  marks  of  respect  and  submis- 
sion. See  Job  xxxi.  26,  27.  The  atti- 
tude of  adoration,  howe^"er,  we  find  has 
not  been  confined  to  this  mode  ;  stand- 
ing, kneeling,  unco\ering  the  head, 
prostration,  bowing,  lifting  up  the  eyes 
to  heaven,  or  sometimes  fixing  them 
upon  the  earth  with  the  body  bending 
forward ;  sitting  with  the  under  parts  of 
the  thighs  resting  on  the  heels,  have  all 
been  used,  as  expressive  df  veneration 
and  esteem.  Whatever  be  the  form, 
however,  it  must  be  remembered,  that 
adoration,  as  an  act  of  worship,  is  due  to 
God  alone.  Matt.  iv.  10.  Acts  x.  25,  26. 
Rev.  ziz.  10.  There  is,  2.  what  may  be 
called  adoration  human,  or  paying  ho- 
mage or  respect  to  persons  of  gTeat  rank 
and  dignity.  This  has  been  performed 
by  bowing,  bending  the  knee,  falling  on 
the  face.  The  practice  of  adoration 
may  be  said  to  he  still  subsisting  in 
England,  in  the  ceremony  of  kissing  the 
king's  or  queen's  hand,  and  in  sei-ving 
them  at  table,  both  being  performed 
kneeling  on  one  knee.  There  is  also, 
3.  adoration  relative,  which  consists  in 
worship  paid  to  an  object  as  belonging 
to  or  representative  of  another.  In  this 
sense  the  Romanists  profess  to  adore  the 
cross  not  simply  or  immediately,  but  in 
respect  of  Jesus  Christ,  whom  they  sup- 
pose to  be  on  it.  This  is  generally, 
however,  considered  by  protestants,  as 
coming  little  short  of  idolatrj".  See 
Idolatry. 

ADVERSARY,  one  who  sets  himself 
in  opposition  to  another:  one  of  the 
names  of  Satan.    See  Satan. 

ADVERSITY,  a  state  which  is  op- 
posite to  our  wishes,  and  the  cause  of 
sorrow.  It  stands  opposed  to  prosperi- 
ty.   See  Affliction. 

'  ADULTERY,an  unlawful  commerce 


Mm 


14  AFF 


hvlween  one  married  person  and  ano- 
ther, or  between  a  married  and  an  un- 
maiTied  person. — 2.  It  is  also  used  in 
Scripture  for  idolatry,  or  departing  from 
the  true  God.  Jer.  lii.  9. — 3.  Also  for 
any  species  of  impurity  or  crime  ai^ainst 
the  virtue  of  chastity.  Matt.  v.  28. — i. 
It  is  also  used  in  ecclesiastical  writers 
for  a  person's  invading  or  inti-udine  into 
a  bishoprick  during  the  former  bishop's 
life. — 5.  The  word  is  also  used  in  an- 
cient customs  for  the  punishment  or 
fine  imposed  for  that  offence,  or  th^ 
privilege  of  prosecuting  for  it. — Al- 
though adultery  is  prohibited  by  the  law 
of  God,  yet  some  have  endeavoured  to 
explain  away  the  moral  tui-pitude  of  it; 
but  it  is  evident,  observes  JPaley,  that, 
on  the  part  of  the  ynau  who  solicits  the 
chastity  of  a  married  woman,  it  certain- 
ly includes  the  crime  of  seduction,  and 
is  attended  with  mischief  still  more  ex- 
tensive and  complicated:  it  creates  a 
Tiew  sufferer,  the  injured  husband,  upon 
whose  affection  is  inflicted  a  wound  tlie 
most  painful  and  incurable  that  human 
nature  knows.  The  infidelity  of  the 
ivoman  is  aggravated  by  ci-uelty  to  her 
children,  who  are  generally  involved  in 
their  parents'  shame,  and  always  made 
unhappy  by  their  quarrel.  The  mar- 
j'iage  vow  is  witnessed  before  God,  and 
accompanied  with  circumstances  of  so- 
lemnity and  religion,  which  approach 
to  the  nature  of  an  oath.  The  married 
offender,  therefore,  incurs  a  crime  little 
short  of  perjury,  and  the  seduction  of  a 
married  woman  is  little  less  than  sub- 
ornation of  perjury.  But  the  strongest 
apology  for  adultery  is,  the  prior  trans- 
gression of  the  other  party  ;  and  so  far, 
indeed,  as  the  bad  effects  of  adultery  ai-e 
anticipated  by  the  conduct  of  the  hus- 
band or  wife  who  offends  first,  the  guilt  of 
the  second  offender  is  extenuated.  But 
this  can  never  amount  to  a  justification, 
unless  it  could  be  shown  that  the  obli- 
gation of  the  marriage  vow  depends 
upon  the  condition  of  recipi'ocal  fidelity ; 
a  constmction  which  appears  founded 
neither  in  expediency,  nor  in  terms  of 
the  vow,  nor  in  the  design  of  the  legis- 
lature, which  prescribed  the  marriage 
}-ite.  To  consider  the  offence  upon  the 
footing  of  Jirovocation,  therefore,  can  by 
i>o  means  vindicate  retaliation.  "  Thou 
shalt  not  commit  adultery,"  it  must  ever 
be  remembei-ed,  was  an  interdict  de- 
livered by  God  himself.  Tiiis  crime  has 
been  punished  in  almost  all  ages  and  na- 
tions. By  the  Jewish  law  it  was  punished 
with  death  in  both  parties,  where  either 
the  woman  was  married,  or  both.  Among 
the  Egyptians,  adultery  in  the  n\an  was 
punished  by  a  thousand  lashes  with  rods, 


and  in  the  woman  b}-  the  loss  of  her  nos& 
The  Greeks  put  out  the  eyes  of  the 
adulterers.  Among  the  Romans,  it  was 
punished  by  banishment,  cutting  off  the 
ears,  noses,  and  by  sewing  the  adulterers 
into  sacks,  and  throwhig  them  into  the 
sea,  scourging,  burning,  &c.  In  Spain 
and  Poland  they  were  almost  as  severe. 
The  Saxons  formerly  burnt  the  adul- 
teress, and  over  her  ashes  erected  a 
gibbet,  whereon  the  adulterer  was  hang- 
ed. King  Edmund  in  this  kingdom,  or- 
dered adultery  to  be  punished  in  the 
same  manner  as  homicide.  Canute  or- 
dered the  man  to  be  banisked,  and  the 
woman  to  have  her  nose  and  ears  cut  off. 
Modern  punishments,  in  different  na- 
tions, do  not  seem  to«be  so  severe.  '  In 
Britain  it  is  reckoned  a  spiritual  offence, 
and  is  cognizable  by  the  spiritual  courts, 
where  it  is  punished  by  fine  and  pe- 
nance. See  Palni's  Moral  and  Political 
Philosophy,  p.  309,  vol.  i.  12th  edition. 

AERIANS,  a  branch  of  Arians  in  the 
reign  of  Constantine,  who  held  that  there 
was  no  difference  between  bishops  and 
priests;  a  doctrine  maintained  by  many 
modern  divines,  particularly  of  the  pres- 
byterian  and  reformed  churches.  The 
sect  received  its  denomination  from 
Aerius,  who  founded  his  doctrine  on  1 

I  Tim.  iv.  14.    See  Episcopacy. 

I  AETIANS,  those  who  maintained 
that  the  Son  and  Holy  Ghost  were  in  all 
things  dissimilar  to  the  Father.  They 
received  their  name  from  Actius,  one  of 
the  most  zealous  defenders  of  Arianism, 
who  was  born  in  Syria,  and  flourished 
about  the  year  336.  Besides  the  opinions 
which  the  Aetians  held  in  common  with 
the  Arians,  they  maintained  that  faith 
without  works  was  sufficient  to  salva- 
tion ;  and  that  no  sin  however  grievous, 
would  be  imputed  to  the  faithtul.  Ae- 
tius,  moreover,  affirmed  that  what  God 
had  concealed  from  the  apostles,  he  had 
revealed  to  him. 

AFFECTION,  in  a  philosophical 
sense,  refers  to  the  manner  in  which  we 
are  affected  by  any  thing  for  a  continu- 
ance, whether  painful  or  pleasant :  but 
in  the  most  common  sense,  it  may  be 
defined  to  be  a  settled  bent  of  mind  to- 
wards a  particular  being  or  thing.  It 
holds  a  middle  place  betAveen  disposi- 
tion on  the  one  hand,  and  passion  on 
the  other.  It  is  distinguishable  from  dis- 
position,  which  being  a  branch  of  one's 
nature  originally,  must  exist  before  there 
can  be  an  opportunity  to  exert  it  ujwn 
any  particular  object;  whereas  affection 
can  never  be  original,  because  having 
a  sjx'cial  relation  to  a  particular  ob- 
ject, it  cannot  exist  till  the  object  have 
once,  at  least,  been  presented.   It  is  also 


AFF 


15 


AFF 


distinguishable  from  fiassion,  which,  de-  i 
pending  on  tlie  veal  or  ideal  presence  I 
of  its' object,  vanishes  with  its  object;! 
whereas  affection  is  a  lasting  connexion,  | 
and,    like    other    connexions,   subsists, : 
even  when  we  do  not  think  of  the  ob-  I 
jects.  [Sec Disposition  andPAssioM.]  I 
The  affections,  as  they  respect  religion,  - 
deserve  in  this  place  a  little  attention.  I 
They  may  be  defined  to  be  the  "  vigo-  j 
roiis  and  sensible  exercises  of  the  incli-  j 
nation  and  will  of  the'  soul  towards  reli- 
gions objects."     Whatever    extremes 
stoics  or  enthusiasts  have  run  into,  it  is 
evident  that  the  exercise  of  the  affec- 
tions is  essential  to  the  existence  of  true 
religion.    It  is  true,  indeed,  "  that  all  af- 
fectionate devotion  is  not  wise  and  ra- 
tional ;  but  it  is  no  less  time,  that  all  wise 
and  rational  devotion  must  be  affection- 
ate."   The  affections  are  the  springs  of 
action ;  they  belong  to  our  nature,  so  that 
with   tlie  highest  perceptions  of  truth 
and  religion,  we  should  be  inactive  with- 
out them.    They  ha\'e  considerable  in- 
fluence on  men  in  the  common  concerns 
of  life ;  how  much  more,  then,  should 
they  operate  in  those  important  objects 
that  relate  to  the  Divine  Being,  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  and  the  happiness 
or  misery  of  a  future  state  !     The  reli- 
gion of  the  most  eminent  saints  has  al- 
ways consisted  in  the  exercise  of  holy 
affections.    Jesus  Christ  himself  affords 
us  an  example  of  the  most  lively  and 
vigorous  affections ;  and  we  have  eveiy 
reason  to  believe  that  the  employment 
of  heaven  consists  in  the  exercise  of 
them.  In  addition  to  all  which  the  scrip- 
tures of  truth  teach  us,  that  religion  is 
nothing,  if  it  occupj-  not  the  affections. 
Deut.  vi.  4,  5.  Deut.  xxx.  6.  Rom.  xii. 
11.  1  Cor.  xiii.  13.  Ps.  xxvii.  14. 

A  distinction  however,  must  be  made 
between  wliat  maybe  merely  natural, 
and  what  is  truly  spiritual.  The  affec- 
tions may  be  excited  in  a  natural  way 
under  ordinances  by  a  natural  imfires- 
sion,  Ezek.  xxxiii.  32 ;  by  a  riatural  sym- 
pathy, or  by  the  natural  tcinperament  of 
our  constitiition.  It  is  no  sign  that  our 
affections  are  spiritual  because  thev  are 
raised  veiy  high  ;  produce  great  effects 
on  the  body  ;  excite  us  to  be  very-  zeaj- 
ous  in  externals  ;  to  be  alwav?  convers- 
ing about  ourselves,  &c.  T)i ese  tilings  are 
often  found  in  those  who  are  only  mere 
professors  of  rehgion.  Matt.  vii.  21,  22. 

Now,  in  order 'to  adcertain  whether 
our  affections  are  excited  in  a  'spiritual 
manner,  we  must  enquire  whether  that 
which  moves  our  affections  be  truly 
spiritual,  whether  our  consciences  he 
alarmed,  and  our  hearts  impressed ; 
•whether  the  judgment  be  enlightened 


:l 


and  we  have  a  perception  of  the  moral 
excellency  of  divhie  things ;  and  lastly, 
whether  our  affections  have  a  holy  ten- 
dency and  produce  the  happy  effects  of 
obedience  to Gcxl, humility  iii  oursehes, 
and  justice  to  our  fellow  creatures.  As 
this  is  a  subject  worthy  of  close  atten- 
tion, the  reader  may  consult  Lord 
Kaim^s  Elements  of  Criticism,  vol.  ii.  p. 
517;  Edwards  on  the  Affections;  Pike 
and  Hayivard's  Cases  of  Conscience ; 
Marts'  Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Passions ; 
M'Laurfn's  Essays,&ect. 5  and  6,  where 
this  subject  is  masterly  handled. 

AFFLICTION,  that  which  causes  a 
sensation  of  pain.  Calamity  or  distress 
of  any  kind.  The  afflictions  of  the  saints 
are  represented  in  the  scripture,  as  ap- 
pointed, 1  Thes.  iii.  3.  Job  v.  6,  7 ;  ?iu- 
merous,Fs.  xxxiv.  19;  transient,  2  Cov. 
iv.  17.  Heb.  x.  37;  and,  when  sanctiiied, 
bertejicial,  1  Pet.  i.  6.  Ps.  cxix.  67,  71. 
They  wean  from  the  world ;  work  sub- 
mission ;  produce  humility ;  excite  to 
diligence ;  stir  up  to  prayer ;  and  conform 
us  to  the  divine  image.  To  bear  them 
with  patience,  we  should  consider  our 
own  unworthiness ;  the  design  of  God 
in  sending  them;  the  promises  of  suppoi't 
under  them ;  and  the  real  ^ood  they  are 
productive  of.  The  afflictions  of  a  good 
man,  says  an  elegant  writer,  never  befal 
without  a  cause,  nor  are  sent  but  upon  a 
proper  errand.  These  storms  are  never 
allowed  to  rise  but  in  order  to  dispel 
some  noxious  vapours,  and  restore  salu- 
brity to  the  moral  atmosphere.  Who 
that  for  the  first  time  beheld  the  earth 
in  the  midst  of  winter,  bound  up  with 
frost,  or  drenched  in  floods  of  rain,  or 
co\  ered  with  snow,  would  have  imagin- 
ed that  Nature,  in  this  dreaiy  and  torpid 
state,  was  working  towards  its  own  re- 
novation m  the  spring  ?  Yet  we  by  expe- 
rience know  that  those  vicissitudes  of 
winter  are  necessarv^  for  fertilizing  the 
earth ;  and  tha.t  under  wintry  rams  and 
snows  lie  concealed  the  seeds  of  those 
roses  that  are  to  blossom  in  the  spring ; 
of  those  fimits  that  are  to  ripen  m  the 
summer;  and  of  the  com  and  wine 
which  are  in  harvest  to  make  glad  the 
heart  of  man.  It  would  be  more  agree- 
able to  us  to  be  always  enteilained  with 
a  fair  and  clear  atmosphere,  with  cloud- 
less skies,  and  perpetual  sunshine  ;  yet 
in  such  climates  as  we  have  most  know- 
ledge of,  the  earth,  were  it  always  to 
rema.in  in  such  a  state,  would  refuse  to 
vield  its  fruits;  and,  in  the  midst  cf  our 
imapined  scenes  of  beauty,  the  starved 
inhabitants  would  perish  for  want  of 
food.  IjCt  us,  therefore,  quietly  submit 
to  Providence.  Let  us  conceive  this  life 
to  be  the  winter  of  our  existence.    Now 


AGE 


16 


AGO 


tlie  rains  must  fall,  and  the  winds  must 
ivai'  around  us ;  but,  sheltering  ourselves 
imder  him  who  is  the  "covert  from  the 
tempest,"  let  us  wait  with  patience  till 
the  storms  of  life  shall  termhiate  in  an 
everlasting  calm.  Blair^n  Scr.  vol.  v. 
ser.  5  ;  Vincent,  Case,  and  Addington, 
en  Affliction;  Willison's  Afflicted  Man's 
Comjianion. 

AGAPiE,  or  Love  Feasts  (from 
orytTn,  "love,")  feasts  of  charity  among 
the  ancient  christians,  Avhen  liberal  con- 
tributions were  made  by  the  rich  to  the 
poor.  St.  Chrysostom  gives  the  follow- 
ing account  of  this  feast,  which  he  de- 
rives from  the  apostolic  practice.  He 
says,  "  The  first  Christians  had  all  things 
in  common,  as  we  I'ead  in  the  Acts  of 
the  apostles ;  but  Avhen  that  equality  of 
possessions  ceased,  as  it  did  even  in'  the 
apostles'  time,  the  Agape  or  love  feast 
was  substituted  in  the  room  of-it.  Upon 
certain  days,  after  partaking  of  the 
Lord's  supper,  they  met  at  a  common 
feast ;  the  rich  bringing  provisions,  and 
the  poor,  who  had  nothing,  being  m\\- 
ted."  It  was  always  attended  with  re- 
cei\  ing  the  holy  sacrament ;  but  there 
is  some  difference  between  the  ancient 
and  modern  intei-preters,  as  to  the  cir- 
cumstance of  time ;  viz.  whether  this 
feast  was  held  before  or  after  the  com- 
munion. St. Chnsostom  is  of  the  latter 
opinion  ;  the  learned  Dr.  Cave  of  the 
former.  These  love  feasts,  during  the 
first  three  centuries,  vvere  h-eld  in  the 
church  without  scandal  or  offence  ;  but 
in  after-times  tlie  heathens  began  to  tax 
them  with  impuritv.  This  gave  occa- 
sion to  a  reformation  of  these  Agapes. 
The  kiss  of  charity,  with  v.-hich  the  ce- 
remony used  to  end,  was  no  longer  given 
between  different  sexes ;  and  it  was  ex- 
pressly forbidden  to  have  any  beds  or 
couches  for  the  con\-eniency  of  those 
who  should  be  disposed  to  eat  more  at 
their  ease.  Notwithstanding  these  pre- 
cautions, the  abuses  committed  in  them 
became  so  notorious,  that  the  holding 
them  (in  churches  at  least)  was  solemn- 
ly condemned  at  the  council  of  Car- 
thage, in  the  year  397.  Attempts  ha\  e 
been  made  of  late  years,  to  revive  these 
feasts;  but  in  a  different  manner  from 
the  pi'imitive  custom,  and,  perhaps,  with 
little  edification.  They  are,  however, 
not  very  c;eneral. 

AGAPET.ii,  a  name  given  to  cer- 
tain virgins  and  widows,  who  in  the  an- 
cient church  associated  themselves  with 
and  attended  on  ecclesiastics,  out  of  a 
mnt've  of  piety  and  charity.    See  Dea- 

COICKeSES. 

A1ENDA,  among  divines  and  ]>hi- 
losophers,  signifies  the  duties  which  a 


man  lies  under  an  obligation  to  perfomi : 
thus  we  meet  with  the  agenda  of  a  chrisr 
tian,  or  the  duties  he  onght  to  perfomi, 
in  opposition  to  the  credenda,  or  the 
things  he  is  to  believe.  It  is  also  apjjlied 
to  the  service  or  office  of  the  church, 
and  to  church  books  compiled  by  public 
authority,  prescribmg  the  order  to  be 
observed  ;  and  amounts  to  the  same  as 
ritual,  fonnulary,  directoiy,  missal,  8cc. 

AGENT,  that  which  acts :  opposed 
to  patient,  or  that 'which  is  acted  upon. 

AGENTS,  moi'ul.  See  Moral 
Agent. 

AGNOET^,  (fi'om  nyvctu  "to  be  ig- 
noi"ant  of,")  a  sect  which  appeared  about 
370.  They  called  in  question  the  omni- 
science of  God ;  alleging  that  he  knew 
things  past  only  by  memory,  and  thhigs 
future  only  by  an  uncertain  prescience. 
There  arose  another  sect  of  the  same 
name  in  the  sixth  century,  who  follow- 
ed Themistius,  deacon  of  Alexandria. 
They  maintained  that  Christ  was  igno- 
rant of  certain  things,  and  particularly 
of  the  time  of  the  day  of  judgment.  It  is 
supposed  they  built  their  hypothesis  on 
that  passage  in  Mark  xiii.  32. — "Of  that 
day  and  that  hour  knoweth  no  man;  no, 
not  the  angels  which  are  in  heaven,  nei- 
ther the  Son,  but  the  Father."  The 
meaning  of  which,  most  probably,  is, 
that  this  was  not  kno\vn  to  the  Messiah 
himself  in  his  human  nature,  or  by  vir- 
tue of  his  unction,  as  any  part  of  the 
mysteries  he  was  to  reveal ;  for,  consi- 
dering him  as  God,  he  could  not  be  ig- 
norant of  anv  thing. 

AGNUSDEI,  in  the  church  of  Rome, 
a  cake  of  wax,  stamped  with  the  figure 
of  a  lamb  supporting  the  banner  of  the 
cross.  The  name  literally  signifies 
"Lamb  of  God."  Those  cakes  being 
consecrated  by  the  pope  with  great  so- 
lemnity", and  distributed  among  the  peo- 
ple, are  supposed  to  have  great  virtues 
They  cover  them  Avith  a  piece  of  stuff 
cut  in  the  form  of  a  heart,  and  can-y 
them  very  deAOutly  in  their  processions. 
The  Romish  priests  and  religious  derive 
considerable  pecuniary  advantage  from 
selling  them  to  some,  and  pivscnting 
them  to  others. 

AGONISTICI,  a  name  given  by  Do- 
natus  to  such  of  his  disciples  as  he  sent 
to  fairs,  markets,  and  other  public  pla- 
ces, to  propagate  his  doctrine.  They 
were  called  .•\gonistici  from  the  Greek 
a-ym,  "combat,"  because  they  were  sent, 
as  it  were,  to  fight  and  subdue  the  peo- 
ple to  their  opinions.     See  Donatist. 

AGGNYCLIT.*:,  a  sect  of  Chris- 
tians in  the  seventh  century,  who  pray- 
ed always  scanding,  as  thinking  it  un- 
lawful to  kneel. 


ALB 


17 


ALL 


AGYNIANI,  a  sect  which  appeared 
about  694.  They  condemned  all  use  of 
flesh  and  marriage  as  not  instituted  by 
God,  but  introduced  at  the  instigation  of 
the  de\  il. 

ALASCANI,  a  sect  of  Anti-lutherans 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  whose  distin- 
guished tenet,  besides  their  denying  bap- 
tism, is  said  to  have  been  this,  that  the 
words,  "This  is  my  body,"  in  the  insti- 
tution of  tlie  eucharist,  ai-e  not  to  be  un- 
derstood of  the  bread,  but  of  the  whole 
action  or  celebi-ation  of  the  supper. 

ALBANENSES,  a  denomination 
which  commenced  about  the  year  756. 
They  held  with  the  (inostics  and  Mani- 
cheans,  two  principles,  the  one  of  good 
and  tlie  other  of  evil.  They  denied  the 
divinity,  and  even  tlie  humanity  of  Jesus 
Christ,  asserting  that  he  was  not  truly 
man,  did  not  suiter  on  the  cross,  die,  rise 
again,  nor  really  ascend  into  heaven. 
""1  hey  rejected  tlie  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
rection, affirmed  that  the  general  judg- 
ment was  past,  and  that  hell  toi'ments 
were  no  other  than  the  evils  we  feel  and 
suffer  in  this  life.  They  denied  free  will, 
did  not  admit  original  sin,  and  never 
administered  baptism  to  infants.  They 
held  that  a  man  can  give  the  Holy  Spi- 
I'it  of  himself,  and  that  it  is  unlawful  lor 
a  Christian  to  take  an  oath. 

This  denomination  derived  their  name 
from  the  place  where  their  spiritual 
tiller  resided.  See  Manicheans  and 
Catherist. 

ALBANOIS,  a  denomination  which 
sprung  up  in  the  eighth  century,  and  re- 
newed the  greatest  part  of  the  Mani- 
chean  principles.  They  also  maintained 
that  the  world  was  from  eternity.  See 
Manicheans. 

ALBIGENSES,  a  party  of  reform- 
ers about  Toulouse  and  the  All)igeois  in 
Languedoc,  who  sprung  up  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  distmguished  themselves 
by  their  opposition  to  the  church  of 
Rome.  They  were  charged  with  many 
eri'ors  by  the  monks  of  those  days ;  but 
from  these  charges  they  are  generally 
acquitted  by  the  Protestants,  who  con- 
sider them  only  as  the  inventions  of  the 
Romish  church  to  blacken  their  charac- 
ter. The  Albigenses  grew  so  formida- 
ble, that  the  Catholics  agreed  upon  a 
holy  league  or  crusade  against  them. 
Pope  Innocent  III.  desirous  to  put  a  stop 
to  their  progress,  stirred  up  the  great 
men  of  the  kingdom  to  make  war  upon 
them.  After  suffering  from  their  pei-- 
secutors,  they  dwindled  by  little  and  lit- 
tle, till  the 'time  of  the  reformation; 
when  such  of  them  as  were  left,  fell  in 
with  the  Vaudois,  and  conformed  to  the 
doctrine  of  Zuinglius,  and  the  disciples 


of  (icncva.  The  All)igenses  have  been 
freq\icntly  confoundctt  W'th  tlie  Wal- 
dcnses;  from  whom- it  is  said  they  differ 
in  many  respects,  both  as  being  prior  to 
them  in  point  of  time,  as  having  their 
qrigin  in  a  diflierent  country,  and  as  being 
charged  with  divers  heresies,  particu- 
larly Manicheism,  from  which  the  W'al- 
denses  were  exempt.    See  Walden- 

AL,EXANDRIAN  MANUSCRIPT, 

a  famous  copy  of  the  Scriptures,  in  four 
volumes  quarto.  It  contains  the  whole 
bible  in  (iretk,  including  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  with  the  Apocryplia, 
and  some  smaller  pieces,  but  not  quite 
com.plete.  It  is  preserved  in  the  Bii- 
tish  Museum :  it  was  sent  as  a  present  to 
king  Charles  I.  from  Cyrillus  Lucaris, 
patriai'ch  of  Constantinople,  b)^  Sir 
Thomas  Rowe,  ambassador  from  Eng- 
land to  the  grand  Seignior,  about  the 
year  1628.  Cvnllus  brought  it  with  him 
from  Alexandria,  where  probably  it  was 
written.  In  a  schedule  annexed  to  it,  he 
gives  this  account: — That  it  was  writ- 
ten, as  tradition  informed  them,  by 
Thecla,  a  noble  Egyptian  lady,  about 
1300  years  ago,  not  long  after  the  coun- 
cil of  Nice.  But  this  high  antiquity,  and 
the  authority  of  the  tradition  to  which 
the  patriarch  refers,  \\a.ve  been  dispu- 
ted ;  nor  are  the  must  accurate  biblical 
writers  agreed  about  its  age.  Grabe 
thinks  that  it  might  have  been  written 
before  the  end  of  the  fourth  century; 
others  are  of  opinion  that  it  was  not 
written  till  near  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century,  or  somewhat  later.  See  JDr. 
Woide's  edition  of  it. 

ALKORAN.    See  Koran. 

ALL-SUFFICIENCY  OF  GOD,  is 
that  power  or  attribute  of  his  nature 
whereby  he  is  able  to  communicate  as 
much  blessedness  to  his  creatures  as  he 
is  pleased  to  make  them  capalile  of  i-e- 
ceiving.  As  his  self-sufficiejicy  is  that 
whereby  he  has  enough  in  himself  to 
denominate  him  completely  blessed,  as 
a  God  of  infinite  perfection ;  so  his  cdl- 
nufficiency  is  that  by  which  he  hath 
enough  ui  himself  to  satisfy  the  most 
enlarged  desires  of  his  creatures,  and 
to  make  them  completely  blessed.  We 
practically  deny  this  perfection,  when 
we  are  discontented  with  our  present 
condition,  and  desire  more  than  God  has 
allotted  for  us,  Gen.  iii.  5.  Prov.  xix.  3. 
—2.  When  we  seek  blessings  of  what 
kind  soever  in  an  indirect  way,  as  though 
God  were  not  able  to  bestow  them  upon 
us  in  his  own  way,  or  in  the  use  of  lawful 
means,  Gen.  xxvii.  35. — 3.  When  we 
use  unlawful  means  to  escape  irnininent 
dangei's,  1  Sam.  xxi.  13.  Gen.  xx.  and 
C 


ALM  1 

xxvi. — 4.  AVlien  Ave  distnist  his  prov'i- 
dence,  though  we  had  large  experience 
of  his  appearing  for  us  in  various  instan- 
ces, 1  Sam.  xxvii.  1.  Ps.  Ixxviii.  19.  2 
Chron.  xvi.  8.  2  Chron.  xiv.  9.  13.  Josh. 
v'u.  7.  9. — 5.  When  we  doubt  of  the  truth 
or  certain  accompUshment  of  the  pro- 
mises, Gen.  xviii.  12.  Ps.  Ixxvii.  74.  Isa. 
xlix.  14. — 6.  When  we  dechne  great 
services,  though  called  to  them  by  God, 
under  a  pretence  of  our  unfitness  for 
them,  Jer.  i.  6,  8. 

The  consideration  af  this  doctiine 
should  lead  us,  1.  To  seek  happiness  in 
God  alone,  and  not  in  human  things, 
•  Jei\  ii.  13. — 2.  To  commit  all  our  wants 
knd  trials  to  him,  1  Sam.  xxx.  6.  Heb. 
xi.  19.  2  Cor.  xii.  8,  9. — 3.  To  be  coura- 
geous in  the  midst  of  danger  and  oppo- 
sition, Ps.  xxvii.  1. — 4.  To  be  satished 
with  his  dispensations,  Rom.  viii.  28. — 
5.  To  persevere  in  the  path  of  duty, 
however  difficult.  Gen.  xvii.  1.  Ridg- 
lei/s  Body  of  Div.  qucs.  17.  Saurin's 
Ser.  ser.  5.  vol.  i. ;  Barro%u''s  Works,  vol. 
ii.  ser.  11. 

ALMARICIANS,  a  denomination 
that  arose  in  the  thirteenth  centuiy. 
They  derived  their  origin  from  Alma- 
ric,  professor  of  logic  and  theology  at 
Paris.  His  adversaries  charged  him  with 
having  taught  that  every  Christian  was 
obliged  to  believe  himself  a  member  of 
Jesus  Christ,  and  that  without  this  be- 
lief none  could  be  saved.  His  followers 
asserted  that  the  power  of  the  Father 
had  continued  only  during  the  Mosaic 
dispensation,  that  of  the  Son  twelve 
hundred  years  after  his  entrance  upon 
earth;  and  that  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury the  age  of  the  Holy  Spirit  com- 
menced, in  which  the  sacraments  and 
all  external  worship  were  to  be  abo- 
lished; and  that  every  one  was  to  be 
saved  by  the  internal  operations  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  alone,  without  any  external 
act  of  religion. 

ALMONER,  a  person  employed  by 
another,  in  the  distribution  of  charitJ^ 
In  its  primitive  sense  it  denoted  an  offi- 
cer in  religious  houses,  to  whom  be- 
longed the  management  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  alms  of  the  house. 

ALMS,  what  is  given  gratuitously  for 
the  relief  of  the  poor,  and  in  r£palring 
the  churches.  That  alms-giving  is  a  duty 
is  every  way  evident  from  the  variety  of 
passages  which  enjoin  it  in  the  sacred 
scriptures.  It  is  observable,  however, 
what  a  number  of  excuses  are  made  Ijy 
those  who  are  not  found  in  the  exercise 
of  the  duty:  1.  That  they  have  nothing 
to  spare;  2.  That  charity  begins  at 
home ;  3.  Tliat  charity  does  not  consist 
in  giving  money,  but  in  benevolence, 


i  AMA 

love  to  all  mankind,  &c.  4.  That  giving 
to  the  poor  is  not  mentioned  in  St.  Paul^ 
description  of  charity,  1  Cor.  xiii.  5. 
That  they  pay  the  poor  rates;  6.  That 
they  employ  many  poor  persons;  7. 
That  the  poor  do  not  suffer  so  much  as 
we  imagine ;  8.  That  these  people,  give 
them  what  you  will,  will  never  be  thank- 
ful ;  9.  That  we  are  liable  to  be  imposed 
upon;  10.  That  they  should  apply  to 
their  parishes;  11.  That  giving  money 
encourages  idleness;  12.  That  we  have 
too  many  objects  of  charity  at  home.  O 
the  love  of  money,  how  fnaitfiil  is  it  in 
apologies  for  a  contracted  mercenary 
spirit !  In  giving  of  alms,  however,  the 
following  iTiles  should  be  observed :  first. 
They  should  be  given  with  justice; 
only  our  own,  to  which  we  have  a  just 
I'ight,  should  be  giA^en.  2.  With  cheer- 
fulness, Deut.  XV.  10.  2  Cor.  ix.  7.  3. 
With  simplicity  and  sincerity,  Rom.  xii. 
Matt.  vi.  3.  4.  With  cotn/iassion  and  af- 
fection, Isa.  Iviii.  10.  1  John  iii.  17.  "5. 
Seaso72ably,  Gal.  vi.  10.  Prov.  iv.  27.  6. 
Bountifully,  Deut.  xviii.  11.  1  Tim.  vi. 
18.  7.  Prudently,  according  to  every 
one's  need,  1  Tim.  v.  8.  Acts  iv.  35.  See 
Dr.  Barrow^  admirable  Sermon  on 
Bounty  to  the  Poor,  ivhich  took  him  ufi 
three  hours  and  a  half  in  preaching ; 
Saurin^s  Ser.  vol.  iv.  Eng.  Trctns.  ser. 
9.  Paley's  Mor.  Phil.  ch.  5.  vol.  i. 

ALOGIANS,  a  sect  of  ancient  here- 
tics who  denied  that  Jesus  Christ  was 
the  Logos,  and  consequently  rejected 
the  Gospel  of  St.  John.  The  Avord  is 
compounded  of  the  primitive  a  and  aoj-o?  ; 
q.  d.  without  Logos,  or  word.  They 
made  their  appearance  toward  the  close 
of  the  second  century. 

ALTAR,  a  kind  of  table  or  raised 
place  Avhereon  the  ancient  sacrifices 
Avere  offered.  2.  The  table,  in  Christian 
churches,  Avhere  the  Lord's  supper  is 
administered.  Altars  are,  doubtless,  of 
gi'eat  antiquity;  some  suppose  they 
were  as  early  as  Adam ;  but  there  is  no 
mention  made  of  them  till  after  the 
flood,  Avhen  Noah  built  one,  and  offered 
burnt  offerings  on  it.  The  Jews  had 
tAVO  altars  in  and  about  their  temple; 
1 .  The  altar  of  burnt  offerings ;  2.  The 
altar  of  incense ;  some  also  call  the  ta- 
ble for  shew  bread  an  altai",  but  impro- 
perly, Exod.  XX.  24,  25.  1  Kings  xviii. 
30.  Exod.  xx^^  xxvii.  and  xxx.  Heb.  ix. 

AMAURITES,  the  followers  of 
Amauri,  a  clergyman  of  Bonne,  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  He  acknoAvledged 
the  divine  Three,  to  whom  he  attributed 
the  empire  of  the  Avorld.  But  accoiding 
to  him,  religion  had  three  cpochas, 
Avhich  bore  a  similitude  to  the  reign  of 
the  three  peraous  in  the  Trhiity.    The 


A  ME 


19 


ANA 


reign  of  God  had  existed  as  long  as  the 
iaw  of  Moses.  The  reign  of  the  Son 
would  not  always  last.  A  time  woxdd 
come  when  the  sacraments  should  cease, 
and  then  the  religion  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
would  begin,  when  men  would  render  a 
spiritual  worship  to  the  Supreme  Being. 
This  reign  Amauri  thought  would  suc- 
ceed to  the  Christian  religion,  as  the 
Christian  had  succeeded  to  that  of  Mo- 
ses. 

AMAZEMENT,  a  term  sometimes 
employed  to  express  our  wonder;  but 
it  is  rather  to  be  considered  as  a  medium 
between  wonder  and  astonishment.  It 
is  manifestly  borrowed  from  the  exten- 
sive and  complicated  intricacies  of  a' 
labyrinth,  in  which  there  are  endless 
mazes,  without  the  discovery  of  a  clue. 
Hence  an  idea  is  conveyed  of  more  than 
.simple  wonder;  the  mind  is  lost  in  won- 
der. See  Wonder. 

AMBITION,  a  desire  of  excelling, 
or  at  least  of  being  thought  to  excel, 
our  neighbours  in  any  thing.  It  is  gene- 
rally used  in  a  had  sense  tor  an  immo- 
derate or  illegal  pursuit  of  power  or 
honour.  See  Praise. 

AMEDIANS,  a  congregation  of  re- 
ligious in  Italy;  so  called  fi"om  their 
professing  themselves  amantes  Deum, 
"lovers  01  God;"  or  rather  amata  Deo, 
"  beloved  of  God."  They  wore  a  grey 
habit  and  wooden  shoes,  had  no  breech- 
es, and  girt  themselves  with  a  cord. 
They  had  twenty-eight  convents,  and 
were  united  by  Pope  Pius  V.  partly 
with  the  Bistercian  order,  and  partly 
with  that  of  the  Socolanti,  or  wooden 
shoe  wearers. 

AMEN,  a  Hebrew  word,  which, 
when  prefixed  to  an  assertion,  signifies 
assuredly,  certainly,  or  emphatically,  .to 
it  is;  but  when  it  concludes  a  prayer,  so 
be  it,  or  .so  let  it  be,  is  its  manifest  im- 
port. In  the  former  case,  it  is  assertive, 
or  assures  of  a  truth  or  a  fact ;  and  is  an 
asseveration,  and  is  properly  translated 
verily,  John  iii.  3.  In  the  latter  case  it 
is  fieiitionary,  and,  as  it  were,  epitomises 
all  the  requests  with  which  it  stands 
connected.  Numb.  v.  25;  Rev.  xxii.  20. 
This  emphatical  term  was  not  used 
among  the  Hebrews  by  detached  indi- 
viduals only,  but  on  certain  occasions,  by 
an  assembly  at  large,  Deut.  xxvii.  14. 20. 
It  was  adopted  also,  in  the  public  wor- 
ship of  the  primitive  churche-s,  as  ap- 
pears by  that  passage,  1  Cor.  xiv.  16. 
and  was  continued  among  the  Chris- 
tians in  following  times;  yea,  such  was 
the  extreme  into  which  many  run,  that 
Jerome  informs  us,  that,  in  his  time,  at 
the  conclusion  of  every  public  prayer, 
the  united  amen  of  the  people  sounded 


like  the  fall  of  ivaier,  or  the  voise  of 
thunder.  Nor  is  the  practice  of  some 
professors  in  o«r  own  time  to  be  com- 
mended, who,  with  a  low  though  audi- 
ble voice,  add  their  amen  to  almost  eve- 
ry sentence,  as  it  proceeds  from  the  lips 
of  him  who  is  praying.  As  this  has  a 
tendency  to  interrupt  the  devotion  of 
those  that  are  near  them,  and  may  dis- 
concert the  thoughts  of  him  who  leads 
the  worship,  it  would  be  better  omitted, 
and  a  mental  amen  is  sufficient.  The 
term,  as  used  at  the  end  of  our  prayers, 
suggests  that  we  should  pray  with  im- 
derstanding,  faith,  fervour,  and  expec- 
tation. See  JMr.  jBooth^s  Amen  to  social 
prayer,     v 

AMMONIANS.  See  New  Plato- 
nics. 

AMSDORFIANS,  a  sect,  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  Avho  took  their  name 
from  Amsdorfj  their  leader.  They 
maintained  that  good  Avorks  were  not 
only  unprofitable,  but  wei'e  obstacles  to 
salvation. 

AMYRALDISM,  a  name  given  by 
some  writers  to  the  doctrine  ot  univer- 
sal grace,  as  explained  and  asserted  by 
Amyraldus  or  Moses  Amyrault,  and 
others,  his  followers,  among  the  reform- 
ed in  France,  towards  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  This  doctrine 
principally  consisted   of  the   following 

Earticulars,  viz.  that  God  desires  the 
appiness  of  all  men,  and  none  are  ex- 
cluded by  a  divine  decree;  that  none 
can  obtain  salvation  without  faith  in 
Christ;  that  (iod  refuses  to  none  the 
power  of  believing,  though  he  does  not 
grant  to  all  his  assistance  that  they  may 
improve  tliis  power  to  saving  purposes; 
and  that  they  may  perish  through  their 
own  fault.  Those  who  embi'aced  this 
doctrine  were  called  Universalists; 
though  it  is  evident  they  rendered  grace 
universal  in  words,  hnt partial  in  reality. 
See  Cameronites. 

ANABAPTISTS,  those  who  main- 
tabi  that  baptism  ought  always  to  be 
perfonned  by  immersion.  The  word  is 
compounded  of  mo.,  "  new,"  and  Ba^-T/s-T^?, 
"a  Baptist,"  signifying  that  those  who 
have  been  baptized  in  their  infancy, 
ought  to  be  baptized  anew.  It  is  a  word 
which  has  been  indiscriminately  applied 
to  Christians  of  very  different  principles 
and  practices.  The  English  and  Dutch 
Baptists  do  not  consider  the  word  as  at 
all  applicable  to  their  sect;  because 
those  persons  whom  they  baptize  they 
consider  as  never  having  been  baptized 
before,  although  they  ha\-e  undergone 
what  they  term  the  ceremony  of  sprink- 
ling in  theii-  infancy. 
The  Anabaptists  of  Germany,  besides 


ANA 


20 


ANA 


thear  notions  cxinxerning  baptism,  de- 
pended much  upon  certain  ideas  which 
they  entertained  concerning  a  perfect 
church  establishment,  pure  m  its  mem- 
bei^,  and  free  from  tlie  institutions  of 
human  policy.  The  most  prudent  part 
of  them  considered  it  possible,  by  hu- 
man industry  and  vigilance,  to  purify 
the  church ;  and  seeing  the  attempts  of 
Luther  to  be  successful,  they  hoped  that 
the  period  was  arrived  in  which  the 
church  was  to  be  i-estored  to  this  purity. 
Others,  not  satisfied  with  Luther  s  plan 
of  reformation,  undeilook  a  more  per- 
fect plan,  or  more  properly,  a  visionary 
enterprise,  to  found  a  new  church  en- 
tirely spiritual  and  divine.    ' 

Tills  sect  was  soon  joined  by  great 
nurabex's,  whose  characters  and  capaci- 
ties wei'c  very  different.  Their  progress 
was  rapid;  for  in  a  very  short  space  of 
time,  their  discourses,  visions,  and  pre- 
dictions, excited  great  commotions  in  a 
great  part  of  Europe.  The  most  per- 
nicious faction  of  all  those  which  com- 
posed this  motley  multitude,  was  that 
which  pretended'  that  the  founders  of 
this  ?iew  and  jierfect  church  were  un- 
der a  divine  impulse,  and  were  armed 
against  all  opposition  by  the  power  of 
working  miracles.  It  Avas  this  faction, 
that,  in  the  year  1521,  bei^an  their  fana- 
tical work  under  the  guidance  of  Mun- 
zer,  Stubner,  Storick,  &c.  These  men 
taught  that,  among  Christians,  who  had 
the  precepts  of  the  gospel  to  direct,  and 
the  Spirit  of  God  to  guide  them,  the  of- 
fice ol  magistracy  was  not  only  unneces- 
sary, but  an  unlawful  encroachment  on 
their  spiritual  liberty ;  that  the  distinc- 
tions occasioned  by  birth,  rank,  or 
wealth  should  be  abolished;  that  all 
Christians,  throwing  their  possessions 
into  one  stock,  should  live  together  in 
that  state  of  equality  which  becomes 
members  of  the  same  family;  that,  as 
neither  the  laws  of  nature,  nor  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  New  Testament,  had  pro- 
hibited polygamy,  they  should  use  the 
same  liberty  as  the  jsatriarchs  did  in 
this  respect. 

They  employed,  at  first,  the  various 
arts  of  persuasion,  in  order  to  propa- 
gate then-  doctrines,  and  related  a  num- 
ber of  visions  and  revelations,  with  which 
they  pretended  to  have  been  favoured 
from  above :  but  wlien  they  foiuid  that 
this  would  not  avail,  and  that  the  minis- 
try of  Luther  and  other  reformers  was 
detrimental  to  their  cause,  they  then 
madly  attempted  to  propagate  their 
sentiments  by  force  of  aims.  Munzer 
and  his  associates,  in  the  year  1.525  put 
themselves  at  the  liead  of  a  numerous 
army,  and  declared  war  agfiiiist  all  laws, 


governments,  and  magistrates  of  eveiy 
kind,  under  the  chimerical  pretext,  that 
Christ  himself  was  noAv  to  take  the 
reins  of  all  government  into  his  hands; 
but  this  seditious  crowd  was  routed  and 
dispersed  by  the  elector  of  Saxony  and 
other  princes,  and  Munzer,  their  leader, 
put  to  death. 

Many  of  his  followers,  however,  sur- 
vived, and  propagated  their  opinions 
through  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 
Holland.  In  1533,  a  party  of  them  set- 
tled at  Munster,  under  two  leaders  of 
the  names  of  Matthias  and  Bockholdt. 
Having  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
city,  they  deposed  the  magistrates,  con- 
fiscated the  estates  of  such  as  had  esca- 
ped, and  deposited  the  wealth  in  a  pub- 
lic treasury  for  common  use.  1  hey 
made  preparations  for  the  defence  of 
the  city;  invited  the  Anabaptists  in  the 
low  countries  to  assemble  at  Munster, 
which  they  called  Mount  Sion,  that  from 
thence  they  might  reduce  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth  under  their  dominion.  Mat- 
thias was  soon  cut  off  by  the  bishop  of 
Munster's  amiy,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Bockholdt,  who  was  proclaimed  by  a 
special  designation  of  heaven,  as  the 
pretended  king  of  Sion,  and  invested 
with  legislative  powers  like  those  of 
Moses.  The  city  of  Munster,  however, 
was  taken,  after  a  long  siege,  and  Bock- 
holdt was  punished  with  death. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  true 
rise  of  the  insurrections  of  this  period 
ought  not  to  be  attributed  to  religious 
opinions.  The  first  insurgents  gi'oaned 
under  severe  oppressions,  and  took  up 
aiTns  in  defence  of  their  civil  liberties; 
and  of  these  commotions  the  Anabap- 
tists seem  rather  to  have  availed  them- 
selves, than  to  have  been  the  prime 
movers.  That  a  great  part  were  Ana- 
baptists, seems  indisputable ;  at  the  same 
time  it  appears  from  history,  that  a  great 
part  also  were  Roman  catholics,  and  a 
still  greater  part  of  those  who  had 
scarcely  any  religious  principles  at  all. 
Indeed,  when  we  read  of  the  vast  num- 
bers that  were  concerned  in  these  in- 
surrections, of  whom  it  is  reported  that 
100,000  fell  by  the  sword,  it  appears 
reasonable  to  conclude  that  they  were 
not  all  Anabaptists. 

It  is  but  justice  to  observe  also,  that 
the  Baptists  in  England  and  Holland 
are  to  be  considered  in  a  different  light 
from  those  above-mentioned:  they  pro- 
fess an  equal  aversion  to  all  principles 
of  rebellion  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  en- 
thusiasm on  the  other.  See  Rohertson^s 
Hist,  of  Charles  V. ;  Enc.  Bril.  vol.  i.  p. 
644;  and  articles  Baptists  andMEN- 

NONITES. 


A5fA 


21 


A  NO 


ANALOGY  OF  FAITH,  is  the  pro- 

Eoj-tion  tli.'it  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel 
ear  to  e;ali  other,  or  the  close  con- 
nexion h(  tween  the  truths  of  revealed 
religion,  Rom.  xii.  6.  This  is  consideied 
as  a  g^"tind  rule  for  undei-btanding  the 
tnie  sense  of  scripture.  It  is  evident  that 
the  Almighty  doth  not  act  without  a 
design  in  the  system  of  Christianity  any 
more  than  he  does  in  the  works  of  na- 
ture. Now  this  design  must  be  luiiform  ; 
for  as  in  the  system  of  the  universe 
every  part  is  proportioned  to  the  whole, 
and  made  subservient  to  it,  so  in  tlie  sys- 
tem of  the  Gospel  all  the  various  tiiiths, 
doctrines,  declarations,  precepts,  and 
promises,  must  correspond  with  and 
tend  to  the  end  designed.  For  instance, 
supposing  the  glory  of  God  in  the  salva- 
tion of  man  by  fi-ee  grace  be  the  gi-and 
design ;  then,  Avhatever  doctrine,  asser- 
tion, or  hypothesis,  agree  not  with  this, 
it  is  to  be  considered  as  false. — Great 
care,  however,  must  be  taken  in  making 
use  of  this  method,  that  the  enquirer  pre- 
viously understand  the  whole  scheme, 
and  that  he  harbour  not  a  predilection 
only  for  a  part ;  without  attention  to  this 
we  shall  be  liable  to  eiTor.  If  we  come 
to  the  scriptures  with  any  pre-conccived 
opinions,  and  are  more  desirous  to  put 
that  sense  upon  the  text  which  quad- 
rates with  our  sentiments  rather  than 
the  tnith,  it  becomes  then  the  analogy 
of  0U7'  faith,  rather  than  that  of  the 
whole  system.  This  was  the  source  of 
the  eiTor  of  the  Jews,  in  our  Saviour's 
time.  They  searched  the  scriptures: 
but,  such  were  their  favourite  opinions, 
that  they  could  not  or  would  not  disco- 
\er  that  the  sacred  volume  testified  of 
Christ.  And  the  reason  was  evident, 
for  their  gi-eat  i-ule  of  inteipretation 
was  what  they  might  call  the  analogy 
of  faith;  i.  e.  the  system  of  the  Phari- 
sean  scribes,  the  doctrine  then  in  vogue, 
and  in  the  profound  veneration  of  which 
they  had  been  educated.  Perhaps  there 
is  hardly  any  sect  but  what  has  more  or 
less  been  guilty  in  this  respect.  It  may, 
however,  be  of  use  to  the  serious  arid 
candid  enquirer;  for,  as  some  texts  mav 
!-cem  to  contradict  each  other,  and  dif- 
ficulties present  themselves,  bv  keeping 
the  analog}-  of  faith  in  view,  he  vAW  the 
more  easily  resolve  those  difficulties, 
and  collect  the  tme  sense  of  the  sacred 
oracles.  What « the  aphorisms  of  Hip- 
pocrates are  to  a  phvsician,  the  axioms 
m  geometry  to  a  riiathematician,  the 
adjudged  cases  in  law  to  a  counsellor,  or 
the  maxims  of  war  to  a  general,  such  is 
the  analogy  of  faith  to  a  Christian."  Of 
the  analogy  of  religion  to  the  constitu- 
tion and  course  of  nature,  we  must  refer 


'  our  readers  to  bishop  Butler's  excellent 
'  treatise  on  that  subject. 
I     ANACHORETS,  or  Anchorites, 
'  a  sort  of  monks  in  the  primitive  church, 
i  who  retired  from  the  society  of  man- 
kind into  some  desert,  with  a  \iew  to 
I  avoid  the  temptations  of  Tlie  world,  and 
to  be  more  at  leisure  for  prayer,  medi- 
tation, &c.    Such  were  Paul,  Anthony^, 
;  and  Hiiarion,  the  first  founders  of  mo»- 
I  nastic  life  in  Eg^Tjt  tmd  Palestine. 
j     ANAGOGICAL,    signifies    mystc- 
]  rious,  transporting;  and  is  used  to  ex- 
i  press  v/hatever  elevates  the  mind,  not 
1  only  to  the  knowledge  of  di\nne  things, 
but  of  divine  things  in  the  next  life.  The 
I  word  is  seldom  used,  but  with  regard  to 
I  the  difi'erent  .senses  of  Scripture.    The 
I  anagogical    sense  is  when    the  saci'ed 
text  is  explained  with  regard  to  eternal 
life,  the  point  which  Christians  should 
lun  e  in  view ;  for  example,  the  rest  of 
the    sabbath,  in  the  anagogical  sense, 
signifies  the  repose  of  everlasting  hap- 
piness. 

ANATHEMA,  imports  whatever  is 
set  apart,  separated,  or  divided ;  but  is 
most  usually  meant  to  express  the  cut- 
ting ofFof  a  person  from  the  communion 
of  the  faithtul.     It  was  practised  in  the 
primitive  church  against  notorious  offen- 
ders.   Several  councils  also  have  pro- 
nounced anathemas  against  such  as  they 
thought  con-upted   the  purity   of   the 
faith,    jinathema  Maranatha,  mention- 
ed by  Paul,  (1  Cor.  xiv.  22.)  imports  that 
he  \\\\o  loves  not  the  Lord  Jesus  will  be 
accursed  at  his  coming.    Anathema  sig- 
nifies a  thing  devoted  to  destruction,  and 
Maranatha  is  a  Syriac  word,  signifying 
|l  the  Lord  comes.    It  is  probable  in  this 
ij  passage  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  form 
|l  of  the  Jews,  who  when  unable  to  inflict 
I  so  gi-eat  a  punishment  as  the  crime  de- 
;  served,  devot-ed  the  culprit  to  the  im- 
ij  mediate  vindictive  retribution  of  divine 
I  vengeance,  both  in  this  life  and  in  a  fu- 

It  ANDRONA,  a  term  used  for  that 
I  part  in  churches  which  was  destined  for 
the  men.  Anciently  it  was  the  custom 
for  the  men  and  women  to  have  sepa- 
rate apai-tments  in  places  of  worship, 
where  thev  performed  their  devotions 
asundei",  which  method  is  still  religious- 
ly obser\^ed  in  the  Greek  church. 

ANGEL,  a  spiritual  intelligent  sub- 
stance, the  first  in  rank  and  dignity 
among  created  beings.  The  word  angel 
(*7.>?>.5?)  is  Greek,  and  signifies  a  mes- 
senger. The  Hebrew  word  ^NVD  signi- 
fies the  same.  Angels,  therefore  inthc 
proper  signification  of  the  word,  do  not 
import  the  nature  of  any  being,  but  only 
the  office  to  which  they  are  appointed, 


ANG 


22 


ANG 


especially  by  way  of  message  or  inter- 
course between  God  arid  his  creatures. 
Hence  the  word  is  used  differently  in 
various  parts  of  the  scripture,  and  signi- 
fies, 1.  Human  messengers,  or  agents 
for  others,  2  Sam.  ii.  5.  "I3avid  sent 
Messensrers  ^Heb.  angels)  to  Jabesh 
Gilead,  rrov.  xiii.  17.  Mark  i.  2.  James 
ii.  25. — 2.  Officers  of  the  churches, 
■whether  prophets  or  ordinary  minis- 
ters. Hag.  i.  13.  Rev.  i.  20. — 3.  Jesus 
Christ,  Mai.  iii.  1.  Isa.  Ixiii.  9. — 4.  Some 
add  the  dispensations  of  God's  pi'ovi- 
dence,  either  beneficial  or  calamitous. 
Gen.  xxiv.  7 .  Ps.  xxxiv.  7.  Acts  xii.  23. 
1  Sam.  xiv.  14;  but  I  must  confess,  that, 
though  I  do  not  at  all  see  the  impro- 
priety of  considering  the  providences  of 
God  as  his  angels  or  messengers  for 
good  or  for  evU,  yet  the  passages  gene- 
rally adduced  under  this  head  do  not 
prove  to  me  that  the  providences  of 
God  are  meant  in  distinction  from  cre- 
ated angels. — 5.  Created  mtelligences, 
both-  good  and  bad,  Heb.  i.  14.  Jude  6. 
the  subject  of  the  present  article. — As 
to  the  tiine  when  the  angels  were  crea- 
ted, much  has  been  said  by  the  learned. 
Some  wonder  that  Moses,  in  his  account 
of  the  creation,  should  pass  over  this  in 
silence.  Others  suppose  that  he  did  this 
because  of  the  proneness  of  the  Gentile 
world,  and  even  the  Jews,  to  idolatry ; 
but  a  better  reason  has  been  assigned  by 
others,  viz.  that  this  first  history  was 
purposely  and  principally  written  for  in- 
foi-mation  concerning  the  visible  world ; 
the  invisible,  of  which  we  know  but  in 
part,  being  reserved  for  a  better  life. 
Some  think  tliat  the  idea  of  God's  not 
creating  them  before  this  world  was 
made,  is  very  contracted.  To  suppose, 
say  they,  that  no  creatures  whatever, 
neither  angels  nor  other  worlds,  had 
been  created  previous  to  the  creation 
of  our  \yorld,  is  to  suppose  that  a  Being 
of  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  good- 
ness, had  remained  totally  inactive  from 
all  eternity,  and  had  permitted  the  in- 
finity of  space  to  contniue  a  perfect  va- 
cuum till  within  these  6000  years ;  that 
sucli  an  idea  only  tends  to  discredit  re- 
velation, instead  of  serving  it.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  alleged,  that  they  must 
have  been  created  within  the  six  days; 
because  it  is  said,  that  within  this  space 
God  made  heaven  and  earth,  and  all 
things  that  are  therein.  It  is,  however, 
a  needless  speculation,  and  we  dare  not 
indulge  a  spu'it  of  conjecture.  It  is  our 
happiness  to  know  that  they  are  all  mi- 
nistering spirits,  sent  forth  to  minister 
to  them  wlio  are  heirs  of  salvation.  As 
to  the  nature  of  these  beings,  we  are 
told  that  they  are  spirits;  but  whether 


pure  spirits  divested  of  all  matter,  or 
united  to  some  thin  bodies,  or  corporeal 
vehicles,  has  been  a  controversy  of  long 
standing:  the  moi'e  general  opinion  is, 
that  they  are  substances  entirely  spi- 
ritual, though  they  can  at  any  time  as- 
sume bodies,  and  appear  in  human 
shape.  Gen.  xviii.  and  xix.  Gen.  xxxii. 
Matt,  xxviii.  Luke  i.  &c.  The  scrip- 
tures represent  them  as  endued  with 
extraordinary  wisdom  and  power,  2 
Sam.  xiv.  20.  Ps.  ciii.  20;  holy  and  re- 
gular in  their  inclinations;  zealous  in 
their  employ,  and  completely  happy  in 
their  minds,  Job  xxxviii.  7.  Heb.  i.  7. 
Matt,  xviii.  10.  Their  number  seems  to 
be  great,  Ps.  Ixviii.  17.  Heb.  xii.  22 ;  and 
perhaps  have  distinct  orders,  Col.  i.  16, 
17.  1  Pet.  iii.  22.  1  Thes.  iv.  16.  Dan.  x. 
13.  They  are  delighted  with  the  grand 
scheme  of  redemption,  and  the  conver- 
sion of  sinners  to  God,  Luke  ii.  12. 1  Pet. 
i.  12.  Luke  xv.  10.  They  not  only  wor- 
ship God,  and  execute  his  commands  at 
large,  but  are  attendant  on  the  saints  of 
God  while  here  below,  Ps.  xci.  11,  12. 
Heb.  i.  13.  Luke  xvi.  22.  Some  conjec- 
ture that  every  good  man  has  his  par- 
ticular guardian  angel.  Matt,  xviii.  10. 
Acts  xii.  15 ;  but  this  is  easier  to  be  sup- 
posed than  to  be  proved;  nor  is  it  a 
matter  of  consequence  to  know.  "  What 
need  we  dispute,"  says  Henry, "  whether 
every  particular  samt  has  a  guardian 
angel,  when  we  are  sure  he  has  a  guard 
of  angels  about  him  ?"  They  will  gather 
the  elect  in  the  last  day,  attend  the  final 
judgment,  Matt.  xxv.  31.  Rev.  xiv.  18. 
Matt.  xiii.  39,  and  live  for  ever  in  the 
world  of  glory,  Luke  xx.  36. 

Although  the  angels  were  originally 
created  perfect,  yet  they  were  mutable : 
some  of  them  sinned,  and  kept  not  their 
first  estate ;  and  so,  of  the  most  Ijlcssed 
and  glorious,  became  the  most  vile  and 
miserable  of  all  God's  creatures.  They 
were  expelled  the  regions  of  light,  and 
with  heaven  lost  their  heavenly  dispo- 
sition, and  fell  into  a  settled  rancour 
against  God,  and  malice  against  men. 
What  their  offence  was  is  difficult  to 
determine,  the  scripture  being  silent 
about  it.  Some  think  envy,  others  un- 
belief; but  most  suppose  it  was  pride. 
As  to  the  time  of  their  fall,  we  are  cer- 
tain it  could  not  be  before  tl\e  sixth  day 
of  the  creation,  because  on  that  day  it 
is  said,  "God  saw  everything  that  he 
had  made,  and  behold  it  was  \'ery  good ;" 
l)ut  that  it  was  not  long  after,  is  very  pro- 
liable,  as  it  must  have  preceded  the  fall 
of  our  first  parents.  The  number  of  the 
fallen  angels  seems  to  be  great,  and,  like 
the  holy  angels,  perhaps  have  various 
orders  among  them,  Matt.  xii.  24.  Eph. 


ANG 


23 


ANG 


li.  2.  Epb.  vi.  12.  Col.  ii.  15.  Rev.  xii.  7. 
Tbeir  coiistunt  employ  is  not  only  doing 
evil  themselves,  but  endeavourine  by 
all  arts  to  seduce  and  pervert  mankind, 
1  Pet.  V.  8.  Job  i.  6.  It  is  supposed  they 
will  be  restrained  during  the  millen- 
nium. Rev.  XX.  2,  but  afterwards  again, 
lor  a  short  time,  deceive  the  nations,  Rev. 
XX.  8, and  then  be  finally  punished,  Matt. 
XXV.  41.  The  avithors  who  have  written 
on  tliis  subject  have  been  very  nume- 
rous; we  shall  only  refer  to  a  few:  Rey- 
nolds'it  Emjuirij  into  the  State  and  (Eco- 
no?7iij  of  the  jlngelkal  World;  Dod- 
dridge's Lect.  p.  10.  lect.  210.  ?o  214; 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost ;  Bp.  J^eivtoii's 
Works,  \c\.  iii.  p.  538,  568;  Shefiherd 
of  Angels  ;  Gilpin  on  Temptation;  Cas- 
inanni  Angelografihia  ;  Gill  and  Ridge- 
ley^s  Bodies  oj  Divinity. 

ANGELICS,  an  ancient  sect,  sup- 
posed by  some  to  have  got  this  appella- 
tion from  their  excessive  veneration  of 
angels,  and  by  others  from  maintaining 
that  the  world  was  created  by  angels. 

ANGELITES,  a  sect  in  the  reign  of 
the  emperor  Anastasius,  about  the  year 
494;  so  called  from  Angelium,  a  place 
in  the  city  of  Alexandria,  where  they 
held  their  first  meetings.  They  were 
called  likewise  Severites,  from  Sevenis, 
who  was  the  head  of  their  sect;  as  also 
Theodosiajis,  from  one  Theodosius, 
whom  they  made  pope  at  z\lezandria. 
They  held  that  the  persons  of  the  tri- 
nity are  not  the  same;  that  none  of 
them  exists  of  himself,  and  of  his  own 
nature;  but  that  there  is  a  common 
God  or  Deity  existing  in  them  all,  and 
that  each  is  God  by  a  participation  of 
this  Deitv. 

ANGER,  a  violent  passion  of  the 
mind,  arising .  from  the  receipt,  or  sup- 
posed receipt,  of  any  injury,  with  a  pre- 
sent puipose  of  revenge.  All  anger  is 
by  no  means  sinful ;  it  was  designed  by 
the  Author  of  our  nature  for  self-de- 
fence ;  nor  is  it  altogetlier  a  selfish  pas- 
sion, since  it  is  excited  by  injuries  offer- 
ed to  others  as  well  as  ourselves,  and 
sometimes  prompts  us  to  reclaim  offen- 
ders from  sin  and  danger,  Eph.  iv.  26 ; 
but  it  becomes  sinful  when  conceived 
upon  trivial  occasions  or  inadequate 
provocations ;  when  it  breaks  forth  into 
outrageous  actions;  vents  itself  in  re- 
viling language,  or  is  concealed  in  our 
thoughts  to  the  degree  of  hatred.  To 
suppress  this  passion  the  following  re- 
flections of  arch-deacon  Paley,  may  not 
be  unsuitable :  "We  should  consider  the 
possibility  of  mistaking  the  motives  from 
which  the  conduct  that  offends  us  pro- 
ceeded; how  often  our  offences  have 
been  the  effect  of  inadvertency,  when 


they  were  constraed  into  indications  of 
malice ;  the  inducement  which  promjjted 
our  adversary  to  act  as  he  did,  and  how 
powerfully  the  same  mducement  has,  at 
one  time  or  other,  operated  upon  our- 
selves; that  he  is  suffering,  perhaps, 
under  a  contrition,  which  he  is  ashamed, 
or  wants  opportunity  to  confess;  and 
how  ungenerous  it  is  to  triumjjh  by  cold- 
ness or  nisult  over  a  spirit  already  hum- 
bled in  secret;  tliat  the  returns  of  kind- 
ness are  sweet,  and  that  there  is  neither 
honour,  nor  virtue,  nor  use,  in  resisting 
them;  for  some  persons  think  them- 
selves bound  to  cherish  and  keep  alive 
their  indignation,  when  they  find  it  dy- 
ing awaj'  of  itself.  We  may  remember 
that  others  have  their  passions,  their 
prejudices,  their,  favourite  aims,  their 
fears,  their  cautions,  their  interests, 
their  sudden  impulses,  their  varieties  of 
apprehension,  as  well  as  we :  we  may  re- 
collect what  hath  sometimes  passed  in 
our  own  minds  when  we  have  got  on  the 
wrong  side  of  a  quarrel,  and  imagine  the 
same  to  be  passing  in  our  adversary's 
mind  now:  when  we  became  sensible 
of  our  misbehaviour,  what  palliations 
we  perceived  in  it,  and  expected  others 
to  perceive ;  how  we  were  affected  by 
the  kindness,  and  felt  the  superiority 
of  a  generous  reception,  and  ready 
forgiveness;  how  persecution  revived 
our  spirits  with  our  enmity,  and  seemed 
to  justify  the  conduct  in  ourselves, 
which  we  before  blamed.  Add  to  this 
the  indecency  of  extravagant  anger; 
how  it  renders  us  while  it  lasts,  the 
scorn  and  sport  of  all  about  us,  of  which 
it  leaves  us,  when  it  ceases,  sensible  and 
ashamed ;  the  inconveniences  and  irre- 
trievable misconduct  into  which  our 
irascibility  has  sometimes  betrayed  us ; 
the  friendships  it  has  lost  us ;  the  dis- 
tresses and  embarrassments  in  which 
we  have  been  involved  by  it ;  and  the 
repentance  which,  on  one  account  ov 
other,  it  always  costs  us.  But  the  reflec- 
tion calculated  above  all  others  to  allay 
that  h^j^ightiness  of  temper  which  is 
ever  finding  out  pi'ovocations,  and  whicli 
renders  anger  so  impetuous,  is,  that 
which  the  Gospel  proposes;  namely, 
that  we  ourselves  are,  or  shortly  shall 
be,  suppliants  for  mercy  and  pardon  at 
the  judgment  seat  of  God.  Imagine  our 
secret  sms  all  disclosed  and  brought  to 
light ;  imagine  us  thus  humbled  and  ex- 
posed; trembling  under  the  hand  of 
God ;  casting  ourselves  on  his  compas- 
sion; crying  out  for  mei'cy;  imagine 
such  a  creature  to  talk  of  satisfaction 
and  revenge;  refusing  to  be  entreated, 
disdaming  to  forgive;  extreme  to  mark 
and  to  resent  what  is  done  amiss;  ima- 


ANN 


24 


ANT 


I 


^ine,  I  say,  this,  and  you  can  hardly 
'eign  to  yourself  an  instance  of  more 
impious  .  and  unnatural  arrogance." 
Paley's  Mor.  Phil.  ch.  7.  vol.  i_^, ;  Faw- 
cetfs  excellent  Treatise  on  'Anger; 
Seed's  Fosth.  Ser.  ser.  11. 

ANGER  OF  GOD.  See  Wrath. 

ANGLO-CALVINISTS,  a  name 
given  by  some  writers  to  the  members 
of  the  church  of  England,  as  agreeing 
with  the  other  Calvinists  in  most  points, 
excepting  church  government. 

ANNIHILATION,  the  act  of  reduc- 
ing any  created  being  into  nothing.  The 
sentiments  of  mankind  have  differed 
widely  as  to  the  possibility  and  impos- 
sibility of  annihilation.  According  to 
some,  nothmg  is  so  difficult ;  it  requires 
the  infinite  power  of  God  to  effect  it : 
according  to  others,  nothing  so  easy. 
Existence,  say  they,  is  a  state  of  vio- 
lence ;  all  things  are  continually  endea- 
vouring to  return  to  their  primitive  no- 
thing :  it  requires  no  power  at  all ;  it  will 
do  it  itself:  nay,  more,  it  requii'es  an 
infinite  power  to  prevent  it.  With  re- 
spect to  human  beings,  it  appears  pro- 
bable from  reason ;  but  it  is  confirmed 
by  Scripture  that  they  will  not  be  anni- 
hilated, but  exist  in  a  future  state,  Matt. 
X.  28.  Ecc.  xii.  7.  John  v.  24.  1  Thess.  v. 
10.  Matt.  XXV.  34,  41.  Luke  xvi.  22,  28. 
Luke  XX.  37,  38. 1  Cor.  xv.  See  158,  &c. 
vol.  i.  Massiloii's  Ser.  Eng.  Trans. ;  JVo. 
129,  Guardian;  Blair's  Ser.  vol.  i.  p. 
461;  and  articles  Destructionists, 
Resurrection,  Soul. 

ANNUNCIATION,  the  tidings 
brought  by  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the 
virgin  Mary  of  the  incarnation  of  Christ. 
It  is  also  used  to  denote  a  festival  kept 
I)y  the  churcli  on  the  25th  of  March,  in 
commemoration  of  these  tidings. 

ANOMOEx\NS,  the  name  by  which 
the  pure  Arians  were  called  in  the 
fourth  century,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  Scmi-arians.  The  word  is  formed 
from  the  Greek  avo^o/o?,  different.  See 
Arians  and  Semi-arians. 

ANTEDILUVIANS,  a  geneft-.I  name 
for  all  mankind  who  lived  before  the 
flood,  including  the  whole  human  race 
from  the  creation  to  the  deluge.  For 
the  historv  of  the  Antediluvians,  see 
Book  of  Genesis.  Winston's  Josephus, 
Cockburn's  Treatise  on  the  Deluge,  and 
article  Deluge. 

ANTHEM,  a  church  song  performed 
in  cathedral  service  by  choristers  who 
sung  alternately.  It  was  used  to  denote 
both  psalms  and  hymns,  when  perform- 
ed in  tliis  manner;  but,  at  present,  an- 
them is  used  in  a  more  confined  sense, 
being  applied  to  certain  passages  taken 
out  of  tlie  scriptures,  and  adapted  to  a 


jjarticular  solemnity.  Anthems  were 
first  introduced  in  the  reformed  sei'vice 
of  the  English  church,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth. 

ANTHROPOMORPHITES,  a  sect 
of  ancient  heretics,  who,  taking  every 
thing  spoken  of  God  in  the  scripture  in 
a  literal  sense,  particularly  that  passage 
of  Genesis  in  which  it  is  said,  "God 
made  man  after  his  own  image,"  main- 
tained that  God  had  a  human  shape. 

ANTHROPOPATHY,  a  figure,  ex- 
pression, or  discourse,  whereby  some 
passion  is  attributed  to  God  which  pro- 
perly belongs  only  to  man.  Anthropo- 
pathy  is  frequently  used  promiscuously 
with  anthropology;  yet  in  strictness 
they  ought  to  be  distinguished,  as  the 
genus  from  the  species.  Anthropology 
may  be  understood  of  any  thing  human 
attributed  to  God,  as  eyes,  hands,  &c. 
but  anthropopathy  only  of  human  affec- 
tions and  passions,  as  joy,  grief.  We 
have  frequent  instances  of  the  use  of 
these  figures  in  holy  scripture. 

ANTIBURGHERS,  a  numerous  and 
respectable  body  of  dissenters  from  the 
church  of  Scotland,  who  differ  from  the 
established  church  chiefly  in  matters  of 
church  government;  and  who  differ, 
also,  from,  the  Burgher  seceders,  with 
whom  they  were  originally  united,  chief- 
ly, if  not  solely,  respecting  the  lawful- 
ness of  taking  the  Burgess  oath.  For  an 
account  of  tlieir  origin  and  principles, 
see  Seceders. 

ANTICHRIST,  an  adversary  to  Je- 
sus Christ.  There  have  been  various 
opinions  concerning  the  Antichrist  men- 
tioned in  the  Scripture,  1  John  ii.  18. 
Some  have  held  that  the  Jews  are  to  be 
reputed  as  Antichrist;  others  Caligula; 
others  Mahomet;  others  Simon  Magus; 
others  infidelity;  and  others,  that  the 
devil  himself  is  the  Antichrist.  Most 
authors  agree,  however,  that  it  applies 
to  the  church  of  Rome.  Grotius,  Ham- 
mond, Bossuet,  and  others,  supposed 
Rome  pagan  to  be  designed ;  but  Rome 
Christian  seems  more  evident,  for  John 
"saw  the  beast  rise  up  out  of  the  sea," 
Rev.  xiii.  1.  Now,  as  heathen  Rome  had 
risen  and  been  established  long  before 
his  time,  this  could  not  refer  to  the  Ro- 
man empire  then  subsisting,  but  to  a 
form  of  government  afterwards  to  arise. 
As,  therefore,  none  did  arise,  after 
Rome  was  broken  to  pieces  by  the  bar- 
barians, but  that  of  the  papal  power,  it  ^ 
must  be  considered  as  applying  to  that,  j 
The  descriptions  also,  ot  the  beast  as 
the  great  ajuMucy,  the  ntan  of  sin,  the  J 
fnystery  ofinic/uity,  and  the  son  of  per-  j 
dition,  will  apply  only  to  Christian  j 
Rome.    See  Daniel  vii.  2  Thess.  ii.  and     ' 


ANT 


25 


ANT 


Rev.  xiii.  Besides  the  time  allowed  for 
the  continuance  of  the  beast  will  not 
apply  to  heathen  Rome;  for  power  was 
given  to  the  beast  for  1260  years,  where- 
as heatfien  Rome  did  not  last  400  years 
-after  this  prophecy  was  delivered.  Au- 
thors have  dinerei  as  to  the  time  when 
Antichrist  arose.  Some  suppose  that 
his  reign  did  not  commence  till  he  be- 
came a  temporal  prince,  m  the  year  756, 
■when  Pepin  wrested  the  exarchate  of 
Ravenna  from  the  Lombards,  and  made 
it  over  to  the  pope  and  his  successors. 
Others  thiuk  that,  it  was  in  72",  when 
Rome  and  the  Roman  dukedom  came 
fi'om  the  Greeks  to  the  Roman  pontiff. 
Mede  dates  this  rise  in  the  year  456 ;  but 
others,  and  I  think  with  the  greatest 
reason,  place  it  in  the  year  606.  Now,  it 
is  generally  agreed  that  the  reign  of  An- 
tichrist is  1260  years;  consequently,  if 
his  rise  is  not  to  he  reckoned  till  he  was 

{)Ossessed  of  secular  authority,  then  his 
all  must  be  when  this  power  is  taken 
away.  According  to  the  first  opinion,  he 
must  have  possessed  his  temporal  power 
till  the  year  2016  ;  according  to  the  se- 
cond, he  must  have  possessed  it  till  the 
year  1987.  If  this  rise  began,  according 
to  Mede,  in  456,  then  he  must  have  fall- 
en in  1716.  Now  that  these  dates  were 
wrong,  circumstances  have  proved  ;  the 
first  and  second  being  too  late,  and  the 
tliird  too  early.  As  these  h}'potheses, 
therefore,  must  fall  to  the  ground,  it  re- 
mains for  us  to  consider  why  the  last 
mentioned  is  the  more  probable.  It  was 
about  the  year  606  that  pope  Boniface 
III.  by  flattering  Phocas,  the  emperor 
of  Constantinople,  one  of  the  worst  of 
tyrants,  pi-ocured  for  himself  the  title  of 
IJniversal  Bishop.  The  bishops  of  Rome 
and  Constantinople  had  long  been  sti-ug- 
gling  for  this  honour;  at  labt,  it  was  de- 
cided in  favour  of  the  bishop  of  Rome; 
and  from  this  time  he  was  raised  above 
all  others,  and  his  supremacy  establish- 
ed by  imperial  authority :  it  was  now, 
also,  that  the  most  profound  ignorance, 
debaucheiy,  and  superstition,  reigned. 
From  this  time  the  popes  exerted  all 
their  power  in  promoting  tlie  idolatrous 
worship  of  images,  saints,  reliques,  and 
angels.  The  church  was  truly  deplora- 
ble ;  all  the  clergy  were  gi\en  up  to  the 
most  flagrant  and  abominable  acts  of  li- 
centiousness. Places  of  worsh'i  resem- 
bled the  temples  of  heathens  niore  than 
the  churches  of  Christians ;  in  fine,  no- 
thing could  exceed  the  avarice,  pride, 
and  \anity  of  all  the  bishops,  presbvters, 
deacons,  and  e\en  the  cloistered  monks ! 
All  this  fully  answered  the  description 
St.  Paul  gave  of  Antichrist,  2  Thess.  ii. 
It  is  necessary  also  to  obsei-ve,  that  this 


epoch  agrees  best  with  the  time  when, 
according  to  prophecy,  he  was  to  be  re- 
Acalcd.  The  rise  of  Antichrist  was  to 
be  preceded  by  the  dissolution  of  the 
Roman  empire,  the  establishment  of  a 
difterent  form  of  government  in  Italy, 
and  the  division  of  the  empire  into  ten 
kingdoms;  all  these  events' taking  place, 
make  it  very  probable  that  the  year  606 
was  the  time  of  hjs  rise.  Nor  have  the 
events  of  the  last  century  made  it  less 
probable.  The  power  of  the  pope  was 
never  so  much  shaken  as  within  a  few 
years:  "his  dominion  is,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, taken  from  him ;"  and  every  thing 
seems  to  be  going  on  gradually  to  ter- 
minate his  authoi'ity ;  so  that,  by  the 
time  this  1260  years  shall  be  concluded, 
we  may  suppose  that  Antichrist  shall 
be  finally  destroyed. 

As  to  the  cnielties  of  Antichrist,  the 
persecutions  that  have  been  carried  on, 
and  the  miseries  to  which  mankind  have 
been  subject,  by  the  power  of  the  beast, 
the  reader  may  consult  the  articles  In- 
quisition and  Persecution.  In  this 
we  have  to  rejoice,  that,  however  vari- 
ous, the  opinions  of  the  leaiTied  may  be 
as  to  the  time  when  Antichrist  rose,  it 
is  evident  to  all  that  he  is  fast  declining, 
and  will  certainly  fall.  Rev.  xviii.  1,  5. 
What  means  the  Almighty  may  farther 
use,  the  ex-act  time  when,  and  the  man- 
ner how,  all  shall  be  accomplished,  we 
must  leave  to  him  who  ordereth  all 
things  after  the  counsel  of  his  own  will. 
See  £/i.  JVewton  on  the  Prophecies ; 
Simpson's  Key  to  ditto  ;  JMoseley's  Ser. 
on  Fall  of  Babylon ;  Ward's  Three 
Discourses  on  Prophecy,  and  books 
under  that  article. 

ANTIDDRON,  a  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  to  the  conseci'ated  bread ;  out  of 
which  the  middle  part,  marked  with 
the  cross,  wherein  the  consecration  re- 
sides, bemg  taken  away  by  the  priest, 
the  remainder  is  distributed  after  mass 
to  the  poor. 

ANTINOMIANS,  those  who  main- 
tain that  the  law  is  of  no  use  or  obliga- 
tion under  the  gospel  dispensation,  or 
who  hold  doctrines  that  clearly  super- 
sede the  necessity  of  good  works.  The 
Antinomians  took  their  origin  from  John 
iVgricola,  about  the  year  1538,  who 
taught  that  the  law  is  no  way  necessary 
under  the  Gospel ;  that  good  works  do 
not  promote  our  salvation,  nor  ill  one's 
hinder  it ;  that  repentance  is  not  to  bs 
preached  from  the  decalogue,  but  only 
from  the  Gospel.  This  sect  sprang  up 
in  England  during  the  protectorate  ot 
Cromwell,  and  extended  their  system 
of  libertinism  much  faither  than 'Agri- 
cola  did.  Some  of  them  it  is  said,  main- 
D 


ANT 


26 


ANT 


tained,  that  if  they  should  commit  any  [ 
kind  of  sin,  it  would  do  them  no  hurl, 
nor  in  the  least  affect  their  eternal  state ; 
and  that  it  is  one  of  the  distinguishing 
characters  of  the  elect  that  they  cannot 
do  any  thing  displeasing  to  God.  It  is  ne- 
cessaiy,  however,  to  observe  here,  and 
candour  obliges  us  to  confess  that  there 
have  been  others,  who  have  been  styled 
Antinomians,  who  cannot,  strictly  speak- 
ing, be  ranked  with  these  men :  never- 
theless, the  unguarded  expressions  they 
have  advanced,  the  bold  positions  they 
have  laid  down,  and  the  double  con- 
struction which  might  so  easily  be  put 
upon  many  of  their  sentences,  have  led 
some  to  cnarge  them  with  Antinomian 

Erinciples.  Por  instance ;  when  they 
ave  asserted  justification  to  be  eter- 
nal, without  distinguishing  between  the 
secret  determination  of  God  in  eternity, 
and  the  execution  of  it  in  time ;  when 
they  have  spoken  lightly  of  good  works, 
or  asserted  that  believers  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  law  of  God,  without  fully 
explaining  what  they  mean :  when  they 
assert  that  God  is  not  angry  with  his 
people  for  their  sins,  nor  m  any  sense 
punishes  them  for  them,  without  distin- 
guishing between  fatherly  corrections 
and  vindictive  punishment :  these  things, 
■whatever  be  the  private  sentiments  of 
those  who  advance  them,  have  a  ten- 
dency to  injure  the  minds  of  many.  It 
has  been  alleged,  that  the  principal 
thing  they  have  had  in  view,  was,  to 
counteract  those  legal  doctrines  which 
have  so  much  abounded  among  the  self- 
righteous  ;  but,  granting  this  to  be  true, 
there  is  no  occasion  to  run  from  one 
extreme  to  another.  Had  many  of  those 
writers  proceeded  with  more  caution, 
been  less  dogmatical,  more  explicit  in 
the  explanation  of  their  sentiments,  and 
possessed  more  candour  towards  those 
who  differed  from  them,  they  would 
have  been  more  serviceable  to  the  cause 
of  truth  and  religion.  Some  of  the  chief 
of  those  who  have  been  charged  as  fa- 
vouring the  above  sentiments  are,  Cr/.s/?, 
Richardson,  Saltmarsh,  Hussey,Eatum, 
Town,  &c.  These  have  been  answered 
by  Gataker,  Sedgwick,  Witsius,  Bull, 
Williams,  Ridgley,  Beart,  De  Fleury, 
Sec.  See  also  Bellamy's  Letters  and 
Dialogues  between  T/ieron,  Paziliniis, 
and  Aspasio ;  with  his  £ssay  on  the 
JVature  and  Glory  of  the  Gospel; 
Kdwards*  Chrisfiianism,  unmasked. 

ANTIPATHY,  hatred,  aversion,  re- 
pugnancy. Hatred  is  entertained  against 
persons,  auersion  and  antipathy  against 
persons  or  things,  and  repugnancy 
against  actions  aloue.  Hatred  is  more 
voluntary  than  aversion,  antipathy,  or 


repugnancy:  these  last  have  greater 
affinity  with  the  animal  constitution. 
The  causes  of  antipathy  are  less  known 
than  those  oi  aversio?i.  Repugnancy  is 
less  permanent  than  either  the  one  or 
the  other.  We  hate  a  vicious  charac- 
ter, we  feel  an  aversion  to  its  exertions. 
We  are  affected  with  antipathy  for  cer- 
tain persons  at  first  sight :  there  are 
some  affairs  which  we  transact  with  re- 
pugnancy.  Hatred  calumniates,  aver- 
sion keeps  us  at  a  distance  from  certain 
persons.  Antipathy  makes  us  detest 
them ;  repugnancy  hinders  us  from,  imi- 
tating them. 

ANTIPiEDOBAPTISTS,  (from  «m. 
"against,"  and  ttm^  vM^oi,  "child,"  and 
BaJTTv^a),  "baptize,")  is  a  distinguishing 
denomination  given  to  those  who  object 
to  the  baptism  of  infants.  See  Bap- 
tism. 

ANTIQUITIES,  a  term  implying  all 
testuTionies  or  authentic  accounts  that 
have  come  down  to  us  of  ancient  nations. 
As  the  study  of  antiquity  may  be  useful 
both  to  the  enquiring  Christian,  as  well 
as  to  those  who  are  employed  in,  or  are 
candidates  for  the  Gospel  ministry,  we 
shall  here  subjoin  a  list  of  those  which 
are  esteemed  the  most  valuable. — Fa- 
bricii  Bibliographia  Antiquaria  ;  Spen- 
cer de  Legions  Heb.  Ritualibus  ;  God- 
wyn's  Moses  and  Aaron  ;  Bingham's 
Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church ; 
Brown's  Antiquities  of  the  Jews ;  Pot- 
ter's and  Harwood's  Greek,  and  Ken- 
nett's  and  Adam's  Roman  Antiquities  ; 
Preface  to  the  Prussian  Testament, 
published  by  L' Enfant  and  Beausobre  ; 
Prideaux  and  Shuckford's  Connections; 
Jones's  Asiatic  Researches ;  and  Mau- 
rice's Indian  Antiquities. 

ANTISABBATARIANS,  a  modern 
religious  sect,  who  deny  the  necessity 
of  observing  the  Sabbath  Day.  Their 
chief  arguments  are,  1.  That  the  Jewish 
Sabbath  was  only  of  ceremonial,  not  of 
moral  obligation ;  and  consequently,  is 
abolished  by  the  coming  of  Christ. — 2. 
That  no  other  Sabbath  was  appointed  to 
be  observed  by  Christ  or  his  apostles. — 

3.  That  there  is  not  a  Avord  of  Sabbath- 
breaking  in  all  the  New  Testament. — 

4.  That  no  command  was  given  to  Adam 
or  Noah  to  keep   any  Sabbath. — And, 

5.  That,  therefore,  although  Christians 
are  commanded  "not  to  forsake  the 
assembling  of  themselves  together," 
they  ought  not  to  hold  one  day  more 
holy  than  another.  See  article  Sab- 
bath. 

ANTITACT7E,  a  branch  of  Gnos- 
tics, who  held  that  God  was  good  and 
just,  but  that  a  creature  had  created 
evil;  and,  consequently,  that  it  is  our 


APA 


27 


APO 


tltity  to  oppose  this  author  of  evil,  in  or- 
der to  aveni^c  God  of  his  ad\ersary. 

ANTrrRINITARIANS,  those  who 
deny  tlie  Trinity,  and  teach  that  thei-e 
arc  not  three  pei"sons  in  the  Godhead. 
See  Trinity. 

ANTITYPE,  a  Greek  word,  pro- 
perly signifying  a  type  or  figure  cor- 
responding to  some  other  type. 

The  word  antitype  occurs  twice  in  the 
New  Testament,  viz.  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  chap.  ix.  v.  24.  and  in  the 
1  Epistle  of  St.  Peter  chap.  iii.  v.  21. 
whei-e  its  genuine  import  has  been  much 
controverted.  The  former  sa>"s,  that 
Christ  is  not  entered  into  the  holy 
places  made  with  hands,  which  are 
tttriTvira,,  the  figures  or  antit^'pes  of  the 
true — now  to  appear  in  the  presence  of 
God.  Now  TOTTo?  signifies  the  pattern 
by  which  another  thing  is  made ;  and 
as  Moses  was  obliged  to  make  the  ta- 
bernacle, and  all  things  in  it,  according 
to  the  pattern  shown  him  in  the  Mount, 
the  tabernacle  so  foiTned  was  the  anti- 
type of  what  was  shown  to  Moses:  any 
thing,  therefoi-e,  formed  according  to  a 
model  or  pattern,  is  an  antitype.  In  the 
latter  passage,  the  apostle,  speaking  of 
Noah's  flood,  and  the  deliverance  only 
of  eight  persons  in  the  ark  from  it,  says, 
tl  xa.1  )i/jL^i;  u.YTi'Txrrrfj'j  vcv  (ru-^u  fiiVTi<r/j(x ;  Bap- 
tism being  an  antityfie  to  that,  now  saves 
■us  ;  not  the  putting  away  of  the  Jilt  h  of 
the  Jiesh,  but  the  answer  of  a  good  con- 
science towards  God,  &c.  The  meaning 
is,  that  righteousness,  or  the  answer  of 
a  good  conscience  towards  God,  now 
sa\'es  us,  by  means  of  the  resun'ection 
of  Christ,  as  formerly  righteousness  sa- 
ved these  eight  persons  by  means  of  the 
ark  during  the  flood.  The  word  anti- 
tjqje,  therefore,  here  signifies  a  general 
similitude  of  circumstances;  and  the 
particle  ce,  whereunto,  refers  not  to  the 
immediate  antecedent  uifttTOf,  water,  but 
to  all  that  precedes. 

ANTOSIANDRIANS,  a  sect  of  ri- 
gid Lutherans  who  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  Osiander  relating  to  justification. 
These  are  otherwise  denominated  Osi- 
andromastiges.  The  Antosiandrians  de- 
ny that  man  is  made  just,  with  that  jus- 
tice wherewith  God  himself  is  just;  that 
is,  they  assert  that  he  is  not  made  es- 
sentially but  only  imputativelv  just ;  or 
that  he  is  not  really  made  just,  but  only 
pronounced  so. 

APATHY,  among  the  ancient  philo- 
sophers, implied  an  utter  privation  of 
passion,  and  an  insensibility  of  pain.  The 
word  is  compounded  of  a,  /iriv.  and  r^tSse, 
affection.  The  Stoics  affected  an  entire 
apathy;  they  considered  it  as  the  highest 
wisdom  to  enjoy  a  perfect  calmness  or 


I  tranquillity  of  mind,  incapable  of  being 
!  ruffled  by  either  pleasure  or  pain.  In  the 
;  first  ages  of  the  church,  the  Christians 
i  adopted  the  term  apathy  to  express  a 
contempt  of  all  earthly  concerns;  a  state 
I  of  mortification  such  as  the  Gospel  pre- 
I  scribes.  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  in  par- 
i  ticular,  brought  it  exceedingly  in  vogue, 
j  thinking  hei-eby  to  draw  such  philoso- 
;  phei-s  to  Christianity  who  aspired  after 
i  such  a  sublime  pitch  of  virtue. 
j  x\PELLEANS,  so  called  from  Apcl* 
!  les,  in  the  second  century.  They  af- 
j  firmed  that  Christ,  when  he  came  down 
I  from  heaven,  received  a  body  not  from 
I  the  substance  of  his  mother,  but  from 
'  the  four  elements,  which  at  his  death  he 
rendered  back  to  the  world,  and  so  as- 
cended into  heaven  without  a  body. 

APHTHARTODOCITES,  a  deno- 
mination in  the  sixth  century ;  so  called 
from  the  Greek  ct96i|Tor,  incorruptible, 
and  S'r.Kue,  to  judge ;  because  they  held 
that  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ  was  incor- 
ruptible, and  not  subject  to  death.  They 
were  a  branch  of  the  Eutvchians. 

APOCARITiES,  a  denomination,  in 
the  third  century,  which  sprang  from 
the  Manicheans.  They  held  that  the 
soul  of  man  was  of  the  substance  of  God. 
APOCHRYPHA,books  not  admitted 
into  the  canon  of  scriptui-e,  being  either 
spurious,  or  at  least  not  acknowledged 
as  divine.  The  word  is  Greek,  and  de- 
rived from  oLTTo,  "from,"  and  x-giimui,  "to 
hide  or  conceal."  They  seem  most  of 
them  to  have  been  composed  by  Jews. 
None  of  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment mention  them  ;  neither  Philo  nor 
Josephus  speak  of  them.  The  Christian 
church  was  for  some  ages  a  stranger  to 
them.  Origen,Athanasms,Hilaiy, Cyril 
of  Jeiiisalem,  and  all  the  orthodox  wri- 
ters  who  hav  e  given  catalogues  of  the 
canonical  books  of  scripture,  unanimous- 
ly concur  in  rejecting  these  out  of  the 
canon.  The  Protestants  acknowledge 
such  books  of  scripture  only  to  be  cano- 
nical as  were  esteemed  to  be  so  in  the 
first  ages  of  the  church ;  such  as  are 
cited  by  the  earliest  writers  among  the 
Christians  as  of  divine  authority,  and 
after  the  most  diligent  enquiry  were  re- 
ceived and  judged  to  be  so  by  the  coun- 
cil of  Laodicea.  They  were  written  after 
the  days  of  Malachi,'in  whom,  according 
to  the  universal  testimony  of  the  Jews, 
the  spirit  of  prophecy  ceased,  Mai.  iv. 
4 — 6.  Not  one  of  the'  writers  in  direct 
terms  advances  a  claim  to  inspiration. 
They  contain  fables,  lies,  and  cffUtradic- 
tions.  1  Mace.  vi.  4.  16.  2  Mace.  i.  13. 16. 
2  Mace.  ix.  28.  The  apocryphal  books 
are  in  general  believed  to  be  canonical 
by  the  "church  of  Rome;  and,  even  by 


APO 


2S 


APO 


the  sixth  article  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land, they  are  oi-dered  to  be  i-ead  for 
example  of  life  and  instruction  of  man- 
ners, though  it  doth  not  apply  them  to 
establish  an\-  doctrine.  Other  reformed 
churches  do  not  so  much  as  miike  even 
this  use  of  them.  See  Prideaux^s  Con- 
nexion, vol.  i.  p.  36 — 42 :  Z-ec's  Dis.  on 
Madras  ;  Dick  on  Insfiiration,  p.  344. 

APOLLINARIANS,  were  ancient 
heretics,  who  denied  the  proper  hu- 
manity of  Christ,  and  maintained  that 
the  body  which  he  assumed  was  endow- 
ed -with  a  sensitive  and  not  a  rational 
soul :  but  that  the  divine  nature  supplied 
the  place  of  the  intellectual  principle  in 
man.  This  sect  deri\ed  its  name  from 
ApoUinaris,  bishop  of  Laodicea.  Their 
doctrine  was  first  condemned  b}^  a  coun- 
cil at  Alexandria  in  362,  and  afterwards 
in  a  more  formal  mamier  by  a  council 
at  Rome  in  375,  and  by  another  council 
in  378,  which  deposed  ApoUinaris  from 
his  bishopric.  This,  with  other  laws 
enacted  against  them,  reduced  them  to 
a  veiy  small  number;  so  that  at  last 
they  dwindled  away. 

APOSTACY,  a  forsaking  or  rtnoun- 
cing  our  religion,  either  by  an  open  de- 
claration in  words,  or  a  viitual  declara- 
tion of  it  by  our  actions.  The  primitive 
Christian  church  distinguished  several 
kinds  of  apostac)' ;  the  first,  of  those 
■who  went  entirely  from  Christianity  to 
Judaism  ;  the  second,  of  those  who  com- 
plied so  far  with  the  Jews,  as  to  com- 
municate with  them  in  many  of  their 
unlawful  practices,  without  making  a 
fonnal  profession  of  their  religion; 
thirdly,  of  those  who  mingled  Judaism 
and  Christianity  together ;  and,  fourth- 
ly, of  those  who  voluntarily  relapsed 
into  paganism.  Apostacy  may  be  far- 
ther considered  as,"l.  Original,  in  which 
we  have  all  participated,  Rom.  iii.  23 ; 
— 2.  National,  when  a  kingdom  relin- 
quishes the  profession  of  Christianity ; 
— 3.  Personal,  when  an  individual  back- 
slides from  God,  Heb.  x.  38  ; — i.  Final, 
when  men  are  given  up  to  judicial 
hardness  of  heart,  as  Judas.  See  Back- 
sliding. 

APOSTLE,  properly  signifies  a  mes- 
senger or  person  sent  by  another  upon 
some  business.  It  is  particularly  applied 
to  them  whom  our  Sa\  iour  deputed  to 
preach. — 2.  Apostle,  in  the  Greek  li- 
turgy, is  used  for  a  book  containing  the 
epistles  of  St.  Paul,  printed  in  the  order 
wherein  they  are  to  be  read  in  churches 
through  the  course  of  the  year. — 3.  The 
appellation  was  also  given  to  the  ordi- 
nar}-  travelling  ministers  of  the  church, 
Rom.  xvi.  7.  Phil.  ii.  25.  though  in  our 
translation  the  last  is  reuderecl  messen- 


ger.— i.  It  is  likewise  given  to  those 
persons  who  first  planted  the  Christian 
faith  in  any  place.  Thus  Dionysius  of 
Corinth  is  called  the  Apostle  of  France, 
Xa\ier  the  Apostle  of  the  Indies,  &c. 

APOSTLES'  CREED.  See  Creed. 

APOSTOLATE,  in  a  general  sense, 
is  used  for  mission;  but  it  more  proper- 
ly denotes  the  dignity  or  office  of  an 
apostle  of  Christ.  It  is  also  used  in  an- 
cient writers  for  the  office  of  a  bishop. 
But  as  the  title  afiostolicus  has  been  ap- 
propriated to  the  pope,  so  that  of  apos- 
tolate  became  at  length  restrained  to 
the  sole  dignity  of  the  popedom. 

APOSTOLIC,  apostolical ;  some- 
thing that  relates  to  the  apostles,  or 
descends  from  them.  Thus  we  say  the 
apostolical  age,  apostolical  doctrine, 
apostolical  character,  constitutions,  tra- 
ditions, 8cc. 

APOSTOLIC,  in  the  primitive 
church,  was  an  appellation  given  to  all 
such  churches  as  were  founded  by  the 
apostles;  and  even  to  the  bishops  of 
those  churches,  as  being  the  reputed 
successors  of  the  apostles.  These  were 
confined  to  four,  viz.  Rome,  Alexandria, 
Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  In  after  times, 
the  other  churches  assumed  the  same 
quality,  on  account,  principally,  of  the 
conformity  of  their  doctruie  with  that 
of  the  churches  which  were  apostolical 
by  foundation,  and  because  all  bishops 
held  themselves  successors  of  the  apos- 
tles, or  acted  in  their  dioceses  with  the 
authority  of  apostles. 

The  first  time  the  teiTn  apostolical  is 
attributed  to  bishops,  as  such,  is  in  a 
letter  of  Clovis  to  the  council  of  Orleans, 
held  in  511,  though  that  king  does  not 
there  expressly  denominate  them  apos- 
tolical, but  {apostolica  sede  dignissimi 
highly  worthy  of  the  apostolical  see. 
In  581,  Guntram  calls  the  bishops  met 
at  the  council  of  Macon,  apostolical 
pontiffs,  apostolici  pontijices. 

In  progress  of  time,  the  bishop  of 
Rome  growing  in  power  above  the  rest, 
and  the  three  patriarchates  of  Alexan- 
dria, Antioch,  and  Jerusalem,  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  the  title 
apostolical  was  restrained  to  tlie  pope 
and  his  church  alone  ;  though  some  of 
the  popes,  and  St.  Gregory  tlie  Great, 
not  contented  to  hold  the  title  by  this 
tenure,  began  at  length  to  insist  that  it 
belonged  to  them  by  another  and  pecu- 
liar right,  as  being  the  successors  of  St. 
Peter.  The  country  of  Rheims,  in  1049, 
declared  that  the  pope  was  the  sole 
apostolical  primate  of  tlie  uni\ersal 
church.  And  hence  a  great  number  of 
apostolicals ;  apostolical  see,  apostolical 
nuncio,  apostolical  notary,   apostolical 


I 


APP 


29 


ARC 


Urief,  afiostoHcal  chamber,  afiostolical 
vicar,  &c. 

APOSTOLICAL  CONSTITU- 
TIONS, a  collection  of  regulations  at- 
tributed to  the  apostles,  and  supposed 
to  have  been  collected  by  St.  Clement, 
Avhose  name  tiiey  likewise  bear.  It  is 
the  ijeneral  opinion,  however,  tliat  they 
are  spurious,  and  that  St.  Clement  had 
no  hand  in  them.  They  appeared  tiist 
in  the  fourth  centuiy,  but  have  been 
much  clianged  and  conoipted  since. 
There  are  so  many  things  m  them  dif- 
ferent from  and  even  contrary  to  the 
genius  and  design  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment writers,  that  no  wise  man  would  I 
believe,  without  the  most  convincing 
and  irresistible  proof,  that  both  could 
come  from  the  same  hand.  Grade's 
jinsnver  to  Whistoyi;  Saurin's  Ser.  vol. 
ii.  p.  185  ;  Lardner's  Creel,  vol.  iii.  p.  11. 
c/i.  ulC;  Doddridge's  Lect.  lee.  119. 

APOSTOLIC  FATHERS,  an  ap- 
pellation usually  gi\'en  to  the  writers  of 
the  first  century,  who  employed  their 
pens  in  the  cause  of  Christianity.  Of 
these  writers,  Cotelerius,  and  after  him 
Le  Clerc,  have  published  a  collection 
in  two  volumes,  accompanied  both  with 
their  own  annotations,  and  the  lemarks 
of  other  learned  men.  See  also  the 
genuine  epistles  of  the  apostolic  fathers 
by  Abp.  Wake. 

APOSTOLICI,  or  Apostolics,  a 
name  assumed  by  different  sects  on  ac- 
count of  their  pretending  to  imitate  the 
practice  of  the  apostles. 

APOTACTIT.'E,  an  ancient  sect, 
who  affected  to  follow  the  examples  of 
the  apostles,  and  I'enounced  all  their 
effects  and  possessions.    It  does  not  ap- 

Eear  that  they  held  any  errors  at  first ; 
ut  afterwards  they  taught  that  the  re- 
noimcing  of  all  riches  was  not  only  a 
matter  of  counsel  and  advice,  but  of 
precept  and  necessity. 

APPLICATION,' is  used  for  the  act 
■whereby  our  Saviour  transfers  or  makes 
over  to  us  what  he  had  earned  or  pur- 
chased by  his  holy  life  and  death.  Ac- 
coi-dingly  it  is  by  this  application  of  the 
merits  of  Christ  that  we  are  to  be  justi- 
fied and  entitled  to  grace  and  glory. 

Afifilication  is  also  used  for  that  part 
of  a  sermon  in  which  the  preacher 
biings  home  or  applies  the  tiiith  of  re- 
ligion to  the  consciences  of  his  hearers. 
See  Sermon. 

APPROBATION,  a  state  or  dispo- 
sition of  the  mind,  wherein  we  put  a 
value  upon,  or  become  pleased  with, 
some  person  or  thing.  Aloralists  ar« 
divided  on  the  principle  of  approbation, 
or  the  motive  which  determines  us  to 
approve  or  disapprove.  The  Epicureans 


will  have  it  to  be  only  self-mterest :  ac- 
coixling  to  them,  that  which  determines 
any  agent  to  appi-ove  his  own  action,  is 
its  apparent  tendency  to  his  private  hap- 
piness ;  and  c\"en  the  approbation  of  an- 
other's action  flows  from  no  other  cause 
but  an  opinion  of  its  tendency  to  the 
happiness  of  the  approver,  either  im- 
mediately or  remotely.  Others  resolve 
approbation  into  a  moral  sense,  or  a 
principle  of  benevolence,  by  which  we 
are  detennined  to  approve  every  kind 
affection  either  in  ourselves  or  others, 
and  all  publicly  useful  actions  which  we 
imagine  to  flow  from  such  affections, 
without  any  view  therein  to  our  own 
pri\ate  happiness. 

But  may  we  not  add,  that  a  true 
Christian's  approbation  arises  from  his 

Serception  of  the  will  of  God?    See 
•bligation. 

APPROPRIATION,  the  annexing  a 
benefice  to  the  proper  and  perpetual 
use  of  some  religious  house.  It  is  a  term 
also  often  used  in  the  religious  world  as 
referring  to  that  act  of  the  mind  by 
which  we  apply  the  blessings  of  the 
Ciospel  to  ourselves.  This  appi-opria- 
tion  IS  real  when  we  are  enabled  to  be- 
lieve in,  feel,  and  obey  the  truth ;  but 
merely  nominal  and  delusive  when  there 
are  no  fruits  of  righteousness  and  true 
holiness.    See  Assurance. 

AQUARIANS,  those  who  consecra- 
ted water  in  the   eucharist  mstead  of 

1  wine.     Another  branch  of   them   ap- 

I  proved  of  wine  at  the  sacrament,  when 

i  receiA'ed  in  the  evening :  they  likewise 

!  mixed  water  with  the  Avine. 

j  ARABICI,  erroneous  Christians,  in 
the  third  century,  who  thought  that  the 

j  soul  and  body  died  together,  and  rose 
again.  It  is  said  that  Origen  convinced 
tiiem  of  their  error,  and  that  they  then 
abjured  it. 

ARCHANGEL,  according  to  some 
divines,  means  an  angel  occupying  the 
eighth  rank  in  the  celestial  hierarchy ; 
but  others,  not  without  reason,  i-eckon 
it  a  title  only  applicable  to  our  Saviour. 
Compare  Jiide  9.  with  Daniel  xii.  1.  1 
Thess.  iv.  16. 

ARCHBISHOP,  the  chief  or  metro- 
politan bishop,  who  has  several  suffra- 
gans under  him.  Archbishops  were  not 
known  in  the  East  till -about  the  year 
320 ;  and  though  there  were  some  soon 
after  this  who  had  the  title,  }et  that 
was  onlv  a  personal  honour,  by  which 
tlie  bishops  of  considerable  cities  were 
distinguished.  It  was  not  till  of  late  that 
archbishops  became  metropolitans,  and 

ij  had  suffragans  imcler  them.  The  ec- 
clesiastical  government  of  England  is 

J  divided  into  two  provinces,  viz.  Canter- 


ARI 


30 


ARI 


bury  and  York.  The  first  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  was  Austin,  appointed  by 
king  Ethelbert,  on  his  conversion  to 
Christianity,  about  the  year  598.    His 

frace  of  Canterbuiy  is  the  first  peer  of 
England,  and  the  next  to  the  royal  fa- 
mily, having  precedence  of  all  dukes, 
and  all  great  officers  of  the  croAvn.  It 
is  his  privilege,  by  custom,  to  crown 
the  kings  and  queens  of  this  kingdom. 
The  archbishop  of  York  has  precedence 
of  all  dukes  not  of  the  royal  blood,  and 
of  all  officei's  of  state  except  the  lord 
high  chancellor.  The  first  archbishop 
of  York  was  Paulinus,  appointed  by 
pope  Gregoiy  about  the  year  622. 

ARCHDEACON,  a  priest  invested 
with  authority  or  jurisdiction  over  the 
clergy  and  laity,  next  to  the  bishop, 
either  through  the  whole  diocese,  or 
only  a  part  of  it.  There  are  sixty  in 
England,  who  visit  every  two  years  in 
three,  when  they  mquire  into  the  re- 
parations and  moveables  belonging  to 
churches ;  reform  abuses ;  suspend ;  ex- 
communicate ;  in  some  places  prove 
wills ;  and  induct  all  clerks  into  bene- 
fices within  their  respective  jurisdic- 
tions. 

ARCHONTICS,  a  sect  about  the 
year  160  or  203.  Among  many  other 
extravagant  notions,  they  held  that  the 
world  was  created  by  archangels ;  they 
also  denied  the  resurrection  ot  the  body. 

ARCH-PRESBYTER,  or  Arch- 
Priest,  a  priest  established  in  some 
dioceses  with  a  superiority  over  the 
rest.  He  was  anciently  chosen  out  of 
the  college  of  presb)fters,at  the  pleasure 
of  the  bishop.  The  arch-presbyters 
were  much  of  the  same  nature  with  our 
<leans  in  cathedral  churches. 

ARRHABONARH,  a  sect  who  held 
that  the  Eucharist  is  neither  the  real 
flesh  or  blood  of  Christ,  nor  yet  the  sign 
of  them,  but  only  the  pledge  or  earnest 
thereof. 

ARIANS,  followers  of  Arius,  a  pres- 
byter of  the  church  of  Alexandria,  about 
315,  who  maintained  that  the  Son  of 
God  was  totally  and  essentially  distinct 
from  the  Father ;  that  he  was  the  first 
and  noblest  of  those  beings  whom  God 
had  created — the  instniment,  by  whose 
subordinate  ojieration  he  formed  the 
universe ;  and  therefore,  inferior  to  the 
Father  both  in  nature  and  dignity :  also, 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  God,  but 
created  by  the  power  of  the  Son.  The 
Arians  owned  that  the  Son  was  the 
Word ;  but  denied  that  word  to  have 
been  eternal.  They  held  that  Christ 
had  nothing  of  man  In  him  but  the  flesh, 
to  which  the  Myc?,  or  word,  was  joined, 
which  was  the  same  as  the  soul  ui  us. — 


The  Arians  were  first  condemned  and 
anathematised  by  a  council  at  Alexan- 
dria, in  320,  under  Alexander,  bishop 
of  that  city,  who  accused  Arius  of  im- 
piety, and  caused  him  to  be  expelled 
from  the  communion  of  the  church  j  and 
afterwards  by  380  fathers  in  the  general 
council  of  Nice,  assembled  by  Constan- 
tine,  in  325.  His  doctrine,  however,  was 
not  extinguished ;  on  the  contrary,  it 
became  the  reigning  religion,  especially 
in  the  East.  Arius  was  recalled  from 
banishment  bv  Constantine  in  two  or 
three  years  after  the  council  of  Nice, 
and  the  laws  that  had  been  enacted 
against  him  were  repealed.  Notwith- 
standing this,  Athanasius,  then  bishop 
of  Alexandria,  refused  to  admit  him  and 
his  followers  to  communion.  This  so 
enraged  them,  that,  by  their  interest  at 
court,  they  procured  that  prelate  to  be 
deposed  and  banished ;  but  the  church 
of  Alexandria  still  refusing  to  admit 
Arius  into  their  communion,  the  empe- 
ror sent  for  him  to  Constantinople ; 
Avhere  upon  delivering  in  a  fresh  con- 
fession of  his  faith  in  terms  less  offensive, 
the  emperoi-  commanded  him  to  be  re- 
ceived into  their  communion ;  but  that 
very  evening,  it  is  said,  Arius  died  as 
his  friends  were  conducting  him  in  tri- 
umph to  the  great  church  of  Constan- 
tinople. Arius,  pressed  by  a  natural 
want,  stepped  aside,  but  expired  on  the 
spot,  his  Dowels  g-ushing  out.  The 
Arian  pai'ty,  however,  found  a  protector 
in  Constantius,  who  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther in  the  East.  They  underwent  va- 
rious revolutions  and  persecutions  un- 
der succeeding  emperors ;  till,  at  length, 
Theodosius  the  Great  exerted  every 
effort  to  suppress  them.  Their  doc- 
trine was  carried,  in  the  fifth  century, 
into  Africa,  under  the  Vandals;  and 
into  Asia  under  the  Goths. — Italy,  Gaul, 
and  Spain,  were  also  deeply  infected 
with  it ;  and  towards  the  commence- 
ment of  the  sixth  century,  it  was  tri- 
umphant in  many  parts  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  Europe :  but  it  sunk  almost  at  once, 
when  the  Vandals  were  driven  out  of 
Africa,  and  the  Goths  out  of  Italy,  by 
the  arms  of  Justinian.  However,  it  re- 
vived again  in  Italy,  uiidci-  the  protec- 
tion of' the  Lombards,  in  the  seventh 
century,  and  was  not  extinguished  till 
about  the  end  of  the  eighth.  Arianism 
was  again  revived  in  tlie  West  by  Ser- 
vetus,  in  1531,  for  which  he  suffered 
death.  After  this  the  doctrine  got 
footing  in  Geneva,  and  in  Poland ;  but 
at  length  degenerated  in  a  great  mea- 
sure into  Socinianism.  Erasmus,  it  is 
thought,  aimed  at  revivinsj  it,  in  his 
commentaries  on  the  New  Testament : 


ARK 


31 


ARM 


and  t]\e  leamed  Grotius  seems  to  lean 
that  way.  Mr.  Whiston  was  one  of  the 
first  divines  who  revived  this  controver- 
sy in  the  eighteenth  centuiy.  He  was 
followed  by  Dr.  Clarke,  who  was  chiefly 
opposed  by  Dr.  Waterland.  Those  who 
hold  the  doctrine  which  is  usually  called 
Low  Arianis7n,  say  that  Christ  pre-ex- 
isted ;  but  not  as  the  eternal  Logos  of 
the  Father,  or  as  the  being  by  whom 
he  made  the  worlds,  and  had  inter- 
course with  the  patriarchs,  or  as  having 
any  certain  rank  or  employment  what- 
evft-  in  the  divine  dispensations.  In 
modem  times,  the  term  jirian  is  indis- 
criminately applied  to  those  who  con- 
sider Jesus  smiply  subordinate  to  the 
Fathei-.  Some  of  them  believe  Christ 
to  have  been  the  creator  of  the  world ; 
but  they  all  maintain  that  he  existed 

f)reviously  to  his  incarnation,  though  in 
lis  pre-existent  state  they  assign  him 
different  degrees  of  dignity.  Hence  the 
terms  High  and  Low  Arian.  See  Pre- 
ExisTEN'CE.  Some  of  the  more  recent 
vindicators  of  Arianism  have  been  H. 
Taylor,  in  his  Apology  of  Ben  Mordecai 
to  his  Friends  for  ei7wracing  Christian- 
ity ;  Dr.  Harwood,  in  his  Five  Disser- 
tations ;  Dr.  Price,  in  his  Sermons  on 
the  Christian  Doctrijie.  See  also  the 
4th.  vol.  of  the  Theological  Repository, 
p.  153 — 163,  and  Cornish's  Tract  07i  the 
Pre-existence  of  Christ. 

On  the  opposite  side,  Bogue  and 
Bennett's  Hist,  of  Dissenters,  vol.  iii. 
Abbadie,  Waterland,  Guyse,  Hey,  Ro- 
binson, Eveleigh,  Hawker  on  the  Dixn- 
nity  of  Christ ; — Calamy,  Taylor,  Gill, 
Jones,  Pike,  and  Simpson,  on  the 
Trinity. 

ARISTOTELIANS,  the  followers  of 
Aristotle.  They  believed  in  the  eternity 
of  the  world,  and  represented  the  Deity 
as  somewhat  similar  to  a  principle  of 
power  giving  motion  to  a  machine  ;  and 
as  happy  in  tlie  contemplation  of  him- 
self, but  regardless  of  human  aifairs. 
They  were  uncertain  as  to  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul. — As  this  was  rather 
a  philosophical  than  religious  sect,  we 
shall  not  enlarge  on  it. 

ARK,  or  Noah's  Ark,  a  floating 
vessel  built  by  Noah  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  his  familv,  and  the  several  spe- 
cies of  animals,  during  the  deluge.  The 
form  of  the  Ark  was  an  oblong,  with  a 
flat  bottom,  and  a  sloped  roof,  raised  to 
a  cubit  in  the  middle ;  it  had  neitlier 
sails  nor  rudder ;  nor  was  it  sharp  at 
the  ends  for  cutting  the  water.  This 
form  was  admirably  calculated  to  make 
it  lie  steady  on  the  water,  without  roll- 
ing, which  might  have  endangered  the 
lives  of  the  animals  within. 


The  length  of  this  ark  was  300  cubits, 
which  accoitling  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot's 
calculation,  amount  to  a  little  more  than 
547  feet ;  its  breadtli,  50  cubits,  or  91-2 
feet ;  its  height,  30  cubits,  or  54-72  feet ; 
and  its  solid  contents  2,730-782  solid 
feet,  sufficient  for  a  carriage  for  81,062 
ton.  It  consisted  of  three  stories,  each 
of  wliidi,  abating  the  thickness  of  the 
floors,  miglit  be  about  18  feet  high,  and 
no  doubt  Avas  partitioned  into  a  great 
many  rooms  or  apartments.  This  vessel 
was  doubtless  so  contrived,  as  to  admit 
the  air  and  the  light  on  all,  though  the 
particular  consti-uction  of  the  windows 
be  not  mentioned. 

ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT,  a 
small  chest  or  coffer,  three  feet  nine 
inches  in  length,  two  feet  three  inches 
in  breadth,  and  two  feet  three  inches  in 
height,  in  whicli  were  contained  the 
golden  pot  that  had  manna,  Aaron's 
rod,  and  the  tables  of  the  covenant. 
The  ark  was  reposited  in  the  holiest 
place  of  the  tabeniacle.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Pliilistines,  and  detained  twenty 
(some  say  foi-ty)  years  at  Kirjath-jea- 
rim ;  but,  the  people  being  afflicted  with 
emerods  on  account  of  it,  returned  it 
with  divers  presents.  It  was  afterwards 
placed  in  tlie  temple. 

The  lid  or  covering  of  the  ark  was 
called  tlie  propitiatory  or  mercy-seat ; 
over  which  two  figures  were  placed, 
called  cherubims,  with  expanded  wines 
of  a  peculiar  form.  Here  the  Shechi- 
nah  rested  both  in  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  in  a  visible  cloud :  hence  were 
issued  the  Divine  oracles  by  an  audible 
voice ;  and  the  high  priest  appeared 
before  this  mercy-seat  once  evei^-  year 
on  the  great  day  of  expiation ;  and  the 
Jews,  wherever  they  worshipped,  turn- 
ed their  faces  towards  the  place  where 
the  ark  stood. 

In  the  second  temple  there  was  also 
an  ark,  made  of  the  same  shape  and 
dimensions  with  the  first,  and  put  in 
the  same  place,  but  without  any  of  its 
contents  and  peculiar  honours.  It  was 
used  as  a  representative  of  the  former 
on  the  day  of  expiation,  and  a  reposi- 
tory of  the  original  copy  of  the  holy 
Scriptures,  collected  by  Ezra  and  the 
men  of  the  great  synagogue  after  the 
captivity ;  and,  in  imitation  of  thi.s,  the 
Jews,  to  this  day,  have  a  kind  of  ark  in 
their  sj-nagogues,  wherein  their  sacred 
books  are  kept. 

ARMENIANS,  the  inhabitants  of 
Armenia,  whose  religion  is  the  Chris- 
tian, of  the  Eutychian  sect;  that  is,  they 
hold  but  one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ. 
See  EuTYCHiANS.  They  assert  also 
the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  fiom 


ARM 


ARM 


the  Father  only.  They  believe  that 
Christ  at  his  descent  into  hell  freed  the 
spuls  of  the  damned  from  thence,  and 
repi'ieved  them  to  the  end  of  the  world, 
when  they  shall  be  remanded  to  eternal 
flames.  They  believe  that  the  souls  of 
the  righteous  shall  not  be  admitted  to 
the  beatific  vision  till  after  the  resur- 
rection, notwithstanding  whicli  they 
pray  to  departed  saints,  adore  their 
pictures,  and  burn  lamps  before  them. 
The  Armenian  clergy  consist  of  patri- 
archs, arclibishops,  doctors,  secular 
priests,  and  monks.  The  Armenian 
monks  are  of  the  order  of  St.  Basil ;  and 
every  Wednesday  and  Friday  they  eat 
neither  fish,  nor  eggs,  nor  oil,  nor  any 
thing  made  of  milk ;  and  during  I^ent 
they  live  upon  nothing  but  roots.  They 
have  seven  sacraments;  baptism,  con- 
firmation, penance,  the  eucharist,  ex- 
treme unction,  orders,  and  matrimony. 
— They  admit  infants  to  the  communion 
at  two  or  three  months  old.  They  seem 
to  place  the  cliief  part  of  their  religion 
in  fastings  and  abstinences ;  and,  among 
the  clergy,  the  higher  the  degree,  the 
lower  tliey  must  live  ;  insomuch  that  it 
is  said  the  archbishops  live  on  notliing 
but  pulse.  They  consecrate  holy  water 
but  once  a  year ;  at  Aviiich  time  every 
one  fills  a  pot,  and  carries  it  home, 
which  brings  in  a  considerable  revenue 
to  the  church. 

ARMINIANS,  persons  who  follow 
the  doctrines  of  Arminius,  who  was  pas- 
tor at  Amsterdam,  and  afterwards  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Leyden.  Arminius 
had  been  educated  in  "the  opinions  of 
Calvui ;  but,  thinking  the  doctrine  of 
that  great  man  witli  regard  to  free  wUl, 
predestination,  and  grace,  too  severe, 
he  began  to  express  his  doubts  concern- 
ing them  in  the  year  1591 ;  and,  upon 
farther  enquir}^,  adopted  the  sentiments 
of  those  whose  i-eligious  system  extends 
the  love  of  the  Supreme  Being  and  the 
merits  of  Jesus  Christ  to  all  "mankind. 
The  Arminians  are  also  called  Remon- 
strants, because,  in  1611,  they  pre- 
sented a  remonstrance  to  the  states- 
general,  wherein  they  state  their  griev- 
ances, and  pray  for  relief. 

The  distinguishing  tcneffi  of  the  Ar- 
minians may  be  comprised  in  the  five 
following  articles  relative  to  predesti- 
nation, universal  redemption,  the  cor- 
ruption of  man,  conversion,  and  perse- 
verance, viz. 

I.  That  God,  from  all  eternity,  de- 
termined to  bestow  salvation  on  those 
who  he  foresaw  would  persevere  unto 
tl\e  end ;  and  to  inflict  everlasting  pun- 
ishments on  those  who  should  continue 
in  their  unbelief,  and  resist  his  divine 


succours ;  so  that  election  was  condi- 
tional, and  reprobation  in  like  manner 
the  result  of  foreseen  infidelity  and  per- 
severing wickedness. 

II.  That  Jesus  Chi'ist  by  his  sufferings 
and  death,  made  an  atonement  for  the 
sins  of  all  mankhid  in  general,  and  of 
every  individual  in  particular;  that,  how- 
ever, none  but  those  wlio  believe  in  him 
can  be  partakers  of  divine  benefits. 

III.  That  true  faith  cannot  proceed 
from  tlie  exercise  of  our  natural  facul- 
ties and  powers,  nor  from  the  force  and 
operation  of  free  will ;  since  man,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  natural  corraption,  is 
incapable  either  of  thinking  or  doing 
any  good  thing ;  and  that,  therefore,  it 
is  necessary,  in  order  to  his  conversion 
and  salvation,  that  he  be  regenei'ated 
and  renewed  by  the  operation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  which  is  tlie  gift  of  Gotl 
through  Jesus  Christ. 

IV.  That  this  divine  grace,  or  energy 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  begins  and  perfects 
every  thing  that  can  be  called  good  in 
man,  and,  consequently,  all  good  works 
are  to  be  attributed  to  God  alone ;  that, 
nevertheless,  this  grace  is  offered  to  all, 
and  does  not  force  men  to  act  against 
their  inclinations,  but  may  be  resisted 
and  rendered  ineffectual  by  the  perverse 
will  of  the  impenitent  sinner.  Some 
modern  Arminians  interpret  this  and 
the  last  article  witli  a  gi'eater  latitude. 

V.  That  God  gives  to  the  tmly  faith- 
ful who  are  regenerated  by  his  grace, 
the  means  of  presening  themselves  in 
this  state.  The  first  Arminians,  indeed, 
had  some  doubt  with  respect  to  the 
closing  part  of  this  article ;  but  their 
followers  uniformly  maintain  "that  the 
regenerate  may  lose  true  justif\^ing  faitli, 
fall  from  a  state  of  grace,  and  die  in 
their  sins." 

After  the  appointment  of  Arminius 
to  the  theological  chair  at  Leyden,  he 
thouglit  it  his  duty  to  avow  and  vindi- 
cate the  principles  which  he  had  em- 
braced; and  the  freedom  witli  which  he 
published  and  defended  them,  exposed 
him  to  the  resentment  of  tliose  tliat  ad- 
hered to  the  theological  system  of  Ge- 
neva, which  then  prevailed  in  Holland  ; 
but  his  principal  opponent  was  Gomar, 
his  colleague.  The  controversy  which 
was  tlius  begun  became  more  general 
after  the  death  of  Arminius  in  the  year 
1609,  and  tlireatcned  to  involve  the 
United  Provinces  in  civil  discord.  The 
Arminian  tenets  gained  ground  under 
the  mild  and  favourable  treatnvent  of 
the  magistrates  of  Holland,  and  were 
adopted  b}-  sca  eral  persons  of  merit  and 
distinction.  The  Calvinists  orGomarists, 
as  they  A\'ere  now  called,  appealed  to  a 


AiliM 


33 


ART 


national  synod;  accordingly,  the  synod 
of  Dort  was  convened,  by  order  oi  the 
states-general,     1618;    and    was    coni- 

Eosed  of  ecclesiastic  deputies  from  the 
Fnited  Provinces  as  well  as  from  the 
reformed  churches  of  England,  Hessia, 
Bremen,  Switzerland,  and  the  Palati- 
nate. The  principal  advocate  in  favour 
of  the  Armmians  was  Episcopius,  who 
at  that  time  was  professor  of  divinity  at 
Leyden.  It  was  first  proposed  to  dis- 
cuss the  principal  subjects  in  dispute, 
that  the  Arminians  should  be  allowed 
to  state  and  vindicate  the  grounds  on 
■which  their  opinions  were  founded ;  but, 
some  diffei'cnce  arising  as  to  the  proper 
mode  of  conducting  the  debate,  the  Ar- 
iKihiians  were  excluded  ft-om  the  assem- 
bly, their  case  was  tried  in  their  absence, 
and  they  were  pronounced  guilty  of 
pestilential  en-ors,  and  condemned  as 
corrupters  of  the  tnie  religion.  A  cu- 
i-ious  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
above  synod  may  be  seen  in  a  series  of 
letters  written  by  Mr.  John  Hales,  who 
was  present  on  the  occasion. 

In  consequence  of  the  above-men- 
tioned decision,  the  Arm.inians  were 
considered  as  enemies  to  their  country, 
and  its  established  religion,  and  were 
much  persecuted.  They  were  treated 
with  gi-eat  severity,  and  deprived  of  all 
their  posts  and  employments;  their 
ministers  were  silenced,  and  their  con- 

gregations  were  suppressed.  The  great 
larneveldt  was  beheaded  on  a  scaffold ; 
and  the  learned  Grotius,  beuig  con- 
demned to  perpetual  imprisonment,  fled, 
and  took  reftige  in  France. 

After  the  death  of  prince  Maurice, 
who  had  been  a  violent  pai-tizan  in  fa- 
vour of  the  Gomaiists,  in  the  year  1625, 
the  Ai-minian  exiles  were  restored  to 
their  former  reputation  and  tranquillity ; 
and,  under  the  toleration  of  the  state, 
they  erected  churches  and  founded  a 
college  at  Amsterdam,  appomting  Epis- 
copius the  first  theological  professor. 
The  Arminian  system  has  very  much 
prevailed  in  England  since  the  time  of 
Archbishop  Laud,  and  its  votaries  in 
other  countries  are  very  numerous.  It 
is  generally  supposed  that  a  majority 
of  the  clergy  m  both  the  established 
churches  of  Great  Britain  favour  the 
Arminian  system,  notwithstanding  their 
articles  are  strictly  Calvinistic.  The 
name  of  Mr.  John  Wesley  hardly  need 
be  mentioned  here.  Eveiy  one  knows 
what  an  advocate  he  was  for  the  tenets 
of  Arminius,  and  the  success  he  met 
with.  See  Methodists. 

Some  of  the  principal  writers  on  the 
side  of  the  Arminians  have  been  Armini- 
ivy,  Ehlsco/mis,  Vorstkw,  Grothis,  Cur' 


celleeus,  Limhorch,  Le  Clerc,  TVttsfei/i, 
Goodwin,  IVliUby,  Taylor,  Flctc/icr,  Scc- 

Some  of  the  principal  writers  on  the 
other  side  have  been  Polhill  in  his  Book 
on  the  Decretn;  John  Edwards  in  his 
Veritas  Redux  ;  Cole  in  his  Sovereignty 
of  God;  Mdwards  07i  the  Will,  ana 
Original  Sin;  Dr.  (kven  in  his  Dis/ilay 
of  Arminianism,  and  on  particular  Re- 
demption; Gill  in  his  Cause  of  God 
and  Truth;  and  Top  lady,  in  a\mos.t  ail 
his  works. 

ARNOLDISTS,  the  followers  of 
Arnold,  of  Brescia,  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, who  was  a  great  declaimer  against 
the  wealth  and  vices  of  the  clergy.  He 
is  also  charged  with  preaching  against 
baptism  and  the  eucharist.  He  was 
burnt  at  Rome  in  1155,  and  his  ashes 
cast  into  the  Tiber. 

ARTEMONTES,  a  denomination  in 
the  second  century ;  so  called  from  Ar- 
temon,  who  taught  that,  at  the  birth  of 
the  man  Christ,  a  certain  divine  energy, 
or  poition  of  the  divme  nature,  united 
itself  to  him. 

ARTICLE  OF  FAITH  is,  by  some, 
defined  a  point  of  Christian  doctrine, 
which  we  are  obliged  to  believe,  as 
having  been  revealed  by  God  himself, 
and  allowed  and  established  as  such  by 
the  church.    See  Confessions. 

ARTICLES  OF  THE  CHURCH 
OF  ENGLAND.  See  Church  of 
England. 

ARTICLES,    LAMBETH.     The 
Lambeth  articles  were  so  called,  be- 
cause drawn  up  at  Lambeth  palace, 
under  the  eye  and  with  the  assistance 
of  archbishop  Whitgift,  bishop  Bancroft, 
bishop  Vaughan,  and  other  eminent  dig- 
nitaries   of    the    Church.      That    the 
reader  may  judge  how  Calvmistic  the 
clergy  were  under  the  reigTi  of  queen 
Elizabeth,  we  shall  here  insert  them. 
'^1.  God  hath  from  eternity  predesti- 
nated certain  persons  to  life,  and  hath 
I'eprobated  certain  persons  unto  death, 
2.  The  moving  or   efficient  cause  of 
predestination  unto  life  is  not  the  fore- 
sight of  faith,  or  of  perseverance,  or  of 
good  works,  or  of  any  thing  that  is  in 
the  persons  predestinated ;  but  the  alone 
will  of  God's  good  pleasure.    3.  The 
predestinati  are  a  pre-determined  and 
certain  number  which  can  neither  be 
lessened  nor  increased.    4.  Such  as  are 
not  predestinated  to  salvation  shall  in- 
evitably be  condemned  on  account  of 
their  sins.    5.  The  true,  lively,  and  jus- 
tifying faith,  and  the  Spirit  of  God  jus- 
tifying, is  not  extinguished,  doth  not  ut- 
terly fail,  doth  not  vanish  away  in  the 
elect,  either    finally  or  totally.    6.  A 
true  believer,  that  is,  one  who  is  endued 


ASC 


34 


ASS 


with  justifying  faith,  is  certified  by  the 
full  assurance  of  faith  that  his  sins  arc 
forgiven,  and  that  he  shall  be  everlast- 
ingly saved  by  Christ.  7.  Saving  grace 
is  not  allowed,  is  not  imparted,  is  not 
granted  to  all  men,  by  whicli  they  may 
be  saved,  if  they  will.  8.  No  man  is 
able  to  come  to  Christ,  vmless  it  be  given 
him ;  and  unless  the  Father  draw  him ; 
and  all  men  are  not  drawn  b)^  the  Fa- 
ther, that  they  may  come  to  his  Son. 
9.  It  is  not  in  the  will  or  power  of  every 
man  to  be  saved."  What  gave  occasion 
to  the  fi-aming  these  articles  was  this: 
— Some  persons  had  distinguished  them- 
selves at  the  university  of  Cambridge 
by  opposing  predestination.  Alarmed  at 
the  opinions  that  were  vented,  the  above- 
mentioned  archbishop,  with  others,  com- 
Eosed  these  ailicles,  to  prevent  the 
elief  of  a  contrary  doctrine.  These, 
v/hen  completed,  were  sent  down  to 
Cambridge,  to  which  the  scholars  were 
strictly  enjoined  to  conform. 

ARTOTYRITES,  a  Christian  sect 
in  the  primitive  church,  who  celebrated 
the  eucharist  with  bread  and  cheese. 
The  word  is  derived  from  agToc,  "bread," 
and  Tu^oc,  "cheese."  The  Artotyrites 
admitted  women,  to  the  priesthood  and 
episcopacy;  and  Epiphanius  tells  us 
that  it  was  a  common  thing  to  see  seven 
girls  at  once  enter  into  their  church 
robed  in  white,  and  holding  a  torch  in 
their  hands ;  where  they  wept  and  be- 
wailed the  wretchedness  of  humaii  na- 
ture, and  the  miseries  of  this  life. 

ASCENSION  OF  CHRIST,  his  vi- 
sible, elevation  to  heaven.  The  ascen- 
sion ol  Jesus  Christ  was  not  only  pro- 
signified  by  many  Scripture  types,  but 
also  by  many  remarkable  Scripture  pro- 
phecies. Ps.  xlvii.  5.  Ps.  ex.  1.  Dan.  vii. 
13,  14.  Mic.  ii.  13.  Ps.  Ixviii.  18. 

The  evidences  of  his  ascension  were 
numerous.  The  disciples  saw  him  as- 
cend, Acts  i.  9,  10.  Two  angels  testified 
that  he  did  ascend,  Acts  i.  11.  Stephen, 
Paul,  and  John  saw  him  in  his  ascended 
state,  Acts  vii.  55,  56.  Acts  ix.  Rav.  i. 
The  marvellous  descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  demonstrated  it,  John  xvi.  7.  14. 
Acts  ii.  33.  The  terrible  overthrow  and 
dispersion  of  the  Jewish  nation  is  a 
standing  proof  of  it,  John  viii.  21.  Matt. 
xxvi.  64. 

The  time  of  his  ascension.  It  was 
forty  days  after  his  resurrection.  He 
continued  so  many  days  on  earth,  that 
he  might  give  many  repeated  proofs  of 
his  resurrection.  Acts  i.  3;  that  he 
might  instruct  his  followers  in  every 
thing  which  pertained  to  the  abolish- 
ment of  the  Jewish  ceremonies,  Acts 
i.  3 ;  and  that  he  might  open  to  them 


the  ScriptTircs  concerning  hunself,  ami 
renew  their  commission  to  preach  the 
Gospel,  Acts  i.  5,  6.  Mark  xvi.  15. 

The  manner  of  his  ascension.  It  was 
from  Mount  Olivet  to  heaven.  Acts  i. 
12;  not  in  appearance  only,  but  in 
reality  and  truth;  visibly  and  locally; 
a  real  motion  of  his  human  nature; 
sudden,  swift,  glorious,  and  in  a  tri- 
umphant manner.  He  was  parted  from 
his  disciples  while  he  was  solemnly 
blessing  them ;  and  multitudes  of  angels 
attend(;d  him  with  shouts  of  praise,  Ps 
Ixviii.  17.  xlvii.  5,  6. 

The  effects  or  ends  of  Christ's  ascen  ' 
sion  were,  1.  To  fulfil  the  prophecies 
and  types  concerning  it.  2.  To  take 
upon  him  more  openly  the  exercise  of 
his  kingly  office.  3.  To  receive  gifts 
for  men  both  ordinary  and  extraordina- 
ry, Ps.  Ixviii.  18.  4.  To  open  the  way 
into  heaven  for  his  people,  Hcb.  x.  19, 
20.  5.  To  assure  the  saints  of  their  as- 
cension also,  John  xiv.  1,  2. 

ASCETIC,  one  who  retires  from  the 
world  for  the  purpose  of  devotion  and 
mortification.  When  the  monks  came 
in  fashion,  this  title  was  bestowed  upon 
them,  especially  such  as  lived  in  soli- 
tude. It  was  also  the  title  of  several 
books  of  spiritual  exercises,  as  the 
jiscetic^,  or  devout  exercises  of  St. 
Basil,  &c. 

ASCODROGITES,  a  denomination 
which  arose  about  the  year  181.  They 
brought  into  their  churches  bags  or 
skins  filled  with  new  wine,  to  represent 
the  new  bottles  filled  with  new  wine, 
mentioned  by  Christ.  They  danced 
round  these  bugs  or  skins,  and,  it  is  said, 
intoxicated  themselves  with  the  wine. 

ASCOODRUTES,  a  sect,  in  the  se- 
cond century,  who  rejected  the  use  of 
all  symbols  and  sacraments  on  this  prin- 
ciple, that  incorporeal  things  cannot  be 
communicated  by  things  corporeal,  nor 
divine  mysteries  by  any  thing  visible. 

ASSEMBLIES  OF  THE  CLERGY 
are  called  convocations,  synods,  coun- 
cils. The  annual  meeting  of  the  church 
of  Scotland  is  called  a  general  assembly. 
In  this  assembly  his  majesty  is  repre- 
sented by  his  commissioners,  who  dis- 
solves one  meeting  and  calls  another  in 
the  name  of  the  king,  while  the  mode- 
rator does  the  same  m  the  name  of  Je- 
sus Chi'ist.  See  Convocation,  Pres- 
byterians. 

ASSENT,  that  act  of  the  mind  where- 
by it  takes  or  acknowledges  any  propo- 
sition to  be  true  or  false.  There  are 
three  degrees  of  assent: — conjecture, 
o/iinion,  and  belief.  Conjecture  is  but  a 
slight  and  weak  inclination  to  assent  to 
the  thing  proposed,  by  reason  of  the 


ASS 


ASS 


weighty  objections  that  lie  against  it. 
Opittioh  is  a  more  steady  and  fixed  as- 
sent, when  a  man  is  ahnost  certain, 
though  yet  some  fear  of  the  contrary 
remains  with  him.  Belief  is  a  more 
full  and  assured  assent  to  the  truth. 
See  Belief.  ' 

ASSURANCE  is  the  firm  persuasion 
we  have  of  the  certainty  of  any  thing, 
or  a  certain  expectation  of  something 
future. 

Jlssurance  of  the  Understanding  is 
a  well-grounded  knowledge  of  divine 
things  founded  on  God's  word.  Gol.  ii.  2. 
— .Assurance  of  Faith  docs  not  felate  to 
cur  personal  interest  in  Christ,  but  con- 
sists in  a  fiiTTi  belief  of  the  revelation 
that  God  has  given  us  of  Christ  in  his 
word,  with  an  entire  dependence  on  him. 
Heb.  X.  22. — Assurance  of  Hope  is  a 
firm  expectation  that  God  will  grant  us 
the  complete  enjoyment  of  what  he  has 
promised.  Heb.  vi.  11. 

The  doctrine    of  as5Ui"ciin-c,   1.   c.   the 

belief  that  we  have  an  interest  in  the 
di\'ine  fa\'Our,  has  afforded  matter  for 
dispute  among  divines.  Some  have  as- 
serted that  it  IS  not  to  be  obtained  in  the 
E resent  state,  allowing  that  persons  may 
e  in  a  hopeful  way  to  salvation,  but  that 
they  have  no  real  or  absolute  assurance 
of  it :  but  this  is  clearly  refuted  by  facts 
as  well  as  by  Scripture.  That  it  is  to 
be  obtained  is  evident,  for  we  have 
reason  to  believe  many  persons  ha\e  ac- 
tually obtamed  it.  Job  xix.  25.  Ps.  xvii. 
15.  2  Tim.  i.  12.  The  Scriptures  ex- 
hort us  to  obtain  it,  2  Cor.  xiii.  5.  Heb. 
vi.  11.  1  Thess.  v.  21.  The  Holy  Spirit 
is  said  to  bear  witness  of  it,  Rom.  viii.  16. 
The  exercise  of  the  Christian  graces  is 
considered  as  a  proof  of  it,  1  John  iii. 
14.  1  John  ii.  3.  We  must,  however, 
guaixi  against  presumption ;  for  a  mere 
persuasion  that  Christ  is  ours  is  no  proof 
that  he  is  so.  We  must  have  evidence 
before  we  can  have  genuine  assurance. 
It  is  necessary  to  observe  also,  that  it 
is  not  a  duty'  imposed  upon  all  man- 
kind, so  that  e^"ery  one,  m  whatsoever 
state  he  may  be,  ought  to  be  fully 
persuaded  of  his  salvation.  "We  do 
not  affirm,"  says  Saurin,  "that  Chris- 
tians of  whose  sincerity  there  may  be 
some  doubt  have  a  right  to  assurance ; 
that  backsliders,  as  such,  ought  to  per- 
suade themselves  that  they  shall  be 
saved;  nor  do  we  say  that  Christians 
who  have  arrived  to  the  highest  degree 
of  holiness,  can  be  persuaded  of  the 
certainty  of  their  salvation  in  every 
period  of  their  li\es ;  nor^  if  left  to  their 
own  efforts  can  they  enjoy  it ;  but  be- 
lievers, supported  by  the  Divine  aid, 
who  walk  m  all  good  conscience  before 


him,  these  only  have  ground  to  expect 
this  privilege." 

Some  divines  have  maintained  that 
assurance  is  included  in  the  very  essence 
of  faith,  so  that  a  man  cannot  ha\'e  faith 
without  assurance ;  but  we  must  distin- 
guish between  assurance  and  justifying 
faith.  The  apostle,  indeed,  speaks  of 
the  full  assurance  of  faith ;  but  then  this 
is  a  full  and  fii-m  persuasion  of  what  the 
Go.spel  reveals ;  whereas  the  assurance 
we  arc  speaking  of  relates  to  our  per- 
sonal interest  in  Christ,  and  is  an  cHect 
of  this  faith,  and  not  faith  itself.  Faith 
in  Christ  certainly  includes  some  idea 
of  assurance ;  for,  except  we  be  assured 
that  he  is  the  Saviour,  we  shall  never 
go  to  or  rely  upon  him  as  such :  but 
taith  in  Christ  does  not  imply  an  assu- 
rance of  our  interest  in  him;  for  there 
may  be  faith  long  before  the  assurance 
of  personal  interest  commences.  The 
confounding  of  these  ideas  has  been  the 
cause  of  presumption  on  the  one  hand, 
and  despair  on  the  other.  \Mien  men 
have  been  taught  that  faith  consists  in 
believing  that  Christ  died  for  them,  and 
been  assured  that,  if  they  can  only  be- 
lieve so,  all  is  well ;  and  that  then'they 
are  immediately  pardoned  and  justified, 
the  consequence  has  been,  that  the  bold 
and  self-conceited  have  soon  wrought 
themselves  up  to  such  a  persuasion, 
without  any  ground  for  it,  to  their  o\s"n 
deception  5  whilst  the  dejected,  humble, 
and  poor  in  spirit,  not  being  able  to 
work  themselves  to  such  a  pitch  of 
confidence,  Mhve  concluded  that  they 
have  not  the  faith  of  God's  elect,  and 
must  inevitably  be  lost. 

The  means  to  attain  assurance  are 
not  those  of  an  extraordinary  kind,  as 
some  people  imagine;  such  as  visions, 
dreams,  voices,  &:c. ;  but  such  as  are 
ordinary ;  self-examination,  humble  and 
constant  prayer,  consulting  the  sacred 
oracles.  Christian  communication,  at- 
tendance on  the  divine  ordinances,  and 
perseverance  in  the  path  of  duty ;  with- 
out which  all  our  assurance  is  but  pre- 
sumption, and  our  profession  but  hy- 
pocrisy. 

Assurance  may  be  lost  for  a  season 
through  bodily  diseases  which  depress 
the  spirits,  unwatchfulness,  falling  into 
sin,  manifold  temptations,  worldly  cares, 
and  neglect  of  private  duty.  He,  there- 
fore, who  would  wish  to  enjoy  this  pri- 
vilege, let  him  cultivate  comnnmion  with 
God,  exercise  a  watchful  s]5irit  against 
his  spiritual  enemies,  and  give  himself 
unreservedly  to  Him  whose  he  is,  and 
whom  he  professes  to  ser\-e.  See  Sau- 
rin's  Ser.  vol  iii.  ser.  10,  Eng.  edition; 
Case's  Sermo?is,  ser.  13;  Lamoerl's  Ser. 


ATH 


ATH 


on  John  ix.  35 ;  Hervei/s  Theron  and 
.isfiasio,  dialo^e  17;  Howe's  JVorks, 
vol.  i.  p.  342,  348;  Brooks,  Burgees, 
Roberts,  Baxter,  Polhill,  and  Davye  on 
Assurance  ;  Horoe  Sol.  vol.  ii.  p.  269. 

ASSURITANS,  a  branch  oF  the  Do- 
natists,  who  held  that  the  Son  -svus  hife- 
lior  to  the  Father,  and  the  Holy  Ghost 
to  the  Son.  See  Donatists. 

ASTONISHMENT,  a  kind  or  de- 
gi-ee  of  wonder  inti-oduced  by  surprise. 
This  emotion  always  relates  to  things 
of  the  highest  importance;  to  things 
which  appear  too  vast  and  extensive 
for  the  grasp  of  intellect,  rather  than 
to  any  thing  of  an  intricate  nature.  The 
body  marks  in  a  striliing  manner  the 
sing"ular- state  of  the  mind  under  this 
emotion.  The  eyes  are  firmly  fixed, 
without  being  directed  to  any  particular 
object;  the  character  of  countenance, 
which  was  formed  by  the  habitual  in- 
fluence of  some  predominant  affection, 
is  for  a  time  effaced ;  and  a  suspension 
of  every  other  expression,  a  certain 
vacuity,  strongly  notes  this  state  of 
mind. 

ATHAN ASIANS,  those  who  profess 
the  sentiments  held  in  the  Athanasian 
Creed.  See  Creed. 

ATHEIST,  one  who  denies  the  ex- 
istence of  God: — this  is  called  specula- 
tive atheism.  Professing  to  believe  in 
God,  and  yet  acting  contrary  to  this 
belief,  is  called  practical  atheism.  Ab- 
surd and  irrational  as  atheism  is,  it  has 
had  its  votaries  and  martfrs.  In  the 
seventeenth  century,  Spinosa,  a  fo- 
reigner, was  its  noted  defender.  Lucilio 
Vanini,  a  native  of  Naples,  also  pub- 
licly taught  atheism  in  France;  and, 
being  convicted  of  it  at  Toulouse,  was 
condemned  and  executed  in  1619.  It 
has  been  questioned,  however,  whether 
any  man  ever  seriously  adopted  such  a 

Erinciple.  The  pretensions  to  it  have 
een  generally  founded  on  pride  or  af- 
fectation. The  open  avowal  of  atheism 
by  several  of  the  leading  members  of 
the  French  convention  seems  to  have 
been  an  extraordinaiy  moral  pheno- 
menon. This,  however,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  too  vague  and  uncomfortable 
a  princijDlc  to  last  long.  Archbishop  Til- 
iotson  justly  observes,  that  speculative 
atheism  is  unreasonable  upon  five  ac- 
counts. 1.  Because  it  gives  no  tolerable 
account  of  the  existence  of  the  Avorld. 
— 2.  It  does  not  give  any  reasonable  ac- 
covmt  of  the  universal  consent  of  man- 
kind in  this  apprehension,  that  there  is 
a  God. — 3.  It  requires  more  evidence 
for  things  than  they  are  capable  of 

fiving. — 4.    The    atheist  pretends    to 
now  that  which  no  man  can  know. — 


5.  Atheism  contradicts  itself.  Under 
the  first  of  these  he  thus  argues. — ^"I 
appeal  to  any  man  of  reason  whether 
any  thing  can  be  more  unreasonable 
than  obstinately  to  impute  an  effect  to 
chance,  Avhich  Cannes  in  the  very  face 
of  it  all  the  arguments  and  characters 
of  a  wise  design  and  contrivance.  Was 
e^'er  any  considerable  work,  in  which 
there  Avas  required  a  great  variety  of 
parts,  and  a  regular  and  orderly  dispo- 
sition of  those  parts,  done  by  chance  ? 
Will  chance  fit  means  to  ends,  and  that 
in  ten  thousand  instances,  and  not  fail 
in  any  one.''  How  often  might  a  man, 
after  he  had  jumbled  a  set  of  letters  in 
a  bag,  fling  them  out  upon  the  ground, 
before  they  would  fall  into  an  exact 
poem ;  yea,  or  so  much  as  make  a  good 
discourse  in  prose  i*  And  may  not  a 
little  book  be  as  easily  made  by  chance 
as  the  great  A'olume  of  the  world  ?  How 

long  might  a  man  be  in  Gprinkliiig  co- 
lours upon  canvass  with  a  careless  hand, 
before  they  would  happen  to  make  the 
exact  picture  of  a  man  ?  And  is  a  man 
easier  made  by  chance  than  his  picture  * 
How  long  might  twenty  thousand  blind 
men,  who  should  be  sent  out  from  seve- 
ral remote  parts  of  England,  wander 
up  and  doAvn  before  they  would  all  meet 
upon  Salisbury  plain,  and  fall  into  rank 
and  file  in  the  exact  order  of  an  army  ? 
And,  yet,  this  is  much  more  easy  to  be 
imagined  than  how  the  innumerable 
blind  parts  of  matter  should  rendezvous 
themselves  into  a  world.  A  man  that 
sees  Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel  at 
Westminster  inight  with  as  good  i-eason 
maintain  (yea,  with  much  better,  con- 
sidering the  vast  difference  betwixt  that 
little  stinictui-e  and  the  huge  fabric  of 
the  world)  that  it  was  never  contrived 
or  built  by  any  means,  but  that  the 
stones  did  by  chance  grow  into  those 
curious  figures  into  which  they  seem 
to  have  been  cut  and  graven ;  and  that 
upon  a  time  (as  tales  usually  begin)  the 
matei'ials  of  that  building,  the  stone, 
mortar,  timber,  iron,  lead,  and  glass, 
happily  met  together,  and  very  fortu- 
nately ranged  themselves  into  that  de- 
licate order  in  which  we  see  them  now, 
so  close  compacted,  that  it  must  be  a 
A' cry  great  chance  that  parts  them  again. 
What  would  the  world  think  of  a  man 
that  should  advance  such  an  opinion  as 
this,  and  write  a  book  for  it.-*  If  they 
would  do  him  right,  they  ought  to  look 
upon  him  as  mad;  but  yet  with  a  little 
more  reason  than  any  man  can  have  to 
say,  that  the  world  was  made  by  chance, 
or  that  the  first  men  grew  up  out  of  the 
earth  as  plants  do  now.  Foi-,  can  any 
thmg  be  more  ridiculous,  and  agamst 


ATO 


37 


ATO 


all  reason,  than  to  ascribe  the  produc- 
tion of  men  to  the  first  fruitfulness  qf 
the  earth,  without  so  much  as  one  in- 
stance and  experiment,  in  any  age  or 
liistorj ,  to  countenance  so  monstrous  a 
supposition?  The  thing  is,  at  first  sight, 
so  gross  and  palpable,  that  no  discourse 
about  it  can  make  it  more  apparent. 
And  yet,  these  shamefiil  beggars  of  prin- 
ciples give  this  precarious  account  of 
the  original  of  things;  assume  to  them- 
selves to  be  the  men  of  reason,  the 
great  wits  of  the  world,  the  only  cau- 
tious and  wary  persons  that  hate  to  be 
imposed  upon,  tliat  must  have  convinc- 
ing evidence  for  every  thing,  and  can 
admit  of  nothing  without  a  clear  de- 
monstration of  it."  See  Existence  of 
God. 

Some  of  the  principal  writers  on  the 
existence  of  a  Deity  have  been  Nenuton, 
Boyle,  Clieyne,  Locke,  JVieunventyt, 
Derham,  Bentley,  Ray,  Cudnvorth,  Sa- 
muel and  John  Clarke,  Abemethy,  Bal- 
guy,  Baxter,  Fenelon,  iSJ'c.  isfc.  Tillot- 
son's  sermon  on  the  subject,  as  quoted 
above,  has  been  considered  as  one  of 
the  best  in  the  English  language.  See 
ser.  i.  vol.  1. 

ATONEMENT  is  the  satisfying  Di- 
vine Justice  by  Jesus  Christ  giving  him- 
self a  ransom  for  us,  undergoing  the 
fienalty  due  to  our  sins,  and  thereby  re- 
easing  us  from  that  punishment  which 
God  might  justly  inflict  upon  us,  Rom. 
V.  11.    The  Hebrew  word  signifies  co- 
vering,  and  intimates  that  our  offences 
are,  by  a  proper  atonement,  covered 
from  the  avengmg  justice  of  God.  In  or- 
der to  understand  the  manner  wherein 
Christ    becomes    an    atonement,    "we 
should,"  says  Dr.  "W'atts,  "consider  the 
following  propositions,  1.  The  great  God 
havmg  made  man,  appointed  to  govern 
him  by  a  wise  and  righteous  law,  where- 
in glory  and  honour,  life  and  immortali- 
ty, are  the  designed  rewards  for  perfect 
obedience;  but  tribulation  and  wrath, 
pain  and  death,  are  the  appointed  re- 
compense to  those  who  violate  this  law. 
Gen.  iii.  Rom.  ii.  6,  16.  Rom.  i.  32. — 2. 
All    mankind    have  broken  this  law, 
Rom.  iii.  23.  Rom.  v.  12. — 3.  God,  in  his 
infinite  wisdom,  did  not  think  fit  to  par- 
don sinful  man,  without  some  compen- 
sation for  his  broken  law;  for,  1.  If  the 
great  Ruler  of  the  Avorld  had  pai-doned 
tlie  sms  of  men  without  any  satisfaction, 
then  his  laws  might  have  seemed  not 
worth  the  vindicating. — 2.  Men  would 
have  been  tempted  to  persist  in  the  i-e- 
bellion,  and  to  repeat  their  old  ofi'ences. 
— 3.  His  forms  of  government  among 
his  creatures  might  have  appeared  as 
a  matter  of  small  importance. — 1.  God 


had  a  mmd  to  make  a  very  illustrious 
display  both  of  his  justice  and  c)f  his 
grace  among  mankmd;  on  these  ac- 
counts he  would  not  pardon  sin  without 
a  satisfaction. — 5.  Man,  sinful  man,  is 
not  able  to  make  any  satisfaction  to  God 
for  his  own  sins,  neither  by  his  labours, 
nor  by  his  sufferings,  Eph.  ii.  1,  8,  9. — 
6.  Though  man  be  incapable  to  satisfy 
for  his  own  violation  of  the  law,  yet  God 
would  not  suffer  all  mankind  to  perish. 
— 7.  Because  God  intended  to  make  a 
full  display  of  the  terrors  of  his  justice, 
and  his  divine  resentment  for  the  viola- 
tion of  his  law,  thei'efore  he  appointed 
his  own  Son  to  satisfy  for  the  breach  of 
it,  by  becoming  a  proper  sacrifice  of 
expiation  or  atonement,  Gal.  iii.  10,  13. 
— 8.  The  Son  of  God  being  immortal, 
could  not  sustain  all  these  penalties  of 
the  law  which  man  had  broken,  without 
taking  the  mortal  nature  of  man  upon 
him,  without  assuming  flesh  and  blood, 
Heb.  ii.   13,  14.— 9.  The  Divine  Being 
having  received  such  ample  satisfaction 
for  sin  by  the  sufi'erings  of  his  own  Son, 
can    honouraljly    forgive   his   creature 
man,  who  was  the  transgressor,  Rom. 
iii.  25,  26.    A'bw  that  this  doctrine  is 
true,  will  afijiear,  if  we  consider,   1. 
That  an  atonement' for  sin,  or  an  ef- 
fectual method  to  answer  the  demands 
of  an  offended  God,  is  the  first  great 
blessing  guilty  man  stood  in  need  of, 
Mic.  vi.  6,  7. — 2.  The  veiy  first  disco- 
veries of  grace  which  were  made  to 
man  after  his  fall  implied  in  them  some- 
thing of  an  atonement  for  sin,  and  point- 
ed to  the  propitiation  Christ  has  now 
made.  Gen.  iii.  15. — 3.  The  train  of  ce- 
remonies which  were  appointed  by  God 
in  the  Jewish  church  are  plain  significa- 
tions of  such  an  atonement,  2  Cor.  iii. 
Col.  ii.  7,  8,  9.  Heb.  x. — 4.  Some  of  the 
prophecies  confirm  and  explain  the  first 
promise,  and  show  that  Christ  was  to 
die  as  an  atoning  sacrifice  for  the  sins 
of  men,  Dan.  ix.  24 — 26.  Is.  liii. — 5.  Our 
Saviour  himself  taught  us  the  doctrine 
of  the  atonement  for  sin  by  his  death. 
Matt.  XX.  28.  John  vi.  51.  Luke  xxii. 
19. — 6.  The  teiTors  of  soul,  the  con- 
sternation and  inward    agonies  which 
our  blessed  Lord  sustained  a  little  be- 
fore his  death,  were  a  sufficient  proof 
that  he  endured  punishments  in  his  soul 
which  were  due  to  sin,  Mark  xiv.  33. 
Heb.  V.  7. — 7.  This  doctrine  is  declared, 
and  confirmed,  and  explained  at  large, 
by  the  apostles  in  their  writings,  1  Cor. 
XV.  3.  Eph.  i.  7.  1  John  ii.  2,  &c.  &c. 
— 8.  This  was  the  doctrine  that  was 
witnessed  to  the  world  by  the  amazing 
gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  attended 
the  Go?pel.  [See  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 


ATT 


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ties.]  The  inferences  and  uses  to  be  de- 
rived from  this  docti'ine  are  these:  1. 
How  vain  are  all  the  labours  and  pre- 
tences of  mankind  to  seek  or  hope  for 
any  better  religion  than  that  which  is 
contained  in  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  It 
is  here  alone  that  we  can  find  the  solid 
and  rational  principle  of  reconciliation  to 
an  offended  God,  Heb.  iv.  14. — 2.  How 
strange  and  unreasonable  is  the  doctrine 
of  the  Popish  church,  who,  while  they 
profess  to  believe  the  religion  of  Christ, 
yet  introduce  many  other  methods  of 
atonement  for  sin,  besides  the  sufferings 
of  the  Son  of  God.  [See  above.] — 3. 
Here  is  a  solid  foundation,  on  which  the 
greatest  of  sinners  may  hope  for  accept- 
ance with  God,  1  Tim.  i.  15. — 4-.  This 
doctrine  should  be  used  as  a  powerful 
motive  to  excite  repentance,  Acts  v. 
31. — 5.  We  should  use  this  atonement 
of  Christ  as  our  constant  way  of  access 
to  God  in  all  our  prayers,  Heb.  x.  19, 
22. — 6.  Also  as  a  divine  guard  against 
sin,  Rom.  vi.  1,  2.  1  Pet.  i.  15,  19.— 7. 
As  an  argument  of  prevailing  force  to 
be  used  in  pi'ayer,  Rom.  viii.  32. — 8.  As 
a  spring  of  love  to  God,  and  to  his  Son 
Jesus  Christ,  1  John  iv.  10. — 9.  As  a 
strong  persuasive  to  that  love  and  pity 
AvMfeh  we  should  show  on  all  occasions 
to  our  fellow  creatures,  1  John  iv.  11. — 
10.  It  should  excite  patience  and  holy 
joy  under  afflictions  and  earthly  sor- 
rows, Rom.  V.  1  to  3. — 11.  We  should 
consider  it  as  an  invitation  to  the  Lord's 
supper,  where  Christ  is  set  forth  to  us 
in  the  memorials  of  his  propitiation. — 
12.  As  a  most  effectual  defence  against 
the  terrors  of  dying,  and  as  our  joyful 
hope  of  a  blessed  resurrection,  1  Cor. 
XV.  50. — 13.  Lastly,  as  a  divine  allure- 
ment to  the  upper  world."  See  JVatt's 
Sermons,  ser.  34,  35,  36,  37;  Mvans  on 
the  Atonement ;  Dr.  Given  on  the 
Satisfaction  of  Christ;  West's  Scrifi- 
ture  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement ;  Her- 
■vey's  Theron  and  Apasio,  dialogue  3; 
Dr.  Ma^ee's  Discourses  on  the  Atone- 
ment;  Jen-am's  Letters  on  ditto. 

ATTRIBUTES  OF  GOD  are  the 
several  qualities  or  perfections  of  the 
Divine  nature.  Some  distinguish  them 
into  the  negative,  and  positive  or  affir- 
mative. The  negative  are  such  as  re- 
move from  him  whatever  is  imperfect 
in  creatures:  such  are  infinity,  immuta- 
bility, immortality,  &c.  The  positive 
are  such  as  assert  some  perfection  in 
God  which  is  in  and  of  liimself,  and 
which  in  the  creatures,  in  any  measure, 
is  fi'om  him.  This  distinction  is  now 
mostly  discarded.  Some  distinguish 
them  into  absolute  and  relative:  abso- 
lute ones  are  such  as  agree  with  the 


essence  of  God;  as  Jehovah,  Jah,  Ccc; 
relative  ones  are  such  as  agree  witlv 
him  in  time,  with  some  respect  to  his 
creatures,  as  Ci-eator,  Governor,  Pre- 
server, Redeemer,  &c.  But  the  more 
commonly  received  distinction  of  the 
attributes  of  God,  is  into  communicable 
and  incommunicable  ones.  The  com- 
municable ones  are  those  of  wliich  there 
is  some  resemblance  in  men ;  as  good- 
ness, holiness,  wisdom,  &c. :  the  incom- 
municable ones  are  such  as  there  is  no 
appearance  or  shadow  of  in  men;  as 
independence,  immutability,  immensity, 
and  eternity.  See  those  different  arti- 
cles in  this  work ;  and  Bates,  Charnock, 
Abernethy,  and  Saurin  on  the  Divine 
Perfections. 

ATTRITION.  The  casuists  of  the 
church  of  Rome  have  made  a  distinc- 
tion between  a  perfect  and  an  imperfect 
co7itrition.  The  latter  they  call  attri- 
tion; which  is  the  lowest  degree  of  re- 
f)entance,  or  a  sorrow  for  sin  arising 
rom  a  sense  of  shame,  or  any  temporal 
inconvenience  attending  the  commission 
of  it,  or  merely  from  fear  of  the  punish- 
ment due  to  it,  without  any  resolution  to 
sill  no  more :  in  consequence  of  which 
doctrine,  they  teach  that,  after  a  wick- 
ed and  flagitious  course  of  life,  a  man 
may  be  reconciled  to  God,  and  his  sins 
forgiven  on  his  death-bed,  by  confessing 
them  to  the  priest  with  this  imperfect 
degree  of  sorrow  and  repentance.  This 
distinction  was  settled  by  the  council  of 
Trent.  It  might,  however,  be  easily 
shoAvn  that  the  mere  sorrow  for  sin  be- 
cause of  its  consequences,  and  not  on 
account  of  its  evil  nature,  is  no  more 
acceptable  to  God  than  hypocrisy  itself 
can  be. 

AVARICE  is  an  immoderate  love  to 
and  desire  after  riches,  attended  with 
extreme  diffidence  of  fiiture  events, 
making  a  person  rob  himself  of  the  ne- 
cessary comforts  of  life,  for  fear  of  di- 
minishing his  riches.  See  Covetous- 
NESS  and  Miser. 

AVERSION,  hatred  or  dislike.— Dr. 
Watts  and  others  oppose  aversion  to 
desire.  AA^ien  we  look,  say  they,  u])on 
an  object  as  good,  it  excites  desire;  but 
when  we  look  upon  an  object  as  evU, 
it  awakens  what  we  call  a\ersion  or 
avoidance.  But  Lord  Kaims  obsen'cs 
that  aversion  is  opposed  to  affection, 
and  not  to  desire.  Wc  have  an  affec- 
tion to  one  person;  we  ha\e  an  aver- 
sion to  another:  the  former  disposes  us 
to  do  good,  tlic  latter  to  do  ill. 

AUDIENTES,  an  order "bf  catechu- 
mens in  the  primitive  Christian  church. 
They  were  so  called  from  their  being 
admitted  to  hear  sermons  and  the  Scrip- 


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tures  read  in  the  church;  but  they 
were  not  allowed  to  be  present  at  the 
prayers. 

AUC'.SBURGH  or  AUGUSTAN, 
CONFESSION,  a  celebrated  confes- 
sion of  faith  drawn  up  by  Luther  and 
Melancthon  on  behalf  of  themselves  and 
other  ancient  reformers,  and  presented 
in  1550  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  at 
the  diet  of  Augusta,  or  Augsburgh,  in 
the  name  of  the  evangelic  body.  This 
confession  contains  twenty-eight  chap- 
ters, of  which  the  .greatest  part  is  em- 
ployed in  representing  witli  perspicuity 
and  truth  the  religious  opinions  of  the 
Protestants,  and  the  rest  in  pointing  out 
the  errors  and  abuses  that  occasioned 
their  separation  from  the  church  of 
Rome.  The  leading  doctrines  of  this 
coTifcssion  are,  the  time  and  essential 
divinity  of  the  Son  of  God ;  his  substi- 
tution, and  vicarious  sacrifice;  and  the 
necessity,  freedom,  and  efficacy  of  Di- 
vine grace.  A  civil  war  followed  this 
diet  that  lasted  upwards  of  twenty 
years,  but  which  only  spread  the  new 
opinions,  instead  of  extiipating  them. 


AUGUSTINS,  a  religious  order,  who 
observed  the  rale  of  St.  Augustin,  pre- 
scribed them  by  pope  Alexander  IV, 
in  1256.  This  rule  was  to  have  all 
things  in  common;  the  rich  who  enter 
among  them  to  sell  their  possessions, 
and  give  them  to  the  poor;  to  employ 
the  first  part  of  the  morning  in  labour- 
ing with  their  hands,  and  tlie  rest  in 
reading:  when  they  go  abroad,  to  go 
always  two  in  company ;  never  to  eat 
but  in  their  monastery,  &c. 

AUSTERITY,  a  state  of  rigid  mor- 
tification. It  is  distinguished  from  se- 
verity and  rigour  thus :  Austerity  relatts 
to  the  manner  of  living;  severity  to  the 
manner  of  thinking;  rigour  to  the  man- 
ner of  punishing.  To  austerity  is  op- 
posed effeminacy;  to  severity,  relaxa- 
tion; to  rigour,  clemency  A  hermit 
is  austere  m  his  life ;  a  casuist  severe 
in  his  application  of  religion  or  law;  a 
judge  rigorous  in  his  sentences. 

AUTOCEPHALI  BISHOPS.  This 
denomination  was  given  to  such  bishops 
in  the  primitive  church  as  were  ex- 
empted from  the  juiisdiction  of  others. 


B. 


BACKBITING.  See  Detraction 
and  Slander. 

BACKSLIDING,  the  act  of  turning 
from  the  path  of  duty.  It  may  be  con- 
sidered as  partial  when  applied  to  true 
believers,  who  do  not  backslide  with  the 
whole  bent  of  their  will ;  as  voluntary, 
when  applied  to  those  who,  after  pro- 
fessing to  know  the  tnith,  wilfully  turn 
from  it,  and  live  in  the  practice  of  sin ; 
as  j^wa/,  when  the  mind  is  given  up  to 
judicial  hardness,  as  in  the  case  of  Judas. 
Partial  backsliding  must  be  distinguish- 
ed from  Hypocrisy,  as  the  form.er  may 
exist  where  there  are  gracious  inten- 
tions on  the  whole ;  but  the  latter  is  a 
studied  profession  of  appearing  to  be 
what  we  are  not. 

The  causes  of  backsliding  are — the 
cares  of  the  world;  improper  con- 
nexions; inattention  to  secret  or  closet 
duties;  self-conceit  and  dependence; 
indulgence;  listening  to  and  parleying 
with  temptations.  A  backslidi?ig  state 
is  tna?i!fested  by  indifference  to  prayer 
and  self-examination;  trifling  or  unpro- 
fitable conversation;  neglect  of  public 
ordinances ;  shunning  the  people  of  God ; 
associating  with  the  world;  thinking 
lightly  of  ?=-  ;  neglect  of  the  Bible;  and 
often  by  gross  immorality.    The  conse- 


I  guences  of  this  awful  state  are — ^loss  of 
\  character;  loss  of  comfort;  loss  of  use- 
fulness;  and,  as  long  as  any  remain  in 
;  this  state,  a  loss  oi a  well-grounded  hope 
of  future  happiness.  To  avoid  this  state, 
or  recover  from  it,  we  should  beware  of 
the  first  appearance  of  sin ;  be  much 
jin  prayer;  attend  the  ordinances;  and 
'unite  with  the  people  of  God.  We 
I  should  consider  the  awful  instances  of 
apostacy,  as  Saul,  Judas,  Demas,  &c. ; 
the  many  warnings  we  have  of  it.  Matt, 
xxiv.  13.  Heb.  x.  38.  Luke  ix.  62.; 
how  it  grieves  the  Holy  Spirit ;  and  how 
wretched  it  makes  us ;  above  all  things, 
our  dependence  should  be  on  God,  that 
we  may  always  be  directed  by  his  Spi- 
rit, and  kept  by  his  power.  See  Apos- 
tacy. 

BANGORIAN  CONTROVERSY, 
so  called  from  Bangor,  or  the  bishop 
thereof.  Bishop  Hoadley,  the  bishop  of 
that  diocese,  preaching  before  George 
I.  asserted  the  supreme  authoritj-  of 
Christ,  as  king  in  his  own  kingdom; 
and  that  he  had  not  delegated  his  pow- 
er, like  temporal  lawgivers,  during  their 
absence  from  their  kingdom,  to  any 
persons,  as  his  vicegerents  or  deputies. 
This  important  sermon  may  be  seen 
I  reprinted  in  the  Liverpool  Theological 


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40 


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Repository,  vol.  5.  p.  301.  In  1717,  he 
also  published  his  Preaervative,  in 
which  he  advanced  some  positions  con- 
trary to  temporal  and  spiritual  tyranny, 
and  in  behalf  of  the  civil  and  religious 
liberties  of  mankind:  upon  which  he 
was  violently  opposed,  accused,  and  per- 
secuted, by  the  advocates  for  church 
power:  but  he  was  defended  and  sup- 
ported by  the  civil  powers,  and  his 
abilities  and  meekness  gained  him  the 
plaudits  of  many. 

BANIANS,  a  religious  sect  in  the 
empire  of  the  Mogul,  who  believe  a 
Metempsychosis ;  and  will  therefore  eat 
no  living  creature,  nor  kill  even  noxious 
animals,  but  endeavour  to  release  them 
when  in  the  hands  of  others.  The  name 
Banian  is  sometimes  extended  to  all  the 
idolaters  of  India,  as  contradistinguished 
from  the  Mahometans. 

BAPTISM,  the  ceremony  of  washing, 
or  the  application  of  water  to  a  person, 
in  the  name  of  the  Father,  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost,  by  which  he  is 
initiated  into  the  visible  church.  Bap- 
tism exhibits  to  us  the  blessings  of 
pardon,  salvation  through  Jesus  Christ, 
union  to  and  communion  yfiXh  him,  the 
out-pouring  of  the  Spirit,  regeneration, 
and  sanctification.  From  baptism  re- 
sults the  obligation  of  repentance,  love 
to  Christ,  and  pei-petual  devotedness  to 
his  praise.  Baptism  does  not  constitute 
a  visible  subject,  but  only  recognizes 
one.  Ministers  only  have  a  right  to  ad- 
minister it;  and  have  a  negative  voice 
in  opposition  to  all  claims.  It  is  an  or- 
dinance binding  on  all  who  have  been 
given  up  to  God  in  it ;  and  to  be  per- 
petuated to  the  end  of  the  world.  It  is 
not,  however,  essential  to  salvation;  for 
mere  participation  of  sacraments  can- 
not qualify  men  for  heaven :  many  have 
real  grace,  consequently  in  a  salvable 
state,  before  they  were  baptized:  be- 
sides, to  suppose  it  essential,  is  to  put  it 
in  the  place  of  that  which  it  signifies. 

Baptism  has  been  supposed  by  many 
learned  persons  to  have  had  its  origin 
from  the  Jewish  church ;  in  which,  they 
maintain,  it  was  the  practice,  long  be- 
fore Christ's  time,  to  baptize  proselytes 
or  converts  to  their  faith,  as  part  of  the 
ceremony  of  their  admission.  "It  is 
strange  to  me,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge, 
"that  any  should  doubt  of  this,  when  it 
is  plain,  from  express  passages  in  the 
Jewish  law,  that  no  Jew  who  had  lived 
like  a  Gentile  for  one  day  could  be  re- 
stored to  the  communion  of  this  church 
without  it.  Compare  Num.  xix.  19  and 
20.  and  many  other  precepts  relating  to 
ceremonial  pollutions,  in  which  may  be 
seeni  that  tlie  Jews  were  rendered  in- 


capable of  appearing  before  God  in  the 
tabernacle  or  temple,  till  they  wei-e 
washed  eitlier  by  bathing  or  sprinking." 
Others,  however,  insist,  that  the  Jewish 
proselyte  baptism  is  not  by  far  so  an- 
cient; and  that  John  the  Baptist  was 
the  first  administrator  of  baptism  among 
the  Jews. 

The  baptism  of  John,  and  that  of  our 
Saviour  and  his  apostles,  have  been  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same;  because  they 
agree,  it  is  said,  in  their  subjects,  fonn, 
and  end.  But  it  must  be  observed,  that 
though  there  be  an  agreement  in  some 
particulars,  yet  there  is  not  in  all.  The 
immediate  institutor  of  John's  baptism 
was  God  the  Father,  John  i.  33;  but 
the  immediate  institutor  of  the  Chris- 
tian baptism  was  Christ,  Matt,  xxviii. 
19.  John's  baptism  was  a  prejiaratory 
rite,  referring  the  subjects  to  Christ, 
who  was  about  to  confer  on  them  spi- 
ritual blessings.  Matt.  iii.  11.  John's 
baptism  was  confined  to  the  Jews ;  but 
the  Christian  was  common  to  Jews  and 
Gentiles,  Matt.  iii.  5,  7.  Matt,  xxviii. 
19.  It  does  not  appear  that  John  had 
any  formula  of  administration ;  but  the 
Christian  baptism  has,  viz.  "In  the 
name,"  8cc.  The  baptism  of  John  was 
the  concluding  scene  of  the  legal  dis- 
pensation, and,  in  fact,  part  of  it;  and 
to  be  considered  as  one  of  those  "divers 
washings"  among  the  Jews;  for  he  did 
not  attempt  to  make  any  alteration  in 
the  Jewish  religion,  nor  did  the  persons 
he  baptized  cease  to  be  members  of  the 
Jewish  church  on  the  account  of  their 
baptism;  but  Christian  baptism  is  the 
regular  entrance  into,  and  is  a  part  of, 
the  evangelical  dispensation.  Gal.  iii. 
27.  It  does  not  appear  from  the  in- 
spired narrative  (however  probable 
from  inferential  reasoning)  that  any 
but  John  himself  was  engaged  as  opera- 
tor in  his  baptism ;  whereas  Christ 
himself  baptized  none ;  but  his  disci- 
ples, by  his  authority,  and  in  his  name, 
John  iv.  2. 

Baptism  has  been  the  subject  of  long 
and  sharp  controversy,  both  as  it  re- 
spects the  subject  and  the  mode.  To 
state  all  tliat  has  been  said  on  both 
sides,  would  be  impossible  in  a  work  of 
this  kind.  An  abstract,  however,  of 
the  chief  arguments,  I  think  it  my  duty 
to  present  to  the  reader,  in  order  that 
he  may  judge  for  himself. 

As  to  the  subject. 

The  ANTIP.T.DOBAPTISTS  hold 
that  believing  adults  only  are  proper 
subjects,  because  Christ's  commission 
to  baptize  appears  to  them  to  restrict 
tliis  ordinance  to  such  only  as  are  taught. 


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41 


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or  made  disciples ;  and  that  conse-  j 
quently,  infants,  who  cannot  be  thus 
taught,  are  to  be  excluded.  It  does  not 
appear,  say  they,  that  the  apostles,  in ! 
executing  Christ's  commission,  ever ' 
baptized  any  but  those  who  wei-e  first 
instmcted  in  the  Christian  faith,  and 
professed  their  belief  of  it.  They  con- 
tend that  infants  can  receive  no  benefit 
from  it,  and  are  not  capable  of  faith 
and  repentance,  which  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  pre-requisites. 

As  to  the  mode. 

They  obsen-e  that  the  meaning  of 
the  woi-d  Ba;rT/if£i)  signifies  immersion,  or 
clipping  only ;  that  John  baptized  in 
Jordan ;  that  he  cliose  a  place  where 
there  was  much  water ;  that  Jesus  came 
up  out  of  the  water ;  that  Philip  and 
the  eunuch  went  down  both  into  the 
water.  That  the  terms  washing,  puri- 
fying, buning  in  baptism,  so  often  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  alludes  to  this  mode ;  | 
that  immersion  only  was  the  practice  | 
of  the  apostles  and  the  first  Christians ; 
and  that  it  was  only  laid  aside  from  the 
love  of  novelty,  and  the  coldness  of  our 
climate.  These  positions,  they  think, 
are  so  clear  from  Scripture,  and  the 
history  of  the  church,  that  they  stand 
in  need  of  but  little  argument  to  sup- 
port them.  Farther,  they  also  insist 
that  all  positive  institutions  depend  en- 
tirely upon  the  will  and  declaration  of 
the  mstitutor,  and  that,  therefore,  rea- 
soning by  analogy  from  previous  abro- 
gated rites,  is  to  be  rejected,  and  the 
express  command  of  Christ  respecting 
baptism  ought  to  be  our  rule. 

P/EDOBAPTISTS. 

The  Paedobaptists,  however,  are  of  a 
different  opinion.  As  to  the  subject, 
they  believe  that  qualified  adults  who 
have  not  been  baptized  before,  are  cer- 
tainly proper  subjects ;  but,  then,  they  1 
think  also  that  infants  are  not  to  be  ex- 
cluded. They  believe  that,  as  the 
Abrahamic  and  the  Clii-istian  covenants 
are  the  same.  Gen.  xvii.  7.  Heb.  viii. 
12;  that  as  children  were  admitted  un- 
der the  former ;  and  that  as  baptism  is 
now  a  seal,  sign,  or  confirmation  of  this 
covenant,  infants  have  as  great  a  right 
to  it  as  the  children  had  a  right  to  the 
seal  of  circumcision  under  the  law. 
Acts  ii.  39.  Rom.  iv.  11.  That  if  chil^, 
dren  are  not  to  be  baptized  because  j 
there  is  no  positive  command  for  it,  for 
the  same  reason  women  should  not 
come  to  the  Lord's  supper ;  we  should 
not  keep  the  first  day  of  the  week,  nor 
attend  public  woi'ship,  for  none  of  these 


are  expressly  commanded ;  that  if  in- 
fant baptism  hud  been  a  human  inven- 
tion, how  would  it  liavc  been  so  univer- 
sal in  the  first  300  years,  and  yet  no 
record  left  when  it  was  introduced,  nor 
any  dispute  or  controversy  about  it? 
Some  bring  it  to  these  two  ideas:  1. 
That  God  did  constitute  in  his  church 
the  membership  of  infants,  and  admit- 
ted them  to  it  bv  a  religious  ordinance. 
Gen.  xvii.  Gal.  lii.  14,  17. — 2.  That  this 
right  of  infants  to  church  membership 
was  never  taken  away.  This  being  the 
case,  infants  must  be  received,  because 
God  has  instituted  it ;  and  since  infants 
must  be  received,  it  must  be  either 
without  baptism  or  with  it ;  but  none 
must  be  received  without  baptism,  there- 
fore infants  must  of  necessity  be  bap- 
tized. Hence,  it  is  clear,  that,  under 
the  Gospel,  infants  are  still  continued 
exactly  in  the  same  relation  to  God  and 
his  church,  in  which  they  were  origi- 
nally placed  under  the  former  dispen- 
sation. 

That  infants  are  to  be  received  into 
the  church,  and  as  such  baptized,  is 
also  inferred  fi-om  the  following  pas- 
sages of  Scripture :  Gen.  xvii.  Is.  xliv. 
3.  Matt.  xix.  13.  Luke  ix.  47,  48.  Mark 
ix.  14.  Acts  ii.  38,  39.  Rom.  xi.  17,  21. 
1  Cor.  vii.  14. 

Though  there  are  no  express  exam- 
ples in  the  New  Testament  of  Christ 
and  his  apostles  baptizing  infants,  yet 
this  is  no  proof  that  they  were  excluded. 
JesHS  Christ  actually  blessed  little  chil- 
dren ,  and  it  would  be  hard  to  believe 
that  such  received  his  blessing,  and  yet 
were  not  to  be  members  of  the  Gospel 
church.  If  Christ  received  them,  and 
would  have  us  receive  them  in  his  name, 
how  can  it  be  reconciled  to  keep  them 
out  of  the  visible  church  ?  Besides,  if 
children  were  not  to  be  baptized,  it 
would  have  been  expressly  forbidden. 
None  of  the  Jews  had  any  apprehension 
of  the  rejection  of  infants,  which  they 
must  have  had,  if  infants  had  been  re- 
jected. As  whole  households  were  bap- 
tized, it  is  probable  there  were  children 
among  them.  From  the  year  400  to 
1150,  no  society  of  men  in  all  that  pe- 
riod of  750  years,  ever  pretended  to 
say  it  was  unlawful  to  baptize  infants ; 
and  stiU  nearer  the  time  of  our  Sa%'iour 
there  appears  to  have  been  scarcely 
any  one  that  so  much  as  advised  the 
delay  of  infant  baptism.  Irenaeus,  who 
lived  in  the  second  century,  and  was 
well  acquainted  with  Polycarp,  who  was 
John's  disciple,  declares  expressly  that 
the  church  learned  from  the  apostles 
to  baptize  children.  Origen,  m  the 
third  Centura',  affirmed  that  the  custoni 


BAP 


4i} 


BAP 


of  baptizing  infants  was  recei\  ed  from 
Christ  and  his  apostles.  Cyprian,  and 
a  council  of  ministers  (held  about  the 
year  254)  no  less  than  sixty-six  in  num- 
Der,  unanimously  agreed  that  children 
might  be  baptized  as  soon  as  they  were 
born.  Ambrose,  who  wrote  about  274 
years  from  the  apostles,  declares  that 
the  baptism  of  infants  had  been  the 
practice  of  the  apostles  themselves,  and 
of  the  church,  till  that  time.  The  ca- 
tholic church  eveiy  where  declared, 
says  Chrj'sostom,  in  the  fifth  century, 
that  infants  should  be  baptized;  and 
Augustin  affiiTned  that  he  never  heard 
nor  read  of  any  Christian,  catholic,  or 
sectarian,  but  who  always  held  that  m- 
fants  were  to  be  baptized.  Tliey  far- 
ther believe,  that  there  needed  no  men- 
tion in  the  New  Testament  of  receiving 
infants  into  the  church,  as  it  had  been 
once  api)ointed,  and  never  repealed. 
Tlie  dictates  of  nature,  also,  in  parental 
feelings;  the  verdict  of  reason  in  favour 
of  privileges;  the  evidence  in  favour  of 
children  being  sharers  of  the  seals  of 
grace,  m  common  with  their  parents, 
for  the  space  of  4000  years ;  and  espe- 
cially the  language  of  prophec}',  in  re- 
ference to  the  children  of  the  Gospel 
church,  make  it  very  probable  that  they 
were  not  to  be  rejected.  So  far  from 
confining  it  to  adults,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  there  is  not  a  single  instance 
recorded  in  the  New  Testamerit  in 
which  the  descendants  of  Cliristian 
parents  were  baptized  in  adult  year?.. 

That  infants  are  not  proper  subjects 
for  baptism,  because  they  cannot  profess 
faith  and  repentance,  they  deny.  This 
objection  falls  with  as  much  weiglit 
upon  the  institution  of  circumcision  as 
infant  baptism  ;  since  they  are  as  capa- 
ble, or  are  as  fit  subjects  for  the  one  as 
the  other.  It  is  generally  acknowlcv'g- 
ed,  that,  if  infants  die  (and  a  great  part 
of  the  human  race  do  die  in  infancy,) 
they  are  saved:  if  this  be  the  case, 
then,  why  refuse  them  the  sign  in  in- 
fancy, if  they  are  capable  of  enjoving 
the  thing  signified.^  "Why,"  says  Dr. 
Owen,  "  is  it  the  will  of  God  that  un- 
believers should  not  be  baptized  ••  It  is 
because,  not  granting  them  the  grace, 
he  will  not  grant  them  the  sign.  If 
God,  thei'efore,  denies  the  sign  to  the 
infant  seed  of  believers,  it  must  be  be- 
cause he  denies  them  the  grace  of  it ; 
and  then  all  the  children  of  believing 
parents  (upon  these  principles)  dying 
m  their  inmncy,  must,  without  liope,  be 
eternally  damned.  I  do  not  say  tliat  all 
must  be  so  who  are  not  baptized ;  but 
all  must  be  so  whom  God  would  not 
have  baptized."    Something  is  said  of  | 


baptism,  it  is  observed,  that  caiutol; 
agree  to  infants :  faith  goes  before  bap- 
tism ;  and,  as  none  but  adults  are  capa- 
ble of  believhig,  so  no  others  are  capa- 
ble of  baptism  ;  but  it  is  replied,  if  in- 
fants must  not  be  baptized  because 
something  is  said  of  baptism  that  does 
not  agree  to  infants,  Mark  xvi.  16.  then 
infants  must  not  be  saved,  because  some- 
thing is  said  of  salvation  that  does  not 
agree  to  infants,  Mark  xvi.  16.  As  none 
but  adults  are  capable  of  believing,  so, 
by  the  argument  of  the  Baptists,  none 
but  adults  are  capable  of  salvation :  for 
he  that  believeth  not  shall  be  damned. 
But  Christ,  it  is  said,  set  an  example  of 
adult  baptism.  Tnie ;  but  he  was  bap- 
tized in  honour  to  John's  ministry,  and 
to  conform  himself  to  what  he  appoint- 
ed to  his  followers ;  for  which  last  rea- 
son he  drank  of  the  sacramental  cup  : 
but  this  is  rather  an  argument  for  the 
Pccdobaptists  than  against  them ;  since  it 
plainly  shows,  as  Doddridge  observes,  i 
that  baptism  may  be  administered  to 
those  who  are  not  capable  of  all  the 
purposes  for  which  it  was  designed ; 
since  Jesus  Christ,  not  being  a  sinner, 
could  not  be  capable  of  that  faith  and 
repentance  which  are  said  to  be  neces- 
sary to  this  ordinance. 

jis  to  the  mode. 

They  believe  that  the  word  Barra 
signifies  to  dip  or  to  plunge ;  but  that 
the  tei-m  Bst^r/^a!,  which  is  only  deri- 
vative of  Bss-Tci),  and  consequently  must 
be  somewhat  less  in  its  signification, 
should  be  invariably  used  in  the  New 
Testament  to  express  plunging,  is  not 
so  clear.  It  is  therefore  doubted  whe- 
ther dipping  be  the  only  meaning,  and 
whether  Christ  absolutely  enjoined  im- 
mersion, and  that  it  is  his  positive  will 
that  no  other  should  be  used.  As  the 
word  i>uTr'ri^u!  is  used  for  the  various  ab- 
lutions among  the  Jews,  such  as  sprink- 
ling, pouring,  &c.  Heb.  ix.  10 ;  for  the 
custom  of  washing  before  meals,  and 
the  washing  of  household  furniture, 
pots,  &c.;  it  is  evident  from  hence  that 
it  does  not  express  the  manner  of  doing, 
whether  by  immersion  or  afl'usion,  but 
only  the  thing  done ;  that  is,  washing,  , 
or  the  application  of  water  in  one  form 
or  other.  Dr.  Owen  observes,  that  it 
no  where  signifies  to  dip,  but  as  denot- 
ing a  mode  of,  and  in  order  to  washing 
or  cleansing:  and,  according  to  other.s, 
the  mode  of  use  is  only  the  ceremonial 
part  of  a  positive  institute ;  just  as  in 
the  supper  of  the  Lord,  the  time  of 
the  day,  the  number  and  posture  of 
communicants,  the  quality  and  quantity 
of  bread  and  wine,  are  circuoistunces 


BAP 


43 


BAP 


.■)Ht*  accounted  essential  by  any  party  of 
Christians.  As  to  tlie  Ht.'l)rew  word 
Tubal,  it  is  considered  as  a  'generic 
term ;  that  its  radical,  primary,  and 
proper  mean  big  is,  to  tinge,  to  {lye,  to 
-wet,  or  the  like  ;  which  primary  design 
is  effected  by  different  n\odcs  of  appli- 
cation. If  in  baptism  also  there  is  an 
expressive  emblem  of  the  descending 
inlluence  of  tlie  Spirit,  pouring  must 
be  the  mode  of  administration  ;  tor  that 
is  the  Scriptural  term  most  commonly 
and  properly  used  for  the  communica- 
tion of  divine  influences.  There  is  no 
object  whatever  in  all  the  New  Testa- 
ment so  frequently  and  so  explicitly 
signified  by  baptism  as  these  divine  in- 
fluences. Matt.  iii.  11.  Mark  i.  8,  10. 
Luke  iii.  16.  to  22.  John  i.  33.  Acts  i. 
5.  Acts  ii.  38,  39.  Acts  viii.  12,  17.  Acts 
xi.  15,  16.  The  term  sprinkling,  also, 
is  made  use  of  in  reference  to  the  act 
of  purifying.  Is.  Iii.  15.  Heb.  ix.  13,  14. 
Ezek.  xxxvi.  25,  and  therefore  cannot 
be  inapplicable  to  baptismal  purifica- 
tion. But  it  is  obsei-^ed  that  John  bap- 
tized in  Jordan:  to  this  it  is  replied, 
to  infer  always  a  plunging  of  the  whole 
body  in  water  from  this  word,  would, 
in  many  instances,  be  false  and  absurd : 
the  same  Greek  preposition  fv  is  used 
when  it  is  said  they  should  be  baptized 
ivith  fire ;  while  few  will  assert  that 
they  should  be  filunged  into  it.  The 
apostle,  speaking  ot  Christ,  says,  he 
came  not  (ev)  by  water  only,  but  {m)  by 
water  and  blood.  There  the  same  woid 
tv  is  translated  by,  and  with  justice  and 
propriety,  for  we  know  no  good  sense 
m  which  we  could  say  he  came  in  wa- 
ter. It  has  been  remarked,  that  tv  is 
more  than  a  hundred  times,  in  the  New 
Testament,  rendei-ed  "at,"  and  in  a 
hundred  and  fifty  others,  it  is  translated 
v}itfi.  If  it  be  rendered  so  here,  "  John 
baptized  at  Jordan,  or  with  the  water  of 
Jordan,  there  is  no  proof  from  thence 
that  he  filunged  his  disciples  in  it. 

It  is  urged  that  John's  choosing  a 
place  where  there  was  jnuch  water  is  a 
certain  proof  of  immersion.  To  which 
it  is  answered,  that  as  there  went  out 
to  hun  Jerusalem,  and  all  Judea,  and  all 
the  region  round  about  Jordan,  that  by 
choosing  a  place  where  there  were 
many  streams  or  rivailetjs,  it  would  be 
much  more  expeditiously  performed  by 
pouring ;  and  that  it  seems  in  the  nature 
of  things  highly  improbable  that  John 
■  would  have  baptized  this  vast  multi- 
tude by  immersion,  to  say  notliing  of 
the  indecency  of  both  sexes  being  bap- 
tized together. 

Jesus,  it  is  said,  came  up  out  of  the 
water ;  but  this  is  said  to  be  no  proof 


of  his  being  immersed,  as  the  Greek 
term  utto  often  signifies  from ;  for  in- 
stance, "Who  hath  warned  you  to  ilec 
from,  not  out  of,  the  v/rath  to  come," 
"with  many  others  which  might  be  men- 
tioned. 

Again  :  it  is  said  that  Philip  and  tlie 
eunuch  went  down  both  into  the  water. 
To  tliis  it  is  answered,  that  here  is  no 
proof  of  immersion;  for  if  the  expres- 
sion of  their  going  down  into  the  water 
necessarily  includes  dipping,  then  Philip 
was  dipped  as  well  as  the  eunuch.  The 
preposition  {w)  translated  into,  often 
signifies  no  more  than  to  or  unto.  See 
Matt.  XV.  24.  Rom.  x.  10.  Acts  xxviiL 
14.  Matt.  xvii.  27.  Matt.  iii.  11.  So  that, 
from  all  these  circumstances,  it  cannot 
be  concluded  that  there  was  a  single 
person  of  all  the  baptized  who  went 
into  the  water  ankle  deep.  As  to  the 
apostle's  expression,  "  buried  with  him 
in  baptism,"  they  think  it  has  no  force ; 
and  that  it  does  not  allude  to  any  cus- 
tom of  dipping,  any  more  than  our  bap- 
tismal crucifixion  and  death  has  any 
such  reference.  It  is  not  the  sign  l:)ut 
the  thing  signified  that  is  here  alluded 
to.  As  Christ  Avas  buried  and  rose 
again  to  a  heavenly  life,  so  we  by  bap- 
tism signifying  that  we  are  cut  off  from 
the  life  of  sin,  that  we  may  rise  again 
to  a  new  life  of  faith  and  love. 

To  conclude  this  article,  it  is  obsci"ved 
against  the  mode  of  immersion,  that,  as 
it  carries  with  it  too  much  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  burdensome  rite  for  the 
Gospel  dispensation ;  that  as  it  is  too  in- 
decent for  so  solemn  an  ordinance ;  as 
it  has  a  tendency  to  agitate  the  spirits, 
often  rendering  the  subject  unfit  for  the 
exercise  of  proper  thoughts  and  affec- 
tions, and  indeed  utterly  incapable  of 
them ;  as  in  many  cases  the  immersion 
of  the  body  \vould  in  all  probability  be 
instant  death ;  as  in  other  situations  it 
would  be  impracticable  for  want  of  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  water,  it  cannot  be 
considered  as  necessary  to  the  ordi- 
nance of  baptism. 

See  Gale,  Robinson,  Stennett,  Gill, 
and  Booth,  on  Antifidedobajitism ;  and. 
Wall,  Henry,  Bradbury,  Bostivick^ 
Towffood,  Addingtoji,  Williams,  FA- 
wards.  Miller,  £,vans,  &c.  on  the  other 
side. 

BAPTISM  OF  THE  DEAD,  a  cus- 
tom which  anciently  pre\ailed  among 
some  people  in  Africa,  of  giving  Ijap- 
tism  to  the  dead.  The  third  council  of 
Carthage  speaks  of  it  as  a  thing  that 
ignorant  Christians  were  fond  of:  Gre- 
gory Nazianzen  also  takes  notice  of  the 
same  superstitious  opinion.  The  prac- 
tice seems  to  be  grounded  on  a  vaiji 


BAP 


44 


BAP 


idea,  that,  when  men  had  net^lected  to 
receive  baptism  in  their  hfe-time,  some 
compensation  might  be  made  for  this 
default  bv  receiving  it  after  death. 

BAPTISM  FOR  THE  DEAD,  a 
practice  formerly  in  use,  when  a  person 
dying  without  baptism,  another  ^vas 
baptized  in  his  stead;  thus  supposing 
that  God  would  accept  the  baptism  of 
the  proxy,  as  though  it  had  been  ad- 
ministered to  the  principal.  Chrysos- 
tom  says,  this  was  practised  among  the 
Marcionites  with  a  great  deal  of  ridi- 
cvdous  ceremony,  which  he  thus  de- 
scribes : — After  any  catechum.en  was 
dead,  they  hid  a  living  man  under  the 
bed  of  the  deceased ;  then,  coming  to 
the  dead  man,  they  asked  him  whether 
he  would  receive  baptism ;  and  he 
making  no  answer,  the  other  answered 
for  him,  and  said  he  would  be  baptized 
in  his  stead ;  and  so  they  baptized  the 
living  for  the  dead.  If  it  can  be  proA'ed 
(as  some  think  it  can)  that  this  prac- 
tice was  as  early  as  the  days  of  the 
apostle  Paul,  it  might  probably  form  a 
solution  of  those  remarkable  words  in 
1  Cor.  XV.  29 :  "  If  the  dead  rise  not  at 
all,  what  shall  they  do  who  are  baptized 
for  the  dead  ?"  The  allusion  of  the 
apostle  to  this  practice,  however,  is  re- 

{'ected  by  some,  and  especially  by  Dr. 
)oddridge,  who  thinks  it  too  early :  he 
thus  paraphrases  the  passage:  "Such 
are  our  views  and  hopes  as  Christians ; 
else,  if  it  were  not  so,  what  should  they 
do  who  are  baptized  in  token  of  their 
embracing  the  Christian  faith,  in  the 
room  of  the  dead,  who  are  just  fallen 
in  the  cause  of  Christ,  but  are  yet  sup- 
ported by  a  succession  of  new  converts, 
who  immediately  offer  themselves  to 
fill  up  their  places,  as  ranks  of  soldiers 
that  advance  to  the  combat  in  the 
rooms  of  their  companions  who  have 
just  been  slain  in  their  sight  .'*" 
Lay  baptism  we  find  to  have  been 

germitted  by  both  the  common  prayer 
ooks  of  king  Edward  and  queen  Eliza- 
beth, when  an  infant  was  in  immediate 
danger  of  death,  and  a  lawful  minister 
could  not  be  hadj  This  was  founded  on 
a  mistaken  notion  of  the  impossibility  of 
salvation  withovit  the  sacrament  of  bap- 
tism ;  but  afterwards,  when  they  came 
to  have  clearer  notions  of  the  sacra- 
ments, it  was  unanimously  resolved  in 
a  convocation  held  in  1575,  that  even 
private  baptism  in  a  case  of  necessity 
was  only  to  be  administered  by  a  lawful 
minister. 

BAPTISM  METAPHORICAL.  In 
Scrigture  the  tei-m  Baptism  is  used  as 
referring  to  tiie  work  of  the  Spirit  on 
the  heart,  ]Matt.  iii.  11 ;  also  to   the 


sufferings  of  Christ,  Matt.  xx.  22 ;  and 
to  so  much  of  the  Gospel  as  John  the 
Baptist  taught  his  disciples.  Acts  xviii. 
25. 

BAPTISTS,  a  denomination  of  Chris- 
tians who  maintain  that  baptism  is  to  be 
administered  by  immersion,  and  not  by 
sprinkling.    See  Baptism. 

Although  there  were  several  Baptists 
among  the  Albigenses,  Waldenses,  and 
the  followers  of  Wickliffe,  it  does  not 
appear  that  they  were  formed  into  any 
stability  until  the  time  of  Menno,  about 
the  year  1536.  See  Anabaptists  and 
Mennonites.  About  1644  they  be- 
gan to  make  a  considerable  figure  in 
England,  and  spread  themselves  into 
several  separate  congregations.  They 
separated  from  the  Independents  about 
the  year  1638,  and  set  up  for  them- 
selves under  the  pastoral  care  of  Mr. 
Jesse ;  and,  having  renounced  their 
former  baptism,  they  sent  over  one  of 
their  number  to  be  immersed  by  one  of 
the  Dutch  Anabaptists  of  Amsterdam, 
that  he  might  be  qualified  to  baptize 
his  friends  m  England  after  the  same 
manner. 

The  Baptists  subsist  under  two  deno- 
minations, viz.  the  Particular  or  Cal- 
vinistical,  and  the  General  or  Armi- 
nian.  Their  modes  of  church  govern- 
ment and  worship  are  the  same  as  the 
Independents ;  in  the  exercise  of  which 
they  are  protected,  in  common  with 
other  dissenters,  by  the  act  of  tolera- 
tion. Some  of  both  denominations  allow 
of  mixed  communion;  by  which  it  is 
understood  that  those  who  have  not 
been  baptized  by  immersion,  on  the  pro- 
fession of  their'  faith,  may  sit  down  at 
the  Lord's  table  with  those  who  have 
been  thus  baptized.  Others,  however, 
disallow  it,  supposing  that  such  have 
not  been  actually  baptized  at  all.  See 
Free  Communion. 

Some  of  them  observe  the  seventh 
day  of  the  week  as  the  Sabbath,  appre- 
hending the  law  that  eiyoined  it  not  to 
have  been  repealed  by  Christ. 

Some  of  the  General  Baptists  have,  it 
is  said,  gone  into  Socinianism,  or  Arian- 
ism ;  on  account  of  which,  several  of 
their  ministers  and  churches  who  dis- 
approve of  these  principles,  have  with- 
in the  last  forty  years  formed  them- 
selves into  a  distinct  connexion,  called 
the  New  Association.  The  churches  in 
this  union  keep  up  a  friendly  acquaint- 
ance, in  some  outward  things,  with  those 
from  whom  they  have  separated ;  but 
in  things  more  essential  disclaim  any 
connexion  with  them,  particularly  as  to 
changing  ministers,  and  the  admission  of 
members.    The  General  Baptists  have'. 


A 


BAR 


45 


13AS 


in  some  of  their  churches,  three  distinct 
orders  separately  ordained,  viz. — mes- 
sengers, elders,  and  deacons.  Their  ge- 
neral assembly  is  held  annually  in  Wor- 
ship Street,  London,  on  the  Tuesday  in 
the  Whitsun  week. 

The  Baptists  have  two  exhibitions  for 
students  to  be  educated  at  one  of  the 
universities  of  Scotland,  given  them  by 
Dr.  Ward,  of  Gresham  College.  There 
is  likewise  an  academy  at  Bristol  for 
students,  generally  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Bristol  Education  Society.    The 
Baptists  in  America  and  in  the  East  and 
West  Indies  are  chiefly  Calvinists,  and 
hold  occasional  fellowship  with  the  Par- 
ticular  Baptist  churches   in  England. 
Those  in  Scotland,  having  imbibed  a 
considerable  part  of  the  principles  of 
Messrs.  Glass  and  Sandeman,  have  no  j 
communion  with  the  other.   They  have  ! 
liberally  contributed,  however,  towards  | 
the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the 
Bengalee  language,  which  some  of  the  | 
Baptist  brethren  are  now  accomplishuig 
in  the  East.    See  Bi/i/w?i's  Baptist  Re- \ 
gister,  vol.   i.  p.    172 — 175;   Adavis\s 
yieiv    of  Religions,   article   Baptists; 
JEvans's  Sketch  of  Religious  Deno7ni- 
nations. 

BAPTISTERY,  the  place  in  which 
the  ceremony  of  baptism  is  performed. 
In  the  ancient  church,  it  is  said,  it  was 
generally  a  building  separate,  and  dis- 
tinct from  the  church.  It  consisted  of 
an  ante-room,  where  the  adult  persons 
to  be  baptized  made  their  confession  of 
faith  ;  and  an  inner  room,  where  the 
ceremony  of  baptism  was  peiformed. 
Thus  it  continued  to  the  sixth  century, 
"when  the  baptisteries  began  to  be  taken 
into  the  church. 

BARDESANISTS,  a  sect  so  deno- 
minated from  their  leader  Bardesanes,  a 
Syrian,  of  Edessa,  in  Mesopotamia,  who 
lived  in  the  second  century.  They  be- 
lieved that  the  actions  of  men  depended 
altogether  on  fate,  and  that  God  him- 
self is  subject  to  necessity. — They  de- 
nied the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and 
■  the  incarnation  and  death  of  our  Sa- 
viour. 

BARLAAMITES,  the  followers  of 
Barlaam,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  who 
was  a  very  zealous  champion  in  behalf 
of  the  Greek  against  the  Latin  church. 
Jt  is  said  that  he  adopted  the  sentiments 
and  precepts  of  the  Stoics,  with  respect 
to  the  obligations  of  morality  and  the 
duties  of  life ;  and  digested  them  into  a 
■work  of  his,  which  is  known  by  the 
title  of  Ethica  ex  Stoicis. 

BARNABAS,  EPISTLES  OF,  an 
apocrvphal  work  ascribed  to  St.  Barna- 
bas.   It  was  first  published  in  Greek, 


from  a  copy  of  father  Hugh  Mcnaed,  a 
monk.  Vo'ssius  published  it,  in  16.56, 
with  the  epistles  of  Ignatius. — The  Gos- 
pel of  Barnabas  is  another  apocryphal 
work  ascribed  to  Barnabas,  wherein 
the  history  of  Jesus  Christ  is  given  in  a 
different  riianiier  from  that  of  the  evan- 
gelists. 

BARNABITES,  a  religious  order, 
founded  in  the  sixteenth  century,  by 
three  Italian  gentleman,  who  had  been 
advised  by  a  famous  preacher  of  those 
da\-s  to  read  carefully  the  epistles  of  St. 
Paul.  Hence  they  were  called  Clerks 
of  St.  Paul;  and  Barnabites,  because 
they  performed  their  first  exercise  in  a 
church  of  St.  Barnabas  at  Milan.  Their 
habit  is  black  ;  and  their  office  is  to  in- 
stinct, catechise,  and  serve  in  mission. 

BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY,  St. 
(^the  24th  August)  is  a  day  distinguished 
in  history,  as  the  anniversary  of  the 
horrid  and  atrocious  sacrifice  of  human 
blood  called  the  Parisian  Massacre.  See 
Persecution. 

BARTHOLOMITES,  a  religious 
order  founded  at  Geneva  in  1307  ;  but, 
the  monks  leading  irregular  lives,  it  was 
suppressed  in  1650,  and  their  effects 
confiscated.  In  the  church  of  the  mo- 
nastery of  this  order  at  Geneva  is  pre- 
served the  image,  which,  it  is  pretend- 
ed, Christ  sent  to  king  Abganis. 

BASILIAN  MONKS,  religious,  of 
the  order  of  St.  Basil,  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, who,  having  retired  into  a  desert 
in  the  province  of  Pontus,  founded  a 
monastery,  and  drew  up  rules,  to  the 
amount  of  some  hundreds,  for  his  disci- 
ples. This  new  society  soon  spread  all 
over  the  East ;  nor  was  it  long  before  it 
passed  into  the  West.  Some  pretend 
that  St.  BasU  saw  himself  the  spiritual 
father  of  more  than  90,000  monks  in  the 
East  only ;  but  this  order,  which  flou- 
rished for  more  than  three  centuries, 
was  considerably  diminished  by  heresA', 
schism,  and  a  change  of  empire.  The 
historians  of  this  order  say  that  it  has 
produced  14  popes,  1805  bishops,  3010 
abbots,  and  11085  martyrs,  besides  an- 
infinite  number  of  confessors  and  vir- 
gins. This  order  likewise  boasts  of 
several  emperors,  kings,  and  princes, 
who  have  embraced  its  rule. 

BASILIDIANS,  a  denomination,  in 
the  second  century,  from  Basilides, 
chief  of  the  Egyptian  Gnostics.  He  ac- 
knowledged the  existence  of  one  Su- 
preme God,  perfect  in  goodness  and 
wisdom,  who  produced  from  his  own 
substance  seven  beings,  or  aious,  of  a 
most  excellent  nature.  Two  of  these 
,aions,  called  Dynamis  and  Sophiz  (i.  e. 
j/iower  and  wisclom,)  engendered  the  ar.- 


BAS 


4(i 


"BAT 


liels  of  the  liighcst  order.  These  angels 
Jormed  a  heaven  for  their  habitation, 
and  brouglit  forth  other  angelic  beings 
of  a  nature  somewhat  inferior  to  their 
own.  Many  other  generations  of  angels 
followed  these.  New  heavens  were  also 
created,  until  the  number  of  angelic 
orders,  and  of  their  respective  heavens, 
amounted  to  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
five,  and  thus  equalled  the  days  of  the 
year.  All  these  are  under  the  empire 
of  an  omnipotent  Lord,  whom  Basihdes 
called  Abraxas. 

The  inhal)itants  of  the  lowest  heavens, 
which  touched  ujion  tlie  borders  of  the 
eternal,  malignant,  and  srlf-animated 
matter,  concei\ed  the  design  of  forming 
a  world  from  that  confused  mass,  and  of 
creating  an  order  of  beings  to  people  it. 
This  design  was  carried  nito  execution, 
and  was  approved  bv-  the  Supreme  God, 
who  to  the  animal  life,  with  which  only 
the  inhabitants  of  this  new  world  were 
at  first  endowed,  added  a  reasonable 
soul,  giving  at  the  same  time  to  the  an- 
gels the  empire  over  them. 

These  angelic  beings,  advanced  to  the 
goxernment  of  the  world  which  they  had 
created,  fell  by  degrees  from  their  ori- 
ginal parity,  and  soon  manifested  the 
fatal  marks  of  theh'  depravity  and  cor- 
ruption. They  not  only  endeavoured  to 
efface  in  the  minds  of  men  their  know- 
ledge of  the  Supreme  Being,  that  they 
might  be  worshipped  in  his  stead,  but 
also  began  to  war  against  each  other, 
with  an  ambitious  view  to  enlarge  every 
one  the  bounds  of  his  respective  domi- 
nion. The  most  arrogant  and  turbulent 
of  all  these  angelic  spirits  was  that 
wliich  presided  over  the  Jewish  nation. 
— Hence,  the  Supreme  God,  beholding 
with  compassion  the  miserable  state  of 
i-ational  beings,  who  groaned  under  the 
contest  of  these  jarring  powers,  sent 
from  heaven  his  son  J^us,  or  Christ,  the 
chief  of  the  aions,  that,  joined  in  a  sub- 
stantial union  with  the  man  Jesus,  he 
might  restore  the  knowledge  of  the  Su- 
preme God,  destroy  the  empire  of  those 
angelic  natures  which  presided  over  the 
world,  and  particularly  that  of  the  ar- 
rogant leader  of  the  Jewish  people.  The 
god  of  the  Jews  alarmed  at  this,  sent 
forth  his  ministers  to  seize  the  man  Je- 
sus, and  put  him  to  death.  They  exe- 
cuted his  commands ;  but  their  cruelty 
could  not  extend  to  Christ,  against 
whom  their  efforts  were  vain.  Those 
souls  who  obey  the  precepts  of  the  Son 
of  God,  shall,  after  the  dissolution  of 
their  mortal  frame,  ascend  to  the  Fa- 
ther, Avhilc  their  bodies  return  to  the 
corrupt  mass  of  matter  whence  they 
were  formed.  Disobedient  sjjirits,  on  the , 


contrary;  sliall  pass   successively  into 
other  bodies. 

BATANISTS,or  Assassins;  a  fa- 
mous heretical  sect  of  murderers  among 
the  Mahometans,  who  settled  in  Persia 
about  1090.  Their  head  and  chief  seems 
to  have  been  Hassan  Sabah,  who  made 
fanatical  slaves  of  his  subjects.  Their 
religion  was  a  compound  of  that  of  the 
Magi,  the  Jcav^,  the  Christians,  and  the 
Mahometans.  They  believed  the  Holy 
Ghost  resided  in  their  chief;  that  his 
orders  proceeded  from  God  himself,  and 
^were  real  declarations  of  his  will. 

This  chief,  from  his  exalted  residence 
on  Mount  Lebanon,  was  called  the  old 
man  of  the  vwuntain  ;  who,  like  a  vin- 
dictive deity,  with  the  thunderbolt  in  his 
hand,  sent  nievitable  death  to  all  quar- 
ters, so  that  even  kings  trembled  at  his 
sanguinary  power.  His  subjects  would 
prostrate  themselves  at  the  foot  of  his 
throne,  requesting  to  die  by  his  hand  or 
order,  as  a  faA^our  l)y  which  they  were 
sure  of  passing  into  paradise.  "Are 
your  subjects,"  said  the  old  man  of  the 
mountain  to  the  son-in-law  of  Amoury, 
king  of  Jenisalem,  "as  ready  in  their 
submission  as  mine  i"'  and  without  stay- 
ing for  an  answer,  made  a  sign  with  his 
hand,  when  ten  young  men  in  white, 
who  were  standing  on  an  adjacent  tower, 
instantly  threw  themselves  down.  To 
one  of  his  guards  he  said,  "  Draw  your 
dagger,  and  plimge  it  into  your  breast ;" 
which  was  no  sooner  said  than  obeyed. 
At  the  command  of  their  chief,  they 
made  no  difficulty  of  stabbing  any  prince, 
even  on  his  throne ;  and  for  that  pur- 
pose conformed  to  the  dress  and  reli- 
gion of  the  country  that  they  might  be 
less  suspected.  To  animate  them  on 
such  attempts,  the  Scheik  previously 
indulged  them  with  a  foretaste  of  the 
delights  of  paradise.  Delicious  soporific 
drinks  were  given  them ;  and  while 
they  lay  asleep,  they  were  carried  into 
beautiful  gardens,  where,  awaking  as  it 
were  in  paradise,  and  inflamed  with 
views  of  perpetual  enjoyments,  they 
sallied  forth  to  perform  assassinations 
of  the  blackest  dye. 

It  is  said,  they  once  thought  of  em- 
bracing the  Christian  religion ;  and  some 
have  thought  the  Druses  a  remnant  of 
this  singular  race  of  barbarians. 

BATH-KOL,  (i.  e.  the  daughter  of  a 
voice,)  an  oracle  among  the  Jews,  fre- 
quently menti(5ned  in  their  books,  espe- 
cially the  Talmud.  It  was  a  fantastical 
way  of  divination  invented  by  the  Jews, 
though  called  by  them  a  revelation  from 
(iod's  will,  which  he  made  to  his  chosen 
people  after  all  verbal  prophecies  had 
ceased  in  Israel. 


BAX 


47 


BEG 


BAXTERIANS,  so  called  from  the 
learned  and  pious  Mr.  Richard  Baxter, 
who  was  born  in  the  year  1615.  His  de- 
sign was  to  reconcile  Cidvin  and  Armi- 
nius;  for  this  purpose  he  formed  a  mid- 
dle scheme  between  their  systems.  He 
taught  that  God  had  elected  some, 
whom  he  is  deteiTnined  to  save,  with- 
out any  foresight  of  their  good  works ', 
and  that  others  to  whom  the  Gospel  is 
preached  have  common  grrxe,  which  if 
they  improve,  they  shall  obtain  saving 
grace,  accoi-ding  to  the  doctrhie  cf  Ar- 
minius.  This  denomination  own,  with 
Calvin,  that  the  merits  of  Christ's  death 
are  to  be  applied  to  believers  only  ;  but 
they  also  assert  that  all  men  are  in  a 
state  capable  of  salvation. 

Mr.  Baxter  maintains  that  there  may 
be  a  certainty  of  perse\erance  here,  and 
yet  he  cannot  tell  whether  a  man  may 
not  have  so  weak  a  degree  of  saving 
§i'ace  as  to  lose  it  again. 

In  ordei-  to  prove  that  the  death  of 
Christ  has  put  all  in  a  state  capable  of 
salvation,  the  following  arguments  are 
alleged  by  this  learned  author.  1.  It  was 
the  nature  of  all  mankind  which  Christ 
assumed  at  his  incarnation,  and  the  sins 
of  all  mankind  were  the  occasion  of  his 
suffering. — 2.  It  was  to  Adam,  as  the 
common  father  of  lapsed  mankind,  that 
God  made  the  promise,  (Gen.  iii.  15.) 
The  conditional  new  covenant  does 
equally  ^ive  Christ,  pardon,  and  life  to 
all  mankind,  on  condition  of  acceptance. 
The  conditional  grant  is  imi\'ersal  : 
IVhosorver  believeth  shall  be  saved. — 3. 
It  is  not  to  the  elect  only,  but  to  all  man- 
kind, that  Christ  has  commanded  his 
ministers  to  proclaim  his  Gospel,  and 
offer  the  benefits  of  his  procunng. 

There  are,  Mr.  Baxter  allows,  cer- 
tain fi-uits  of  Christ's  death  which  are 
proper  to  the  elect  onlv:  1.  Grace 
eventually  worketh  m  them  true  faith, 
repentance,  conversion,  and  union  with 
Christ  as  his  living  members. — 2.  The 
actual  forgiveness  of  sin  as  to  the  spiri- 
tual and  eternal  punishment. — 3.  Our 
i-econciliation  with  God,  and  adoption 
and  right  to  the  heavenlv  inheritance. 
— 4.  The  Spirit  of  Christ  to  dwell  in  us, 
and  sanctify  us,  by  a  habit  of  divine  love, 
Rom.  yiii.  9—13.  Gal.  v.  6.— -5.  Employ- 
ment m  holy,  acceptable  service,  and 
access  m  prayer,  with  a  promise  of  be- 
ing heard  through  Christ,  Heb.  ii.  5,  6. 
John  XIV.  13.— 6.  Well  groimded  hopes 
of  _  salvation,  peace  of  conscience,  and 
spiritual  communion  with  the  church 
mystical  in  heaven  and  earth,  Rom.  v. 
12.  Heb.  xii.  22.-7.  A  special  interest  in 
Christ,  and  intercession  with  the  Father, 
Rom.  viii.  32,  oo. — 8.  Resurrection  unto 


life,  and  justification  in  judgment ;  glo- 
rification of  the  soul  at  deatii,  and  of  the 
body  at  the  resurrection,  Phil.  iii.  20,  2 1 . 
2  Cor.  v.  1,  2,  3. 

Christ  has  made  a  conditional  deed  ot 
gift  of  these  benefits  to  all  mankind ;  but 
the  elect  only  accept  and  possess  thcni. 
Hence  he  infei-s,  that  though  Christ 
jiever  absolutely  intended  or  decreed 
that  his  death  should  eventually  put  all 
men  -in  possession  of  those  benefits,  yet 
lie.did  intend  and  decree  that  all  naeii 
I  should  have  a  conditional  gift  of  them 
^by  his  death. 
'  Baxter,  it  is  said,  wrote  120  books, 
and  had  60  written  against  him.  20,000 
of  his  Call  to  the  UiiConverted  were 
sold  in  one  year.  He  told  a  friend,  that 
six  brothers  were  converted  by  reading 
that  Call.  The  eminent  Mr.  Elliott, 
of  New  England,  translated  this  tract 
into  the  Indian  tongue.  A  young  Indian 
prince  was  so  taken  with  it,  that  he 
read  it  with  tears,  and  ched  with  it  in 
his  hand.  Calarny's  Life  of  Baxter ; 
Maxter's  Catholic  Theology,  p.  51 — 55; 
Baxter's  End  of  Doctrinal  Contro- 
■versn,  p.  154,  155. 

BEATIFICATION,  in  the  Romish 
church,  the  act  whereby  the  pope  de- 
clares a  person  happy  after  death.  See 
Canonization. 

BEATITUDE  imports  the  highest 
degree  of  happiness  human  nature  can 
arrive  to,  the  fruition  of  God  in  a  future 
life  to  all  eternity.  It  is  also  used  when 
speaking  of  the  theses  contained  in 
Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  wherebv- 
he  pronounces  the  several  characters 
there  mentioned  blessed. 

BEGHARDS,  or  Beguards,  a  sect 
that  arose  in  Germany  in  the  thirteentli 
century,  and  took  St.  Begghe  for  their 
patroness.  They  employed  themselves 
m  making  linen  cloth,  each  supporting 
himself  by  his  labour,  and  were  united 
only  by  the  bonds  of  charity,  without 
having  any  particular  rule;  but  when 
pope  Nicholas  IV.  had  confirmed  thar 
of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis  in  1289, 
they  embraced  it  the  year  following. 

REGUINES,  a  congregation  of  nuns 
founded  either  bySt.  Begghe  or  by  Lam- 
bert le  Begue.  They  were  established, 
first  at  Leige,  and  afterwards  at  Neville*, 
in  1207 ;  and  from  this  last  settlement 
sprang  the  great  number  of  Beguiuages 
which  are  spread  over  all  Flanders, 
and  which  have  passed  from  Flanders 
into  Germany.  In  the  latter  countr\- 
some  of  them  fell  into  extravagant 
errors,  persuading  themselves  that  it 
was  possible  in  the  present  life  to  ai- 
I'ive  to  the  highest  perfection,  even  to 
impeccability,  and  a  clear  view  of  God; 


BE  II 


4S 


33EH 


in  short,  to  so  eminent  a  degree  of  con- 
templation, tliat  tUere  was  no  necessity, 
after  this,  to  submit  to  the  laws  of  mor- 
tal men,  civil  or  ecclesiastical.  The 
council  of  Vienna,  in  11 13,  condemned 
these  errors;  permitting,  nevertheless, 
those  among  them  who  continued  in  the 
tnie  faith  to  live  in  charity  and  peni- 
tence, either  with  or  without  vows. 
There  still  subsists,  or  at  least  sulisisted 
till  lately,  many  communities  of  them 
in  Flanders.  What  changes  the  late  re- 
volutions may  have  effected  upon  these 
nurseries  of  superstition  we  have  yet  to 
leam. 

BEHMENISTS,  a  name  given  to 
those  mystics  who  adopt  the  explica- 
tions of  the  mysteries  of  nature  and 
grace,  as  given  by  Jacob  Behmen.  This 
writer  was  bom  in  the  year  1575,  at  Old 
Seidenburg,  near  Gorlitz,  in  upper  Lu- 
satia:  he  was  a  shoemaker  by  trade.  He 
is  described  as  having  been  thoughtful 
and  religious  I'rom  his  youth  up,  taking 
peculiar  pleasure  in  frequenting  public 
worship.  At  length,  seriously  consider- 
ing within  himself  that  speech  of  our 
Saviour,  ]\Iy  Father  which  is  in  heaven 
nvill  give  the  Holy  Spirit  to  them  that 
ask  him,  he  was  thereby  thoroughly 
avv'akened  in  liimself,  and  set  forward  to 
desire  that  promised  Comforter;  and, 
continuing  in  that  earnestness,  he  was 
at  last,  to  use  his  own  expression,  "sur- 
rounded with  a  divine  light  for  seven 
davs,  and  stood  in  the  highest  contem- 
plation and  kingdom  of  joys!"  After 
this,  about  the  year  1600,  he  was  again 
surrounded  by  the  di\'ine  light,  and  re- 
plenished with  the  heavenly  knowledge ; 
insomuch  as,  going  abroad  into  the  fields, 
and  viewing  the  herbs  and  grass,  by  his 
inward  light  he  saw  into  their  essences, 
use,  and  properties,  which  were  disco- 
vered to  him  by  their  lineaments,  figures, 
and  signatures.  In  the  year  1610,  he 
had  a  third  special  illumination,  where- 
in still  farther  mysteries  were  revealed 
to  him.  It  was  not  till  the  year  1612 
that  Behmen  committed  these  revela- 
tions to  writing.  His  first  treatise  is  en- 
titled Aurora,  which  was  seized  on  and 
withheld  from  him  by  the  senate  of  Gor- 
litz (who  persecuted  him  at  the  insti- 
vjation  of  the  primate  of  that  place)  be- 
tore  it  was  finished,  and  he  never  after- 
wards proceeded  with  it  farther  than 
by  adding  some  explanaton'  notes.  The 
next  production  of  his  pen  is  called  The 
Three  Principles.  In  this  work  he  more 
fully  illustrates  the  subjects  treated  of 
in  the  former,  and  supplies  what  is 
wanting  in  that  work.  The  contents  of 
these  two  ti'eatises  may  be  divided  as 
follow :  1.  How  all  things  came  from  a 


j  working  will  of  the  holy  triune  iiicoin- 
prehensible  God,  manifesting  himself  a-i 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  through 
!  an  outward  perceptible  working  triune 
■power  of  fire,  light,  and  spirit,  in  the 
i  kingdom  of  heaven. — 2.  How  and  what 
angels  and  men  were  in  their  creation  ; 
that  they  are  in  and  fi-om  God,  his  real 
offspring;  that  their  life  begun  in  and 
from  this  divine  fire  which  is  the  Father 
of  light,  generating  a  birtli  of  light  in 
their  souls ;  fi-om  both  which  proceeds 
the  Holy  Spirit,  or  breath  of  divine  lo-ve 
in  the  triune  creature,  as  it  does  in  the 
triune  Creator. — 3.  How  some  angels, 
and  all  men,  are  fallen  from  God,  and 
their  first  state  of  a  divine  triune  life 
in  him ;  what  thev  are  in  their  fallen 
state,  and  the  difference  between  the 
fall  of  angels  and  that  of  man. — 4.  How 
I  the  earth,  stars,  and  elements,  were 
I  created  in  consequence  of  the  fallen  an- 
j  gels. — 5.  ^^'hence  there  is  good  and  evil 
I  in  all  this  temporal  world,  in  all  its 
I  creatures,  animate  and  inanimate  ;  and 
I  what  is  meant  by  the  curse  that  dwells 
every  where  in  it. — 6.  Of  the  kingdom 
of  Christ ;  how  it  is  set  in  opposition  to 
and  fights  and  strives  against  the  king- 
dom of  hell. — 7.  How  man,thiMugh  faith 
in  Christ,  is  able  to  overcome  the  king- 
dom of  hell,  and  triumph  over  it  in  the 
divine  power,  and  thereny  obtain  eternal 
salvation ;  also  how,  through  working 
in  the  hellish  quantity  of  principle,  he 
casts  himself  into  perdition. — 8.  How 
and  why  sin  and  misery,  wrath  and 
death,  shall  only  reign  for  a  time,  till 
the  love,  the  wisdom,  and  the  power  of 
God  shall  in  a  supernatural  way  (the 
mystery  of  (iod  made  man)  triumph 
over  sin,  miser}'',  and  death  ;  and  make 
fallen  man  rise  to  the  glory  of  angels, 
and  this  material  system  shake  off  its 
curse,  and  enter  into  an  everlasting  union 
with  that  heaven  from  whence  it  fell. 

The  3^ear  after  he  wrote  his  Three 
Principles,  by  which  arc  to  be  under- 
stood— tlie  dark  world,  or  hell,  in  which 
the  devils  live — the  light  world,  or  hea- 
ven, in  which  the  angels  live — the  ex- 
ternal or  visible  world,  which  has  pro- 
ceeded from  the  intenial  and  spiritual 
worlds,  in  which  man,  as  to  his  bodily 
life,  lives ;  Behmen  produced  his  Three 
fold  Life  of  Man, according  to  the  Three 
Principles.  In  this  work  he  treats  more 
largely  of  the  state  of  man  in  this  world ; 
1.  That  he  has  that  immoital  spark  of 
|{  life  which  is  common  to  angels  and 
'!  devils. — 2.  That  divine  life  of  the  light 
1  and  Sjiirit  of  God,  which   makes   the 

•  essential  diff^'rence   between   an   angel 

•  '„  and  a  devil,  the  last  having  cxtinguish- 
il  ed    this    divine    life   in    himself;    but 


I 


BEL 


49 


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tliat  man  can  only  attain  unto  this  hea- 
venly life  of  the  i;econd  pinnciijlc  through 
the  new  biith  in  Christ  Jesus.- — 3.  The 
life  of  the  tliinl. principle,  or  of  this  ex- 
teiTial  and  visible  world.  Thus  the  life 
of  the  first  and  third  principles  is  com- 
mon to  all  men;  but  the  lite  of  the  se- 
cond principle  only  to  a  true  Christian 
or  child  of  God. 

Bchmen  wrote  several  other  treati- 
ses, besides  the  three  already  enumera- 
ted ;  but  these  three  being,  as  it  were, 
the  basis  of  all  his  other  writings,  it  was 
thought  proper  to  notice  them  particu- 
larly. His  conceptions  are  often  clothed 
under  allegorical  symbols;  and  in  his 
latter  works  he  has  frequently  adopted 
chemical  and  Latin  phrases  to  express 
his  ideas,  which  phrases  he  borrowed 
from  conversation  with  learned  men, 
the  education  he  had  received  being  too 
illiterate  to  furnish  him  with  them :  but 
as  to  the  matter  contained  in  his  ww- 
tings,  he  disclaimed  having  borrowed  it 
either  from  men  or  books.  He  died  in 
the  year  1624.  His  last  words  were, 
"Now  I  go  hence  mto  Paradise." 

Some  of  Behmen's  principles  were 
adopted  by  the  late  ingenious  and  pious 
William  Law,  who  has  clothed  them  in 
a  more  modern  dress,  and  in  a  less  ob- 
scure stvle.  See  Behmen's  Works; 
Okeiy's  Memoirs  of  Behmen. 

BELIEF,  in  its  general  and  natural 
sense,  denotes  a  persuasion  or  an  assent 
of  the  mind  to  the  truth  of  any  pi-oposi- 
tion.  In  this  sense  belief  has  no  relation 
to  any  particular  kind  of  means  or  ar- 
guments, but  may  be  produced  by  any 
means  whatever:  thus  we  are  said  to 
believe  our  senses,  to  believe  our  reason, 
to  believe  a  witness.  Belief,  in  its  more 
restrained  sense,  denotes  that  kind  of 
assent  which  is  gi-ounded  only  on  the 
authority  or  testimony  of  some  person. 
In  this  sense  belief  stands  opposed  to 
knowledge  and  science.  We  do  not  say 
that  we  believe  snow  is  white,  but  we 
knoiv  it  to  be  so.    But  when  a  thing  is 

Kropounded  to  us,  of  which  we  ourselves 
ave  no  knowledge,  but  which  appears 
to  us  to  be  true  from  the  testimony  given 
to  it  by  another,  this  is  what  we  call  be- 
lief.   See  Faith. 

BELIEVERS,  an  appellation  given, 
toward  the  close  of  the  first  centurv,  to 
those  Christians  who  had  been  admitted 
into  the  church  by  baptism,  and  instruct- 
ed in  all  the  mysteries  of  religion.  Thev 
were  thus  called  in  contradistinction  to 
the  catechumens  who  had  not  been  bap- 
tized, and  were  debarred  from  those 
privileges.  Among  us  it  is  often  used 
_^  synonymously  with  Christian.  See 
Christian. 


BENEDICTINES,  an  order  of 
monks  who  professed  to  follow  the 
rules  of  St.  Benedict.  They  were  obli- 
ged to  perfoiTTi  their  devotions  seven 
times  in  twenty-four  hours.  They  were 
obliged  always  to  go  two  and  two  toge- 
ther. Every  day  in  Lent  they  fasted  till 
six  in  the  evening,  and  abated  of  their 
usual  time  in  sleeping,  eating,  8cc. — 
Every  monk  had  two  coats,  two  cowls, 
a  table-book,  a  knife,  a  needle,  and  a 
handkerchief;  and  the  furniture  of  his 
bed  was  a  mat,  a  blanket,  a  rug,  and  a 
pillow.  The  time  when  this  order  came 
into  England  is  well  kno%vn,  for  to  it  the 
English  ov/e  their  conversion  from  ido- 
latry. They  founded  the  metropolitan 
church  of  Canterbury,  and  all  the  ca- 
thedrals that  were  afterwards  ei-ected. 
The  order  has  produced  a  vast  number 
of  eminent  men. — Their  Alcuinus  form- 
ed the  university  of  Paris;  their  Diony- 
sius  Exiguus  perfected  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal computation ;  their  Guido  invented 
the  scale  of  music;  and  their  Sylvester 
the  organ. 

BENEDICTION,  in  a  general  sense 
the  act  of  blessing,  or  giving  praise  to 
God,  or  returning  thanks  for  his  favours. 
The  Jews,  it  is  said,  are  obliged  to  re- 
hearse a  hundred  benedictions  per  day, 
of  which  eighty  are  to  be  spoken  in  the 
morning.  It  was  usual  to  give  a  bene- 
diction to  travellers  on  then-  taking 
leave;  a  pi^actice  which  is  still  preser- 
ved among  the  monks.  Benedictions 
were  likewise  given  among  the  ancient 
Jews  as  well  as  Christians,  by  imposi- 
tion of  hands.  And  w^hen  at  length  the 
primitive  simplicity  of  the  Christian 
worship  began  to  give  way  to  ceremony, 
they  added  the  sign  of  the  cross,  v\'hicli 
was  made  with  the  same  hand  as  be- 
fore, only  elevated  or  extended.  Hence 
benediction  in  the  modern  Romish 
church  is  used,  in  a  more  particular 
manner,  to  denote  the  sign  of^  the  cross 
made  by  a  bishop  or  prelate  as  con- 
ferring some  grace  on  the  people. 

Benediction  is  also  used  for  an  eccle- 
siastical ceremony,  wherebv  a  thing  is 
rendered  sacred  or  venerable.  In  this 
sense  benediction  differs  fi-om  consecra- 
tion, as  m  the  latter,  unction  is  applied, 
which  is  not  in  the  foiTner:  thus  the 
chalice  is  consecrated,  and  the  pix  bles- 
sed; as  the  former,  not  the  latter,  is 
anointed,  though  in  the  common  usage 
these  two  words  are  applied  promiscu- 
ously. The  spirit  of  piety,  or  i-ather  of 
superstition,  has  introduced  into  the 
Romish  church  benedictions  for  almost 
every  thing :  we  read  of  forms  of  bene- 
dictions for  wax  candles,  for  boughs, 
for  ashes,  for  church  vessels,  for  orna^ 
G 


BEN 


50 


BER 


ments,  for  flags,  or  ensigns,  arms,  first 
fruits,  houses,  ships,  paschal  eggs,  cili- 
cium,  or  the  hair-cloth  of  penitents, 
church-yai'ds,  &c.  In  general,  these  be- 
nedictions are  performed  by  aspersions 
of  holy  water,  signs  of  the  ci-oss,  and 
prayers  suitable  to  the  natui*e  of  the  ce- 
iTsmony.  The  forms  of  these  benedic- 
tions are  fomid  in  the  Roman  pontifical, 
in  the  Roman  missal,  in  the  book  of  ec- 
clesiastical cei'emonies,  printed  in  Pope 
Leo  X.'s  time,  and  in  the  rituals  and 
ceremonies  of  the  different  churches, 
which  are  found  collected  in  father 
Martene's  work  on  the  rites  and  disci- 
pline of  the  chui'ch. 

BENEFICENCE,  the  practice  of 
doing  good;  active  goodness. — Next  to 
justice,  the  most  prominent  virtue  in  the 
system  of  morality,  is  beneficence.  Pow- 
er makes  us  to  be  feared,  riches  to  be 
flattered,  learning  to  be  admired;  but 
beneficence  renders  us  amiable  and  use- 
ful in  the  scale  of  society.  Some  quali- 
fications are  solitary,  and  centre  mostly 
in  ourselves ;  but  this  is  social,  diffusive, 
and  kind.  The  objects  of  our  benefi- 
cence are  all  those  who  are  in  the  sphere 
of  our  influence  and  action,  without  re- 
spect to  party  or  sect.  Toward  supe- 
riors, beneficence  expresseth  itself  in 
respect,  honour,  submission,  and  ser- 
vice ;  toward  inferiors,  in  liberality,  con- 
descension, protection,  and  support ;  to- 
ward equals,  in  all  the  offices  of  love 
their  cases  require,  and  which  they  have 
ability  for.  It  includes  all  the  kind  ex- 
eilions  on  the  behalf  of  the  poor,  the 
sick,  the  fatherless,  the  widow,  the  dis- 
tressed, &c.  and  especially  those  "  who 
are  of  the  household  of  faith,"  Gal.  vi. 
10.  The  7neans  of  beneficence  are — 
communication  of  temporal  supplies, 
Gal.  vi.  6;  prayer,  James  v.  16;  sym- 
pathy, Rom.  xii.  15;  appropriate  ad- 
vice and  conversation,  Col.  ih.  16. — Ob- 
ligadons  to  beneficence  arise  from  the 
law  of  nature.  Acts  xvii.  26;  the  law  of 
revelation,  Heb.  xiii.  16;  the  relations 
we  stand  in  to  each  other.  Gal.  vi.  1,  2 ; 
the  example  of  Christ  and  illustrious 
characters,  Acts  x.  38 ;  the  resemblance 
we  herein  bear  to  the  best  of  Beings, 
Acts  xiv.  1" ;  and  the  pleasure  we  re- 
ceive and  give  in  so  noble  an  employ. 
See  Benevolence,  Charity,  Love. 

BENEVOLENCE,  the  love  of  man- 
.kind  in  general,  accompanied  with  a  de- 
Sfire  to  jjromote  their  happiness.  It  is 
distinguished  from  beneficence,  that  be- 
ing the  firactke,  benevolence  the  desire 
of  doing  good.  Benevolence  must  be 
universal,  reaching  to  every  mai\  with- 
out exception ;  l)ut  beneficence  cannot 
be  so  universal,  for  it  is  necessarily  con- 


fined by  several  considerations ;  such  as 
our  knowledge  of  objects,  and  their  dif- 
ferent circumstances,  as  well  as  our 
own  abilities  and  opportunities  of  exer- 
cising them.  Benevolence  or  good  will 
to  others  does  not  imply  that  we  are  to 
neglect  our  own  interests.  Our  salva- 
tion, health,  prosperity,  and  reputation, 
should  all  be  objects  of  concern:  nor 
will  this  clash  with  the  affection  we  may 
bear  to  others;  on  the  contrai-y,  expe- 
riencing the  importance  of  these  bless- 
ings ourselves,  we  shall  be  anxious  for 
others  to  possess  them  also.  The  duties 
of  benevolence  include  those  we  owe  to 
men,  purely  on  the  ground  of  then*  be- 
ing of  the  same  species  with  ourselves ; 
such  as  sympathy,  relief,  8cc. ;  those  we 
owe  to  our  country,  desiring  its  honour, 
safety,  prosperity ;  those  we  owe  to  the 
church  of  God,  as  love,  zeal,  &c. ;  those 
we  owe  to  families  and  individuals,  as 
affection,  care,  m-ovision,  justice,  for- 
bearance, &c.  Benevolence  manifests 
itself  by  being  pleased  Avith  the  share  of 
good  every  creature  enjoys;  in  a  dispo- 
sition to  increase  it;  in  feeling  an  un- 
easiness at  their  sufferings ;  and  in  the 
abhorrence  of  cruelty  under  eveiy  dis- 
guise or  pretext.  The  desire  of  doing 
good  unconnected  with  any  idea  of  ad- 
vantage to  ourselves  is  called  disinte- 
rested benevolence,  though  some  doubt 
whethei",  strictly  speaking,  there  be  any 
such  thing;  as  benevolence  is  always 
attended  with  a  pleasure  to  ourselves, 
which  forms  a  kind  of  mental  interest. 
So  far,  however,  as  we  ai'e  able  to  pre- 
fer the  good  of  others  to  our  o-wn,  and 
sacrifice  our  own  comfort  for  the  wel- 
fare of  any  about  us,  so  far  it  may  be 
said  to  be  disinterested.  See  Hutcheson 
on  the  Passions,  p.  13 — 26 ;  Dodd.ridge's 
Lect.  65 ;  Beattie's  Elements  of  Moral 
Science,  vol.  i.  p.  244 — 249;  Brown's 
Second  Essay  o?i  Shaftesbury's  Cha- 
racteristics;  and  articles  Love,  and 
Self-love. 

BEREANS,  a  sect  of  protestant  dis- 
senters from  the  church  of  Scotland, 
who  take  their  title  from  and  profess  to 
follow  the  example  of  the  ancient  Be- 
reans,  in  building  their  system  of  faith 
and  practice  upon  the  Scriptures  alone, 
without  regard  to  any  human  authority 
whatever. 

As  to  the  origin  of  this  sect,  we  find 
that  the  Bereans  first  assembled  as  a 
separate  society  of  Christians,  in  the 
city  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  autumn  of 
1773,  and  soon  after  in  the  Parish  of 
Fettercairn.  The  opponents  of  the  Be- 
rean  doctrines  allege  that  this  new  sys- 
tem of  faith  would  never  have  been 
heai-d  of,  had   not   Mr.  Barclay,  the 


BER 


51 


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founder  of  it,  been  disappointed  of  a  set- 
tlement in  the  churcli  of  ScotUind.  But 
the  Bereans  in  unKv^er  to  this  chari^e 
appeal  not  only  to  Mr.  Barclay's  doc- 
truie,  uniformly  preached  in  the  church 
of  Fettcrcairn,  and  many  other  places 
in  that  neighbourhood,  for  fourteen  years 
before  that  benefice  became  vacant,  but 
likewise  to  two  different  treatises,  con- 
taining the  same  doctrines,  published 
by  him  about  ten  or  twelve  years 
before  that  period.  They  admit,  in- 
deed, that  previous  to  May  1773,  when 
the  general  assembly,  by  sustaining  the 
king's  presentatioTi  in  favour  of  Mr. 
Foote,  excluded  Mr.  Barclay  from  suc- 
ceeding to  the  church  of  Fettercairn 
(notwithstanding  the  almost  unanimous 
desire  of  the  parishioners)  the  Bereans 
had  not  left  the  established  church,  or 
attempted  to  erect  themselves  into  a 
distinct  society ;  but  they  add,  that  this 
was  by  no  means  necessary  on  their 
part,  until  by  the  assembly's  decision 
they  were  in  danger  of  being  not  only 
deprived  of  his  instiuctions,  but  of  being 
scattered  as  sheep  without  a  shepherd. 
And  they  add,  that  it  was  Mr.  Barclay's 
open  and  public  avowal,  both  from  the 
pulpit  and  the  pi-ess,  of  those  peculiar 
sentiments,  which  now  distinguish  the 
Bereans,  that  was  the  first  and  princi- 
pal, if  not  the  only  cause  of  the  opposi- 
tion set  on  foot  agauist  his  settlement  in 
Fettercairn. 

The  Bereans  agree  with  the  great 
majority  of  Christians  i*especting  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  which  they  hold 
as  a  fundamental  article ;  and  they  also 
agree  in  a  great  measure  with  the  pro- 
fessed principles  of  both  our  established 
churches  respecting  predestination  and 
election,  though  they  allege  that  these 
doctrmes  are  not  consistently  taught  in 
either  church.  But  they  differ  from  the 
majority  of  all  sects  of  Christians  in  va- 
rious other  impoitant  particulars,  such 
as,  1.  Respecting  our  knowledge  of  the 
Deity.  Upon  this  subject  they  say,  the 
majority  of  professed  Christians  stum- 
ble at  the  very  thi-eshold  of  revelation ; 
and,  by  admitting  the  doctrine  of  natural 
religion,  natural  conscience,  natural  no- 
tices, &c.  not  founded  upon  revelation, 
or  derived  from  it  by  tradition,  they  give 
up  the  cause  of  Christianity  at  once  to 
the  infidels;  who  may  justly  argue,  as 
Mr.  Paine  in  fact  does  in  his  Age  of  Rea- 
son, that  there  is  no  occasion  for  any  re- 
velation or  word  of  God,  if  man  can  dis- 
cover his  nature  and  perfections  from 
his  works  alone.  But  this  the  Bereans 
argue  is  beyond  the  natural  powers  of 
human  reason ;  and  therefore  our  know- 
ledge of  God  is  fix)m  x-evelation  alone. 


and  that  without  ie\  elation  man  would 
never  have  entertained  an  idea  of  hi.s 
existence. — 2.  Willi  regard  to  faith  in 
Christ,  and  assurance  of  salvation 
thi-ough  his  merits,  they  differ  from  al- 
most all  other  sects  whatsoever.  These 
they  reckon  inseparable,  or  rather  the 
same,  because  (say  they)  "God  hath 
expressly  declared,  he  that  believeth 
shall  be  saved ;  and  therefore  it  is  not 
only  absurd  but  impious,  and  in  a  man- 
ner culling  God  a  liar,  for  a  man  to  say 
I  believe  the  Gospel,  but  have  doubts, 
nevertheless,  of  my  own  salvation." 
With  regard  to  the  various  distinctions 
and  definitions  that  have  been  given  of 
different  kinds  of  faith,  they  argue  that 
there  is  nothing  incompi-ehensiljle  or  ob- 
scure in  the  meaning  of  this  word  as  used 
in  Scripture;  but  that  as  faith,  wlien 
applied  to  human  testimony,  signii'ies 
neither  more  nor  less  than  the  mci-c 
simple  belief  of  that  testimony  as  true, 
upon  the  authority  of  the  testifier,  so, 
when  applied  to  the  testimony  of  God, 
it  signifies  precisely  "the  belief  of  his 
testimony,  and  resting  upon  his  veracity 
alone,  without  any  kind  of  collateral 
support  from  concurrence  of  any  other 
evidence  or  testimony  whatever."  And 
they  insist  that,  as  this  faith  is  the  gift 
of  God  alone,  so  the  person  to  whom  it 
is  given  is  as  conscious  of  possessing  it 
as  the  being  to  whom  God  gives  life  is 
of  being  alive :  and  therefore  he  enter- 
tains no  doubts  either  of  his  faith  or  his 
consequent  salvation  through  the  merits 
of  Christ,  who  died  and  rose  again  for 
that  purpose.  In  a  word,  they  argue  that 
the  Gospel  would  not  be  what  it  is  held 
forth  to  be,  glad  tidings  of  great  joy,  if  it 
did  not  bring  full  personal  assurance  of 
eternal  salvation  to  the  believer ;  which 
assurance,  they  insist,  is  the  present  in- 
fallible privilege  and  poition  of  every 
individual  believer  of  the  Gospel. — 3. 
Consistently  with  the  above  definition 
of  faith,  they  say  that  the  sin  against 
the  Holy  Ghost,  which  has  alarmed  and 
puzzled  so  many  in  all  ages,  is  nothing 
else  but  unbelief;  and  that  the  expres- 
sion— "it  shall  not  be  forgiven  neither 
in  this  world  nor  that  which  is  to  come," 
means  only  that  a  person  dying  in  infi- 
delity would  not  be  forgiven  neither  un- 
der the  former  dispensation  by  Moses 
(the  then  present  dispensation,  kingdom, 
or  government  of  God,)  nor  under  the 
Gospel  dispensation,  which,  in  respect 
of  the  Mosaic,  was  a  kind  of  future 
world  or  kingdom  to  come. — 4.  The 
Bereans  interpret  a  great  part  of  the 
Old  Testament  pi'ophecies,  and  in  par- 
ticular the  whole  of  the  Psalms,  except- 
ing such  as  are  merely  historical  or  lau- 


BER 


52 


BET 


datory,  to  be  tj-pical  or  prophetical  of 
Jesus  Christ,  his  sufferings,  ULinement, 
me'liation  and  kingdom ;  and  they  es- 
teem it  a  gross  pei'\'ersion  of  these 
psahvis  and  prophecies  to  apply  theni  to 
the  expeiiences  of  private  Christians. 
In  proof  of  this,  they  not  only  urge  the 
words  of  the  apostle,  that  no  prophecy 
is  of  any  private  inttipretaticn,  but  they 
insist  that  the  whoie  of  the  quotations 
from  the  ancient  prophecies  in  the  Mew  | 
Testament,  and  particularly  these  from  ; 
thv  Psalms,  are  expressly  applied  toj 
Cnribt.  In  this  opinion  many  other 
classes  of  proiestants  agree  with  them. 
— 5.  Of  the  absolute  all-supermtending 
sovereignty  of  the  Almighty,  the  Be- 
reano  entertain  the  highest  idea,  as  well 
as  of  the  uninterrupted  exertion  thereof 
over  a.1]  his  works,  m  heaven,  earth,  and 
hell,  however  unsearchable  by  his  ci"ea- 
turcs.  A  Goil  without  election,  they  ar- 
gue, or  choice  in  all  his  works,  is  a  God 
without  existence,  a  mere  idol,  a  non- 
entity. And  to  deny  God's  election,  pur- 
pose, and  express  will  in  all  his  works 
is  to  make  him  inferior  to  ourselves. 

As  to  their  fiructice  and  discijiline, 
they  consider  infant  baptism  as  a  divine 
ordinance,  instituted  in  the  room  of  cir- 
cumcision; and  think  it  absurd  tu  sup- 
pose that  infants,  who  all  agi'ee  are  ad- 
missible to  the  kmgdcm  of  God  in  hea- 
ven, should,  nevertheless,  be  incapable 
of  being  admitted  into  his  visible  chui  ch 
on  earth.  They  commemorate  the 
Lord's  supper  generally  once  a  month ; 
but  as  the  words  of  the  institution  fix 
no  particular  period,  they  sometimes 
celebrate  it  ofteaer,  and  sometimes  at 
more  distant  periods,  as  it  may  suit  their 
general  convenience.  They  meet  every 
Lord's  day  for  the  purpose  of  preach- 
ing, praying,  and  exhorting  to  love  and 
good  woi'ks.  \\"ith  regard  to  admission 
and  exclusion  of  members,  their  method 
is  very  simple :  when  any  person,  after 
hearing  the  Berean  doctrines,  professes 
his  belief  and  assurance  of  the  truths  of 
the  Gospel,  and  desires  to  be  admitted 
into  then-  communion,  he  is  cheerfully 
received  upon  his  profession,  Avhatever 
maj-  have  been  his  former  manner  of 
life.  But  if  such  a  one  should  afterwards 
draw  back  from  his  good  profession  or 
practice,  they  first  admonish  him,  and, 
if  that  has  no  effect,  they  leave  him  to 
himself.  They  do  not  think  that  they 
have  any  power  to  deliver  a  backsliding 
brother  to  Satan;  that  text,  and  other 
similar  passages,  such  as,  "Whatsoever 
ye  shall  bind  on  earth  shall  be  bound  in 
heaven,"  £cc.  they  consider  as  restrict- 
ed to  the  apostles,  and  to  the  inspired 
testiipony  alone,  and  not  to  be  extended 


to  any  church  on  earth,  or  any  number 
of  churches  or  of  Christians,  whether 
decided  by  a  majority  of  votes,  or  by 
unanimous  voices.  Neither  do  they  think 
themselves  authorized,  as  a  Christian 
church,  to  enquire  into  each  other's  po- 
litical opinions,  any  more  than  to  exa- 
mine into  each  other's  notions  of  philo- 
sophy. They  both  recommend  and  prac- 
tise, as  a  Christian  duty,  submission  to 
lawful  authority ;  but  they  do  not  think 
that  a  man  by  becoming  a  Christian,  or 
joining  their  society,  is  under  any  obli- 
gation by  the  rules  of  the  Gospel  to  re- 
nounce his  right  of  private  judgment 
upon  matters  of  public  or  private  im- 
portance. Upon  all  such  subjects  they 
allow  each  other  to  think  and  act  as  each 
may  see  it  his  duty ;  and  they  require 
nothing  more  of  the  members  than  a 
uniform  and  steady  profession  of  the 
apostolic  faith,  and  a  suitable  walk  and 
conversation. 

It  is  said  that  their  doctrine  has  found 
converts  in  various  places  of  Scotland, 
England,  and  America;  and  that  they 
have  congregations  in  Edinburgh,  Glas- 
gow, Paisley,  Stirling,  Crieff,  Dundee, 
Arbroath,  Montrose,  Fettercaim,  Aber- 
deen, and  other  towns  in  Scotland,  as 
well  as  in  London,  and  various  places  in 
Eiigland. 

For  farther  particulars  of  the  doc- 
trines of  this  sect,  see  the  works  of 
Messrs.  Barclay,  A''icol,  Brooksbank, 
and  M'Rae.  See  also  Mr.  A.  M'Lean'n 
Treatise  on  the  Commission,  first  edi- 
tion, p.  88.  in  which  Mr.  Barclay's  no- 
tion of  assui'ance  is  combated. 

BERENGARIANS,  a  denomination, 
in  the  eleventh  century,  which  adhered 
to  the  opinic'ns  of  Berengarius,  who  as- 
serted that  the  biead  and  wine  in  the 
Lord's  Supper  are  not  really  and  essen- 
tially, but  figuratively  changed  into  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ.  His  followers 
were  divided  in  opinion  as  to  the  eucha- 
rist.  Some  allowed  them  to  be  changed 
in  effect;  others  admitted  a  change  in 
part;  and  others  an  entire  change,  with 
this  restriction,  that,  to  those  who  com- 
municated unworthily,  the  elements 
were  changed  back  again. 

BERYLLIANS,  so  called  from  Be- 
ryllus,  an  Arabian,  bishop  of  Bozarth, 
who  flourished  in  the  third  ccntur)^  He 
taught  that  Christ  did  not  exist  before 
Maiy;  but  that  a  spirit  issuing  from 
God  himself,  and  therefore  superior  to 
all  human  souls,  as  being  a  portion  of 
the  divine  nature,  was  united  to  him  at 
the  time  of  his  birth. 

BETHLEHEMITES,  a  sect  called 
also  Star-bearers,  because  they  were 
distinguished  by  a  red  star  having  five 


BIB 


53 


BIB 


1-ays,  which  tliey  wore  on  their  breast, 
in-mcmory  of  the  star  which  appeared 
to  the  wise  inen.  Sevci-al  authors  have 
mentioned  tliis  order,  but  none  of  them 
have  told  us  their  origin,  nor  where 
their  convents  were  situated;  if  we  ex- 
cept Matthew  Paris,  wlio  says  that,  in 
1257,  they  obtained  a  settlement  in 
Englajid,  which  was  at  Cambridge,  in 
Tnimpington-street. 

BIBLE,  the  name  applied  by  Chris- 
tiariS  by  way  of  eminence,  to  the  col- 
lection of  sacred  writings,  or  the  holy 
Sci'iptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. 

I.  Bible,  OTicient  Dwisiojis  and  Or- 
der of.  After  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity.  Ezra 
collected  as  many  copies  as  he  could  of 
the  sacred  writings,  and  out  of  them  all 
pi'epared  a  correct  edition,  arrangiiig 
the  several  books  in  their  proper  order. 
These  books  he  divided  into  three  parts. 
I.  The  law.  II.  The  prophets.  III.  The 
Hagiographia,  i.  e.  the  holy  writings. 
I.  The  law,  contains — 1,  Genesis; — 2, 
Exodus; — 3,  Leviticus; — 4,  Numbers; 
— 5,  Deuteronomy.  II.  The  writings  of 
the  prophets  are — 1,  Joshua ; — 2,  Judges, 
with  Ruth; — 3,  Samuel; — i,  Kings; — 
5,  Isaiah; — 6,  Jeremiah,  with  his  La- 
mentations;— 7,  Ezekiel; — 8,  Daniel; — 
9,  The  twelve  minor  prophets ; — 10, 
Job;— 11,  Ezra;— 12,  Nehemiah ;— 13, 
Esther.  III.  The  Hagiographia  consists 
of — 1,  The  Psalms; — 2,  The  Proverbs; 
— 3,  Ecclesiastes; — 4,  The  Song  of 
Solomon.  This  division  was  made  for 
the  sake  of  reducing  the  number  of  the 
sacred  books  to  the  number  of  the  let- 
ters in  their  alphabet,  which  amount  to 
twenty-two.  Aftei'wards  the  Jews  rec- 
koned twenty-four  books  in  their  canon 
of  scripture ;  in  disposing  of  which  the 
law  stood  as  in  the  former  division,  and 
the  pi-ophets  were  distributed  into  for- 
mer and  latter:  the  former  prophets  are 
Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings;  the 
lattei'  prophets  are  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  and  the  twelve  minor  prophets. 
And  the  Hagiographia  consists  of  the 
Psalms,  the  Proverbs,  Job,  the  Song  of 
Solomon,  Ruth,  the  Lamentations,  Ec- 
clesiastes, Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra,  the 
Chronicles.  Under  the  name  of  Ezra 
they  comprehend  Nehemiah:  this  or- 
der hath  not  always  been  obsei-\-ed,  but 
the  variations  from  it  ai-e  of  no  moment. 
The  five  books  of  the  law  are  divided 
into  forty-five  sections.  Tliis  division 
many  ot  the  Jews  hold  to  have  been  ap- 
pointed by  Moses  himself;  but  others, 
with  more  probability,  ascribe  it  to  Ezra. 
The  design  of  this  di\ision  was  that 
one  of  these  sections  might  be  read  in 


their  synagogues  every  sabbath  day :  the 
number  was  fifty-four,  because,  in  their 
intercalated  years,  a  month  being  then  ' 
added,  there  were  fifty-fovir  saboaths: 
in  other  years  they  reduced  them  to 
fifty-two,  by  twice  joining  together  two 
short  sections.  Till  the  persecution  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  they  read  only 
the  law;  but,  the  reading  of  it  being 
then  prohibited,  they  substituted  in  the 
room  of  it  fifty-four  sections  out  of  the 
prophets;  and  when  the  reading  of  the 
law  was  restored  by  the  Maccabees,  the 
section  which  was  read  every  sabbath 
out  of  the  law  served  for  their  first  les- 
son, and  the  section  out  of  the  prophets 
for  their  second.  These  sections  wei'e 
divided  into  verses;  of  which  division, 
if  Ezra  was  not  the  author,  it  was  intro- 
duced not  long  after  him,  and  seems  to 
have  been  designed  for  the  use  of  the 
Targumists,  or  Clialdee  interpreters; 
for  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  when  the  Hebrew 
language  ceased  to  be  their  mother 
tongue,  and  the  Chaldee  grew  uito  use 
instead  of  it,  the  custom  was,  that  the 
law  should  be  first  read  in  the  original 
Hebrew,  and  then  interpreted  to  the 
people  in  the  Chaldee  language;  for 
which  pui-pose  these  shorter  sections 
were  very  convenient. 

II.  Bible,  History  of.  It  is  thought 
that  Ezra  published  the  Scriptures  in 
the   Chaldee  character,  for,  that  lan- 

fnage  being  generally  used  among  the 
ews,  he  thought  proper  to  change  the 
old  Hebrew  character  for  it,  which  hath 
smce  that  time  been  retained  only  by 
the  Samaritans,  among  whom  it  is  pre- 
served to  this  day.  Prideaux  is  of  opi- 
nion that  Ezra  made  additions  in  seve- 
ral parts  of  the  Bible,  where  any  thing 
appeared  necessary  for  illustrating,  con- 
necting, or  completing  the  work;  in 
which  he  appears  to  have  been  assisted 
by  the  same  Spirit  in  which  they  were 
first  written.  Among  such  additions  are 
to  be  reckoned  the  last  chapter  of  Deu- 
tei'onomy,  wherein  Moses  seems  to  give 
an  account  of  his  own  death  and  burial, 
and  the  succession  of  Joslma  after  him. 
To  the  same  cause  our  learned  author 
thinks  are  to  be  attributed  many  other 
interpolations  in  the  Bible,  which  crea- 
ted difficulties  and  objections  to  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  sacred  text,  no  ways  to 
be  solved  without  allowing  them.  £zra 
changed  the  names  of  several  places 
which  were  grown  obsolete,  and,  in- 
stead of  them,  put  their  new  names  by 
which  they  were  then  called  in  the  text. 
Thus  it  is  that  Abraham  is  said  to  have 
pursued  the  kings  who  carried  Lot  away 
captive  as  far  as  Dan;  whereas  that 


BIB 


54 


BTB 


place  in  Moses's  time  was  called  Laish, 
the  name  Dan  being  unknown  till  the 
Danltes,  long  after  tlie  death  of  Moses, 
possessed  themselves  of  it.  The  Jewish 
canon  of  Sci'ipture  was  then  settled  by 
Ezra,  yet  not  so  but  that  several  varia- 
tions have  been  made  in  it.  Malachi,  for 
instance,  could  not  be  put  in  the  Bible 
by  him,  since  that  pi'ophet  is  allowed  to 
have  lived  after  Ezra ;  nor  could  Nehe- 
miah  be  there,  since  that  book  mentions 
(chap.  xii.  v.  22)  Jaddua  as  high  priest, 
and  Darius  Codomanus  as  king  of  Per- 
sia, who  were  at  least  a  hundred  years 
later  than  Ezra.  It  may  be  added,  that, 
in  the  first  book  of  Chronicles,  the  ge- 
nealogy of  the  sons  of  Zerubbabel  is  car- 
ried down  for  so  many  generations  as 
must  necessarily  bring  it  to  the  time  of 
Alexander ;  and  consequently  this  book, 
or  at  least  this  part  of  it,  could  not  be  in 
the  canon  in  Ezra's  days.  It  isprobable 
the  two  books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Ne- 
hemiah,  Esther,  and  Malachi,  v/ere 
adopted  into  the  Bible  in  the  time  of 
Simon  the  Just,  the  last  of  the  men  of 
the  great  s\Tiagogue.  The  Jews,  at  first, 
were  very  reserved  in  communicating 
their  Scriptures  to  strangers;  despising 
and  shunning  the  Gentiles,  they  would 
not  disclose  to  them  any  of  the  treasures 
concealed  in  the  Bible.  We  may  add, 
that  the  people  bordering  on  the"  Jews, 
as  the  Egyptians,  Phoenicians,  Arabs, 
?cc.  were  not  very  curious  to  know  the 
laws  or  histoiy  of  a  people,  whom  in 
their  turn  they  hated  and  despised. 
Their  first  acquaintance  with  these 
books  was  not  till  after  the  several  cap- 
tivities of  the  Jews,  when  the  singularity 
of  the  Hebrew  laws  and  ceremonies  in- 
duced several  to  desire  a  more  particu- 
lar knowledge  of  them.  Josephus  seems 
sui-prised  to  find  such  slight  footsteps  of 
the  Scripture  history  interspersed  in  the 
Egyptian,  Chaldean,  Phoenician,  and 
Grecian  histoiy,  and  accounts  for  it 
hence ;  that  the  sacred  books  were  not 
as  yet  translated  into  Greek,  or  other 
languages,  and  consequently  not  known 
to  the  writers  of  those  nations.  The 
first  version  of  the  Bible  was  that  of  the 
Septuagint  into  Greek,  by  order  of  that 
patron  of  literature,  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus;  though  some  maintain  tliat  the 
Avhole  was  not  then  translated,  but  only 
the  Pentateuch;  between  which  and 
tlie  other  books  in  the  Septuagint  ver- 
sion, the  critics  find  a  great  diversity  in 
point  of  style  and  expression,  as  well  as 
of  accuracy. 

III.  BiBLK,  modern  Dh<ision.s  of.  The 
division  of  the  Scriptures  into  chapters, 
as  we  at  present  have  tliem,  is  ot  mo- 
dern date.  Some  attribute  it  uo  Stephen 


Langton,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in 
the  reigns  of  John  and  Henry  III.  But 
the  true  author  of  the  invention  was 
Hugode  Sancto  Caro,  commonly  called 
Hugo  Cardinalis,  because  he  was  the 
first  Dominican  that  ever  was  raised  to 
the  degree  of  cardinal.  This  Hugo  flou- 
rished about  A.  D.  1240:  he  wrote  a 
comment  on  the  Scriptures,  and  pro- 
jected the  first  concordance,  which  is 
that  of  the  vulgar  Latin  Bible.  The  aim 
of  this  work  being  for  the  more  easy 
finding  out  any  word  or  passage  in  the 
Scriptures,  he  found  it  necessary  to  di- 
vide the  book  into  sections,  and  the  sec- 
tions into  subdivisions ;  for  till  that  time 
the  vulgar  Latin  Bibles  were  without 
any  division  at  all.  These  sections  are 
the  chapters  into  which  the  Bible  hath 
ever  since  been  divided ;  but  the  subdi- 
vision of  the  chapters  was  not  then  into 
verses,  as  it  is  now.  Hugo's  method  of 
subdividing  them  was  by  the  letters  A, 
B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  placed  in  the  margin, 
at  an  equal  distance  from  each  other, 
according  to  the  length  of  the  chapters. 
The  subdivision  of  the  chapters  into 
verses,  as  they  now  stand  in  our  Bibles, 
had  its  oi'iginal  from  a  famous  Jewish 
Rabbi,  named  Mordecai  Nathan,  about 
1445.  This  rabbi,  in  imitation  of  Hugo 
Cardinalis,  drew  up  a  concordance  to 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  for  the  use  of  the 
Jews.  But  though  he  followed  Hugo 
hi  his  division  of  the  books  into  chap- 
ters, he  refined  upon  his  inventions  as 
to  the  subdivision,  and  contrived  that 
by  verses:  this  being  found  to  be  a 
much  more  convenient  method,  it  has 
been  ever  since  followed.  And  thus,  as 
the  Jews  borrowed  the  division  of  the 
books  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  into  chap- 
ters from  the  Christians,  in  like  man- 
ner the  Christians  borrowed  that  of  the 
chapters  into  verses  from  the  Jews. 
The  present  order  of  the  several  books 
is  almost  the  same  (the  Apocrypha  ex- 
cepted) as  that  made  by  the  council  of 
Trent. 

IV.  Bible,  rejected  Books  of.  The 
apocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, according  to  the  Romanists,  are 
the  book  of  Enoch  (sec  Judc  14,)  the 
third  and  fourth  books  of  Esdras,  the 
third  and  fourth  books  of  Maccabees,, 
the  prayer  of  Manasseh,  the  Testa 
ment  of  the  twelve  Patriarchs,  the 
Psalter  of  Solomon,  and  some  other 
nieces  of  this  nature.  The  apocn  phal 
books  of  the  New  Testament  are  the 
epistle  of  St.  Barnabas,  the  pretended 
epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Laodiccans, 
several  spurious  (Jospels,  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  Revelations;  the  book 
of   Hernias,    entitled   the    Shepherd; 


i 


BIB 


55 


BIB 


Jesus  Christ's  letter  to  Abgai-us;  the 
epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  Seneca,  and  se- 
veral other  pieces  of  the  like  nature ; 
as  may  be  seen  in  tlie  collection  of  the 
apocrj-phal  writings  of  the  New  TesUi- 
ment  made  by  Fiibricius.  Protestants, 
■while  they  agree  with  the  Roman  Ca- 
tliolics  in  rejecting  all  those  as  unca- 
nonical,  have  also  justly  rejected  the 
books  of  Tobit,  Judith,  Wisdom,  Ec- 
clesiasticus,  Baruch,  and  1st  and  2nd 
Maccabees. 

V.  Bible,  Translations  of.  We 
have  already  mentioned  the  first  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  by  the 
LXX.  (§  2.)  Both  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments wei'e  aftei-wards  ti-anslated  into 
Latin  by  the  primitive  Christians ;  and 
while  the  Roman  empire  subsisted  in 
Europe,  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures 
in  tlie  Latin  tongue,  which  was  the 
universal  language  of  that  empire,  pre- 
vailed every  where ;  but  since  the  face 
of  affairs  in  Europe  has  been  changed, 
and  so  many  different  monarchies  erect- 
ed upon  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  empire, 
the  Latin  tongue  has  by  degrees  grown 
into  disvise ;  whence  has  arisen  a  neces- 
sity of  translating  the  Bible  into  the  re- 
Bpective  languages  of  each  people  ;  and 
this  has  produced  as  many  different 
versions  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  mo- 
dern languages  as  there  are  different 
nations  professing  the  Christian  religion. 
Of  the  principal  of  these,  as  well  as  of 
some  other  ancient  translations,  and 
the  earliest  and  most  elegant  printed 
editions,  we  shall  now  take  notice  hi 
their  order. 

1.  BiBLK, ./Armenian.  There  is  avery 
ancient  Armenian  version  of  the  whole 
Bible,  done  from  the  Greek  of  the  LXX. 
by  some  of  their  doctors,  about  the  time 
of  Chrysostom.  This  was  first  printed 
entire,  1664,  by  one  of  their  bishops  at 
Amsterdam,  in  quarto,  with  the  New 
Testament  in  octavo. 

2.  Bible,  Bohemian.  The  Bohe- 
mians have  a  Bible  translated  by  eight 
of  their  doctors,  whom  they  had  sent 
to  the  schools  of  Wirtemberg  and  Basil 
on  purpose  to  study  the  original  lan- 
guages: it  was  printed  in  Moravia  in 
1539. 

3.  Bible,  Croatian.  A  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  into  the  Croatian 
Uinguage  was  published  bv  Faber  Creim, 
and  others,  in  1562  and  1563. 

4.  Bible,  Gaelic.  A  few  years  ago,  a 
version  of  the  Bible  in  the  G^lic  or 
Erse  language  was  published  at  Edin- 
burgh, where  the  Gospel  is  preached 
regularly  m  that  language  in  two  chap- 
els, for  the  benefit  of  the  natives  of  the 
Highlands. 


5.  Bible,  Georgian.  The  inliabitants 
of  Georgia,  in  Asia,  have  long  had  a 
translation  of  the  Bible  in  their  ancient 
language ;  but  that  language  having 
now  become  almost  obsolete,  and  the 
Georgians  in  general  being  very  igno- 
rant, few  of  them  can  eitlier  read  or 
understand  it. 

6.  Bible,  Gothic.  It  is  generally  said 
that  Ulphilas,  a  Gothic  bishop,  who 
lived  in  the  fourth  century,  made  a  vei'- 
sion  of  the  whole  Bible,  except  the  book 
of  Kings,  for  the  use  of  his  countrymen; 
that  book  he  omitted,  because  of  the 
freq^uent  mention  of  the  wars  therein, 
as  teai'ing  to  inspire  too  much  of  the 
military  genius  into  that  people.  We 
have  nothing  remaining  of  this  version 
hut  the  four  Evangelists,  printed  in 
quarto,  at  Dort,  in  1665,  from  a  very 
ancient  manuscript. 

7.  Bible,  Grison.  A  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  the  language  of  the  Ori- 
sons, in  Italy,  was  completed  by  Coir, 
and  published  in  1720. 

8.  Bible,  Icelandic.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  Iceland  have  a  version  of  the 
Bible  in  theu-  language,  which  was 
translated  by  Thorlak,  and  pubUshed 
in  1584. 

9.  Bible,  Indian.  A  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  the  North  America 
Indian  language,  by  Elliot,  was  pub- 
lished in  quarto,  at  Cambridge,  in 
1685. 

10.  Bible,  I?-ish.  About  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  centuiy.  Bedell,  bishop 
of  Kilmore,  set  on  foot  a  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  into  the  Irish  lan- 
guage, the  New  Testament  and  the 
Liturgy  having  been  befoi-e  translated 
into  that  lang-uage :  the  bishop  appoint- 
ed one  King  to  execute  this  work,  who, 
not  understanding  the  oriental  lan- 
guages, was  obliged  to  translate  it  from 
the  English.  This  work  was  received 
by  Bedell,  who,  after  having  compared 
the  Irish  with  the  English  translation, 
compared  the  latter  with  the  Hebrew, 
the  LXX.  and  the  Italian  version  of 
Diodati.  AVhen  it  was  finished,  the 
bishop  would  have  been  himself  at  the 
charge  of  the  impression;  but  his  de- 
sign was  stopped,  upon  advice  given 
to  the  lord  lieutenant  and  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  that  it  would  seem 
a  shameful  thing  for  a  nation  to  pub- 
lish a  Bible  translated  by  such  a  des- 
picable hand  as  King:  however,  the 
manuscript  was  not  lost,  for  it  went 
to  press  m  1685,  and  was  aftei-wards 
published. 

11.  Bible,  King-  Jameses.  See  No. 
24. 

12.  BiBLF,    Malabrian.     In     1711, 


BIB 


BIB 


Messrs.  Ziegenbald  and  Grincller,  t%vo 
Danish  missionaries,  published  a  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  in  the 
Malabrian  language,  after  which  they 
proceeded  to  translate  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

13.  Bible,  Malayan.  About  1670, 
Sir  Robert  Boyle  procured  a  transla- 
tion of  the  New  Testament  into  the 
Malayan  language,  which  he  prhited, 
and  sent  the  whole  impression  to  the 
East  Indies. 

14.  Bible,  Rhemish.    See  No.  23. 

15.  BiBLK,  Samaritan.  At  the  head 
of  the  oriental  versions  of  the  Bible 
must  be  placed  the  Samaritan,  as  being 
the  most  ancient  of  all  (though  neither 
its  age  nor  author  have  been  yet  ascer- 
tained,) and  admitting  no  more  for  the 
Holy  Scripture  but  the  five  books  of 
Moses.  This  translation  is  made  fi-om 
the  Samaritan  Hebrew  text,  which  is  a 
little  dift'erent  from  the  Hebrew  text  of 
the  Jews:  this  version  has  never  been 
printed  alone,  nor  any  where  but  in  the 
rolyglots  of  London  and  Paris. 

16.  Bible,  Swedish.  In  1534,  Olaus 
and  Laurence  published  a  Swedish 
Bible  from  the  German  version  of  Mar- 
tin Luther:  it  was  revised  in  1617  by 
order  of  king  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and 
Avas  afterwards  almost  universally  re- 
ceived. 

17.  Bible,  Anglo- Sujcoii. — If  we  en- 
quire into  the  versions  of  the  Bible  of 
our  o^s'i^  countrv,  we  shall  find  that 
Adelm,  bishop  of  Sherburn,  who  lived 
in  709,  made  an  English  Saxon  version 
of  the  Psalms ;  and  that  Edfrid,  or  Ec- 
bert,  bishop  of  I^indisferne,  who  lived 
about  730,  translated  several  of  the 
books  of  Scripture  into  the  same  lan- 
guage. It  is  said,  likewise,  the  vener- 
able Bede,  who  died  in  785,  translated 
the  whole  Bible  into  Saxon. — But  Cuth- 
bert,  Bede's  disciple,  in  the  enumera- 
tion of  his  master's  works,  sjieaks  only 
of  his  translation  of  the  Gospel,  and 
says  nothing  of  the  rest  of  the  Bible. 
Some  say  that  king  Alfred,  who  lived 
about  890,  translated  a  great  part  of 
the  Scriptures.  We  find  an  old  ver- 
sion in  the  Anglo  Saxon  of  several 
books  of  the  Bible,  made  by  Elfric,  ab- 
bot of  Malmesbury:  it  was  published 
at  Oxford  in  1699.  There  is  an  old 
Anglo  Saxon  version  of  the  four  Gos- 
pels, published  by  Matthew  Parker, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  1571,  the 
author  whereof  is  unknown.  Mr.  Mill 
observes,  that  this  version  was  made 
from  a  Latin  copy  of  the  old  \'ulgate.  j 
The  whole  Scripture  is  said  by  some  I 
to  have  been  translated  into  the  Anglo  j 
Saxon    by    Bede,    about    701,    though  j 


others  contend  he  only  translated  the 
Gospels.  We.  have  certain  books  or 
parts  of  the  Bible  by  several  other 
translators;  as,  first,  the  Psalins,  by 
Adelm,  bishop  of  Sherburn,  cotempo- 
rary  with  Bede,  though  bv  others  this 
version  is  atti-ibuted  to  king  Alfred, 
who  lived  two  hundred  years  later. 
Another  vei'sion  of  the  Psalms,  in  An- 
glo Saxon,  was  published  by  Spelman 
in  1640. — 2.  The  evangelists,  still  ex- 
tant, done  from  the  ancient  Vulgate, 
before  it  was  revised  by  St.  Jerome, bv 
an  author  unknown,  and  published  b\' 
Matthew  Parker  in  1571.  An  old  Sax- 
on version  of  several  books  of  the  Bible 
made  by  Elfric,  abbot  of  IMalmesbury, 
several  fragments  of  which  were  pub- 
lished by  Will.  Lilly,  1638 ;  the  genuine 
copy  by  Edm.  Thwaites,  in  1699,  at 
Oxford. 

18.  Bibles,  Arabic.  In  1516,  Aug. 
Justinian,  bishop  of  Nebio,  printed  at 
Genoa  an  Arabic  version  of  the  Psalter, 
with  the  Hebrew  text  and  Chaldee 
fjaraphrase,  adding  Latin  interpreta- 
tions :  there  are  also  Arabic  versions  of 
the  whole  Scripture  in  the  Polyglots  of 
London  and  Paris ;  and  we  have  an 
edition  of  the  Old  Testament  entire, 
printed  at  Rome,  in  1671,  by  order  of 
the  congregation  rf(?  firofiaganda  fide ; 
but  it  is  of  little  esteem,  as  having  been 
altered  agreealjly  to  the  Vulgate  edi- 
tion. The  Arabic  Bibles  among  us  are 
not  the  same  with  those  used  with  the 
Christians  in  the  East.  Some  learned 
men  take  the  Arabic  version  of  the 
Old  Testament  printed  in  the  Poly- 
glots to  be  that  of  Saadias's,  who  lived 
about  A.  D.  900:  their  reason  is,  that 
Aben  Azer,  a  great  antagonist  of  Saa- 
dias,  quotes  some  passages  of  his  ver- 
sion, which  are  the  same  with  those  in 
the  Arabic  version  of  the  Polyglots; 
yet  othei's  are  of  opinion  that  Saadias's 
version  is  not  extant.  In  1622,  Erpe- 
nius  printed  an  Arabic  Pentateuch  call- 
ed also  the  Pentateuch  of  Maurita- 
nia, as  being  made  by  the  Jews  of  Bar- 
bary,  and  for  their  use.  This  version 
is  very  literal,  and  esteemed  very  ex- 
act. The  four  evangelists  have  also 
been  published  in  Arabic,  with  a  Latin 
version,  at  Rome,  in  1591,  folio.  These 
have  been  since  reprinted  in  the  Poly- 
glots of  London  and  Paris,  with  some 
little  alteration  of  (iabriel  Sionita.  Er- 
penius  published  an  Arabic  New  Te.s- 
tament  entire,  as  he  found  it  in  his 
manuscript  copy,  at  Leyden,  1616. 
There  are  some  other  Arabic  versions 
of  later  date  mentioned  by  Walton  in 
his  Prolegomena,  particularlj-  a  version 
of  the  Psalms,  prescncd  at  Sion  Col- 


BIB 


57 


BIB 


lege,  London,  and  another  of  tlic  pro-  [j  tament,  and  was  revised  and  republisli- 

Ehets  at  Oxford ;  neither  of  which  liave  !  ed  by  the  same  person  in  1530.  The 
ecn  pubhshed.  Propos;\ls  were  issued  ■  prologues  and  prefaces  added  to  it,  re- 
for  printing  a  new  edition  of  the  Ara-  }  fleet  on  the  bishops  and  clergy ;  but 
hie  Bible,  by  Mr.  Carlyle,  chancellor  of  j  this  edition  was  also  suppressed,  and 
the  diocese  of  Carlisle',  and  professor  of  the  copies  burnt.  In  1532,  Tindal  and 
Arabic  in  the  university  of  Cambridge  ;  j  his  associates  finished  the  whole  Bible, 


but  I  am  sorrj'^  to  add  that  he  has  been 
called  away  by  death,  without  finish- 
ing it. 

19.  Bibles,  Chaldee,  are  only  the 
glosses  or  expositions  made  by  the  Jews 
at  the  time  when  they  spoke  t)ie  Chal- 
dee  tongue :  these  they  call  by  the 
name  of  targumim,  or  paraphrases,  as 
not  being  any  strict  ^•el•sion  of  the 
Scripture.  They  have  been  inserted 
entire  in  the  large  Hebrew  Bibles  of 
\'enice  and  Basil ;  I)ut  are  read  more 
commodiously  in  the  Polyglots,  being 
there  attended  with  a  Latin  transla- 
tion. 

20.  Bibles,  Coptic.  There  are  se- 
\  erai  manuscript  copies  of  the  Coptic 
Bible  Ln  some  of  the  gi'eat  libraries,  es- 
ncciallv  in  that  of  the  late  French 
king.  X)r.  Wilkins  published  the  Cop- 
tic New  Testament,  in  quarto,  in  1716  ; 
and  the  Pentateuch  also  in  quarto,  in 
1731,  with  Latin  translations.  He 
reckons  these  versions  to  have  been 
made  in  the  end  of  the  second  or  the 
beginning  of  the  third  centmy. 

21.  Bibles,  Danish.  The  first  Da- 
nish Bible  was  published  by  Peter  Pal- 
ladus,  Olaus  Chrysostom,  John  Sximin- 
gius,  and  John  IVlaccabseus,  in  1550,  in 
which  they  followed  Luther's  first  Ger- 
man version.  There  are  two  other  ver- 
sions, the  one  by  John  Paul  Resenius, 
bishop  of  Zealand,  in  1605 ;  the  other 
of  the  New  Testament  onlj'',  by  John 
Michel,  in  1524. 

22.  Bibles,  Dutch.    See  No.  26. 

23.  Bibles,  East  Indian.  See  No. 
12,  13,  44. 

24.  Bibles,  English.  The  first 
English  Bible  we  read  of  was  that  trans- 
lated by  J.  WicklifFe,  about  the  year 
1360,  but  never  printed,  though  there 
are  manuscript  copies  of  it  in  sevei-al 
of  the  public  libraries.  A  translation, 
however,  of  the  New  Testament  by 
WicklifFe  was  printed  by  Mr.  Lewis, 
about  1731.  J.  de  Tre^^sa,  who  died 
about  1398,  is  also  said  to  have  trans- 
lated the  whole  Bible;   but  whether 


except  the  Apocrypha,  and  printed  it 
abroad :  but,  while  he  was  after^vards 
I  preparing  a  second  edition,  he  was  taken 
!  up   and  burnt  for  heresy  in  Flandei's. 
i  On  Tindal's  death,  his  work  was  car- 
I  ried  on  by  Coverdale,  and  John  Rogers, 
superintendant  of  an  English  church  in 
Germany,  and  the  first  Martyr,  in  the 
reign  of  queen  Mary,  who  translated 
the  Apocrypha,  and  revised   Tindal's 
translation,  comparing  it  with  the  He- 
brew, Greek,  Latin,  and  German,  and 
adding  prefaces  and  notes  from   Lu- 
ther's Bible.     He  dedicated  the  whole 
to  Henry  VHL  in  1537,  under  the  bor- 
rowed  name    of   Thomas   Matthews ; 
whence  this  has  been  usually  railed 
Matthew's   Bible.    It  was   printed  at 
Hamburgh,   and  license    obtained   for 
publishing  it  in  England,  by  the  favour 
of  archbishop  Cranmer,  and  the  bishops 
Latimer  and  Shaxton.    The  first  Bible 
printed  by  authority  in   England,  and 
publicly  set  up   in  churches,  was  the 
same    Tindal's    version,    revised    and 
compared  with    the   Hebrew,  and    in 
many  places  amended  by  Miles  Cover- 
dale,    afterwards    bishop    of   Exeter; 
and  examined  after  him  by  archbishop 
Cranmer,  who  added  a  preface  to  it; 
whence    this    was    called    Cranmer's 
Bible.    It  was  printed  by  Grafton,  of 
the  largest  volume,  and  published  in 
1540;   and,  by  a  royal  proclamation, 
every  parish  was  obliged  to  set  one  of 
the  copies  in  their  church,  under  the 
penalty  of  forty  shillings  a  month ;  yet, 
two  years  after,  the  popish  bishops  ob- 
tained its  suppression  by  the  king.    It 
was  restored  under  Edward  VI.,  sup- 
pressed   again    under    cjueen    Mary's 
\  reign,  and  restoi'ed  again   in  the  first 
year  of   queen  Elizabeth,  and  a  ne^v 
edition  of  it  given  in  1562.    Some  Eng- 
lish exiles  at  Geneva,  in  queen  Mary's 
reign,   viz.   Coverdale,  Goodman,  Gil- 
bie,  Sampson,  Cole,  Wittingham,  and 
Knox,  made  a  new  translation,  printed 
there    in    1560,  the    New    Testament 
having  been  printed  in   1557;    hence 


any  copies  of  it  are  remaining  does  not  ;  called   the    Geneva    Bible,    containing 
appear.    The  first  printed  Bible  in  our    ''  '  ''  "^  "  '"" 

language  was  that  translated  by  W. 
Tindal,  assisted  by  Miles  Coverdale, 
])rinted  abroad  in  1526 ;  -but  most  of 
the  copies  were  bought  up  and  burnt 
bv  bishop  Tunstal  and  bir  Thomas 
More.    It  only  contained  the  New  Tes- 


the  variations  of  readings,  marginal 
annotations,  8cc.  on  account  of  which  it 
was  much  valued  by  the  puritan  party 
in  that  and  the  following  reigns.  Abp. 
Parker  resolved  on  a  new  translation 
for  the  public  use  of  the  church  ;  and 
engaged  the  bishops,  and  otlier  learned 


Bib 


58 


BIB 


hien,  to  take  each  a  share  or  portion : 
these,  being  afterwards  joined  togetlier 
and  printed,  with  short  annotations,  in 
1568,  in  large  folio,  made  what  was 
afterwards  called  the  Great  English 
Bible,  and  commonly  the  Bishops' 
Bible.  In  1589,  it  was  also  published 
in  octavo,  in  a  small  but  line  black  let- 
ter; and  here  the  chapters  were  di- 
vided into  verses,  but  without  any 
breaks  for  them,  in  which  the  method 
of  the  Geneva  Bible  was  followed, 
which  was  the  first  English  Bible  where 
any  distinction  of  verses  was  made.  It 
was  afterwards  printed  in  large  folio, 
■with  corrections,  and  sevei-al  prolego- 
mena in  1572 :  this  is  called  Matthew 
Parker's  Bible.  The  initial  letters  of 
each  translator's  name  were  put  at  the 
end  of  his  part ;  e.  gr.  at  the  end  of  the 
Pentateuch,  W.  E.  for  William  Exon ; 
that  is,  William,  bishop  of  Exetei-, 
whose  allotment  ended  there :  at  the 
-  end  of  Samuel,  R.  M.  for  Richard  Me- 
nevensis ;  or  bishop  of  St.  David's,  to 
whom  the   second  allotment  fell :   and 

'  the  like  of  the  rest.  The  archbishop 
oversaw,  directed,  examined,  and  fin- 
ished the  whole.  This  translation  was 
used  in  the  churches  for  forty  years, 
though  the  Geneva  Bible  was  "more 
read  in  private  houses,  being  printed 
above  twenty  times  in  as  many  years. 
King  James  bore  it  an  inveterate  hatred, 
on  account  of  the  notes,  which,  at  the 
Hampton  Court  conference,  he  charged 
as  partial,  untrue,  seditious,  &c.  The 
Bishops'  Bible,  too,  had  its  faults. 
The  king  frankly  owned  that  he  had 
seen  no  good  translation  of  the  Bible  in 
English ;  but  he  thought  that  of  Ge- 
neva the  worst  of  all.  After  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  by  the  bishops,  two 
other  private  versions  had  been  made 
of  the  New  Testament;  the  first  by 
Laurence  Thompson,  from  Beza's  Latin 
edition,  with  the  notes  of  Beza,  publish- 
ed in  1582,  in  quarto,  and  afterwards 
in  1589,  varying  very  little  fi-om  the 
GencA-a  Bible ;  the  second  by  the  Pa- 

'  pists  at  Rheims,  in  1584,  called  the 
Rhemish  Bible,  or  Rhemish  translation. 
These,  finding  it  impossible  to  keep 
the  people  from  having  the  Scriptures 
in  their  vulgar  tongue,  resolved  to  give 
a  version  of  their  own,  as  favourable  to 
their  cause  as  might  be.  It  was  printed 
on  a  large  paper,  with  a  fair  letter  and 
margin:  one  complaint  against  it  was, 
its  retaining  a  multitude  of  Hebrew 
and  Greek  words  untranslated,  for 
want,  as  the  editors  express  it,  of 
proper  and  adequate  terms  in  the 
English  to  render  them  bj- ;  as  the 
words  azymes,  tunike,  holocaust,  prc- 


fuLce,  paschcy  &c.:  however,  many  of 
the  copies  were  seized  by  the  queen's 
searchers,  and  confiscated ;  and  Thomas 
Cartwright  was  solicited  by  secretary 
Walsingham  to  refute  it;  but,  after  a 
good  progress  made  therein,  archbishop 
\Vhitgift  prohibited  his  further  pro- 
ceeding, as  judging  it  improper  that 
the  doctrine  of  the  church  of  England 
should  be  committed  to  the  defence  of 
a  puritan ;  and  appointed  Dr.  Fulke  in 
his  place,  who  refuted  the  Rhemists 
with  great  spirit  and  learning.  Cart- 
wright's  refutation  was  also  afterwards 
published  m  1618,  under  archbishop 
Abbot.  About  thirty  years  after  their 
New  Testament,  the  Roman  Catholics 

Published  a  translation  of  the  Old  at 
)ouay,  1609,  and  1610,  from  the  Vul- 
gate, with  annotations,  so  that  the 
English  Roman  Catholics  have  now 
the  whole  Bible  in  their  mother  tongue ; 
though,  it  is  to  be  observed,  they  are 
forbidden  to  read  it  without  a  license 
from  their  superiors.  The  last  English 
Bible  was  that  which  proceeded  from 
the  Hampton  Court  conference,  in 
1603 ;  where,  many  exceptions  being 
made  to  the  Bishops'  Bible,  king  James 
gave  order  for  a  new  one ;  not,  as  the 
preface  expresses  it,  for  a  translation 
altogether  new,  nor  yet  to  make  a  good 
one  better ;  or,  of  many  good  ones,  one 
best.  Fifty-four  learned  men  were  ap- 
pointed to  this  office  by  the  king,  as 
appears  by  his  letter  to  the  archbishop, 
dated  1604 ;  Avhich  being  three  years 
before  the  translation  was  entered  upon, 
it  is  probable  seven  of  them  were  either 
dead,  or  had  declined  the  task ;  since 
Fuller's  list  of  the  translators  makes 
but  forty-seven,  who,  being  ranged  un- 
der six  divisions,  entered  on  their  pro- 
vince in  1607.  It  was  pubhshed  in 
1613,  with  a  dedication  to  James,  and 
a  leai'ned  preface;  and  is  commonly 
called  king  James's  Bible.  After  this, 
all  the  other  versions  dropped,  and  fell 
into  disuse,  except  the  epistles  and 
Gospels  in  the  Common  Prayer  Book, 
which  were  still  continued  according  to 
the  Bishops'  translation  till  the  altera- 
tion of  the  liturgy,  in  1661,  and  the 
psalms  and  hymns,  which  are  to  this 
day  continued  as  in  the  old  version. 
The  judicious  Selden,  in  his  Table- 
talk,  speaking  of  the  Bible,  says,  "The 
English  translation  of  the  Bible  is  the 
best  translation  in  the  world,  and  ren- 
ders the  sense  of  the  original  best; 
taking  in  for  the  English  translation  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  as  well  as  king  James's. 
The  translators  in  king  James's  time 
took  an  excellent  way.  That  part  of 
the  Bible  was  given  to  him  who  was 


BIB 


59 


most  excellent  in  such  a  tongue  (as  the 
ApociTpha  to  Andrew  Downs:)  and 
then  they  met  together,  and  one  read 
the  translation,  the  rest  holding  in  their 
hands  some  Bible,  either  of  the  learned 
tongues,  or  French,  or  Spanish,  or 
Italian,  &;c.  If  they  found  any  fault, 
they  spoke  ;  if  not,  he  I'ead  on."  [King 
James^  Bible  is  that  now  read  by  au- 
tliority  in  all  tlie  churches  in  Britain.] 
Notwitlistanding,  however,  the  excel- 
lency of  this  translation,  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged that  our  increasing  ac- 
quaintance with  oriental  customs  and 
manners,  and  the  changes  our  language 
has  undergone  since  king  James's  time, 
are  ven^  powerful  arguments  for  a  new 
translation,  or  at  least  a  correction  of 
the  old  one.  There  have  been  various 
English  Bibles  with  marginal  refer- 
ences by  Canne,  Hayes,  Barker,  Scat- 
tergood,  Field,  Tennison,  Lloyd,  Blay- 
ney,  Wilson,  &;c. ;  but  the  best  we 
liave,  perhaps,  of  this  kind,  are  Brown's 
and  Scott's. 

25.  BiBLKS,  Ethiofiic.  The  Ethio- 
pians have  also  translated  the  Bible 
into  their  language.  There  have  been 
printed  separately  the  Psalms,  Canti- 
cles, some  chapters  of  Genesis,  Ruth, 
Joel,  Jonah,  Zephaniah,  Malaclii,  and 
the  New  Testament,  all  which  have 
been  since  reprinted  in  the  Polyglot  of 
London.  As  to  the  Ethiopic  New 
Testament,  which  was  first  printed  at 
Rome  in  1548,  it  is  a  very  niaccurate 
work,  and  is  reprinted  in  the  English 
Polvglot  with  all  its  faults. 

26.  Bibles,  Flemish.  The  Flemish 
Bibles  of  the  Romanists  are  veiy  nu- 
merous, and  for  the  most  part  have  no 
author's  name  prefixed  to  them,  till 
that  of  Nicholas  Vinck,  printed  at 
Louvain  in  1548.  The  Flemish  ver- 
sions made  use  of  by  the  Calvinists  till 
1637,  were  copied  principally  from  that 
of  Luther.  But  the  Synod  of  Dort 
having,  in  1618,  appointed  a  new  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  into  Flemish,  depu- 
ties were  named  for  the  work,  which 
was  not  finished  till  1637. 

27.  Bibles,  French.  The  oldest 
French  Bible  we  hear  of  is  the  version 
of  Peter  de  Vaux,  chief  of  the  Wal- 
denses,  who  lived  about  the  year  1160. 
Raoul  de  Preste  translated  the  Bible 
into  French  in  the  reign  of  kmg 
Charles  V.  of  France,  about  A.  D. 
1383.  Besides  these,  there  are  several 
old  French  translations  of  particular 
parts  of  the  Scripture.  The  doctors 
of  Louvain  published  the  Bible  in 
Fi'ench  at  Louvain,  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  in  1550.  There 
is  a  version  by  Isaac  le  Maitre  de  Sacy, 


BIB 

published  in  1672,  with  explanations  of 
the  literal  and  spiritual  meaning  of  the 
text ;  which  was  received  with  won- 
derful applause,  and  has  often  been  re- 
?rinted.  Of  the  New  Testaments  in 
'rench,  which  have  been  printed  se- 
parately, one  of  the  most  remarkable 
is  that  of  F.  Amelotte,  of  the  Oratory, 
composed  by  the  direction  of  some 
French  prelates,  and  printed  with  an- 
notations in  1666,  1667,  and  1670.  The 
author  pretends  he  had  searched  all 
the  libraries  in  Europe,  and  collated 
the  oldest  manuscripts:  but,  in  examin- 
ing his  work,  it  appears  that  he  has 
produced  no  considerable  various  read- 
ings which  had  not  before  been  taken 
notice  of  either  in  the  London  Pohglot, 
or  elsewhere.  The  New  Testament 
of  IVIons,  printed  m  1665,  with  the 
archbishop  of  Cambray's  permission, 
and  the  king  of  Spain's  license,  made 
great  nojse  in  the  world.  It  was  con- 
demned bv  pope  Clement  IX.  in  1668  ; 
by  pope  Innocent  XI.  in  1669;  and  in 
several  bishoprics  of  France  at  several 
times.  The  New  Testament,  publisii- 
ed  at  Trevoux,  in  1702,  by  M.  Simon, 
with  literal  and  critical  annotations 
upon  difficult  passages,  was  condemned 
by  tlie  bishops  of  Paris  and  Meaux  in 
1702.  F.  Bohours,  a  Jesuit,  with  the 
assistance  of  F.  F.  Michael  Tellier 
and  Peter  Bernier,  Jesuits,  likewise 
published  a  translation  of  the  New 
Festament  in  1697 ;  but  this  translation 
is  for  the  most  part  harsh  and  obscure, 
which  was  owing  to  the  author's  adhe- 
ring too  strictly  to  the  Latin  text. 
There  are  likewise  French  transla- 
tions published  by  Protestant  authors ; 
one  by  Robert  Peter  Olivetan,  printed 
in  1535,  and  often  reprinted  with  the 
corrections  of  John  Calvin  and  others  ; 
another  by  Sebastian  Castalio,  re- 
markable for  particular  ways  of  ex- 
pression never  used  by  ^ood  judges  of 
the  language.  John  Diodati  likewise 
published  a  French  Bible  at  Geneva  in 
1644;  but  some  find  fault  with  his 
method,  in  that  he  rather  paraphrases 
the  text  than  ti-anslates  it.  Faber  Sta- 
palensis  translated  the  New  Testament 
mto  French,  which  was  revised  and 
accommodated  to  the  use  of  the  refor- 
med churches  in  Piedmont,  and  print- 
ed in  1534.  Lastly,  John  le  Clerc  pub- 
lished a  New  Testament  in  Fi-encn  at 
Amsterdam,  in  1703,  with  annotations 
taken  chiefly  from  Grotius  and  Ham- 
mond ;  but  the  use  of  this  version  was 
prohibited  bv  order  of  the  states-gene- 
ral, as  tending  to  revive  the  errors  of 
Sabellius  and  Socinus. 
28.  Bibles,  German.    The  first  and 


BIB 


60 


BIB 


most  ancient  translation  of  the  Bible  in 
the  German  language  is  that  of  Ulphi- 
las,  bishop  of  the  Goths,  in  the  year 
360.  An  imperfect  manuscript  of  this 
version  was  tound  in  the  abbey  of  Ver- 
den,  near  Cologne,  written  in  letters  of 
silvei-,  for  which  reason  it  is  called 
Codex  Argentcus;  and  it  was  published 
by  Francis  Junius  in  1665.  The  oldest 
German  printed  Bible  extant  is  that  of 
Nuremburg,  in  1447 ;  but  who  was  the 
author  of  it  is  uncertain.  John  Emzer, 
chaplain  to  George  duke  of  Saxony, 
published  a  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  opposition  to  Luther.  There 
is  a  German  Bible  of  John  Ekeus  in 
1537,  with  Emzer's  New  Testament 
added  to  it ;  and  one  by  Ulemburgius 
of  Westphalia,  procured  by  Ferdinand 
duke  of  Bavaria,  and  printed  in  1630. 
Martin  Luther  having  employed  ele- 
ven years  in  translating  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  published  the  Penta- 
teuch and  the  New  Testament  in  1522, 
the  historical  books  and  the  Psalms  in 
1524,  the  books  of  Solomon  in  1527, 
Isaiah  in  1529,  the  Prophets  in  1531, 
and  the  other  books  in  1530.  The 
learned  agree  that  his  language  is  pure, 
and  the  version  clear  and  free  from  in- 
tricacies. It  was  revised  by  several 
persons  of  quality,  who  were  masters 
of  all  the  delicacies  of  the  German  lan- 
guage. The  German  Bibles  which 
have  been  printed  at  Saxony,  Switzer- 
land, and  elsewhere,  are,  for  the  most 
part,  the  same  as  that  of  Luther,  with 
little  variatioii.  In  1604,  John  Piscator 
published  a  version  of  the  Bible  m 
German  taken  from  that  of  Junius  and 
Tremellius ;  but  his  turn  of  expression 
is  purely  Latin,  and  not  at  all  agree- 
able to  the  genius  of  the  German  lan- 
guage. The  Anabaptists  have  a  Ger- 
man Bible  printed  at  Worms  in  1529. 
John  Crellius  published  his  version  of 
the  New  Testament  at  Racovia  in 
1630,  and  Felbinger  his  at  Amsterdam 
in  1660. 

29.  Bibles,  Greek.  There  are 
many  editions  of  the  Bible  in  Greek, 
but  they  may  be  all  reduced  to  three 
or  four  principal  ones ;  viz.  that  of 
Complutum,  or  Alcala  de  Henares; 
that  of  Venice,  that  of  Rome,  and  that 
of  Oxford.  The  first  was  published  in 
1515  by  cardinal  Ximenes,  and  inserted 
in  the  Polyglot  Bible,  usually  called  the 
Complutensian  Bible :  this  edition  is 
not  just,  the  Greek  of  the  LXX  being 
altered  in  many  places  according  to 
the  Hebrew  text.  It  has,  however, 
been  reprinted  in  the  Polyglot  Bilile  of 
Antwerp,  in  that  of  Paris,  and  in  the 
quarto  Bible  commonly  called  Vata- 


blus's  Bible.  The  second  Greek  Bible 
is  that  of  Venice,  printed  by  Aldus  in 
1518.  Here  the  Greek  text  of  the 
Septuagmt  is  reprinted  just  as  it  stood 
in  the  manuscript,  full  of  faults  of  the 
copyists,  but  easily  amended.  This 
edition  was  reprinted  at  Strasburg  in 
1526,  at  Basil  m  1545,  at  Frankfort  in 
1597,  and  other  places,  with  some 
alterations,  to  bring  it  nearer  the  He- 
brew. The  most  commodious  is  that 
of  Frankfort,  there  being  added  to  this 
little  scholia,  which  shew  the  different 
interpretations  of  the  old  Greek  trans- 
lators. The  author  of  this  collection 
has  not  added  his  name,  but  it  is  com- 
monly ascribed  to  Junius.  The  third 
Greek  Bible  is  that  of  Rome,  or  the 
Vatican,  in  1587,  with  Greek  scholia, 
collected  from  the  manuscripts  in  the 
Roman  libraries  by  Peter  Morin.  It 
was  first  set  on  foot  by  cardinal  Mon- 
talbo,  afterwards  pope  Sixtus  V.  This 
fine  edition  has  been  reprinted  at  Paris 
in  1628,  by  J.  Morin,  priest  of  the 
Oratory,  who  has  added  the  Latin 
translation,  which  in  the  Roman  was 

grinted  separately  with  scholia.  The 
treek  edition  of  Rome  has  been  print- 
ed in  the  Polyglot  Bible  of  London,  to 
which  are  added  at  the  bottom  the 
various  readings  of  the  Alexandrian 
manuscript.  This  has  been  also  re- 
prmted  in  England,  in  4to.  and  12mOi 
with  some  alterations.  It  was  again 
published  at  Franeker,  in  1709,  by  Bos, 
who  has  added  all  the  various  read- 
ings he  could  find.  The  fourth  Greek 
Bible  is  that  done  from  the  Alexan- 
drian manuscript  begini  at  Oxford  by 
Grabe  in  1707.  In  this  the  Alexan- 
drian manuscript  is  not  prhited  such 
as  it  is,  but  such  as  it  was  thought  it 
should  be,  i.  e.  it  is  altered  wherever 
there  appeared  any  fault  of  the  copy- 
ists, or  any  word  inserted  from  any  par- 
ticular dialect :  this  some  think  an  ex- 
cellence, but  others  a  fault,  urging  that 
the  manuscript  should  have  been  given 
absolutely  and  entirely  of  itself,  and  all 
conjectures  as  to  the  readings  should 
have  been  thrown  into  the  notes.  We 
have  many  editions  of  the  Greek  Tes- 
tament by  Erasmus,  Stephens,  Beza; 
that  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglot, 
the  Elzevirs,  &c.;  and  with  various 
readings  by  Mill,  Bcngelius,  Wetstein, 
8cc.  Those  of  Wetstein  and  Griesbach, 
are  thought  by  some  to  exceed  all  the 
rest. 

30.  Bibles,  Hebrew,  are  either  ma- 
nuscript or  printed.  The  best  manu- 
script Bibles  are  those  copied  by  the 
Jews  of  Spain:  those  copied  by  the 
Jews  of  Germany  are  less  exact,  but 


BIB 


61 


BIB 


;nore  common.  The  two  kinds  are  | 
easily  distini^viished  fi'om  each  other ; 
the  former  being  in  beautiful  charac- 
ters, like  the  Hebrew  Bibles  of  Bom-  I 
berg,  Stevens,  and  Plantin:  the  latter  in 
characters  like  those  of  Munster  and 
Gryphius.  F.  Simon  observes,  that 
the  oldest  manuscript  Hebrew  Bililes 
are  not  above  six  or  seven  hundred 
years  old ;  nor  does  Rabbi  Menaham, 
who  quotes  a  vast  numlier  of  them, 
pretend  that  any  one  of  them  exceeds 
600  years.  Dr.  Kcnnicott,  in  his  Dis- 
scrtatio  Gcneralis,  prefixed  to  his  He- 
brew Bible,  p.  21,  observes,  that  the 
most  ancient  manuscripts  were  Avritten 
between  the  years  900  and  1100;  but 
though  those  that  arc  tlic  most  ancient 
are  not  more  than  800  or  900  years  old, 
they  were  transcribed  from  others  of  a 
much  more  ancient  date.  The  manu- 
script presened  in  the  Bodleian  Li- 
brary is  not  less  than  800  years  old. 
Another  manuscript  not  less  ancient, 
,  is  preserved  in  the  Cxsarian  Library 
at  Vienna.  The  most  ancient  printed 
Hebrew  Bibles  are  those  published  by 
the  Jews  of  Italy,  especially  of  Pesaro 
and  Bresse.  Those  of  Portugal  also 
piinted  some  parts  of  the  Bible  at  Lis- 
bon before  their  expulsion.  This  may 
be  observed  in  general,  that  the  best 
Hebrew  Brljles  are  those  printed  under 
the  inspection  of  the  Jews;  there  being 
so  many  minutix  to  be  observed  in  the 
Hebrew  language,  that   it  is  scarcely 

fossiblc  for  any  other  to  succeed  in  it. 
n  the  beginning  of  the  16th  centuiy, 
Dan.  Bomberg  printed  sevei'al  Hebrew 
Bibles  in  folio  and  quarto  at  Venice, 
most  of  which  were  esteemed  both  by 
the  Jews  and  Christians:  the  first  in 
1.517,  which   is    the  least    exact,  and 

?enerally  goes  by  the  name  of  Felix 
i-atensi's,  the  person  who  revised  it: 
this  edition  contains  the  Hebrew  text, 
the  Targum,  and  the  commentaries  of 
several  rabbins.  In  1528,  Bomberg 
printed  the  folio  Bible  of  rabbi  Bencha- 
jim,  with  his  preface,  the  masoretical 
divisions,  a  preface  of  Aben  Ezra,  a 
double  masora,  and  several  various 
readings.  The  third  edition  was  print- 
ed, 1618,  the  same  with  the  second, 
but  much  more  con-ect.  From  the 
former  editions,  Buxtorf,  the  father, 
printed  his  rabbinical  Hebrew  Bible  at 
Basil,  in  1618;  which,  though  there  are 
many  faults  in  it,  is  more  correct  than 
any  of  the  former.  In  1623,  appeared 
at  Venice  a  new  edition  of  the  rabbini- 
cal Bible,  b\-  Leo  of  Modena,  a  rabbin 
of  that  city,  who  pretended  to  have 
corrected  a  great  number  of  faults  in 
the  former  edition ;  but,  besides  that. 


it  is  much  inferior  to  the  other  Hebrew 
Bibles  of  Venice,  with  regard  to  paper 
and  print:  it  has  passed  through  the 
hands  of  the  Inquisitors,  who  have  al- 
tered many  passages  in  the  commenta- 
ries of  the  Rabbins.  Of  Hebrew  Bibles 
in  quarto,  that  of  R.  Stephens  is  esteem- 
ed for  the  beauty  of  the  characters : 
but  it  is  very  incorrect.  PlantH\  also 
printed  several  beautiful  Hebi'cw  Bibles 
at  Antwerp ;  one  in  eight  columns,  with 
a  preface  by  Arius  Montanus,  in  1571, 
which  far  exceeds  the  Complutensian 
in  paper,  print,  and  contents :  this  is 
called  the  Ko)-al  Bible,  because  it  was 

Erinted  at  the  expense  of  Philip  II. 
ing  of^Spain:  another  at  Geneva, 
1619,  besides  many  more  of  different 
sizes,  with  and  without  points.  Manas- 
seh  Ben  Israel,  a  learned  Portuguese 
Jew,  published  two  editions  of  the  He- 
brew Bible  at  Amsterdam ;  one  in 
quarto,  in  1635  ;  the  other  in  octavo,  in 

i  1639 :  the  first  has  two  columns,  and 
for  that  reason  is  more  commodious 
for  the  reader.  In  1639,  R.  Jac.  Lom- 
broso  published  a  new  edition  in  quarto 
at  Venice,  with  small  literal  notes  at 
the  bottom  of  each  page,  where  he  ex- 
plains the  Hebrew  words  by  Spanish 
words.    This  Bible  is  much  esteemed 

i  by  the  Jews  at  Constantinople :  in  the 
text  they  have  distinguished  between 
words  where  the  point  camets  is  to  be 
read  with  a  camets  katuph;  that  is,  bf 
0,  and  not  an  a.  Of  all  the  editions 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible  in  octavo,  the 
most  beautiful  and  correct  are  the  two 
of  J.  Athias,  a  Jew,  of  Amsterdam. 
The  first,  of  1661,  is  the  best  paper; 
but  that  of  1667  is  the  most  exact. 
That,  however,  published  since  at  Am- 
sterdam, by  Vander  Hooght,  in  1705, 
is  preferable  to  both.  After  Athias, 
three  Hebraizing  Protestants  engaged 
in  revising  and  publishing  the  He- 
brew Bible,  viz.  Clodius,  Jablonski,  and 
Opitius.  Clodius's  edition  was  publish- 
ed at  Frankfort,  in  1677,  in  quarto  :  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pages  it  has  the  va- 
I'ious  readings  of  the  former  editions; 
but  the  author  does  not  appear  suffi- 
ciently versed  in  the  accenting,  espe- 
cially in  the  poetical  books ;  besides,  as 
it  was  not  puljlished  under  his  eye,  many 
faults  have  crept  in.  That  of  Jablonski, 
in  1699,  in  quarto,  at  Berlin,  is  very 
beautiful  as  to  letter  and  print;  but, 
though  the  editor  pretends  he  made 
use  of  the  editions  of  Athias  and  Clo- 
dius, some  critics  find  it  scarcely  in 
any  thing  different  from  the  quarto 
edition  ot  Bomberg.  That  of  Opitius 
is  also  in  quarto,  at  Keil,  in  1709 :  the 

!  character  is  large  and  good,  but  the 


BIB 


62 


BIB 


paper  bad :  it  is  done  with  a  gi-eat  deal 
of  eare ;  but  the  editor  made  use  of  no 
manuscripts  but  those  of  the  German 
libraries,  neglecting  the  French  ones, 
which  is  an  omission  common  to  all  the 
three.  Tliey  haA  c  this  advantage,  how- 
ever, that,  besides  the  divisions  used  by 
the  JcAvs,  both  general  and  particular, 
into  /laraske-s  and  /lesukim,  they  have 
also  those  of  the  Christians,  or  of  the 
Latin  Bibles,  into  chapters  and  verses; 
the  kerl  ketio.  or  various  readings,  La- 
tin summaries,  &c.  which  made  them 
of  considerable  use  with  respect  to  the 
Latin  editions  and  the  concordances. 
The  little  Bible  of  R.  Stevens,  in  16mo. 
is  very  much  prized  for  the  beauty  of 
the  character.  Care,  however,  must 
be  taken,  there  being  another  edition 
of  Geneva  exceedingly  like  it,  except- 
ing that  the  print  is  worse,  and  the  text 
less  correct.  To  these  may  be  added 
some  other  Hebrew  Bibles  without 
points,  in  Svo.  and  24mo.  which  are 
much  coveted  by  the  Jews;  not  that 
they  are  more  exact,  but  more  portable 
than  the  rest,  and  are  used  in  their 
synagogues  and  schools.  Of  these  there 
are  two  beautiful  editions ;  the  one  of 
Plantin,  in  Svo.  with  two  columns,  and 
the  other  in  24mo.  reprinted  by  Rapha- 
lengius,  at  Leyden,  in  1610.  Tliere  is 
also  an  edition  of  them  by  Laurens,  at 
Amsterdam,  in  1631,  in  a  larger  cha- 
racter; and  another  in  12mo.  at  Frank- 
fnrt,  m  1694,  full  of  faults,  with  a  pre- 
f.ice  of  ]\Ir.  Leusden  at  the  head  of  it. 
Houbigant  published  an  elegant  edition 
of  the  Hebi-ew  Bible  at  Paris,  in  1753, 
in  4  vols,  folio :  the  text  is  that  of  Van- 
der  Hooght,  without  points;  to  wliich 
lie  has  added  marginal  notes,  supplying 
the  variations  of  the  Samaritan  copy. 
Dr.  Kennicott,  after  almost  twenty 
years'  laborious  collation  of  near  600  co- 
pies, manuscripts  and  printed,  either  of 
the  whole  or  particular  parts  of  the 
Bible,  published  the  Hebrew  Bible  in  2 
vols,  folio:  tlie  text  is  that  of  Everard 
Vander  Hooght,  already  mentioned,  dif- 
fering from  it  only  in  the  disposition  of 
the  poetical  parts,  which  Dr.  Kennicott 
has  printed  in  hcmistichs,  into  which 
they  naturally  divide  themselves ;  how- 
ever, the  words  follow  one  another  in 
the  same  order  as  they  do  in  the  edition 
of  Vander  Hooght.  This  edition  is 
printed  on  an  excellent  tjpe :  the  Sa- 
maritan text,  according  to  the  copy  in 
the  London  Polyglot,  is  cxhit)ited  in  a 
column  parallel  with  the  Hebrew  text; 
those  parts  of  it  tinly  being  introduced 
in  Avhich  it  differs  from  tlie  Hebrew. 
The  numerous  variations,  both  of  the 
Samaritan  manuscript  from  the  printed 


copy  of  the  Samaritan  texts,  and  of  the 
Hebrew  manuscripts  from  the  printed 
text  of  Vatider  Hooght,  are  placed  se- 
parately at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  and 
marked  with  numbers  referring  to  the 
copies  from  which  they  are  taken.  Four 
quarto  volumes  of  various  readings  have 
also  been  published  by  De  Rossi,  of 
Parma,  from  more  than  400  manuscripts 
(some  of  which  are  said  to  be  of  the 
seventh  or  eighth  century,)  as  well  as 
from  a  considerable  nufnoer  of  rare 
and  unnoticed  editions.  An  edition  of 
Reincccius's  Hebrew  Bible,  with  read- 
ings from  Kennicott  and  De  Rossi,  has 
been  published  by  Dodderlein,  and  will 
be  found  a  useful  work  to  the  Hebrew 
student. 

31.  Bibles,  Italian.  The  first  Ita- 
lian Bible  published  by  the  Romanists 
is  that  of  Nicholas  Maleme,  a  Bene- 
dictine monk,  printed  at  Venice  in  1471. 
It  was  translated  from  tlie  Vulgate. 
The  version  of  Anthony  Brucioli,  pub- 
lished at  Venice  in  1532,  was  prohibited 
by  the  council  of  Trent.  The  Calvin- 
ists  likewise  have  their  Italian  Bibles. 
There  is  one  of  John  Diodati  in  1607 
and  1641 ;  and  another  of  Maximus 
Theopliilus,  in  1551,  dedicated  to  Fran- 
cis de  Medicis,  duke  of  Tuscany.  The 
Jews  of  Italy  have  no  entire  version  of 
the  Bible  in  Italian ;  the  Inquisition  con- 
stantly refusing  to  allow  them  the  li- 
berty of  printing  one. 

32.  Bibles,  Latin,  however  nu- 
merous, may  be  all  reduced  to  three 
classes ;  the  ancient  Vulgate,  called 
also  Italica,  translated  from  the  Greek 
Septuagint ;  the  modern  Vulgate,  the 
greatest  part  of  wl\ich  is  done  from  the 
Hebrew  text ;  and  the  new  Latin  trans- 
lations, done  also  "from  the  Hebrew 
text,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  We 
have  nothing  remaining  of  the  ancient 
Vulgate,  used  in  the  primitive  times  in 
the  western  churches,  but  the  Psalms, 
Wisdom,  and  Ecclesiastes.  Nobilius 
has  endeavoured  to  retrieve  it  from  the 
works  of  the  ancient  Latin  fathers ;  but 
it  was  impossible  to  do  it  exactly,  be- 
cause most  of  the  fathers  did  not  keep 
close  to  it  in  their  citations.  As  to  the 
modern  Vulgate,  there  are  a  vast  num- 
ber of  editions  very  different  from  each 
other.  Cardinal  Ximenes  has  inserted 
one  in  the  Bible  of  Complutum,  con-ect- 
ed  and  altered  in  many  places.  R.  Ste- 
vens, and  the  doctors  of  Lou\'ain,  have 
taken  gi'cat  pains  in  correcting  the  mo- 
dern Vulgate.  The  best  edition  of  Ste- 
vens's Latin  Bible  is  that  of  1540,  re- 
printed 1545,  in  which  are  added  on 
the  margin  tlic  vai-ious  readings  of  se- 
veral Latin  manuscripts  which  he  had 


BIB 


BIB 


consulted.  The  doctors  of  Louvain  re-  i|  from  the  originals  by  Protestants.  The 
vised  the  modern  Vulgate  after  R.  Ste-  !l  most  esteemed  are  those  of  Munster, 
vens,  and  added  the  various  readings  of  !  Leo  Juda,  Castalio,  and  Tremellius ; 
several  Latin  manuscripts.  The  best  the  three  last  of  which  have  been  re- 
ef the  Louvain  editions  are  those  in  ;i  printed  various  times.  Munster  pub- 
which  are  added  the  critical  notes  of  i  lished  his  version  at  Basil  in  1534,  which 
Francis  Lucas,  of  Bruges.  All  these  i;  he  afterwards  revised :  he^  published  a 
i-eformations  of  the  Latin  Bible  were  ,  correct  Qclition  in  1546.  Castalio's  fine 
made  before  the  time  of  pope  SixtusV.i  Latin  pleases  most  people;  but  there 
and  Clement  VIIL;  since  which  people  are  some  who  think  it  aftected:  the  best 
have  not  presumed  to  make  any  altera-  ,,  edition  is  that  in  1573.  Leo  Juda's  ver- 
tions,  excepting  in  comments  and  sepa-  i|  sion,  altered  a  little  by  the  divines  of 
i-ate  notes.  The  con-ection  of  Clement  Salamanca,  was  added  to  the  ancient 
VIIL  in  1592,  is  now  the  standard  !  Latin  edition,  as  published  by  R.  Ste- 
throughout  all  tlie  Romish  churches :  i|  vcns,  w  itli  notes,  under  the  name  of 
that  pontiff  made  two  reformatioris;  I]  Vatablus's  Bible,  in  1545.  It  was  con- 
but  it  is  the  first  of  them  that  is  follow-  i  demned  by  the  Parisian  divines,  but 
ed.  From  this  the  Bibles  of  Plantin  |l  printed,  v^ith  some  alterations,  by  the 
were  done,  and  from  those  of  Plantin  ij  Spanish  divines  of  Salamanca.  Those 
all  the  rest ;  so  that  the  common  Bibles  j:  ot  Junius,  Tremellius,  and  Beza,  arc 
have  none  of  the  after-corrections  of  ii  considerably  exact,  and  have  undergone 
the  same  Clement  VIIL  It  is  a  heavy  1'  a  great  number  of  editions.  We  may 
charge  that  lies  on  the  editions  of  pope  jj  add  a  fourth  class  of  Latin  Bibles,  com- 
Clement,  viz.  that  they  have  some  new  1;  prehending  the  Vulgate  etlition,  cor- 
texts  added,  and  many  old  ones  altered,  |[  rected  from  the  originals.  The  Bible 
to  countenance  and  confirm  what  they  j:  of  Isidorus  Clarus  is  of  tliis  number ; 
call  the  catholic  doctrine.  There  are  i^  that  author,  not  contented  with  re- 
a  great  number  of  Latin  Bibles  of  the  ■!  storing  the  ancient  Latin  copy,  has  cor- 
third  class,  comprehending  the  versions  ij  rected  the  translator  in  a  gi-cat  number 
from  the  originals  of  the  sacred  books  |i  of  places  which  he  thought  ill  rendered, 
made  within  these  200  years.  The  first '' Some  Protestants  have  followed  the 
is  that  of  Santes  Pagninus,  a  Dominican,  same  method ;  and,  among  others,  An- 
under  the  patronage  of  Leo  X.  printed  i,  drew  and  Luke  Osiander,  who  have 
at  Lyons,  m  quarto,  in  1527,  much  es-  j'  each  published  a  new  edition  of  the 
teemed  by  the  Jews.    This  the  author  i  Vulgate,  corrected  from  the  originals 


improved  in  a  second  edition.  In  1542 
there  was  a  beautiful  edition  of  the  same 
at  Lyons,  in  folio,  with  scAo//a  published 
under  the  name  of  Michael  Villanova- 
nus,  i.  e.  Michal  Senxtus,  author  of 


See  Nos.  38 


Bibles,  Muscovite. 
and  39. 

34  Bibles,  Oriental.     See  Nos. 
13,  15,  19,  20,  23,  35,  41,  42. 

35.  Bibles,  Persian.    Some  of  the 


12, 


ihesc/iotia.  Those  of  Zurich,  have  like-  j  fathers  seem  to  say  that  all  the  Scrip - 
wise  published  an  edition  of  Pagninus's  i  ture  was  foi-merly  ti-anslated  into  the 
Bible  in  quarto ;  and  R.  Ste^•ens  re-  ■  language  of  the  Persians ;  but  we  have 
printed  it  in  folio,  with  the  Vulgate,  in  I  nothing  now  remaining  of  the  ancient 
1557,  pretending  to  give  it  more  correct  jj  version,  which  was  certainly  done  from 
than  m  the  foi-mer  editions.  There  is  j  the  Septuagint.  The  Persian  Penta- 
also  another  edition  of  1586,  in  four  |]  teucH,  printed  in  the  London  Polyglot, 
columns,  under  the  name  of  Vatablus  ;  |  is  without  doubt,  the  work  of  rabbi  Ja- 
and  we  find  it  again,  in  the  Hamburg  j'  cob,  a  Persian  Jew.  It  was  published 
edition  of  the  Bible,  in  four  languages.  '  by  the  Jews  at  Constantinople  in  1551. 
In  the  number  of  Latin  Bibles  is  also  jj  In  the  same  Polyglot  we  have  likewise 


-glot 
i|  the  four  evangelists  in  Persian,  with  a 
i  Latin  translation ;  but  this  appears  very 
ll  modern,  incorrect,  and  of  little  use. 
I  Walton  says,  this  version  w^as  written 
I  above  fotir  hundred  years  ago.  Another 
||  version  of  the  Gospels  was  published  at 
j  Cambridge  by  \\  heloc,  in  the  seven- 
j  teenth  century.  There  are  also  two 
Persian  versions  of  the  Psalms  made 
the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  j  from  the  \adgar  Latin, 
and  the  Greek  of  the  Nev^\  The  best  I  36.  Bibles,  Palis/:.  The  first  Polisli 
of  them  all  is  the  first,  which  is  in  folio,  '  version  of  the  Bible,  it  is  said,  was  that 
1571.  Since  the  refonnation,  there  have  ■'■  composed  bv  Hadewich,  wife  of  Jagel- 
been  several  Latin  versions  of  the  Bible  jj  Ion,  duke  of  Lithuania,  who  embraced 


usually  ranked  the  version  of  the  same 
Pagninus,  corrected  or  rather  rendered 
literal,  by  Arias  Montaiuis ;  which  cor- 
rection being  approved  of  by  the  doc- 
tors of  Louvain,  kc.  was  inserted  in  the 
Polyglot  Bible  of  Philip  II.  and  since  in 
that  of  London.  There  have  been  va- 
rious editions  of  this  in  folio,  quarto, 
and  octavo  ;  to  which  have  been  added 


BIB 


64 


BIB 


Christianity  in  the  year  1390.  In  1599  Ij  tiful  cliaracter:  and  since  liis  time  tliere 
tliere  was  a  Polish  translation  of  the  .'  have  been  several  other  editions.  Ga- 
Bible  published  at  Cracow,  which  was  \\  briel  Sionita  published  a  beautiful  S)Tiac 
the  work  of  several  di\'ines  of  tliat  na-  |i  edition  of  the  Psalms  at  Paris  in  1526, 
tion,  and  in  which  James  \'\'iecJv,  a  Jc-  j  v/ith  a  Latin  interpretation;  There  is  a 
suit,  had  a  principal  share.  'I'he  Pro-  |  Svriac  copy  of  the  Bible  written  in  the 
testants,  in  1596,  pul^lishcd  a  Polish  Bi-  i  Iis/ran_^eio  character,  and  was  brought 
ble  from  Luther's  Gennan  version,  and  i'  from  the  Christians  of  Travancore, 
dedicated  it  to  Uladislaus,  fomth  king  \\  being  a  present  from  Mar  Dionvsius, 
of  Poland.  ij  the  resident  bishop  at  Cadenatte  to  Dr. 

37.    Bibles,    Polyglot.      See    Nos.  j  Buchanan.    The  size  is  large  folio  in 


29,  31. 

38.  Bibles,  jRwss/an;  or,  ] 

39.  Bibles,  Sclavonian.     The  Rus- 


parchment :  the  pages  are  written  in 
three  columns,  each  column  containing 
sixtv  lines.     It   is    supposed    to    have 


sians  or  IVIuscovites,  published  the  Bible  J  been  written  about  the  seventh  centur\ 
in  their  language  in  1581.  It  was  trans-  i|  Dr.  White,  it  is  said,  has  for  some  tinie 
lated  fi"om  the  Greek  by  St.  Cyril,  the  ii  been  engaged  in  reprinting  the  Syriac 
apostle  of  the  Sclavonians ;  but  this  old  !|  Old  Testament. 

version  being  too  obscure,  Ernest  Gliik,  l|  42.  Bibles,  Turkish.  In  1666  a 
Tvho  had  been  carried  prisoner  to  Mos-  il  Turkish  New  Testament  was  printed 
cow  after  the  taking  of  Narva,  under-  i|  in  London  to  be  dispereed  in  tlie  East 
took  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Sclavonian ;   who  dying    in    1705,  the 


Czar  Peter  appointed  some  particular 
divines  to  finish  the  translation ;  but 
whether  it  was  ever  printed  we  cannot 
say. 

40.  Bibles,  S/ianish.  The  first  Spa- 
nish Bible  that  we  hear  of,  is  that  men- 
tioned b}'  Cyprian  de  Valera,  which  he 
says  Avas  published  about  1500.  The 
epistles  and  Gospels  v\'ere  published  in 
tiiat  language  by  Ambrose  de  ^lontesian 


In  1721,  it  is  said,  the  grand  Seignor 
ordered  an  impression  of  Bibles  at  Con- 
stantinople, that  they  might  be  con- 
trasted with  Mahomet's  oracle,  the  Al- 
coran. The  modem  Greeks  in  Turkey 
have  also  a  translation  of  the  Bible  in 
their  language. 

43.  Bibles,  Welch.  There  was  a 
Welch  translation  of  the  Bible  made 
from  the  original  in  the  time  of  queen 
ElizalDeth,  in  consequence  of  a  bill 
brought  into  the  House  of   Commons 


in  1512  ;  the  whole  Bible  by  Cassiodore  i|  for  this  pui-pose  in  1563:  it  was  printed 
de  Reyna,  a  Calvinist,  in  1569  ;  and  the  i;  in  folio  in  1588.  Another  version,  which 
New  Testament,  dedicated  to  the  em-  jl  is  tlie  standard  translation  for  that  lan- 
peror  Charles  V.,  by  Fi-ancis  Enzina,  i  goiage,  was  printed  in  1620:  it  is  called 


otherwise  called  Driander,  in  1543. 
The  first  Bible  which  was  printed  in 
vSpanish  for  the  use  of  the  Jews  was  that 
printed  at  Ferrara  in  1553,  in  Gothic 
characters,  and  dedicated  to  Hercules 
D'Este,  duke  of  Ferrara.  This  \ersion 
is  very  ancient,  and  was  probably  in  use 
among  the  Jev/s  of  Spain  before  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  expelled  them  out  of 
their  dominions  in  1492.  After 'very 
A-iolent  opposition  from  the  catholic 
clerg\',  the  court  of  Spain  ordered  Spa- 
nish Bibles  to  be  printed  by  royal  autno-  i 
rity  in  1796,  and  put  into  "the  hands  of 


jPcr/'z/'.?  Bible.  An  impression  of  this 
was  printed  in  1690,  called  Bishofi 
JJoya's  Bible:  these  were  m  folio. 
The  first  octavo  impression  of  the 
Welch  Bible  was  made  in  1630. 

44.  Bibles,  Beiigalee.  It  is  with 
pleasure  we  add  to  all  the  above  ac- 
counts, that  a  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  into  the  Shanscrit,  and  the 
last  volume  of  the  Bengalee  Bible  are 
now  completed,  by  the  missionax'ies  re- 
sident in  that  part. 

Much  has  been  done  by  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  printing 


people   of  all   ranks,  as  well  as  to  be  \  new  editions  of  the  Scriptures  in  \  arious 


used  in  public  worship 

41.  Bibles,  Syriac.  There  are  ex- 
tant two  versions  of  the  Old  Testament 
in  the  Svriac  language ;  one  from  the 
Septuagint,  which  is  ancient,  and  made 
probably  about  the  time  of  Constantine : 
the  other  called  anti(jua  et  sim/ilex, 
made  from  the  Heljrew,  as  some  sup- 
pose, about  the  time  of  the  apostles. 
This  version  is  printed  in  the  Polvglnts 
of  London  and  Paris.  In  1562,  \\'ed- 
manstadius  printed  the  whole  New  Tes- 
tament in  Syriac,  at  Vienna,  in  a  beau- 


languages.  The  reader  will  find  mucii 
pleasing  information  on  the  subject,  in 
the  Annual  Reports  of  that  Society. 

See  Le  Long's  Bibliotheca  Sacra; 
Woljii  Bibliotheca  Hebrcca,  vol.  ii.  p. 
338 ;  Johiisoji's  Historical  Account  of 
English  Translatio7is  of  the  Bible; 
Lewis's  Hist,  of  the  Translatio7is  of 
the  Bible  into  English;  M-ivcome^s 
Historical  vie-vj  ofElnglish  'Erarisla- 
tions  ;  Butler's  Horx  Biblicte  ;  and  the 
article  Bible  in  the  Encyclojigedia 
Britannica  and  Pert  hens  is. 


BID 


65 


BIO 


BIBLIOMANCY,  a  kind  of  ilivina- 
iion  performed  hv  means  of  the  Bible. 
It  consisted  in  taking  pdssages  of  Scrip- 
ture at  hazard,  and  drawing  indications 
thence  concerning  things  future.  It 
was  much  used  at  the  consecration  of 
bishops.  F.  J.  Davidius,  a  Jesuit,  has 
published  a  bibliomancy  under  the  bor- 
rowed name  of  Veridicus  Christianus.. 
It  has  been  affirmed  that  some  well- 
meaning  people  practise  a  kind  of  bi- 
bliomancy with  respect  to  the  future 
state  of  their  souls ;  and,  when  they 
have  happened  to  fix  on  a  text  of  an 
awful  nature,  it  has  almost  driven  them 
to  despair.  It  certainly  is  not  the  way 
to  know  the  mind  of  God  by  choosing 
detached  parts  of  Scripture,  or  by 
drawing  a  card  on  which  a  passage  may 
be  written,  the  sense  of  which  is  to  be 
gathered  only  from  the  context. 

BIDDELIANS,  so  called  from  John 
Biddle,  who  in  the  year  1644  formed  an 
independent  con.gregation  in  London. 
He  taught  that  Jesus  Christ,  to  the  in- 
tent that  he  might  be  our  brother,  and 
have  a  fellow-feeling  of  our  infirmities, 
and  so  become  the  more  ready  to  help 
us,  hath  no  other  than  a  human  nature ; 
and  thei-efore  in  this  very  nature  is  not 
only  a  person,  since  none  but  a  human 

Eerson  can  be  our  brother,  but  also  our 
,oi-d  and  God. 

Biddle,  as  well  as  Socinus  and  other 
Unitarians  before  and  since,  made  no 
sciTiple  of  calling  Christ  God,  though 
he  believed  him  to  be  a  human  creature 
only,  on  account  of  the  divine  sovereign- 
ty with  which  he  was  invested. 

BIDDING  PRAYER.  It  was  part 
of  the  office  of  the  deacons  in  the  pri- 
mitive church  to  be  monitors  and  di- 
rectors of  the  people  in  their  public 
de\'otions  in  the  church.  To  this  end 
they  made  use  of  certain  known  forms 
of  words,  to  give  notice  when  each  part 
of  the  service  began.  Agreeable  to  this 
ancient  pi-actice  is  the  form  "Let  us 
pray,"  repeated  before  several  of  the 
prayers  in  the  English  liturgy.  Bishop 
Bumet,  in  his  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, vol.  ii".  p.  20,  lias  preserved  the 
foi-m  as  it  was  in  use  before  the  refor- 
mation, which  was  this: — After  the 
preacher  had  named  and  opened  his 


pray,  says 
he,  for  the  king,  the  pope,  &c.  After 
which,  all  the  people  said  their  beads 
in  a  general  silence,  and  the  minister 
kneeled  down  likewise,  and  said  his: 
they  were  to  say  a  fiatemoster,  ave 
maria,  &c.  and  tiien  the  sermon  pro- 
ceeded. 


BIGOTRY  consists  in  being  obsti- 
nately and  pen-ersely  attached  to  our 
own  opinions ;  or,  as  some  have  defined 
it,  "  a  tenacious  adherence  to  a  system 
adopted  without  investigation,  and  de- 
fended without  argument,  accompanied 
with  a  malignant  intolerant  spirit  to- 
wards all  who  differ."  It  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  love  to  truth,  which 
influences  a  man  to  embrace  it  where- 
ever  he  finds  it;  and  from  true  zeal, 
which  is  an  ardour  of  mind  exciting  its 
possessor  to  defend  and  propagate  the 

Erinciples  he  maintains.  Bigotry  is  a 
ind  of  prejudice  combined  with  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  malignity.  It  is  thus  ex- 
emplified and  distinguished  by  a  sensible 
writer.  "When  Jesus  preached,  pre- 
judice cried,  Can  any  good  thing  come 
out  of  Nazareth  i  Cnicify  him,  cracify 
him,  said  bigotiy.  Why?  what  evil 
hath  he  done?  replied  candour."  Bi- 
gotry is  mostly  prevalent  with  those 
who  are  ignorant ;  who  have  taken  up 
principles  without  due  examination; 
and  who  are  naturally  of  a  morose  and 
conti-acted  disposition.  It  is  often  mani- 
fested more  in  unimportant  sentiments, 
or  the  circumstantials  of  religion,  than 
the  essentials  of  it.  Simple  bigotry  is 
the  spirit  of  persecution  without  the 
power;  persecution  is  bigotry  armed 
with  power,  and  carrying  its  will  into 
act.  As  it  is  the  effect  of  ignorance,  so 
it  is  the  nurse  of  it,  because  it  precludes 
free  enquiry,  and  is  an  enemy  to  tnith  : 
it  cuts  also  the  very  sinews  of  charity, 
and  destroys  moderation  and  mutual 
good  will.  If  we  consider  the  different 
makes  of  men's  minds,  our  own  igno- 
rance, the  liberty  that  all  men  have  to 
think  for  themselves,  the  admirable 
example  our  Lord  has  set  us  of  a  con- 
traiy  spirit,  and  the  baneful  effects  of 
this  disposition,  we  must  at  once  be 
convinced  of  its  impropriety.  How 
contradictory  is  it  to  sound  reason,  and 
how  inimical  to  the  peaceful  religion 
we  profess  to  maintam  as  Christians  !— 
See  Persecution,  and  books  under 
that  article. 

BIOGRAPHY,  Religious,  or  the  lives 
of  illustrious  and  pious  men,  are  well 
worthy  of  perusing.  The  advantages 
of  religious  biography  are  too  well 
known  to  need  a  recital  in  this  place. 
We  shall  only,  therefore,  point  out  some 
of  the  best  pieces,  which  the  reader 
may  peruse  at  his  leisure : — 

Hunter's  Sacred  Biography  ;  Robin- 
son's Scri/jtiire  Characters ;  Hunter's 
History  of  Christ ;  J.  Taylor's  Life  of 
Christ;  Cave's  Lives  of  the  Apostles ; 
Cave's  Lives  of  the  Fathers;  Fox's 
Lives    of   the    Martyrs;    Melehiir 


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Mam's  Lives;  Fuller's  and  Clark's 
Lives;  Gil/ihi's  Lives  of  Wickliffe, 
Cranmer,Latimer,i:fc.;  ll'alton's Lives 
by  Zouch;  Baxter's  J^arrative  of  the 
most  remarkable  Passages  of  his  Life 
and  Times,  by  Silvester ;  Palmer's 
A'oucofiformist  Memorial;  Lives  of  P. 
and  M.  Henry  ;  Life  of  Halyburton  ; 
Orton's  Memoirs  of  Doddridge ;  Gil- 
lies' Life  of  Whitfield;  Doddridge's 
Life  of  Gardner ;  Life  of  Wesley  by 
Hamjison,  Coke,  More,  and  Whitehead ; 
J\Iiddlet07i's  Biografihia  Lvangelica; 
Ldivards's  Life  of  D.  Brainerd ;  Gib- 
bon's Life  of  Watts;  Brown's  Life  of 
Ilervey  ;  Paivcett's  Life  of  Heywooa  ; 
Brown's  Lives  in  his  Student  and  Pas- 
tor;  Burnet's  Life  of  Rochester  ;  Hay- 
tcy's  Life  of  Cowfier ;  Benson's  Life 
of  Fletcher;  Jay's  Life  of  IVinte'r ; 
Cecil's  Life  of  A'ewton ;  Priestley's 
Chart  of  Biography,  with  a  Book  de- 
scribing it,  12mo. ;  Haweis's  Life  of 
Romame  ;  Fuller's  Life  of  Pearce. 

BISHOP,  a  prelate  consecrated  for 
tlie  spiritual  government  of  a  diocese. 
The  word  comes  from  the  Saxon  bis- 
choji,  and  that  from  the  Greek  e-w/j-xco-c?, 
an  overseer,  or  inspector.  It  is  a  long 
time  since  bishops  have  been  distin- 
guislied  from  mere  priests,  or  presby- 
ters ;  but  whether  that  distinction  be  of 
divine  or  human  right ;  wlicther  it  was 
settled  in  the  apostolic  age,  or  intro- 
duced since,  is  much  contro\crted. 
Churchmen  m  general  plead  for  the 
divine  right ;  while  the  Dissenters  sup- 
pose that  tlie  word  no  w-here  signifies 
more  than  a  pastor  or  presbyter;  the 
very  same  persons  being  called  bishops 
and  elders,  or  presbyters.  Acts  xx.  17, 
28.  1  Pet.  V.  1,  3.  Tit.  i.  5,  7.  Phil.  i.  1. 
See  Episcopacy.  All  the  bishops  of 
England  ai-e  peers  of  the  realm,  except 
the  bishop  of  Man ;  and  as  such  sit  and 
vote  in  the  house  of  lords.  Besides  two 
archbishops,  there  are  twenty-four 
bishops  in  England,  exclusive  of  the 
bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man.  The  bishops 
of  London,  Durham,  and  Winchester, 
take  the  precedence  of  the  other  bi- 
shops, who  rank  after  them  according 
to  their  seniority  of  consecration.  See 
Episcopacy. 

BLASPHEMY,  from  Bxao-^n.u/*,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Campbell,  properly  de- 
notes calumny,  detraction,  reproachful 
or  abusive  language,  against  whomso- 
ever it  be  vented.  It  is  in  Scripture 
applied  to  reproaches  not  aimed  against 
God  only,  but  man  also,  Rom.  lii.  8. 
Rom.  xiv.  16.  1  Pet.  iv.  4.  Gr.  It  is, 
however,  more  peculiarly  restrained  to 
evil  or  reproacnful  woixls  offered  to 
Ged.     According   to  Linwood,   bias-  ^j 


phemy  is  an  injury  offered  to  God,  by 
denying  that  which  is  due  and  belong- 
ing to  him,  or  attributing  to  him  what 
is  not  agreeable  to  his  nature.  "  Three 
things,"  says  a  divine,  "  are  essential  to 
this  crime  ;  1.  God  must  be  the  object. 
— 2.  The  words  spoken  or  written,  in- 
dependent of  consequences  which  others 
may  derive  from  them,  must  be  inju- 
rious in  their  nature. — And,  3.  He  who 
commits  the  crime  must  do  it  knowing- 
ly. This  is  real  blasphemy  ;  but  there 
j  is  a  relative  blasphemy,  as  when  a  man 
1  may  be  guilty  ignorantly  by  propa- 
[  gating  opinions  which  dishonour  God, 
the  tendency  of  which  he  does  not  per- 
ceive. A  man  may  be  guilty  of  this 
constructively :  for  if  he  speak  freely 
against  received  errors,  it  will  be  con- 
strued into  blasphemy."  By  the  English 
laws,  blasphemies  of  God,  as  denying 
his  Iseing  or  providence,  and  all  contu- 
melious reproaches  of  Jesus  Christ,  &c. 
are  offences  by  the  common  law,  and 
punishable  by  fine,  imprisonment,  and 
pilloiy ;  and,  by  the  statute  law,  he  that 
denies  one  of  the  persons  in  the  Tri- 
nity, or  asserts  that  there  are  more 
than  one  (iod,  or  denies  Christianity  to 
be  true,  for  the  first  offence  is  rendered 
incapable  of  any  office ;  for  the  second, 
adjudged  incapable  of  suing,  being  ex- 
ecutor or  guardian,  receiving  any  gift 
or  legacy,  and  to  be  imprisoned  for 
years.  According  to  the  law  of  Scot- 
land, blasphemy  is  punished  with  death : 
tliese  laws,  however,  in  the  present 
age,  are  not  enforced ;  the  legislature 
thinking, perhaps,  that  spiritual  offences 
should  be  left  to  be  punished  by  the 
Deity  rather  than  by  human  statutes. 
CamJibelPs  Prel.  Diss.  vol.  i.  p.  395  ; 
Robinson's  Scri/it.  Plea,  p.  58. 

BLASPHEMY  AGAINST  THE 
HOLY  GHOST.  See  Unpardona- 
ble Sin. 

BODY  OF  DIVINITY.  See  The- 
ology. 

BOGOMILI,  or  BoGARMiTiC,  a  sect 
of  heretics  which  arose  about  the  vear 
1179.  They  held  that  the  use  of 
churches,  of  the  sacrameht  of  the 
Lord's  supper,  and  all  prayer  except 
the  Lord's  prayer,  ought  to  be  abolish- 
ed ;  that  the  "baptism  of  Catholics  is 
imperfect ;  that  the  persons  of  the  Tri- 
nity are  uneqvral,  and  that  they  often 
made  themselves  visible  to  those  of 
their  sect. 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN,  a  sect 
of  Christian  reformers  which  spning  up 
in  Bohemia  in  the  year  1467.  They 
treated  the  pope  and  cardinals  as  anti- 
christ, and  tne  church  of  Rome  as  the 
whore  spoken  of  in  the  Revelations. 


I 


BOU 


67 


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I'hcy  rejected  the  sacraments  of  tlic 
Romish  church,  and  chose  kiymen  for 
their  ministers.  They  held  the  Sciip-  | 
tvires  to  be  the  only  i"ule  of  faith,  and 
I'cjected  the  popish  ceremonies  in  the 
celebration  of  the  mass ;  nor  did  they 
make  use  of  any  other  prayer  than  the 
Lord's  prayer.  The)'  consecrated  lea- 
\cned  bread.  Thev  allowed  no  adora- 
tion but  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the  commu- 
nion. They  rebaptized  all  such  as  joined 
themselves  to  then*  congregation.  They 
abhorred  the  worship  of  saints  and 
images,  prayers  for  the  dead,  celiba- 
cies, ^■ows,  and  fasts ;  and  kept  none  of 
the  festivals  but  Christmas,  Easter,  and 
Whitsuntide. 

In  1503  they  were  accused  by  the  Ca- 
tholics to  king  Ladislaus  II.,  who  pu'y- 
lished  an  edict  against  them,  forbidding 
them  to  hold  any  meetings,  either  pri- 
vately or  publicly.  \\'hen  Luther  de- 
clared himself  against  the  church  of 
Rome,  the  Bohemian  brethren  endea- 
voured to  join  his  party.  At  first,  that 
reformer  showed  a  gi-eat  aversion  to 
them ;  but,  the  Bohemians  sending  their 
deputies  to  him  in  1535,  with  a  full  ac- 
count of  their  doctrines,  he  acknow- 
ledged that  they  were  a  society  of  Chris- 
tians whose  doctrine  came  nearest  to 
the  purity  of  the  Gospel.  This  sect  pub- 
lished another  confession  of  faith  in  1535, 
in  which  they  renounced  anabaptism, 
which  they  at  first  practised:  upon 
which  a  union  was  concluded  with  the 
Lutherans,  and  afterwards  with  the 
Zuinglians,  whose  opinions  from  thence- 
foilh  the\-  continued  to  follow. 

BOOK  OF  SPORTS.  See  Sports. 
BORRELLISTS,  a  Christian  sect  in 
Holland,  so  named  from  their  founder 
Borrel,  a  man  of  great  learning  in  the 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin  tongues. 
They  reject  tlie  use  of  the  sacraments, 
public  prayer,  and  all  other  external 
acts  of  worship.  They  assert  that  all 
the  Christian  churches  of  the  world 
have  degenerated  from  the  pure  apos- 
tolic doctrines,  because  they  have  suf- 
fered the  word  of  God,  which  is  infalli- 
ble, to  be  expounded,  or  rather  cornipt- 
ed,  by  doctors  who  are  fallible.  They 
lead  a  ver\'  austere  life,  and  employ  a 
great  part  of  their  goods  in  alms. 

BOURIGNONISTS,  the  followers 
of  Antoinette  Bourignon,  a  lady  in 
France,  who  pretended  to  particular 
inspirations.  She  was  born  at  Lisle  in 
1616.  At  her  birth  she  was  so  deform- 
ed, that  it  was  debated  some  davs  m  the 
family  whether  it  was  not  proper  to 
stifle  her  as  a  monster ;  but,  her  defor- 
mity diminishing,  she  was  spared :  and 
afterwards  obtained  such  a  degree  of 


beauty,  that  she  had  lier  admirers. 
From  her  childhood  to  her  old  age  she 
had  an  extraordinaiy  turn  of  mind. 
She  set  up  for  a  reformer,  and  publish- 
ed a  great  number  of  books  filled  with 
very  singular  notions;  the  most  re- 
markable of  which  are  entitled.  The 
Light  of  the  ICorW,  and  The  Testimony 
of  Truth.  .In  her  confession  of  faith, 
she  professes  her  belief  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  divinity  and  atonement  of 
Christ.  She  believed  also  that  man  is 
perfectly  free  to  resist  or  receive  divine 
grace ;  that  God  is  ever  unchangeable 
love  towards  all  his  creatures,  and  does 
not  inflict  any  arbitrarj'  punishment ; 
but  that  the  evils  they  "suffer  ai^  the 
natural  consequence  of  sin ;  that  reli- 
gion consists  not  in  outward  forms  of 
worship  nor  systems  of  faith,  but  in  an 
entire  resignation  to  the  will  of  God. 
She  held  many  extravagant  notions, 
among  which,  it  is  said,  she  asserted 
that  Adam,  before  the  faU,  possessed 
the  principles  of  both  sexes ;  that  in  an 
ecstacy,  God  I'epresented  Adam  to  her 
mind  in  his  original  state ;  as  also  the 
lieauty  of  the  first  world,  and  how  he 
had  drawn  from  it  the  chaos ;  and  that 
eveiy  thing  was  bright,  transparent, 
and  darted  forth  life  and  ineffable  glory, 
with  a  number  of  otlier  wild  ideas.  She 
dressed  like  a  hermit,  and  travelled 
through  France,  Holland,  England,  and 
Scotland.    She  died  at  Fanekir,  in  the 

Srovince   of  Frise,  October   30,   1680. 
[er  works  have  been  printed  in  18 
vols.  8vo. 

BOYLE'S  LECTURES,  a  course  of 
eight  sermons,  preached  annually ;  set 
on  foot  by  the  honourable  R.  Boyle,  by 
a  codicil  annexed  to  his  will,  in  1691, 
whose  design,  as  expressed  by  the  in- 
stitutor,  is  to  prove  the  truth  of  the 
Christian  religion  against  infidels,  with- 
out descending  to  any  controversies 
among  Christians,  and  to  answer  new 
difficulties,  scmples,  &c.  For  the  sup- 
port of  this  lecture  he  assigned  the  rent 
of  his  house  in  Crooked  Lane  to  some 
learned  divine  within  the  bills  of  mor- 
tality, to  be  elected  for  a  term  not  ex- 
ceeding three  years.  But,  the  fund 
proving  precarious,  the  salary  was  ill 
paid ;  to  remedy  which  mconvenience, 
archbishop  Tennison  procui-cd  a  jearly 
stipend  of  501.  for  ever,  to  be  paid  quar- 
terlv,  charged  on  a  farm  in  the  parish 
of  Brill,  in  the  county  of  Bucks.  To 
this  appointment  we  are  indebted  for 
many  excellent  defences  of  natural  and 
revealed  religion. 

BRANDENBURG,  Confessionof.  A 
formulary  or  confession  of  faith,  drawn 
up  in  the  city  of  Brandenburg  by  order 


Bill 


oS 


BRO 


of  the  elector,  with  a  view  to  reconcile 
the  tenets  of  Luther  with  those  of  Cal- 
vin, and  to  put  an  end  to  tlie  disputes 
occasioned  by  the  confession  of  Augs- 
bureh.   See  Augsburgh  Confession. 

BRETHREN  AND  SISFERS  OF 
THE  FREE  SPIRIT,  dn  appellation 
assumed  by  a  sect  which  sprung  up  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  gained  many  adherents  in 
Italy,  France,  and  Germany.  They 
took  their  denomination  from  the  words 
of  St.  Paul,  Rom.  viii.  2,  14.  and  main- 
tained that  the  true  children  of  God 
were  invested  with  perfect  freedom 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  law.  They 
held  that  all  things  flowed  by  emanation 
from  God ;  that  rational  souls  were  por- 
tions of  the  Deity;  that  the  universe 
was  God;  and  that  by  the  power  of 
contemplation  they  were  united  to  the 
Deity,  and  acquired  hereby  a  glorious 
and  sublime  liberty,  both  from  the  sin- 
ful lusts  and  the  common  instincts  of 
nature,  Avith  a  variety  of  other  enthusi- 
astic notions.  Many  edicts  were  pub- 
lished against  them ;  but  they  continued 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

BRETHREN  AND  CLERKS  OF 
THE  COMMON  LIFE,  a  denomina- 
tion assumed  by  a  religious  fraternity 
towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. They  lived  under  the  nile  of  St. 
Augustin,  and  were  said  to  be  eminent- 
ly useful  in  promoting  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion and  learning. 

BRETHREN  WHITE,  were  the 
followers  of  a  priest  from  the  Alps 
about  the  begiiining  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  They  and  their  leader  were 
arrayed  in  white  garments.  Their  lead- 
er can'ied  abont  a  cross  like  a  standard. 
His  apparent  sanctity  and  devotion 
drew  together  a  number  of  followers. 
This  deluded  enthusiast  practised  many 
acts  of  mortification  and  penance,  and 
endeavoured  to  persuade  the  Eui'opeans 
to  renew  the  holy  war.  Boniface  IX. 
ordered  him  to  be  apprehended,  and 
committed  to  the  flames ;  upon  which 
his  followers  dispersed. 

BRETHREN  UNITED.  See  Mo- 
ravians. 

BREVIARY,  the  book  containing  the 
daily  service  of  the  church  of  Rome. 

BRIDGETINS,  or  Brigittins,  an 
order  denominated  from  St.  Bridgit,  or 
Birgit,  a  Swedish  lady,  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  Their  rule  is  nearly  that  of 
Augustin.  The  Brigittins  profess  great 
mortification,  poverty,  and  self-denial ; 
and  they  are  not  to  possess  any  thing 
they  can  cull  their  own,  not  so  much  as 
an  halfpeiuiy  j^nor  even  to  touch  money 


on  any  account.  This  order  spread 
much  through  Sweden,  Germany,  and 
the  Netherlands.  In  England  we  i-ead 
of  but  one  monasteiy  of  Brigittins,  and 
this  built  by  Hemy  V.  in  1415,  opposite 
to  Richmond,  now  called  Sion  Kfouse ; 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  which,  since 
the  dissolution,  are  settled  at  Lisbon. 

BRIEFS,  (apostolical)  are  letters 
which  the  pope  dispatches  to  princes 
and  other  magistrates  concerning  any 
public  aff'air. 

BROTHERS,  Lay,  among  the  Ro- 
manists, are  illiterate  persons,  who  de- 
vote themselves  in  some  convent  to  the 
service  of  the  religious. 

BROWNISTS,  a  sect  that  arose 
among  the  puritans  towards  the  close  of 
the  sixteenth  century  ;  so  named  from 
their  leader,  Robert  Brown.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  was  a  man 
of  good  parts  and  some  learning.  He 
began  to  inveigh  openly  against  the  ce- 
remonies of  the  church,  at  Norwich,  m 
1580 ;  but,  being  much  opposed  by  the 
bishops,  he  with  his  congregation  left 
England,  and  settled  at  Middleburgh, 
in  Zealand,  where  they  obtained  leave 
to  worship  God  in  their  own  way,  and 
form  a  church  accoi'ding  to  their  own 
model.  They  soon,  however,  began  to 
differ  among  themselves ;  so  that  Brown, 
growing  weary  of  his  office,  returned  to 
England  in  1589,  renounced  his  prin- 
ciples of  separation,  and  was  preferred 
to  the  rectory  of  a  church  in  Northamp- 
tonshire. He  died  in  prison  in  1630. 
The  revolt  of  Brown  was  attended  with 
the  dissolution  of  the  church  at  Middle- 
burgh ;  but  the  seeds  of  Brownism  which 
he  had  sown  in  England  were  so  far 
from  being  destroyed,  that  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  in  a  speech  in  1592,  computes 
no  less  than  20,000  of  this  sect. 

The  articles  of  their  faith  seem  to  be 
nearly  the  same  as  those  of  the  church 
of  England.  The  occasion  of  their  se- 
paration was  not,  therefore,  any  fault 
they  found  with  the  faith,  but  only  with 
the  discipline  and  form  of  government 
of  the  churches  in  England.  They 
equally  charged  corruption  on  the  epis- 
copal and  presbyterian  forms ;  nor 
would  they  join  with  any  other  reform- 
ed church,  because  they  were  not  as- 
sured of  the  sanctity  and  regeneration 
of  the  members  that  composed  it.  They 
condemned  the  solemn  celebration  of 
marriages  in  the  church,  maintaining 
that  mati'imony  being  a  political  con- 
tract, the  confirmation  thereof  ought  to 
come  from  the  civil  magisti'ate;  an  opi- 
nion in  Avhich  they  are  not  singular. 
They  would  not  allow  the  children  of 
such  as  were  not  members  of  the  Church 


BRO 


G') 


to  be  baptized.  They  rejected  all  forms 
of  prayer,  and  held  that  the  Lord's 
jirayei'  was  not  to  be  recited  as  a  pray- 
er, being  onl\-  given  for  a  rule  or  model 
whereon  all  our  prayers  arc  to  be  form- 
ed. Their  form  of  church  government 
was  nearly  as  follows.  Wlicn  a  church 
was  to  be"  gathered,  such  as  desired  to 
be  members  of  it  made  a  confession  of 
their  faith  in  the  presence  of  each  other, 
and  signed  a  covenant,  by  which  they 
obliged  themselves  to  walk  together  in 
the  order  of  the  Gospel.    The  whole 

Eower  of  admitting  and  excluding  mem- 
ers,  with  the  decision  of  all  controver- 
.sies,  was  lodged  in  the  brotherhood. 
Their  church  officers  were  chosen  from 
among  themselves,  and  separated  to 
their  several  offices  by  fastmg,  prayer, 
and  imposition  of  hands.  But  they  did 
not  alloAv  the  priesthood  to  be  any  dis- 
tinct order.  As  the  vote  of  the  brethren 
made  a  man  a  minister,  so  the  same 
power  could  discharge  him  from  his 
office,  and  reduce  him  to  a  mere  lay- 
man again;  and  as  they  mamtained  the 
bounds  of  a  church  to  be  no  greater 
than  what  could  meet  together  in  one 
place,  and  join  in  one  communion,  so 
the  power  of  these  officers  was  pre- 
scribed within  the  same  limits. — The 
minister  of  one  church  could  not  ad- 
minister the  Lord's  supper  to  another, 
nor  baptize  the  children  of  any  but  those 
of  his  own  society.  Any  lay  brother 
was  allowed  the  libeity  of  giving  a  word 
of  exhortation  to  the  people ;  and  it  was 
usual  for  some  of  them  after  sermon  to 
ask  questions,  and  reason  upon  the  doc- 
trines that  had  been  preached.  In  a 
word,  every  church  on  their  model  is  a 
body  coiporate,  ha\  ing  full  power  to  do 
every  thing  in  themselves,  without  being 
accountable  to  any  class,  synod,  convo- 
cation, or  other  jurisdiction  whatever. 
The  reader  will  judge  how  near  the 
Independent  churches  are  allied  to  this 
forni  of  government.  See  Indepen- 
dents.— The  laws  were  executed  with 
great  severity  on  the  Brownists ;  their 
books  wei;e  prohibited  by  queen  Eliza- 
beth, their  persons  imprisoned,  and 
some  hanged.  Brown  himself  declared 
on  his  death-bed  that  he  had  been  in 
thirty-two  different  prisons,  in  some  of 
which  he  could  not  see  his  hand  at 
noon-day.  They  were  so  much  perse- 
cuted, that  they  resolved  at  last  to  quit 
the  country.  Accordingly  many  retired 
and  settled  at  Amsterdam,  where  they 
formed  a  church,  and  chose  Mr.  Johnson 
their  pastor,  and  after  him  Mr.  Ains- 
worth,  author  of  the  leamed  Commen- 
taiy  on  the  Pentateuch.  Their  church 
nourished  near  100  years.    Among  the 


BUR 

Brownists,  too,  were  the  famous  John 
Robinson,  a  part  of  whose  congregation 
from  Lcyden,  in  Holland,  made  tne  first 
permanent  settlement  in  North  Ameri- 
ca; and  the  laborious  Canne,  the  au- 
thor of  the  marginal  references  to  the 
Bible. 

BUCHANITES,  a  sect  of  enthusi- 
asts who  spning  up  in  the  west  of  Scot- 
land about  1783,  and  took  their  name 
from  a  Mrs.  Buchan,  of  Glasgow,  who 
gave  herself  out  to  be  the  woman  spo- 
ken of  in  the  Revelations ;  and  that  all 
who  believed  in  her  should  be  taken  up 
to  heaven  without  tasting  death,  as  the 
end  of  the  world  was  near.  They  never 
increased  much ;  and  the  death  of  their 
leader  within  a  year  or  two  afterwards, 
occasioned  their  dispersion,  by  putting 
an  end  to  their  hopes  of  reaching  the 
New  Jerusalem  without  death. 

BUDNiEANS,  a  sect  in  Poland,  who 
disclaimed  the  worship  of  Christ,  and 
inin  into  many  wild  hj^jotheses.  Bud- 
nxus,  the  founder,  was  publicly  excom- 
municated in  1584,  with  all  liis  disciples, 
but  afterwards  he  was  admitted  to  the 
communion  of  the  Socinian  sect. 

BULLS,  Popish,  are  letters  called 
apostolic  by  the  Canonists,  strengthened 
with  a  leaden  seal,  and  containing  in 
them  the  decrees  and  commandments 
of  the  pope. 

BURGHER  SECEDERS,  a  nume- 
rous and  respectable  class  of  dissenters 
from  tlie  church  of  Scotland,  who  were 
originally  connected  with  the  associate 
presbytery ;  but,  some  difference  of  sen- 
timent arising  about  the  lawfulness  of 
taking  the  Burgess  oath,  a  separation 
ensued  in  1739;  in  consequence  of  which, 
those  who  pleaded  for  the  affirmative 
obtained  the  appellation  of  Burgher, 
and  their  opponents  that  of  Anti- 
burgher  Seceders.    See  Seceders. 

BURIAL,  the  intemient  of  a  de- 
ceased person.  The  rites  of  burial 
have  been  looked  upon  in  all  countries 
as  a  debt  so  sacred,  that  such  as  ne- 
glected to  discharge  them  were  thought 
accursed.  Among  the  Jews,  the  privi- 
lege of  burial  was  denied  only  to  self- 
murderers,  who  were  thrown  out  to 
putrefy  upon  the  ground.  In  the  Chris- 
tian church,  though  good  men  always 
desired  the  privilege  of  interment,  yet 
they  were  not,  like  the  heathens,  so 
concerned  for  their  l)odics,  as  to  think 
it  any  detriment  to  them  if  either  the 
barbarity  of  an  enemy,  or  some  other 
accident,  deprived  them  of  this  privi- 
lege. The  primitive  church  denied  the 
more  solemn  rites  of  burial  only  to  un- 
baptized  persons,  self-murderers,  and 
excommunicated   persons,   who    con- 


CAB 

tinned  obstinate  and  impenitent  in  a 
manifest  contempt  of  the  church's  ccn- 
sui'es.  The  place  of  burial  among  the 
Jews  was  ne\er  particularly  determin- 
ed. We  find  they  had  graves  in  the 
town  and  country,  upon  the  highway  or 
gardens,  and  upon  mountains.  Among 
the  Greeks,  the  temples  were  made  re- 
positories for  the  dead,  in  the  primitive 
ages;  yet,  in  the  latter  ages,  the  Greeks 
as  well  as  the  Romans  buried  tlie  dead 
without  the  cities,  and  chiefly  by  the 
highways.  Among  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians, burying  in  cities  was  not  allowed 
for  the  first  three  hundred  years,  nor 
in  churches  for  many  ages  after ;  the 
dead  bodies  being  first  deposited  in  the 
atrium  or  church-yard,  and  porches  and 
poiticos  of  the  chui'ch :  hereditary  bu- 


/U 


CAi 


rA'ing-places  were  forbidden  till  the 
twelfth  century.  See  Funeral  Rites. 
As  to  burying  in  churches,  we  find  a 
difference  of  opinion:  some  have  thought 
it  improper  that  dead  bodies  should  be 
interred  m  the  church.  Sir  Matthew 
Hale  used  to  say,  that  churches  were 
for  the  living,  and  church-yards  for  the 
dead.  In  the  fam.ous  Bishop  Hall's  will 
we  find  this  passage :  after  desiring  a 
private  funeral,  he  says,  "  I  do  not  hold 
God's  house  a  meet  repository  for  the 
dead  bodies  of  the  greatest  saints."  Mr. 
Hervey,  on  the  contrary,  defends  it, 
and  supposes  that  it  tends  to  render  our 
assembles  more  awful ;  and  that,  as 
the  bodies  of  the  saints  are  the  Lord's 
property,  they  should  be  reposed  in  his 
house. 


CABBALA,  a  Hebrew  word,  signi- 
fying tradition :  it  is  used  for  a  myste- 
T-ious  kind  of  science  pretended  to  have 
been  delivered  by  revelation  to  the  an- 
cient Jews,  and  transmitted  by  oral  tra- 
dition to  those  of  our  times  ;  serving  for 
interpretation  of  the  books  both  of  na- 
ture and  Scripture. 

CABBALKTS,  the  Jewish  doctors 
who  profess  the  study  of  the  cabbala. 
They  study  principally  the  combination 
of  particular  words,  letters,  and  num- 
bers; and  by  this,  they  say,  they  see 
clearly  into  the  sense  of  Scripture.  In 
their  opinion,  tliere  is  not  a  word,  letter, 
number,  or  accent,  in  the  law,  without 
some  m)'stery  in  it ;  and  they  even  pre- 
tend to  discover  what  is  future  by  this 
vain  study. 

Dr.  Smith  has  given  us  the  following 
description  of  the  Cabbalistic  rabbies. 

They  have  employed  the  al:)ove  me- 
thods of  interpretation,  which  have  ren- 
dered the  Scripture  a  convenient  in- 
strument of  subserviency  to  any  pur- 
pose wlaich  they  might  choose.  Disre- 
garding tlie  continuity  of  subject,  and 
tlie  harmony  of  parts,  in  anv  Scriptural 
composition,  they  selected  sentences, 
and  broken  pieces  of  sentences,  and 
even  single  words  and  detached  letters ; 
and  these  thc\'  proposed  to  the  igno- 
rant and  abused  multitude  as  the  an- 
nunciations of  truth  and  authority.  To 
ascertain  the  native  sense  of  the  sacred 
writers,  however  momentous  and  valu- 
able, was  no  object  of  their  desire.  At- 
tention to  the  jvist  import  of  words,  to 
tlie  scope  of  argument,  and  to  the  con- 


nection of  parts,  was  a  labour  from 
which  they  were  utterly  averse,  and 
which  they  impiously  despised.  Instead 
of  such  faitliful  and  honest  endeavours 
to  know  the  will  of  God,  they  stimu- 
lated a  sporti\'e  fancy,  a  corrupt  and 
often  absurd  ingenuity,  to  the  invention 
of  meanings  the  most  remote  from  the 
design  of  the  inspired  writer,  and  the 
most  foreign  from  the  dictates  of  an 
unsophisticated  understanding.  No  part 
of  the  Scriptures  was  safe  from  this 
profanation.  The  plainest  narrative, 
the  most  solemn  command,  the  most 
clear  and  interesting  declaration  of  doc- 
trine, were  made  to  bend  beneath  this 
irreverent  violence.  History  the  most 
true,  the  most  ancient,  and  the  most 
important  in  the  world,  was  considered 
mei-ely  as  the  vehicle  of  mystic  allegory. 
The  rule  of  faith,  and  the  standard  of 
indissoluble  duty,  were  made  flexible 
and  weak  as  tlie'  spider's  web,  and  the 
commandments  of  God  were  rendered 
void.  See  Dr.  S/nith's  Sermon  on  the 
ylfiostolk  Mhmtry  compared  with  the 
Pretefisi07is  of  s/iu7-ious  Re/igio7i  and 
false  Philoso/ihy. 

CAINITES,  a  sect  who  spnmg  up 
about  the  year  130 ;  so  called,  because 
they  esteemed  Cain  worthy  of  the 
greatest  honours.  They  honoured  those 
who  carry  in  Scripture  the  most  visible 
marks  of  reprobation ;  as  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Sodom,  Esau,  Korah,  Dathan, 
and  Abiram.  They  had  in  particular 
great  veneration  for  Judas,  under  tlie 
pretence  that  the  death  of  Christ  had 
saved  mankind. 


CAL 


71 


CAL 


CALIXTINS,  a  branch  of  the  Hus- 
sites in  Boht-niia  and  Moravia,  in  the 
fiftCentli  century.  The  principal  point 
in  wliicli  they  differed  from  the  church 
of  Rome  was  the  use  of  the  chalice 
(calix)  or  communicating  in  both  kinds. 
Calixtins  was  also  a  name  given  to  those 
among  the  Lutherans  who  followed  the 
opinions  of  George  Calixtus,  a  celebra- 
ted divine  in  the  sevententh  centviry, 
who  endeavoured  to  unite  the  Romish, 
I^utheran,  and  Calvinistic  churches,  in 
the  bonds  of  cliarity  and  mutual  bene- 
volence. He  maintained,  1.  That  the 
fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
by  which  he  meant  those  elementary 
principles  whence  all  its  truths  flow, 
were  preserved  pure  in  all  three  com- 
munions, and  were  contained  in  that 
ancient  form  of  doctrine  that  is  vulgarly 
known  by  the  name  of  the  apostles' 
creed. — 2.  That  the  tenets  and  opinions 
which  had  been  con.stantly  received  by 
the  ancient  doctors,  during  tlie  first  five 
centuries,  were  to  be  considered  as  of 
equal  truth  and  authority  with  the  ex- 
j)ress  declarations  and  doctrines  of 
Scripture. 

CALL,  CALLING,  generally  de- 
notes God's  invitation  to  man  to  parti- 
cipate the  blessings  of  salvation:  it  is 
termed  effectual,  to  distinguish  it  from 
that  external  or  common  call  of  the 
light  of  nature,  but  especially  of  the 
Gospel,  in  which  men  are  invited  to 
come  to  God,  but  which  has  no  saving 
effect  upon  the  heart:  thus  it  is  said, 
"  Many  are  called,  but  few  chosen." 
Matt.  xxii.  14.  Effectual  calling  has 
been  more  particularly  defined  to  be 
"the  work  of  God's  Spirit,  whereby, 
convincing  us  of  our  sin  and  misery,  en- 
lightening our  minds  with  the  know- 
ledge of  Christ,  and  renewing  our  wills, 
he  doth  persuade  and  enable  us  to  em- 
brace Jesus  Christ,  freely  offered  to  us 
in  the  Gospel,"  This  may  farther  be 
considered  as  a  call  from  darkness  to 
light,  1  Pet.  ii.  9 ;  from  bondage  to  li- 
berty. Gal.  ii.  13 ;  from  the  fellowship 
of  the  \yorld  to  the  fellowship  of  Christ, 
1  Cor.  i.  9  ;  from  misery  to  happiness, 
1  Cor.  vii.  15 ;  from  sin  to  holiness, 
1  Thess.  iv.  7 ;  finally,  from  all  created 
good  to  the  enjovment  of  eternal  feli- 
city, 1  Pet.  V.  10.'  It  is  considered  in 
the  Scripture  as  an  holy  calling,  2  Tim. 
i.  9 ;  an  liigli  calling,  Phil.  in.  14 ;  an 
heavenly  calling,  Heb.  iii.  l ;  and  with- 
out repentance,  as  God  will  never  cast 
off  any  who  are  once  drawn  to  him, 
Rom.  xi.  29. 

It  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute  whe- 
ther the  Gospel  call  should  be  general, 
i.  e.  preached  to  all  men  indiscriminate- 


ly. Some  suppose  that,  as  the  elect  only 
will  be  saved,  it  is  to  be  pi'eadvPQ  only 
to  them ;  and,  therefore,  cannot  invite 
all  to  come  to  Christ.  But  to  this  it  is 
answered,  that  an  unknown  decree  can 
be  no  rule  of  action,  Deut.  xxix.  29. 
Prov.  ii.  13  ;  that,  as  we  know  not  who 
are  the  elect,  we  cannot  tell  but  he 
may  succeed  our  endeavours  by  ena- 
bling those  who  are  addressed  to  com- 
ply with  tiie  call,  and  believe ;  that  it  is 
the  Christian  minister's  commission  to 
preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature, 
Mark  xvi.  15 ;  that  the  inspired  writers 
never  confined  themselves  to  preach 
to  saints  only,  but  reasoned  with  and 
persuaded  sinners,  2  Cor.  v.  11: — and, 
lastly  that  a  general  address  to  men's 
consciences  has  been  greatly  successful 
in  promoting  their  conversion.  Acts  ii. 
23,  41.  But  it  has  been  asked,  if  none 
but  the  elect  can  believe,  and  no  man 
has  any  ability  in  himself  to  comply  with 
the  call,  and  as  the  Almighty  knows 
that  none  but  those  to  wliom  he  gives 
grace  can  be  effectually  culled,  of  what 
use  is  it  to  insist  on  a  general  and  ex- 
ternal call  ?  To  this  it  is  answered, 
that,  by  the  external  call,  gross  enor- 
mous crimes  are  often  avoided ;  habits 
of  vice  have  been  partly  conquered ;  and 
much  moral  good  at  least  has  been  pro- 
duced. It  is  also  observed,  that  though 
a  man  cannot  convert  himself,  yet  he 
has  a  power  to  do  some  things  that  are 
materially  good,  though  not  good  in  all 
those  circumstances  that  accompany  or 
flow  from  regeneration :  such  were 
Ahab's  humility,  1  Kings  xxi.  29 ; 
Nineveh's  repentance,  Jer.  iii.  5  ;  and 
Herod's  hearing  of  John,  Mark  vi.  20. 
On  the  whole,  the  design  of  God  in 
giving  this  common  call  in  the  Gospel 
is  the  salvation  of  his  people,  the  re- 
straining of  many  from  wicked  practi- 
ces and  the  setting  forth  of  the  glorious 
work  of  redemption  by  Jesus  Christ. 
See  Gill  and  Kidgley's  Body  of  Div.; 
Witsius  on  the  Cov.;  and  Benrict's  Es- 
say on  the  Gospel  Dispensation. 

CALVINISTS,  those  who  embrace 
the  doctrine  and  sentiments  of  Calvin, 
the  celebrated  reformer  of  the  Cliris- 
tian  church  from  Romish  superstition 
and  doctrinal  errors. 

John  Calvin  was  boi-n  at  Nogen,  in 
Picardy,  in  the  year  1509.  He  first  stu- 
died the  civil  law,  and  was  afterwards 
made  professor  of  divinity  at  Geneva, 
in  the  year  1536.  His  genius,  learning, 
eloquence,  and  piety,  rendered  him  re- 
spectable even  in  the  eyes  of  his  enemies. 

The  name  of  Calvinists  seems  to  have 
been  given  at  first  to  those  who  embra- 
ced not  merely  the  doctrine,  but  the 


CAL  7 

rhurd^  government  and  discipline  es- 
tabli^ed  at  Geneva,  and  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  Lutherans.  But  since 
the  meeting  of  the  synod  of  Dort,  the 
name  has  I)een  chiefly  appUed  to  those 
■who  embrace  his  leading  views  of  tlie 
Gospel,  to  distinguisli  them  from  the 
Arminians. 

The  leading  principles  taught  by  Cal- 
vin, were  the  same  as  those  of  Augus- 
tine. The  main  doctrines  by  whicli  those 
v^'ho  are  called  after  his  name  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Arminians,  are  re- 
duced to  five  articles :  and  which,  from 
their  being  the  principal  points  dis- 
cussed at  tlie  synod  of  Dort,  have  since 
been  denominated  the  Jive  points.  These 
are,  predestination,  particular  redemp- 
tion, total  depravity,  eifectual  calling, 
and  the  certain  perseverance  of  the 
saints. 

The  following  statement  is  taken, 
principally  from  the  writings  of  Calvin 
and  the  decisions  at '  Dort,  compressed 
in  as  few  words  as  possible. 

1.  They  maintain  that  God  hath 
chosen  a  certain  number  of  the  fallen 
race  of  Adam  in  Christ,  before  the  foun- 
dation of  the  world,  unto  eternal  glory, 
according  to  his  immutable  purpose, 
and  of  his  free  grace  and  love,  without 
the  least  foresight  of  faith,  good  works, 
or.  any  conditions  performed  by  the 
creature ;  and  that  the  rest  of  mankind 
he  was  pleased  to  pass  by,  and  ordain 
to  dishonour  and  wrath,  for  their  sins,  to 
the  praise  of  his  vindictive  justice. 

In  proof  of  this  they  allege,  among 
many  other  Scripture  passages,  the  fol- 
lowing: "According  as  he  hath  chosen 
us  in  him  before  the  foundation  of  the 
world,  that  we  should  be  holy,  and 
without  blame  before  him  in  love. — For 
he  saith  to  Moses,  I  will  have  mercy  on 
whom  I  will  ha^e  mercy,  and  I  will 
have  compassion  on  whom  I  will  have 
compassion.  So,  then,  it  is  not  of  him 
that  willeth,  nor  of  him  that  ranneth, 
but  of  God,  that  showeth  mercy.  Thou 
wilt  sav,  then,  ^Vhy  doth  he  yet  find 
fault ;  for  who  hath  resisted  liis  will  P 
Nay,  but,  O  man !  who  art  thou  that 
i-epliest  against  God  ?  Sliall  the  thing 
formed  say  to  him  that  formed  it,  Wiiy 
hast  thou  made  me  thus  ?  Hath  not 
the  potter  power  over  the  clay,  of  the 
same  lump  to  make  one  vessel  unto 
honour  and  another  unto  dishonour  ? — 
Hath  God  cast  away  his  people  whom 
he  forehieiv?  Wot  ye  not  what  the 
Scripture  saith  of  Elias.^  Even  so  at 
this  present  time,  also,  there  is  a  rem- 
nant according  to  the  election  of  grace. 
And  if  bv  grace,  then  it  is  no  more  of 
works.    What  then  ?    Israel  hath  not 


CAL 

obtained  that  which  he  seeketh  for,  but 
the  election  hath  obtained  it,  and  the 
rest  are  blinded. — Whom  he  did  jire- 
destinate,  tliem  he  also  called. — \Vc 
give  thanks  to  God  always  for  you 
brethren  beloved  of  the  Lord,  because 
God  hath  from  the  beginning  chosen 
you  to  salvation,  through  sanctification 
of  the  Spii'it  and  belief  of  the  truth. — 
As  many  as  were  ordained  to  eternal 
life,  believed."  Eph.  i.  4.  Rom.  ix. 
xi.  1—6.  viii.  29,  30.  2  Thess.  ii.  13. 
Acts  xiii.  48.  They  think  also  that 
the  greater  pait  of  these  passages,  be- 
ing found  in  the  epistolai-v  writings, 
after  the  pouring  out  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
who  was  promised  to  guide  the  apostles 
into  all  truth,  is  an  argument  in  favour 
of  the  doctrine. 

They  do  not  consider  predestination, 
however,  as  affecting  the  agency  or 
accountableness  of  creatures,  or  as  be- 
ing to  them  any  rule  of  conduct.  On 
the  contrary,  they  suppose  them  to  act 
as  freely,  and  to  be  as  much  the  proper 
subjects  of  calls,  warnings,  exhortations, 
promises,  and  threatenings,  as  if  no  de- 
cree existed.  The  connexion  in  which 
the  doctrine  is  introduced  by  the  divines 
at  Dort,  is  to  account  for  one  sinner's 
believing  and  being  saved  rather  than 
another;  and  such,  the  Calvinists  sav, 
is  the  connection  which  it  occupies  in 
the  Scriptures. 

With  respect  to  the  conditional  pre- 
destination admitted  by  the  Arminians, 
they  say  that  an  election  upon  faith  or 
good  works  foreseen,  is  not  that  of  the 
Scriptures ;  for  that  election  is  there 
made  the  cause  of  faith  and  holiness, 
and  cannot,  for  this  reason,  be  the  effect 
of  them.  W'ith  regard  to  predestina- 
tion to  death,  they  say,  if  the  question 
be.  Wherefore  did  God  decree  to  punish 
those  w^ho  are  punished?  the  answer 
is.  On  accoimt  of  their  sins.  But  if  it 
be.  Wherefore  did  he  decree  to  punish 
them  rather  than  others  ?  there  is  no 
other  reason  to  be  assigned,  but  that  so 
it  seemed  good  in  his  sight.  Eph.  i.  3, 
4.  John  Vi.  37.  Rom.  viii.  29,  30. 
Acts  xiii.  48.  1  Pet.  i.  1.  Rom.  ix.  15, 
16.  xi.  .5,  6. 

2.  They  maintain  that  though  the 
death  of  Christ  be  a  most  perfect  sa- 
crifice, and  satisfaction  for  sins,  of  in- 
finite value,  abundantly  sufficient  to  ex- 
piate the  sins  of  the  whole  world ;  and 
though  on  this  ground  the  Gospel  is  to 
be  preached  to  all  mankind  indiscrimi- 
nately ;  yet  it  was  the  will  of  God  that 
Christ,  by  the  lilood  of  the  cross,  should 
efficaciously  redeem  all  those,  and  those 
only,  who  were  from  eternity  elected  to 
salvation,  and  given  to  him  by  the  Father. 


CAL 


73 


CAL 


Calvin  does  not  ap])ear  to  have  writ- 
ten on  this  subject  as  a  controversy, 
but  his  comments  on  Scripture  agree 
with  the  above  statement.  The  follow- 
ing positions  are  contained  in  the  reso- 
lutions of  the  synod  of  Dort,  under  this 
head  of  doctrine : — "  The  death  of  tlie 
Son  of  God  is  the  only  and  most  perfect 
sacrifice  and  satisfaction  for  sins,  of  in- 
finite value  and  price,  abundantly  suf- 
ficient to  expiate  the  sins  of  the  whole 
world. — The  promise  of  the  Gospel  is, 
that  whosoe\-er  believeth  in  Christ  cru- 
cified shall  not  perish,  but  Ixave  ever- 
lasting life;  which  promise,  together 
with  the  command  to  repent  and  I)e- 
lieve,  ought  promiscuously  and  indis- 
criminately to  be  published  and  pro- 
posed to  all  people  and  individuals,  to 
whom  God  in  lus  good  pleasure  sends 
the  Gospel. — Whereas,  many  who  are 
called  by  the  Gospel  do  not  repent  nor 
believe  in  Christ,  but  perish  m  unbe- 
lief; this  proceeds  not  from  any  defect 
or  insufficiency  in  the  sacrifice  of  Christ 
offered  on  the  cross,  but  from  their  own 
fault. — As  many  as  tinily  believe,  and 
are  saved  by  the  death  of  Christ  from 
their  sins,  and  from  destiiiction,  have  to 
ascribe  it  to  the  mere  favour  of  God, 
which  he  owes  to  no  one,  given  them  in 
Christ  from  eternit}\ — For  it  was  tlie 
most  free  counsel,  and  gracious  ivill  and 
intejition  of  God  the  Fathei',  that  the 
quickening  and  saving  efficacy  of  the 
most  precious  death  of  his  Son  should 
exert  itself  in  all  the  elect,  to  give  unto 
them  only  justifying  faith,  and  by  it  to 
conduct  them  infallibly  to  salvation ; 
that  is,  it  was  the  will  of  God  that 
Christ,  by  the  blood  of  tlie  cross, 
whereby  he  confirmed  the  new  cove- 
nant, should  efficaciously  redeem  out  of 
every  people,  tribe,  nation,  and  lan- 
guage, all  those,  and  those  only,  who 
were  from  eternity  elected  to  salvation, 
and  given  to  him  by  the  Father." 

Tliese  positions  they  appear  to  have 
considered  as  not  only  a  declaration  of 
the  truth,  but  an  answer  to  the  argu- 
ments of  the  Remonstrants. 

In  proof  of  the  doctrine,  they  allege 
among  others  the  following  Scripture 
passages :  «  Thou  hast  given  him  pow- 
er over  all  flesh,  that  he  should  give 
eternal  hfe  to  as  ma?iy  as  thou  hast 

fiven  him. — ^The  good  shepherd  giveth 
is  life  for  the  sheefi. — I  fay  down  my 
life  for  the  sheep. — He  died  not  for 
that  nation  only,  but  that  he  might 
gather  together  in  one  the  children 
of  God  that  are  scattered  abroad. — He 
ga\'e  himself  for  us,  that  he  might  re- 
deem us  from  all  iniquity,  and  purify 
unto  himself  a  peculiar  peojilc.  zealoujs 


of  good  works. — He  loved  the  church, 
ana  gave  himself  for  it,  that  he  might 
sanctify  and  cleanse  it  and  pi'esent  it  to 
himself,  &;c. — .\nd  they  sang  a  new 
song,  saying,  Thou  art  worthy;  for 
thou  wast  slain,  and  hast  redeemed  us 
to  God  by  thy  blood,  out  of  evei'y  kin- 
dred, and  tongue,  and  people,  and  na- 
tion." John  xvii.  2.  x.  11,  15.  xi.  52. 
Tit.  ii.  14.     Eph.  v.  25—27.    Rev.  v.  9. 

3.  Tliey  maintain  that  mankind  are 
totally  depraved,  in  consequence  of 
the  fall  ot  the  first  man,  who,  being 
their  public  head,  his  sin  involved  the 
cori-uption  of  all  his  posterity,  and 
which  corruption  extends  over  the 
whole  soul,  and  renders  it  unable  to 
turn  to  God,  or  to  do  any  thing  tiidy 
good,  and  exposes  it  to  his  righteous 
displeasure,  both  in  this  world  and  that 
which  is  to  come. 

The  explanation  of  original  sin,  as 
given  by  Calvin,  is  as  follows:  "Origi- 
nal sin  seems  to  be  the  inheritable  de- 
scending perverseness  and  coiTuption 
of  our  nature,  poured  abroad  into  all 
the  parts  of  the  soul,  which  first  maketh 
us  deserving  of  God's  wrath,  and  then 
also  bringeth  fortli  those  works  in  us, 
called,  in  Scripture,  the  works  of  the 
flesh.  These  two  things  are  distinctly 
"to  be  noted,  that  is,  that,  being  thus  in 
all  pai'ts  of  our  nature  corrupted  and 
per^"el'ted,  we  are  now,  even  for  such 
conniption  only,  holden  worthy  of  dam- 
nation, and  stand  convicted  before  God, 
to  whom  nothing  is  acceptable  but' 
righteousness,  mnocence,  and  purity. 
And  yet  we  are  not  bound  in  respect  of 
another's  fault ;  for  where  it  is  said  that 
by  the  sin  of  Adam  we  are  made  sub- 
ject to  the  judgment  of  God,  Rom.  v. 
18.  it  is  not  so  to  be  taken,  as  if  we, 
innocent  and  undesei'%"ing,  did  bear  the 
blame  of  his  fault;  but  As,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  offence,  we  are  ultimately 
clothed  with  the  curse,  therefoi-e  it  is 
said  that  he  hath  bound  us.  Never- 
theless from  him  not  the  punishment 
only  came  upon  us,  but  also  the  infec- 
tion distilled  from  him  abideth  in  us, 
to  the  which  the  punishment  is  justly 
due." 

The  resolutions  of  the  divines  at  Dort 
on  this  head,  contain  the  following  posi- 
tions. "Such  as  man  was  after  the 
fall,  such  children  did  he  beget — cor- 
ruption by  the  righteous  judgment  of 
God  being  derived  from  Adam  to  his 
posterity — not  by  imitation,  but  by  the 
propagation  of  a  vicious  nature.  Where- 
fore all  men  are  conceived  in  sin,  and 
are  bom  the  children  of  wrath,  unfit 
for  every  good  connected  with  salva- 
tion, prone  to  evil,  dead  in  sins,  and  th« 


(^AL 


74 


CAL 


servants  of  sin ;  and  without  the  Holy 
Spirit  regenerating  them,  they  neither 
will  nor  can  return  to  Gocl,  amend 
their  depraved  natures,  nor  dispose 
themselves  for  its  amendment. 

In  proof  of  this  doctrine,  the  Calvin- 
ists  allege,  among  othei"  Scripture  pas- 
sages, the  following:  "By  one  man  sin 
entered  into  the  world,  and  death  by 
sin ;  and  so  death  passed  upon  all  men, 
for  that  all  have  sinned. — By  one  man's 
disobedience  many  were  made  sinners. 
— I  was  born  in  sin,  and  shapen  in  ini- 
quity.— God  saw  that  the  wickedness  of 
man  was  great  upon  the  earth,  and 
that  every  imagination  of  his  heart  was 
only  evil  continually. — God  looked  down 
from  heaven  upon  the  children  of  men, 
to  see  if  there  were  any  that  did  un- 
derstand, that  did  seek  God.  Every 
one  of  them  is  gone  baCk;  tliey  are  al- 
together become  filthy;  there  is  none 
that  doeth  good,  no  not  one. — And  you 
hath  he  quickened  who  were  dead  in 
tresjiasses  and  sins.  Wherein  in  time 
past  ije  walked  according  to  the  course 
of  this  world,  among  whom  also  ive  all 
had  our  conversation  in  times  past,  in 
the  lust  of  our  jiesh,  fvdfiUiug  the  de- 
sires of  the  flesii  and  of  the  mind ;  and 
were  by  nature  the  children  of  ivratli, 
even  as  others."  Rom.  v.  12 — 19.  Ps. 
li.  5.  Gen.  vi.  5.  Ps.  liii.  2,  3.  Rom.  iii. 
Eph.  ii.  1—3. 

4.  They  maintain  that  all  whom  God 
hath  predestinated  unto  life,  he  is  pleas- 
ed, in  his  appointed  time,  eflectually  to 
call  by  his  word  and  Spirit  o\it  of  that 
state  of  sin  and  death  in  which  they 
are  by  nature,  to  grace  and  salvation  by 
Jesus  Christ. 

They  admit  that  the  Holy  Spirit,  as 
Calling  men  by  the  ministry  of  the  (Gos- 
pel, may  be  resisted :  and  that  where 
this  is  the  case,  "the  fault  is  not  in  the 
Gospel,  nor  in  Christ  offered  by  the 
Gospel,  nor  in  God  calling  by  the  Gos- 
pel, and  also  conferring  various  gifts 
upon  them ;  but  in  the  called  them- 
selves. They  contend,  however,  that 
where  men  come  at  the  divine  call,  and 
are  converted,  it  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to 
themselves,  as  though  by  their  own 
free  will  they  made  themselves  to 
differ,  but  merely  to  him  who  delivers 
them  from  the  power  of  darkness,  and 
translates  them  into  the  kingdom  of  liis 
dear  Son,  and  whose  regenerating  in- 
fluence is  certain  and  efficacious." 

In  proof  of  this  doctrine  the  Calvin- 
ists  allege,  among  others,  the  following 
Scripture  passages:  "Whom  he  did 
predestinate,  them  he  also  called  ;  and 
whom  lie  called,  them  he  also  glorified. 
— That  ye  may  know  what  is'the  ex- 


ceeding greatness  of  his  power  to  us- 
ward  who  believe,  according  to  the 
working  of  his  mighty  power,  which  he 
wrought  in  Christ  when  he  raised  him 
from  the  dead. — Not  of  works,  lest  any 
man  should  boast.  For  we  are  his 
ivorkmanshifi  created  in  Christ  Jesus 
unto  good  works. — God,  that  command- 
ed the  light  to  shine  out  of  darkness, 
hath  shined  into  our  hearts,  8cc. — I  will 
take  away  the  stony  heart  out  of  their 
flesh,  and  will  give  them  hearts  of 
flesh."  Rom.  viii.  29.  Eph.  i.  19,  20. 
ii.  9,  10.  2  Cor.  iv.  6.  Ezek.  xxxvi. 
26. 

5.  Lastly :  They  maintain  that  those 
whom  Cxod  has  eflfectually  called,  and 
sanctified  by  his  Spirit,  shall  never 
finally  fall  from  a  state  of  grace.  They 
admit  that  true  believers  may  fall  i)ar- 
tially,  and  would  fall  totally  and  finally 
but  for  the  mercy  and  faithfulness  of 
God,  who  keepeth  the  feet  of  his  saints; 
also,  that  he  who  bestoweth  the  grace 
of  perseverance,  bestoweth  it  by  means 
of  reading  and  hearuig  the  word,  medi- 
tation, exhortations,  threatenings,  and 
jjromises ;  but  that  none  of  these  things 
nnply  the  possiljilitv  of  a  believer's  fall- 
ing from  a  state  of  justification. 

In  proof  of  this  doctrine  they  allege 
the  following  among  other  Scripture 
passages: — "I  will  put  my  fear  in  their 
hearts,  and  they  shall  not  depart  from 
me. — He  that  believeth,  and  is  baptized, 
shall  be  saved. — The  water  that  I  shall 
give  him  shall  be  in  him  a  well  of  water 
springing  iip  into  everlasting  life. — 
'I'his'  is  "the  Father's  will,  that  of  all 
ivhich  he  hath  given  me  I  should  lose 
nothing. — 'I'his  is  life  eternal,  to  know 
thee,  the  only  true  God,  and  Jesus 
Christ  whom  thou  hast  sent. — Whoso- 
ever is  born  of  God  dotli  not  commit 
sin,  for  his  seed  remaineth  in  him ;  and 
he  cannot  sin,  because  he  is  boi-n  of 
God.  They  went  out  from  us,  but 
they  were  not  of  us ;  for  if  they  had 
been  of  us,  they  would  have  continued 
with  us:  but  they  Aveiit  out,  tliat  they 
might  be  made  manifest  that  they  were 
not  all  of  us. — Now  unto  him  that  is 
able  to  keep  you  from  falling,  and  to 
present  you  faultless  before  the  pre- 
sence of  his  glory  with  exceeding  joy» 
to  the  only  wise  God  our  Saviour,  be 
glory  and  majesty,  dominion  and  power, 
both  now  and  e\  er.  Amen."  Jer.  xxxii. 
40.  Mark  xvi.  16.  John  iv.  14.  vi.  40. 
xvii.  3.  1  John  iii.  9.  ii.  19.  Jude  24, 
25. 

Such  were  the  doctrines  of  the  old 
Calvinists,  and  such  in  substance  are 
those  of  the  present  times.  In'  this, 
however,  as  in  every  other  denomina- 


CAi. 


i.\U 


tioii,  there  are  consulcrahle  shades  eit 
difference. 

Some  think  Calvin,  thoiiu;h  right  in 
the  main,  yet  carried  thins^s  too  fai-; 
these  are  conmionlv  known  by  the 
name  of  Moderate  Calvinists.  Others 
think  he  did  not  go  far  enough ;  and 
these  are  known  by  the  name  of  Hii^h 
Caliihmts. 

It  is  proper  to  add,  that  the  Calvin- 
istic  system  includes  in  it  tlie  doctrine 
of  three  co-ordinate  persons  in  the 
Godhead,  in  one  nature,  and  of  two  na- 
tures in  Jesus  Clirist,  foiTiiing  one  per- 
son,- Justification  by  faith  alone,  or 
justification  by  the  imputed  righteous- 
ness of  Christj  forms  also  an  essential 
part  of  this  system.  They  suppose 
that  on  the  one  hand  our  sins  are  im- 
puted to  Christ,  and  on  the  other,  that 
we  ai-e  justified  by  the  imputation  of 
Christ's  righteousness  to  us  ;  that  is, 
Christ,  the  innocent,  was  treated  by 
God  as  if  he  were  guilty,  that  we,  the 
guilty,  might,  out  of  regard  to  what  he 
did  and  suffered,  be  treated  as  if  we 
were  innocent  and  righteous. 

Calvinism  originally  subsisted  in  its 

?;reatest  purity  in  the  city  of  Geneva; 
rom  which  place  it  was  first  propa- 
gated into  Germany,  France,  the  Uni- 
ted Provinces,  and  Britain.  In  France 
it  was  abolished  by  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantz.  It  has  been  the 
prevailing  religion  in  the  United  Pro- 
vinces ever  since  1571.  The  theologi- 
cal system  of  Calvin  was  adopted  and 
made  the  public  rule  of  faith  in  Eng- 
land under  the  i-eign  of  Edward  \T. 
The  church  of  Scotland  also  was  mo- 
delled by  Jolin  Knox,  agreeably  to  the 
doctrine,  rites,  and  form  of  ecclesias- 
tical govei'nment  established  at  Ge- 
neva. In  England,  Calvinism  had  been 
on  the  decline  from  the  time  of  queen 
Elizabeth  until  about  sixty  years  ago, 
when  it  was  again  rcvivedj  and  has 
been  on  the  increase  ever  since.  The 
major  part  of  the  clergy,  indeed,  are 
not  Calvinists,  though  the  articles  of 
the  church  of  England  are  Calvinis- 
tical.  It  desei'ves  to  be  remarked, 
however,  that  Calvinism  is  preached 
in  a  considerable  number  of  the  church- 
es in  London;  in  nearly  all  the  dis- 
senting meetings  of  the  Presbyterians, 
Baptists,  and  Independents;  and  in  all 
the  chapels  of  Whitefield,  Ladv  Hun- 
tingdon, and  others  of  that  class.  In 
Scotland  it  continues  also  to  exist  as 
the  established  religion;  and  within  a 
few  years  it  has  much  revived  in  that 
country,  through  the  influence  of  Mr. 
Haldane  and  others;  but  as  those 
among  whom    this   revival  has  taken 


phue  are  not  of  the  establiblied  church, 
they  have  Ijeen  treated  with  indiffer- 
ence by  the  clergy,  and  called  Halda- 
nlsts. 

Calvin  considered  e\'ery  church  as  a 
separate  and  independent  bodv,  invest- 
ed with   the   power  of  legislation   for 
itself.     He  projjosed  tliat  it  should  be 
governed   by  presb\  tei'ies   and  synods 
composed  of  clergy  and  laity,  without 
bisliops,  or  any  clerical  subordination ; 
and  maintained  that  the  province  of  the 
I  civil  magistrate  extended  only    to   its 
I  protection    and   outward    accommoda- 
I  tion.     He  acknowledged  a  real,  though 
;  spiritual  presence  of  Christ  in  the  eu- 
jcharist;  and  he  confined  the  privilege 
j  of  communion  to  pious  and  regenerate 
I  believers.    These  sentiments,  however, 
I  are  not  imbibed  by  all  who  are  called 
;  Calvinists. 

I  See  Calvin's  Institutes;  Life  of 
I  Calvin ;  Brine's  Tracts;  Jonathan  Ed- 
1  wards'  IVorks ;  Giirs  Cause  of  God 
!  and  Truth  ;  Tofilady's  Historic  Proof 
land  Works  at  larc(e ;  jjsscmblifs  Cate- 
I  chism  ;  Fuller's  Calvinistic  and  Soci- 
iiian  Si/stenis  comfiared. 

CAi\IALnOLlTE.S,  an  order  found- 
ed by  St.  Romuald,  an  Italian  fanatic, 
in  the  eleventh  century.  The  manner 
of  life  he  einoined  his  disciples  to  ob- 
serve was  this: — They  dwelt  in  sepa- 
rate cells,  and  met  together  only  at  the 
time  of  prayer.  Some  of  them,  during 
the  two  Lents  in  the  year,  observed  an 
inviolable  silence,  and  others  for  the 
space  of  a  hundred  days.  On  Sundays 
and  Thursdays  they  fed  on  herbs,  and 
the  rest  of  the  week  only  on  bread  and 
water. 

CAMBRIDGE  MANUSCRIPT,  a 
copy  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  in  Greek  and  Latin.  Beza 
found  it  ui  the  monastery  of  Irenseus, 
at  Lyons,  in  156!?,  and  gave  it  to  the 
university  of  Cambridge  in  1582.  It  is 
a  quarto,  and  written  on  vellum  :  sixty- 
six  leaves  of  it  are  much  torn  and  mu- 
tilated; and  ten  of  these  are  supplied 
by  a  later  transcriber.  From  this  and 
the  Clermont  copy  of  St.  Paul's  epis- 
tles, Beza  published  his  larger  annota- 
tions in  1582.  See  Dr.  Kipling's  edi- 
tion of  it. 

CAMERONIANS,  a  sect  in  Scot- 
land, who  separated  fi-om  the  Presby- 
terians in  1666,  and  continued  long  to 
hold  their  religious  assemblies  in  the 
fields.  They  "took  their  name  from 
Richard  Cameron,  a  famous  field- 
preacher,  who,  refusing  to  accept  the 
I  mdulgence  to  tender  consciences, 
I  granted  by  king  Charles  II.  thinking 
isuch   an   acceptance  an   acknowledg- 


CAN 


/O 


CAN 


meiit  of  tiie  king's  supremacy,  made  a 
defection  from  liis  brethren,  and  even 
headed  a  rebellion,  in  which  he  was 
killed.  The  Cameronians  adhere  ri- 
gidly to  the  form  of  government  esta- 
blished in  1648.  There  arc  not,  it  is 
said,  above  fourteen  or  fifteen  congre- 
gations among  them,  and  these  not 
large. 

CAMERONIANS,  or  Cameron- 
ITES,  the  denomination  of  a  party  of 
Calvinists  in  France,  who  asserted  that 
the  will  of  man  is  only  determined  by 
the  practical  judgment  of  the  mind; 
that  the  cause  of  men's  doing  good  or 
evil  pi'oceeds  from  the  knowledge 
which  God  infuses  into  them  ;  and  that 
God  does  not  move  the  will  physically, 
but  only  morally,  in  virtue  of  its  de- 
pendence on  the  judgment.  They  had 
this  name  from  John  Camei'on,  who 
was  born  at  Glasgow  in  1580,  and  who 
was  professor  there,  and  afterwards  at 
Bourdeaux,  Sedan,  and  Saumur.  The 
synod  of  Dort  was  severe  upon  them ; 
yet  it  seems  the  only  difference  was 
this: — The  synod  had  defined  that  God 
not  only  illuminates  the  understanding, 
but  gives  motion  to  the  will,  by  making 
an  internal  change  therem.  Cameron 
only  admitted  the  illumination  whereby 
the  mind  is  morally  moved ;  and  ex- 
plained the  sentiment  of  the  Synod  of 
Dort  so  as  to  make  the  two  opinions 
consistent. 

CANDOUR  is  a  disposition  to  form 
a  fair  and  impartial  judgment  on  the 
opinions  and  actions  of  others;  or  a 
temper  of  mind  unsoured  by  envy,  un- 
i-uffted  by  malice,  and  unseduced  by 
prejudice;  sweet  without  weakness, 
and  impartial  without  rigour.  Can- 
dour is  a  word  which,  in  the  present 
day,  is  found  exceedingly  convenient. 
To  the  infidel  it  is  a  shelter  for  his 
scepticism,  to  the  ignorant  for  his  ig- 
norance, to  the  lukewarm  for  his  indif- 
ference, and  to  the  irreligious  for  their 
error.  "True  candour  is  different 
from  that  guarded,  inoffensive  lan- 
guage, and  tliat  studied  openness  of 
behaviour,  which  we  so  frequently 
meet  with  among  men  of  the  world. 
It  consists  not  in  fairness  of  speech 
only,  but  in  fairness  of  heart.  It  is  not 
blind  attachment,  external  courtesy,  or 
a  time-sei'ving  principle.  Exempt,  on 
the  one  hand,  from  the  dark  jealousy  of 
a  suspicious  mind,  it  is  no  less  removed, 
on  the  other,  from  that  easy  credulity 
which  is  imposed  on  by  every  specious 
pretence.  Its  manners  are  unaffect- 
ed, and  its  professions  sincere.  '  It 
conceals  faults,  but  it  does  not  invent 
virtues.'    In  fine,  it  is  the  happy  me- 


dium between  undistinguishing  credu- 
lity and  universal  suspicion."  See 
Liberality. 

CANON,  a  word  used  to  denote  the 
authorised  catalogue  of  the  sacred  wri- 
tings. "The  Greek  word  x.avw,"  says 
Dr.  Owen,  "which  gives  rise  to  the 
term  canonical,  seems  to  be  derived 
fi'om  the  Hebrew  njp  kaneh,  which  in 
general  signifies  any  reed  whatever, 
1  Kings  xiv.  15.  Isa.  xliii.  3.  and  par- 
ticularly a  reed  made  into  an  instru- 
ment, wherewith  they  measured  their 
buildings,  containing  six  cubits  in  length, 
Ezek.  xl.  7.  xliii.  16.  and  hence  indefi- 
nitely it  is  taken  for  a  rule  or  measure. 
Besides,  it  signifies  the  beam  and  tongue 
of  a  balance.  Isa.  xlvi.  6.  'They 
weighed  silver  on  the  ca?ie ;'  that  is, 
saith  the  Targmn,  'in  the  balance.' 
This  also  is  the  primary  and  proper 
signification  of  the  Greek  word.  Hence 
its  metaphorical  use,  which  is  most 
common,  wherein  it  signifies  a  moral 
rule.  Aristotle  calls  the  law  K«tv«v« 
TMc  TToUTUdL^,  the  rule  of  the  administra- 
tion ;  and  hence  it  is  that  the  written 
word  of  God  being  in  itself  absolutely 
right,  and  appointed  to  be  the  rule  of 
faith  and  obedience,  is  eminently  called 
'  canonical.' " 

The  ancient  canon  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  ordinarily  attribu- 
ted to  Ezra,  was  divided  into  the  law, 
the  prophets,  and  the  hagiographia,  to 
which  our  Saviour  refers,  Luke  xxiv. 
45.  The  same  division  is  also  men- 
tioned by  Josephus.  This  is  the  canon 
allowed  to  have  been  followed  by  the 
primitive  church  till  the  council  of 
Carthage ;  and,  according  to  Jerome, 
this  consisted  of  no  more  than  twenty- 
two  books,  answering  to  the  number  of 
the  Hebrew  alphabet,  though  at  pre- 
sent they  are  classed  into  twenty-four 
divisions.  That  council  enlarged  the 
canon  very  considerably,  taking  into  it 
the  apocryphal  books ;  which  the  coun- 
cil ot  Trent  farther  enforced,  enjoining 
them  to  be  received  as  books  of  holy 
Scripture,  upon  pain  of  anathema. 
The  Romanists,  in  defence  of  this 
canon,  say,  that  it  is  the  same  with  that 
of  the  council  of  Hippo,  held  in  393 ; 
and  with  that  of  the  third  council  of 
Cai'thage  in  397,  at  which  were  pre- 
sent forty-six  bishops,  and  among  the 
rest  St.  Augustine.  Their  canon  of 
the  New  Testament,  howevei",  perfect- 
ly agrees  with  ours.  It  consists  of 
books  that  are  well  known,  some  of 
which  have  been  universally  acknow- 
ledged ;  such  are  the  four  Gospels,  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  thirteen  epistles 
■  of  St.  Paul,  first  of  St.  Peter,  and  first 


CAN 


77 


CAN 


of  St.  John;  and  others,  conceniing- 
which  doubts  were  cntertiiined,  but 
which  were  afterwards  received  us 
genuine ;  such  are  the  Epistle  to  the 
Helirews,  that  of  James,  the  second  of 
Peter,  the  second  and  third  of  John, 
that  of  Jude,  and  the  Rexelation. 
These  books  were  written  at  different 
times;  and  they  are  authenticated,  not 
by  the  decrees  of  councils,  or  infallible 
authorit)-,  but  by  such  evidence  as  is 
thcmght  sufficient  in  the  case  of  any 
other  ancient  w-ritings.  They  were  ex- 
tensively diffused,  and  read  in  every 
Christian  society ;  they  were  valuecl 
and  preserved  with  care  by  the  first 
Christians ;  they  were  cited  by  Chris- 
tian writers  of  the  second,  third,  and 
fourth  centuries,  as  Irensus,  Clement 
the  Alexandrian,  TertuUian,  Origen, 
Eusebius,  &c. ;  and  their  genuineness 
is  proved  by  the  testimony  of  those  who 
were  contemporary  with  the  apostles 
themselves.  The  four  Gospels,  and 
most  of  the  other  books  of  the  New 
Testament,  were  collected  either  by 
one  of  the  apostles,  or  some  of  their 
disciples  and  successors,  before  the  end 
of  the  first  century.  The  catalogue  of 
canonical  books  furnished  by  the  more 
ancient  Christian  writers,  as  Origen, 
about  A.  D.  210,  Eusebius  and  Athana- 
sius  in  315,  Epiphanius  in  ."70,  Jerome 
in  382,  Austin  in  394,  and  many  others, 
agi-ees  with  that  which  is  now  received 
among  Christians. 

See  articles  Bible,  Christianity, 
Scriptures  ;  Blair's  Canon  of  Scrifi- 
ture ;  Jones's  Canonical  Authority  of 
the  J\i''ew  Test.;  Afichaelis's  -Led.  on 
the  A'eiv  Test.;  Du  Pin's  Canon  of 
Script.  \.  i.;  Prideaux's  Connections,  y. 
1.;  Dr.  Given  on  the  Hebrews,  Introd. 

Canon,  a  person  who  possesses  a 
prebend  or  revenue  allotted  for  the 
perfoiTuance  of  divine  ser\'ice  in  a  ca- 
thedral or  collegiate  church.  Canons 
are  of  no  great  antiquity.  Paschier 
observes,  that  the  name  was  not  known 
before  Charlemagne ;  at  least,  the  first 
we  hear  of  are  in  Gregorv  de  Tours, 
who  mentions  a  college  of  canons  in- 
stituted by  Baldwin  XVI,  archbishop 
of  that  city,  in  the  time  of  Clotharius  I. 
The  common  opinion  attributes  the  in- 
stitution of  this  order  to  Chrodegangus, 
bishop  of  Mentz,  about  the  middle  of 
the  eighth  century. 

CANON,  in  an  ecclesiastical  sense, 
is  a  rule  either  of  doctrine  or  disci- 
pline, enacted  especially  by  a  council, 
and  confirmed  by  the  authoritv  of  the 
sovereign.  Canons  are  properly  deci- 
sions of  matters  of  religion,  or  regula- 
tions of  the  pojicy  and  discipline  of  a 


j  church  made  by  councils,  either  gene- 
ral, national,  or  provincial ;  such  ^re 
the  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice,  of 
Trent,  &c. 

CANONICAL  HOURS  are  certain 
stated  times  of  the  day  consigned  more 
especially  by  the  Romish  church  to 
the  offices  of  prayer  and  devotion ; 
such  are  matins,  lauds,  &c.  In  Eng- 
land the  canonical  hours  are  from  eight 
to  twelve  in  the  forenoon ;  before  or 
after  which  marriage  cannot  be  legally 
performed  in  any  church. 

CANONICAL  LETTERS,  in  the 
ancient  church,  were  testimonials  of 
the  orthodox  faith  which  the  bishops 
and  clergy  sent  each  other  to  keep  up 
the  catholic  communion,  and  distin- 
guish orthodox  Christians  from  here- 
tics. 

CANONICAL  LIFE,  the  mle  of 
living  prescribed  by  the  ancient  clergy 
who  lived  in  communit3^  The  canoni- 
cal life  was  a  kind  of  medium  between 
the  monastic  and  clerical  lives. 

CANONICAL  OBEDIENCE,  is 
that  submission  which,  by  the  ecclesias- 
tical laws,  the  inferior  clergy  are  to  pay 
to  their  bishops,  and  the  religious  to 
their  superiors. 

CANONIZATION,  a  ceremony  in 
the  Romish  church,  by  which  persons 
deceased  are  ranked  in  the  catalogue 
of  the  saints.  It  succeeds  beatification. 
Before  a  beatified  person  is  canonized, 
the  qualifications  of  the  candidate  are 
strictly  examined  into,  in  some  consis- 
tories held  for  that  purpose ;  after 
which  one  of  the  consistorial  ad\"ocates, 
in  the  presence  of  the  pone  and  cardi- 
nals, makes  the  panegp-ic  of  the  per- 
son who  is  to  be  proclaimed  a  saint, 
and  gives  a  particular  detail  of  his  life 
and  mii"acles;  which  being  done,  the 
holy  father  decrees  his  canonization,, 
and  appoints  the  day. 

On  the  day  of  canonization,  the  pope 
officiates  in  white,  and  their  eminences 
are  dressed  in  the  same  colour.    St. 
!  Peter's  church  is  hung  with  rich  tapes- 
try, upon  which  the  arms  of  the  pope, 
;  and  of  the  pi'ince  or  state  requiring  the 
canonization,  are  embroidered  in  gold 
and  silver.    A  great  number  of  lights 
blaze  all   round   the  churcli,  which  is 
crowded   with   pious   souls,   who    wait 
with   devout  impatience   till    the  new 
j  saint  has  made  his  public  entry,  as  it 
I  were,  into  paradise,  that  they  ma}''  of- 
I  fer  up  their  petitions  to  him  without 
danger  of  being  rejected. 
j      The  following  maxim  with  regai'd  to 
j  canonization   is  now  observed,  though 
'  it  has  not  been  followed  above  a  centu- 
i  ry,  viz.  not  to  enter  into  the  inquiries 


CAP 


'S 


CAR 


prior  to  c;monization  till  fifty  3-ears,  at 
least,  after  the  death  of  the  person  to 
be  canonized.  By  the  ceremony  of 
canonization  it  appears  that  this  rite  of 
the  modern  Romans  has  something  in 
it  veiy  like  the  apotheosis  or  deification 
of  the  ancient  Romans,  and  in  all  pro- 
bability takes  it  lise  from  it ;  at  least, 
several  ceremonies  of  the  same  nature 
are  conspicuous  in  both. 

CAPUCHINS,  religious,  of  the  or- 
der of  St.  Francis.  They  are  clothed 
■with  l>rown  or  grej- ;  always  bare- 
footed ;  never  go  m  a  coach,  nor  ever 
shave  their  beards. 

CAPUTIATI,  a  denomination  which 
appeai'ed  in  the  twelfth  century,  so  call- 
ed from  a  singular  kind  of  cap  which 
distinguished  their  party.  They  wore 
upon  their  caps  a  leaden  image  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  and  declared  publicly 
that  their  purpose  was  to  level  all  dis- 
tinctions, to  abrogate  magistracy,  and 
to  remove  all  subordination  among 
mankind,  and  to  restore  that  primitive 
liberty,  that  natural  equality,  which 
were  the  inestimable  privilege  of  the 
first  mortals. 

CARAITES,  a  Jewish  sect,  which 
adheres  closely  to  the  text  and  letter 
of  the  Scriptures,  rejecting  the  rabbini- 
cal interpretations  and  the  cabbala. 
The  Talmud  appearing  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixth  centuiy,  those  of  the 
best  sense  among  the  Jews  were  dis- 
gusted at  the  ridiculous  fables  with 
which  it  abounded.  But  about  the 
year  750,  Anan,  a  Babylonish  Jew,  de- 
clared openly  for  the  written  word  of 
God  alone,  exclusive  of  all  tradition ; 
and  this  declaration  produced  a  schism. 
Those  who  maintained  the  Talmud 
being  almost  all  i-abbhis,  were  called 
rabbinists ;  and  the  others,  who  reject- 
ed traditions,  were  called  Caraites,  or 
Scripturists,  from  the  word  cara,  which 
in  the  Babylonish  language  signifies 
Scripture. 

CARDINAL,  one  of  the  chief  go- 
vernors of  the  Romish  churcli,by  whom 
the  pope  is  elected  out  of  their  own 
number,  which  contains  six  bishops, 
fifty  priests,  and  fourteen  deacons: 
these  constitute  the  sacred  college,  and 
are  chosen  by  the  pope.     See  Pope. 

CARDINAL  VIRTUES:  justice, 
prudence,  temiJcrance,  and  fortitvule, 
are  called  the  four  cardinal  virtues,  as 
being  the  basis  of  all  the  rest.  See  Jus- 
tice, &c. 

CARP'.,  concern,  or  anxiety  of  mind 
arising  from  the  uncertainty  of  some- 
thing future,  or  the  oppi'cssion  of  the 
present  calamity.  Caution,  attention 
to  a    particular    subject;  regard    and 


I  suppor',  wlicn  followed  with  the  par- 
:  tide  of.  Prudence  signifies  Avisdom 
applied  to  practice ;  discretion  is  the 
effect  of  prudence,  and  means  a  know- 
ledge to  govern  or  direct  one's  self: 
by  care  we  understand  heed  in  order  to 
presei-vation ;  caution  implies  a  gi'eater 
degree  of  wai'iness. 

Care  is  lavjful  when  it  consists  in  a 
serious  thought  and  earnest  endeavour 
to  please  God ;  to  embrace  .his  Son, 
obey  his  commands,  submit  to  his  pro- 
vidence, to  promote  our  neighbours' 
temporal  or  spiritual  advantage,  and  to 
gain  the  goods  of  this  life  so  mr  as  ne- 
cessary for  our  health,  family,  comfort, 
and  usefulness.  It  is  sinful,  when  it 
leads  us  to  immoderate  concern  about 
earthly  things,  to  be  discontented  with 
our  lot,  or  to  make  use  of  unlawful 
meajis  to  obtain  Avorldly  good  ;  or  when 
exercised  in  a  way  of  vain  curiosity, 
John  XX i.  22. 

CARE  OF  THE  SOUL,  a  term 
used  for  religion,  or  that  serious  atten- 
tion we  ought  to  pay  to  our  best  inte- 
rests. It  imports  repentance,  faith,  de- 
votion, and  obedience.  "  It  is  consider- 
ed as  the  one  thing  needful :  as  1.  It  is 
matter  of  universal  concern.  2.  Of  the 
highest  importance.  3.  Includes  every 
thing  worthy  of  our  regard."  4.  E,ssen- 
tial  to  our  peace  here.  5.  Without  it 
we  cannot  obtain  everlasting  life,  Luke 
X.  42.  Jer.  vi.  16.  Heb.  xii.  14. 

CARE  OF  GOD,  is  his  attention  to 
and  concern  for  the  promotion  of  the 
welfare  of  his  creatures,  1  Pet.  v.  7. 
1.  That  God  docs  manifest  this  care  is 
evident  from  the  blessings  we  enjoy, 
the  ordinances  he  has  instituted,  the 
pi'omises  he  has  given,  and  the  provi- 
sion he  has  made,  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  11.  Matt. 
vii.  12. — 2.  This  cai'e  is  entirely  free, 
and  unmerited  on  our  part.  Gen.  xxxii. 
10.  Deut.  vii.  6.  Rom.  iii.  23. — 3.  It  is 
every  way  extensive,  reaching  to  all 
his  creatures  and  to  all  cases.  Ps. 
cxlv. — A:  It  is  superior  to  all  human 
care  and  attention.  He  cares  for  us 
when  others  cannot ;  when  others  will 
not  care  for  us ;  or  when  we  cannot  or 
will  not  care  for  ourselves.  Ps.  cxlii. 
4,  5.  Jer.  xlix.  11.  Ps.  xli.  3. — 5.  It  is 
not  only  great,  but  i)crpetual.  Through 
all  the  scenes  of  life,  \n  death,  and  for 
ever.  Heb.  xiii.  5.  John  xvii.  9.  See 
Providence. 

CARMATHITES;  the  followers  of 
a  noted  impostor  in  the  ninth  century, 
who  endeavoured  to  overthrow  all  th.e 
foundations  of  Mussulmanism.  Car- 
math  their  propl\et  was  a  person  of 
gi'cat  austerity  of  life ;  and  said  that 
God  had  commanded  him  to  pray  not 


CAS 


CAT 


five  times,  with  the  Mussulmans,  but 
fifty  times  a  day.  To  comply  with  this, 
they  often  neglected  their  business; 
they  ate  many  things  forbidden  by  the 
law  of  Mahomet,  and  believed  tlvat  an- 
gels were  their  guides  in  all  their  ac- 
tions, and  that  the  demons  or  ghosts 
are  their  enemies. 

CARMELITES,  one  of  the  four 
tribes  of  Mendicants,  or  begging  friars ; 
so  named  from  Mount  Carmel,  former- 
ly inhabited  by  Elias,  Elislia,  and  the 
children  of  the  prophets;  fi-om  wliom 
this  order  pretends  to  descend  in  unin- 
teniipted  succession.  Their  habit  was 
at  first  white ;  but  pope  Hononus  IV. 
commanded  them  to  change  it  for  that 
f;f  the  Minims.  They  wear  no  linen 
shirts,  but,  instead  of  them,  linsey-wol- 
sev. 

CARPOCRATIANS,  a  branch  of 
the  ancient  Gnostics,  so  called  from 
Carpocrates,  who  in  the  second  cen- 
tury revived  and  improA  ed  upon  the 
errors  of  Simon  Magus,  Menender,  Sa- 
tumius,  and  other  Gnostics.  See  Gnos- 
tics. 

CARTHUSIANS,  a  rehgious  order 
founded  A.  D.  1080,  by  one  Bmdo ;  so 
called  from  the  desert  Chartreux,  the 
place  of  their  institution.  Their  i-ule 
is  extremely  severe.  They  must  not 
go  out  of  their  cells,  except  to  church, 
without  leave  of  their  superior;  nor 
speak  to  any  person  without  leave. 
They  must  not  keep  any  meat  or 
drink  till  next  day :  their  beds  are  of 
straw  covered  with  a  felt ;  their  cloth- 
ing, two  hair  cloths,  two  cowls,  two 
fair  of  hose,  and  a  cloak ;  all  coarse. 
n  the  refecton'  they  must  keep  their 
eyes  on  the  dish,  their  hands  on  the 
table,  their  attention  to  the  reader,  and 
their  hearts  fixed  on  God.  Women 
must  not  come  into  their  churches. 

CASUALTY,  an  event  that  is  not 
foreseen    or    intended.     See  Coxtin- 

GENCY. 

CASUIST,  one  that  studies  and  set- 
tles cases  of  conscience.  It  is  said  that 
Escobar  has  made  a  collection  of  the 
opinions  of  all  the  casuists  before  him. 
M.  Le  Feore,  preceptor  of  Louis  XIII. 
called  the  books  of  the  casuists  the  art 
of  quibbhng  with  God  ;  which  does  not 
seem  far  from  truth,  by  reason  of  the 
multitude  of  distinctions  and  subtleties 
they  abound  with.  Mayer  has  publish- 
ed a  bibliotheca  of  casuists,  containing 
an  account  of  all  the  writers  on  cases  ot 
conscience,  ranged  under  three  heads ; 
the  first  comprehending  the  Luth'ei-an, 
the  second  tl\e  Calvinist,  and  the  third 
-the  Romish  casuists. 

CASUISTRY,  the  doctrine  and  sci- 


ence of  conscience  and  its  cases,  with 
the  niles  and  principles  of  resolving 
the  same ;  drawn  partly  from  natural 
reason  or  equity,  and  partly  from  the 
authority  of  Scripture,  the  canon  law, 
councils,  fathers,  &c.  To  casuistry  be- 
longs the  decision  of  all  difticultit-s  ari- 
sing about  what  a  man  may  lawfully  do 
or  not  do ;  what  is  sin  or  not  sin  ;  what 
things  a  man  is  obliged  to  do  in  order  to 
discharge  his  duty,  and  what  he  may 
let  alone  without  breach  of  it. 

Some  suppose  that  all  books  of  casu- 
istr}'  are  as  useless  as  they  are  tiresome. 
One  who  is  really  anxious  to  do  his  duty 
must  be  very  weak,  it  it  said,  if  he  can 
imagine  that  he  has  much  occasion  for 
them ;  and  with  regard  to  one  who  is 
negligent  of  it,  the  style  of  those  wri- 
tings is  not  such  as  is  likely  to  awaken 
him  to  more  attention.  The  friAolous 
accuracy  which  casuists  attempt  to  in- 
troduce into  subjects  which  do  not  ad- 
mit of  it,  almost  necessarily  betray  them 
into  dangerous  eiTors ;  and  at  the  same 
time  render  their  works  dry  and  dis- 
agreeable, abounding  in  abstiiise  and 
metaphysical  distinctions,  but  incapable 
of  exciting  in  the  heart  any  of  those 
emotions  which  it  is  the  piincipal  use 
of  books  of  moi-ality  to  produce. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  think  it  may  be 
observed,  that,  though  these  remarks 
may  apply  to  some,  they  cannot  apply 
to  all  books  of  casuistry.  It  must  be 
acknowledged  that  nice  distinctions, 
metaphysical  reasonings,  and  abstnise 
terms,  cannot  be  of  much  ser\'ice  to  the 
generality,  because  ~  there  are  so  few 
who  can  enter  into  them  ;  yet,  when  we 
consider  how  much  light  is  thrown 
upon  a  subject  by  the  force  of  good 
reasoning,  by  viewing  a  case  in  all  its 
bearings,  by  properly  considei-ing  all 
the  objections  that  may^  be  made  to  it, 
and  by  examining  it  in  every  point  of 
view;  if  we  consider  also  how  little 
some  men  are  accustomed  to  think,  and 
yet  at  the  same  time  possess  that  ten- 
derness of  conscience  which  makes 
them  fearflil  of  doing  wrong ;  we  must 
conclude  that  such  works  as  these, 
when  properly  executed,  may  certainly 
be  of  considerable  advantage.  The 
reader  mav  consult  Amen\t  Porter  and 
Cases  of  Conscience ;  Bishofi  Taylor's 
Ductor  DubitanCium;  Dr.  Saundcr- 
son's  De  Obligatione  Con.scienti8C ;  Pike 
and  Hayivard's  Cases;  and  Saurifi's 
Christian  Casuistry,  in  4th  vol.  of  his 
Sermons,  p.  265,  English  edition. 

CATECHISING,  instnicting  by  ask- 
ing questions  and  correcting  the  an- 
swers. Catechising  is  an  excellent  mean 
of  informing  the  mind,  engaging  the  at- 


CAT 


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tention*  and  afFecting  the  heart,  and  is 
an  important  duty  incumbent  on  all  who 
have  children  under  their  care.  Chil- 
dren should  not  be  suffered  to  grow  up 
without  instruction,  under  the  pretence 
that  the  choice  of  religion  ought  to  be 
perfectly  free,  and  not  biassed  by  the 
influence  and  authority  of  parents,  oi- 
the  power  of  education.  As  they  have 
capacities,  and  are  more  capable  of 
knowledge  by  instruction  than  by  the 
exercise  of  their  own  reasoning  powers, 
they  should  certainly  be  taught.  This 
agrees  both  with  the  voice  of  nature  and 
the  dictates  of  revelation,  Deut.  vi.  7. 
Prov.  xxii.  6.  Eph.  vi.  4.  The  proprie- 
ty of  this  being  grr'nted,  it  may  next  be 
observed,  that,  in  order  to  facilitate  their 
knowledge,  short  summaries  of  i-eligion 
extracted  fi-om  the  Bible,  in  the  way  of 

auestion  and  answer,  may  be  of  consi- 
erable  use.  1.  Hereby,  says  Dr.  Watts, 
the  principles  of  Chi-istianity  are  redu- 
ced mto  sliort  sentences,  and  easier  to 
be  understood  by  children. — 2.  Hereby 
these  principles  are  not  only  thrown  in- 
to a  just  and  easy  method,  but  every 
part  is  naturally  nitroduced  by  a  proper 
question ;  and  the  rehearsal  of  the  an- 
swer is  made  far  easiei'  to  a  child  than 
it  would  be  if  the  child  were  required  to 
repeat  the  whole  scheme  of  religion. — 
3.  This  way  of  teaching  hath  something 
familiar  and  delightful  in  it  because  it 
looks  more  like  conversation  and  dia- 
logue.— 4.  The  very  curiosity  of  the 
young  mind  is  awakened  by  the  question 
to  know  what  the  answer  will  be ;  and 
the  child  will  take  pleasure  in  learning 
the  answer  l^y  heart,  to  improve  its  own 
knowledge.     See  next  article. 

CATECHISM,  a  form  of  instruction 
by  means  of  questions  and  answers. 
There  have  been  various  catechisms 
published  by  diflferent  authors,  but  ma- 
ny, of  thcni  ha\e  been  but  ill  suited  to 
convey  instmction  to  juvenile  minds. 
Catechisms  for  children  should  be  so 
fi'amed  as  not  to  puzzle  and  confound, 
but  to  let  the  beams  of  divine  light  into 
their  minds  by  degrees.  They  sliould 
be  accommodated  as  far  as  possible  to 
the  weakness  of  their  understandings ; 
for  mere  learning  sentences  by  rote, 
without  comprehending  the  meaning, 
will  be  but  of  little  use.  In  this  way  they 
will  know  nothing  but  words:  it  will 
prove  a  laborious  task,  and  not  a  plea- 
tjure ;  confirm  them  in  a  bad  hal)it  of 
dealing  in  sounds  instead  of  ideas ;  and 
after  all,  perhaps  create  in  them  an 
^version  to  religion  itself.  Dr.  W'atts 
advises  that  d iff e rent  catechisms  should 
be  composed  for  different  ages  and  ca- 
pacities;   tlie    questions    and    answers 


should  be  short,  plain,  and  easy ;  scho- 
lastic terms,  and  logical  distinctions, 
should  be  avoided ;  the  most  pi-actical 
points  of  religion  should  be  inserted ; 
and  one  or  more  well  chosen  texts  of 
Scripture  should  be  added  to  support 
almost  every  answer,  and  to  prove  tlie 
several  parts  of  it.  The  doctor  has  ad- 
mirably exemplified  his  own  rules  in 
the  catechism  he  has  composed  for 
children  at  three  or  four  years  old ;  that 
for  children  at  seven  or  eight ;  his  as- 
sembly's catechism,  proper  for  youth 
at  twelve  or  fourteen ;  his  preservative 
from  the  sins  and  follies  of  childhood ; 
his  catechism  of  Scripture  names,  and 
his  historical  catechism.  These  are  su- 
perior to  any  I  know,  and  which  I  can- 
not but  ardently  rc.ommend'to  parents, 
and  all  those  who  have  the  care  and  in- 
struction of  childi'en. 

CATECHIST,  one  whose  charge  is 
to  instruct  by  questions,  or  to  (juestion 
the  uninsti'ucted  concerning  i-eligion. 

The  catechists  of  the  ancient  churches 
were  usually  ministers,  and  distinct  from 
the  bishops  and  presbyters;  and  had 
their  catechiimena,  or  auditories,  apart. 
But  they  did  not  constitute  any  distinct 
order  of  the  clergy,  being  chosen  out  of 
any  order.  The  bishop  himself  some- 
times performed  the  office ;  at  other 
times,  presbyters,  I'eaders,  or  deacons. 
It  was  his  business  to  expose  the  folly 
of  the  pagan  superstition,  to  remove 
prejudices,  and  answer  objections ;  to 
discourse  on  behalf  of  the  Chi'istiau 
doctrines;  and  to  give  instniction  to 
those  who  had  not  sufficient  knowledge 
to  qualify  them  for  baptism. 

CATECHUMENS,  the  lowest  order 
of  Christians  m  the  primitive  church. 
They  had  some  title  to  tlie  common 
name  of  Christians,  being  a  degree  above 
pagans  and  heretics,  though  not  consum- 
mated by  baptism.  They  were  admitted 
to  the  state  of  catechumens  Ijy  the  im- 
position of  hands,  and  the  sign  of  the 
cross.  The  children  of  believing  pa- 
rents were  admitted  catechumens  as 
soon  as  ever  they  were  capable  of  in- 
stniction ;  but  at  what  age  those  of  hea- 
then parents  might  be  admitted  is  not 
so  clear.  As  to  the  time  of  their  con- 
tinuance in  this  state,  there  were  no  ge- 
neral rales  fixed  about  it ;  but  the  pi-ac- 
tice  varied  according  to  the  difference 
of  times  and  places,  and  the  I'eadiness 
and  proficiency  of  the  catechumens 
themselves.  Tliere  were  four  orders 
or  degrees  of  catechumens.  The  first 
were  those  instructed  privately  without 
the  cliurch,  and  kept  at  a  distance,  for 
some  time,  from  tlie  privilege  of  enter- 
ing the  church,  to  make  them  the  more 


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eae;er  and  desirous  of  it.  The  next  de- 
gi-ec  were  the  aiidievtes,  so  called  from 
tneir  being  admitted  to  hear  sermons 
and  the  Scriptures  read  in  the  church, 
but  were  not  allowed  to  partake  of  the 
pravers.  The  third  sort  of  catechumens 
were  tlie  genu  flectentes,  so  called  be- 
eause  they  received  imposition  of  hands 
kneeling.  The  fourth  order  was  the 
comfxetentes  et  electi;  denoting  the  im- 
mediate candidates  for  baptism,  or  such 
as  were  appointed  to  be  baptized  the 
.  next  approaching  festival;  before  which, 
strict  examination  was  made  into  their 
proficiency,  under  the  several  stages  of 
catechetical  exercises. 

After  examination,  they  were  exer- 
cised for  twenty  days  together,  jind  were 
obliged  to  fasting  and  confession.  Some 
days  before  baptism  they  went  veiled ; 
and  it  was  customary  to  touch  their  ears, 
saying,  Ephatha,  i.  e.  Be  opened;  as 
also  to  anoint  their  eyes  with  clay :  both 
ceremonies  being  in  imitation  of  our  Sa- 
vour's practice,  and  intended  to  signify 
to  the  catechumens  their  condition  both 
before  and  after  their  admission  into  the 
Christian  church. 

C\THARISTS,  a  sect  that  spread 
much  in  the  Latin  church  in  the  twelfth 
centuiy.  Their  religion  resembled  the 
doctrine  of  the  Manichxans  and  Gnos- 
tics [see  those  articles.]  They  suppo- 
sed that  matter  was  the  source  of  evil ; 
that  Christ  was  not  clothed  with  a  real 
body;  that  baptism  and  the  Lord's  sup- 
per were  useless  institii.tions ;  with  a 
varietv  of  other  strange  notions. 

CATHEDRAL,  the  chief  church  of 
a  diocese;  a  church  wherein  is  a  bi- 
shop's see.  The  word  comes  fi'om  xaSafg* 
"  chair :"  the  name  seems  to  have  taken 
its  rise  from  the  manner  of  sitting  in  the 
ancient  churches  or  assemblies  of  pri- 
vate Christians.  In  these  the  council, 
i.  e.  the  elders  and  priests,  were  called 
Presbyterium ;  at  their  head  was  the 
bishop,  who  held  the  place  of  chairman, 
Cathedralis  or  Cathedratkua ;  and  the 
presbyters,  who  sat  on  either  side,  also 
called  by  the  ancient  fathers  Asacssores 
Jifmcofi'orum.  The  episcopal  authority 
did  not  reside  in  the  bishop  alone,  but 
in  all  the  presbyters,  whereof  the  bishop 
was  president.  A  cathedral,  therefore, 
originally  was  different  from  what  it  is 
now  ;  the  Christians,  till  the  time  of 
Constantine,  having  no  libertv  to  build 
any  temple.  By  their  churches  they 
only  meant  assemblies ;  and  bv  cathe- 
tlrals,  nothing  more  than  consistories. 

CATHOLIC,  denotes  anv  thing  that 
is  universal  or  general.  The  rise  of 
heresies  induced  the  primitive  Christian 
chui-ch  to  assume  to  itself  the  appella- 


tion oi  catholic,  being  a  characteristic  to 
distinguish  itself  from  all  sects,  who, 
though  they  had  party  names,  some- 
times sheltered  themselves  under  the 
name  of  Christians.  Th.e  Romish  church 
now  distinguished  itself  by  catholic  in 
opposition  to  all  who  have  sepai-ated 
from  her  communion,  and  whom  she 
considers  as  heretics  and  schismatics, 
and  herself  only  as  the  tme  and  Chris- 
tian church.  In  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  there  is  no  catholic  church  m 
being;  that  is,  no  universal  Christian 
communion. 

CELESTINS,  a  religious  order  in 
the  thirteenth  centun- ;  so  called  from 
their  founder,  Peter  de  Meuron,  after- 
wards raised  to  the  pontificate  under 
the  name  'of  Celestine  V.  The  Celes- 
tins  rose  two  hours  after  midnight  to  say 
matins ;  ate  no  fiesh,  except  when  sick ; 
and  often  fasted.  Their  habit  consisted 
of  a  white  gown,  a  capuche,  a  black 
scapulan',  and  shirts  of  serge. 

CELIBACY,  the  state  of  unmarried 
persons.  Celibate,  or  celibacy,  is  a  word 
chieflv  used  in  speaking  of  the  single 
life  of  the  popish  clerg}",  or  the  obliga- 
tion they  are  under  to  abstain  from  mar- 
riage. The  church  of  Rome  imposes  an 
uni^-ersal  celibacy  on  all  her  clerg\-, 
from  the  pope  to  the  lowest  deacon  and 
subdeacon.  The  advocates  for  this  usage 
pretend  that  a  vow  of  pei-petual  celiba- 
cy was  required  in  the  ancient  church 
as  a  condition  of  ordination,  even  from 
the  earliest  apostolic  ages.  But  the  con- 
trary is  evident  from  numerous  exam- 
ples of  bishops  and  archbishops  who 
li^'ed  in  a  state  of  matrimony,  without 
any  prejudice  to  their  ordination  or  their 
function.  Neither  our  Lord  nor  his  apos- 
tles laid  the  least  restraint  upon  the  con- 
nubial union :  on  the  contraiy,  the  Scrip- 
tures speak  of  it  as  honourable  in  all, 
without  the  least  restriction  as  to  per- 
sons. Heb.  xiii.  4.  Matt.  xix.  10, 12.  1 
Cor.  vii.  2,  9.  St.  Paul  even  assigns  for* 
bidding  to  marrj-  as  characteristic  of  the 
apostacy  of  the  latter  times,  1  Tim.  iv. 
3.  The  fathers,  without  making  any 
distinction  between  clergy  and  laity, 
asserted  the  lawfulness  of  the  mar- 
riage of  all  Christians.  iSIamage  was 
not  forbidden  to  bishops  in  the  Eastern 
church  till  the  close  ot  the  seventh  cen- 
tury. Celibacy  was  not  imposed  on  the 
Western  clerg\"  in  general  till  the  end 
of  the  eleventh  centun",  though  at- 
tempts had  been  made  long  before.  Su- 
perstitious zeal  for  a  sanctimonious  ap- 
pearance in  the  clergy  seems  to  have 
promoted  it  at  first ;  and  crafty  policy, 
armed  with  power,  no  doubt  rivetted 
this  clog  en  the  sacerdotal  order  in  later 


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penods  of  the  church.  Pope  Ciregoiy 
v'll.  appears  in  this  business  to  have  had 
a  view  to  separate  the  clergy  as  mucli 
as  possible  trom  all  other  interests,  and 
to  brinj*  them  into  a  total  dependence 
upon  his  authority  ;  to  the  end  that  all 
temporal  power  might  in  a  high  degree 
be  subjugated  to  the  papal  jui'isdiction. 
Forbidding  to  marr)%  therefore,  has 
evidently  the  mark  of  the  beast  upon 
it.    See  Marriage. 

CEMETERY,  a  place  set  apart  for 
the  burial  of  the  dead.  Anciently,  none 
were  buried  in  churches  or  church- 
yards :  it  was  even  unlawful  to  inter  in 
i  ities,  and  the  cemeteries  were  without 
the  walls.  Among  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians these  were  held  in  great  venera- 
tion. It  even  appears  from  Eusebius  j 
and  TertuUian,  that  in  the  early  ages 
they  assembled  for  divine  worship  in 
the  cemeteries.  Valerian  seems  to  have 
confiscated  the  cemeteries  and  other 
places  of  divine  worship ;  but  they  Avere 
restored  again  by  Gallienus.  As  the 
martyrs  were  buried  in  these  places, 
the  Christians  chose  them 'for  building 
churches  on,  when  Constantine  esta- 
blished their  religion  ;  and  hence  some 
derive  the  rule  which  still  obtains  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  never  to  consecrate  an 
altar  without  putting  under  it  the  relics 
of  some  saint. 

CENSURE,  the  act  of  judging  and 
blaming  others  for  their  faidts.  Fuith- 
f  Illness  in  reproving  another  differs  from 
censoriousnts.s :  the  former  arises  from 
love  to  truth,  and  respect  for  the  per- 
son ;  the  latter  is  a  disposition  that  loves 
to  find  fault.  However  just  censure  may 
be  where  there  is  blame,  yet  a  censo- 
rious spirit  or  rash  judging  must  be 
avoided.  It  is  usurping  the  authority 
and  judgment  of  God.  It  is  unjust,  vm- 
charitable,  mischievous,  productive  of 
unhappiness  to  ourselves,  and  often  the 
cause  of  disorder  and  confusion  in  so- 
ciety.   See  Rash  Judging. 

CERDONIANS,  a  sect,  in  the  first 
century,  who  espoused  most  of  the  opi- 
nions of  Simon  Magus  and  the  Mani- 
chxans.  They  asserted  two  principles, 
good  and  bad.  The  first  they  called 
the  Father  of  Jesus  Christ;  the  latter 
the  Creator  of  the  world.  They  denied 
the  incarnation  and  the  resurrection, 
and  rejected  the  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

CEREMONY,  an  assemblage  of  se- 
veral actions,  forms,  and  circumstances, 
serving  to  render  a  thing  magnificent 
and  solemn.  Applied  to  religious  ser- 
vices, it  signifies  the  external  rites  and 
manner  wherein  tlie  ministers  of  reli- 
gion perform  their  sacred  functions.  In 


1646,  M.  Ponce  published  a  history  of 
ancient  ceremonies,  tracing  the  rise, 
growth,  and  introduction  of  each  rite 
into  the  church,  and  its  gradual  ad- 
vancement to  superstition.  Many  of 
them  were  borroAved  fi-om  Judaism,  but 
more  from  paganism.  Dr.  Middleton 
has  given  a  fine  discourse  on  the  con- 
formity between  the  pagan  and  popish 
ceremonies,  which  he  exemplifies  in  the 
use  of  incense,  holy  water,  lamps  and 
candles  before  the  shrines  of  saints,  vo- 
tive gifts  round  the  shrines  of  the  de- 
ceased, &c.  In  fact,  the  altars,  images, 
crosses,  processions,  miracles,  and  le- 
gends, nay,  even  the  very  hierarchy, 
pontificate,  religious  orders,  &c.  of  the 
present  Romans,  he  shows,  are  all  co- 
pied from  theii"  heathen  ancestors.  An 
ample  and  magnificent  representation 
in  figures  of  the  religio\is  ceremonies 
and  customs  of  all  nations  in  the  Avorld, 
designed  by  Picart,  is  added,  with  his- 
torical explanations,  and  many  curious 
dissertations. 

It  has  been  a  question,  Avhether  we 
ought  to  use  such  rites  and  ceremonies 
which  are  merely  of  human  appoint- 
ment. On  one  side  it  has  been  observed 
that  Ave  ought  not.  Christ  alone  is  King 
in  his  church  :  he  hath  instituted  such 
ordinances  and  forms  of  Avorship  as  he 
hath  judged  fit  and  necessaiy ;  and  to 
add  to  them  seems,  at  least,  to  carry  in 
it  an  imputation  on  his  Avisdom  and  au- 
thority, and  hath  this  unansAverable  ob- 
jection to  it,  that  it  opens  the  door  to  a 
tliousand  innovations  (as  the  history  of 
the  church  of  Rome  hath  sufficiently 
shoAvn,)  Avhich  are  not  only  indifferent 
m  themselves,  but  highh'  alisurd,  and 
extremely  detrimental  to  religion.  That 
the  ceremonies  were  numci'ous  under 
the  Old  Testament  dispensation  is  no 
argument;  for,  say  they.  1.  We  respect 
JeAvish  ceremonies,  because  they  Avei-e 
appointed  of  God ;  and  Ave  reject  human 
ceremonies^  because  God  hath  not  ap- 
pointed them.— 2.  Tlie  Jewish  ceremo- 
nies Avere  established  by  the  laiiverfial 
consent  of  the  nation  ;  human  ceremo- 
nies are  not  so. — 3.  The  fomier  Avcre  fit 
and  proper  for  the  purposes  for  Avhich 
thev  Avere  appointed;  but  the  latter  are 
often  the  contraiy. — 4.  Tlie  institutor  of 
the  JcAvish  ceremonies  provided  for  the 
expense  of  it ;  but  no  pi-ovision  is  made 
by  God  to  support  human  ceremonies, 
or  Avhat  he  has  not  appointed. 

These  arguments  seem  very  poAver- 
ful ;  but  on  the  other  side  it  has  been  ob- 
serAed,  tliat  the  desire  of  i-educing  reli- 
gious Avorship  to  the  greatest  possible 
simplicity,  however  rational  it  may  ap- 
pear m  itself,  and  abstractedly  consider- 


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83 


cnA 


ed,  will  he  considcrahly  m<xk'r:itod  in 
siich  as  ])csto\v  a  moment's  attention 
upon  the  imperfection  and  infirmities  of 
hunran  nature  in  its  present  state.  Man- 
kind, generally  speaking,  have  too  little 
elevation  of  mind  to  be  much  tiftected 
with  those  forms  and  methods  of  wor- 
ship in  which  there  is  nothing  striking 
to  the  outward  senses.  The  great  diffi- 
culty hei'c  lies  in  determining  the  length 
which  it  is  prudent  to  go  in  the  accom- 
modation of  religious  ceremonies  to  hu- 
man infirmity ;  and  the  grand  point  is, 
to  fix  a  medium  in  which  a  due  regard 
may  be  shown  to  the  senses  and  imagi- 
nation, without  violating  the  dictates  of 
right  reason,  or  tarnishing  the  purity  of 
true  religion.  It  has  been  said,  that  the 
Romish  church  has  gone  too  far  in  its 
condescension  to  the  infirmities  of  man- 
kind ;  and  this  is  what  the  ablest  de- 
fenders of  its  motley  worship  have  alle- 
ged in  its  behalf.  But  this  observation  is 
not  just;  the  church  of  Rome  has  not  so 
much  accommodated  itself  to  human 
weakness,  as  it  has  abused  that  iveak- 
neas,  by  taking  occasion  from  it  to  esta- 
blish an  endless  variety  of  ridiculous 
ceremonies,  destructive  of  true  religion, 
and  only  adapted  to  promote  the  riclics 
and  despotism  of  the  clergy,  and  to 
keep  the  multitude  still  hood-winked  in 
then-  ignorance  and  superstition.  How 
far  a  just  antipathy  to  the  church  pup- 
pet-shows of  the  Papists  has  unjustly 
driven  some  Protestant  churches  into 
the  opposite  extreme,  is  a  matter  that 
certainly  deser\'es  a  serious  considera- 
tion. See  Dr.  Stenneifs  Set:  on  Con- 
formity to  the  World;  Robinson's  Ser- 
mon 07L  Cereinonies ;  BootWs  Essay  on 
the  Kingdom  of  Christ ;  Moshei?n's  Ec- 
clesiastical History  ;  nvith  I\Iac  Laine^s 
JVote,  vol.  i.  p.  203,  quarto  edit.  Jones's 
Works,  vol.  4.  p.  267. 

CERINTHIANS,  ancient  heretics, 
who  denied  the  deity  of  Jesus  Christ;  so 
named  from  Cerinthus.  They  believed 
that  he  was  a  mere  man,  the  son  of  Jo- 
seph and  Mary ;  but  that  in  his  baptism 
a  celestial  virtue  descended  on  him  in 
the  form  of  a  dove  ;  bv  means  whereof 
he  was  consecrated  by  the  Holy  Spirit, 
made  Christ,  and  wrought  so  many  mi- 
racles; that,  as  he  received  it  from'  hea- 
ven, it  quitted  him  after  his  passion,  and 
retumed  to  the  place  whence  it  came  ; 
so  that  Jesus,  whom  they  called  2.  pure 
man,  really  died,  and  rose  again ;  but 
that  Christ,  who  was  distinguished  from 
Jesus,  did  not  suffer  at  all.  It  was  part- 
ly to  refute  this  sect  that  St.  John  wrote 
^f  i'^^P*^^-  "^^^y  received  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Matthew,  to  countenance  their 
doctrine  of  circumcision  j  but  they  omit- 


ted the  genealogy.  They  discarded  tlie 
epistles  of  St.  Paul,  because  that  apos- 
tle held  circumcision  abolished. 

CHALDEE  PARAPHRASE,  in 
the  rabbinical  style,  is  called  Targum. 
There  are  three  Chaldce  paraphrases 
in  Walton's  Polyglot:  viz.  1.  of  On- 
kelos; — 2.  of  Jonathan,  son  of  Uziel ; — 3. 
of  Jerusalem.  See  Bible,  sect.  19,  and 
Targum. 

CHALICE,  the  cup  used  to  adminis- 
ter the  wine  in  the  sacrament,  and  by 
the  Roman  catholics  in  the  mass.  The 
use  of  the  chalice,  or  communicating  in 
both  kindsi  is  by  the  church  of  Rome 
denied  to  the  laity,  who  communicate 
only  in  one  kind,  the  clergy  alone  being 
allowed  the  privilege  of  communicating 
in  both  kinds ;  in  direct  opposition  to  our 
Saviour's  words — "Drink  ye  all  of  it." 

CHANCE,  a  term  we  apply  to  events 
to  denote  that  they  happen  without  any 
necessary  or  foreknown  cause.  When 
we  say  a  thing  happens  by  chance,  we 
mean  no  more  than  that  its  cause  is  un- 
known to  us,  and  not,  as  some  vainly 
imagine,  that  chance  itself  can  be  the 
cause  of  any  thing.  "  The  case  of  the 
painter,"  says  Chambers,  "  who,  unable 
to  express  the  foam  at  the  mouth  of 
the  horse  he  had  painted,  threw  his 
sponge  in  despair  at  the  piece,  and  by 
chance  did  that  which  he  could  not  do 
before  by  design,  is  an  eminent  instance 
of  what  is  called  chance.  Yet  it  is  ob- 
vious all  we  here  mean  by  chance,  is, 
that  the  painter  was  not  aware  of  the 
effect,  or  that  he  did  not  throw  the 
sponge  with  such  a  view :  not  but  that 
he  actually  did  every  thing  necessary  to 
produce  the  effect ;  insomuch  that,  con- 
sidering the  direction  wherein  he  threw 
the  sponge,  together  with  its  form  and 
specific  gravity,  the  colours  wherewith 
it  was  smeared,  and  the  distance  of  the 
hand  from  the  piece,  it  was  impossible, 
on  the  pi'esent  system  of  things,  that  the 
effect  should  not  follow." — ^The  word^ 
as  it  is  often  used  by  the  unthinking,  is 
vague  and  indeterminate — a  mere  name 
for  ncthine;. 

CHANCELLOR,  a  lay  officer  under 
a  bishop,  who  is  judge  of  his  court.  In 
the  first  ages  of  the  church  the  bishops 
had  those  officers,  who  were  called 
church  lawyers,  and  were  bred  up  in 
the  knowledge  of  the  civil  and  canon 
law :  their  business  was  to  assist  the 
bishop  in  his  diocese. — We  read  of  no 
chancellors  till  Henry  the  Second's 
time ;  but  that  the  king  requiring  the 
attendance  of  the  bishops  in  his  councils, 
it  was  thought  necessary  to  substitute 
chancellors  in  their  room  for  the  des- 
patch of  business. 


CHA 


34 


CHA 


CHANT  is  used  for  the  vocai  music 
of  churches.  In  church  history  we  meet 
\vitl\  divers  kinds  of  these;  as,  1.  Chant. 
Ambroniaii,  established  by  St.  Ambrose ; 
- — 2.  Chant  Gregorian,  hitroduced  by 
pope  Gregory  the  Great,  who  establish- 
ed schools  of  chanter.s,  and  corrected 
the  church  music,  lliis,  at  first,  was 
called  the  Roman  song ;  afterwards 
the  Jilain  song;  as  the  choir  and  people 
sing  in  unison. 

CHAOS,  the  mass  of  matter  sup- 
posed to  be  in  confusion  before  it  Avas 
divided  by  the  Almighty  into  its  proper 
classes  arid  elements.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear who  first  asserted  the  notion  of  a 
chaos.  Moses,  the  earliest  of  all  writers, 
derives  the  origin  of  this  woi-ld  from 
a  confusion  of  matter,  dark,  void,  deep, 
without  form,  which  he  calls  TOHU 
BOHU ;  which  is  precisely  the  chaos 
of  the  Greek  and  barbarian  philoso- 
phers. Moses  goes  no  farther  than  the 
chaos,  nor  tells  us  whence  it  took  its 
origin,  or  whence  its  confused  state ; 
and  where  Moses  stops,  there  precisely 
do  all  the  rest. 

CHAPEL,  a  place  of  worship. — 
There  are  various  kinds  of  chajiels  in 
Britain.  1.  Domestic  chapels,  built  by 
noblemen  or  gentlemen  foi-private  wor- 
ship in  their  families. — 2.  Free  chapels, 
such  as  are  founded  by  kings  of  England. 
They  are  free  from  all  episcopal  juris- 
diction, and  only  to  be  visited  by.  the 
founder  and  his  successors,  which  is 
done  by  the  lord  chancellor:  yet  the 
king  may  license  any  subject  to  build 
and  endow  a  chapel,  and  by  letters  pa- 
tent exempt  it  from  the  visitaticsi  of  the 
ordinary. — 3.  Chapels  in  universities 
belonging  to  particular  universities. — 
4.  Chapels  of  ease,  built  for  the  ease  of 
one  or  more  parishioners  that  dwell  too 
far  from  the  church,  and  are  served  by 
inferior  ciu-ates,  provided  for  at  the 
charge  of  the  rector,  or  of  such  as  have 
benefit  by  it,  as  the  composition  or  cus- 
tom is. — 5.  Parochial  chapels,  which  dif- 
fer from  parish  churches  only  in  name : 
they  are  generally  small,  and  the  inhabi- 
tants within  the  district  few.  If  there  be 
a  presentation  ad  ecclet:knn  instead  of 
cafiellam,  and  an  admission  and  institu- 
tion upon  it,  it  is  no  longer  a  chajiel,  but 
a  church  for  themselves  and  families. — 
6.  Chapels  which  adjoin  to  and  are  part 
of  the  church:  such  wei-e  formerly  built 
by  honourable  persons  as  burying  pla- 
ces.— 7.  The  places  of  worship  belong- 
ing to  the  Calvinistic  and  Arminian 
Methodists  are  also  generally  called 
chapels,  though  they  are  licensed  in  no 
other  way  than  the  meetings  of  the 
Protestant  Dissenters. 


CHAPLAIN,  a  person  who  performs 
divine  service  in  a  cliapel,  or  is  retained 
in  the  service  of  some  family  to  per- 
form divine  senicc. 

As  to  the  origin  of  chaplains,  some 
say  the  shrines  of  relics  were  anciently 
covered  with  a  kind  of  tent,  cape,  or 
cajiella,  i.  e.  little  cape  ;  and  that  hence 
the  priests  who  had  the  care  of  them 
were  called  chaplains.  In  time,  these 
relics  were  reposited  in  a  little  church, 
either  contiguous  to  a  larger,  or  sepa- 
rate from  it;  and  the  name  cajiella, 
which  was  given  to  the  cover,  was 
also  given  to  the  place  where  it  was 
Iodised ;  and  hence  the  priest  who  su- 
perintended it  came  to  be  called  cajiel- 
laniis,  or  chaplain. 

According  to  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII. 
the  persons  vested  with  a  power  of  re- 
taining chaplains,  together  with  the 
number  each  is  allowed  to  qualify,  are 
as  follow  :  an  ai'chbishop  eight ;  a  duke 
or  bishop  six ;  marquis  or  earl  five ;  vis- 
count four ;  baron,  knight  of  the  garter, 
or  lord  chancellor,  three :  a  duchess, 
marchioness,  countess,  baroness,  the 
treasurer  or  comptroller  of  the  king's 
house,  clerk  of  the  closet,  the  king's  se- 
cretary, dean  of  the  chapel,  almoner, 
and  master  of  the  rolls,  each  of  them  two; 
chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench,  and 
ward  of  the  cinque  ports,  each  one.  All 
these  chaplains  may  purchase  a  license 
or  dispensation,  and  take  two  benefices, 
with  cure  of  souls.  A  chaplain  must  be 
retained  by  letters  testimonial  under 
hand  and  seal,  for  it  is  not  sufficient  that 
he  serve  as  chaplain  in  the  family. 

In  England  there  are  forty-eight 
chaplains  to  the  king,  who  w^ait  four 
each  month,  preach  in  the  chapel,  read 
the  service  to  the  family,  and  to  the  king 
in  his  private  oratory,  and  say  grace  in 
the  absence  of  the  clerk  of  the  closet. 
While  in  waiting,  they  have  a  table  and 
attendance,  but  no  salary.  In  Scotland, 
the  king  has  six  chaplains  with  a  salary 
of  50/.  each ;  three  of  them  having  in 
addition  tlie  deanery  of  the  chapel  royal 
divided  between  them,  making  up  above 
100/.  to  each.  Their  only  duty  at  pre- 
sent is  to  say  prayers  at  the  election  of 
peers  for  Scotland  to  sit  in  parliament. 

CHAPLET,  a  certain  instrument  of 
piety  made  use  of  by  the  papists.  It  is  a 
string  of  beads,  by  which  they  measure 
or  count  the  nimiber  of  their  prayers. 

CHAPTER,  a  community  of  eccle- 
siastics belonging  to  a  cathedral  or  col- 
legiate church.  The  chief  or  head  of 
tlie  chapter  is  the  dean  ;  the  bod}^  con- 
sists of  canons  or  pi-ebendaries.  The 
chapter  has  now  no  longer  a  place  in 
the  admmistration  of  the  diocese  during 


CHA 


85 


CHA 


the  life  of  Uie  Hishop ;  but  succeeds  to 
the  whole  episcopal  jurisdiction  duiing 
the  vacancy  of  the  see. 

CHARGE:  J.  a  sci-nion  preached  by 
the  bishop  to  his  clergy ; — 2.  Among 
the  Dissenters,  it  is  a  sermon  preached 
to  a  minister  at  his  orduiation,  generally 
bv  some  aged  or  respectable  preacher. 
'CHAKITY,  one  of  the  three  grand 
theological  graces,  consisting  in  the  love 
of  Go(l  and  our  neighbour,  or  the  habit 
or  disposition  of  loving  God  with  all  our 
heart,  and  our  neighbour  as  ourselves. 
"Charity,'*  says  an  able  writer,  "con- 
sists not  in  specidati\e  ideas  of  general 
benevolence  floating  in  the  head,  and 
leaving  the  heart,  as  speculations  often 
do,  untouched  and  cold :  neither  is  it 
confined  to  that  indolent  good  nature 
w  hich  makes  us  rest  satisfied  with  being 
free  from  inveterate  malice,  or  ill  will  to 
our  fellow  creatures,  without  prompting 
us  to  be  of  service  to  any.  True  charity 
is  an  active  principle.  It  is  not  proper- 
ly a  single  vnlue ;  but  a  disposition  resi- 
ding in  the  heai't  as  a  fountain ;  whence 
all  the  virtues  of  benignity,  candour,  for- 
bearance, generosity,  compassion,  and  li- 
berality flow  as  so  many  native  streams. 
From  general  good  will  to  all,  it  extends 
its  influence  particularly  to  those  with 
whom  we  stand  in  nearest  connexion, 
and  who  are  directly  within  the  sphere 
of  our  good  ofTices.  From  the  country 
or  community  to  which  we  belong,  it 
descends  to  the  smaller  associates  of 
neighbourhood,  relations,  and  friends  ; 
and  spreads  itself  over  the  whole  circle 
of  social  and  domestic  life.  I  mean  not 
that  it  imports  a  promiscuous  undistin- 
guishing  affection  which  gives  eveiy 
man  an  equal  title  to  our  love.  Charity, 
if  we  should  endeavour  to  carry  it  so  far, 
w'ould  be  rendered  an  impracticable  vir- 
tue, and  would  resolve  itself  into  mere 
words,  without  aftecting  the  heart.  Trae 
charity  attempts  not  to  shut  our  eyes  to 
the  distinction  between  good  and  bad 
men ;  nor  to  warm  our  hearts  equally 
to  those  who  befriend  and  those  who 
injure  us.  It  reserves  our  esteem  for 
g(iod  men,  and  our  complacency  for  our 
friends.  Towards  our  enemies,  it  in- 
spires forgiveness  and  humanitv.  It 
breathes  universal  candour  and  liberali- 
ty ot  sentiment.  It  forms  gentleness  of 
temper,  and  dictates  affability  of  man- 
ners. It  prompts  corresponding  sym- 
pathies with  them  who  rejoice,  and  them 
■who  weep.  It  teaches  us  to  slight  and 
despise  no  man.  Charity  is  the  com- 
forter of  the  afflicted,  the  protector  of 
the  oppressed,  the  reconciler  of  differ- 
ences, the  intercessor  for  offenders.  It 
is  faithfulness  in  the  friend,  public  spirit 


in  the  magistrate,  equity  and  patience 
in  the  judge,  moderation  in  the  sove- 
reign, and  loyalty  in  the  subject.  In 
parents  it  is  care  and  attention ;  in  chil- 
dren it  is  reverence  and  submission.  In 
a  word,  it  is  the  soul  of  social  life.  It  is 
the  sun  that  enlivens  -and  cheers  the 
abodes  of  men ;  not  a  meteor  which  oc- 
casionally glares,  but  a  luminary,  which 
in  its  orderly  and  regular  course  dispen- 
ses a  benignant  influence."  See  Bar- 
ronv^s  Worka,  vol.  i.  ser.  27,  28.  Blair's 
.S'f  ?-.  vol.  iv.  ser.  2  ;  Scott's  Ser.  ser.  14 ; 
Tillotson's  Ser.  ser.  158  ;  Paley's  Mor. 
Phil.  ^'Ol.  i.  p.  231 ;  and  articles  Bene- 
volence, LOVK. 

CHARM,  a  kind  of  spell,  supposed 
by  the  ignorant  to  have  an  irresistible 
influence,  by  means  of  the  concun-ence 
of  some  infernal  power,  both  on  the 
minds,  lives,  and  properties  of  those 
whom  it  has  for  its  object. 

"Certain  vain  ceremonies,"  says  Dr. 
Doddridge,  "  which  are  commonly  call- 
ed c/iarms,  and  seem  to  have  no  eihcacy 
at  all  for  producing  the  effects  proposed 
by  them,  are  to  be  avoided;  seeing  if 
there  be  indeed  any  real  efficacy  in  them, 
it  is  generally  prol^able  they  owe  it  to 
some  bad  cause ;  for  one  can  hardly 
imagine  that  God  should  permit  good 
angels  in  any  extraoi'dinary  manner  to 
interpose,  or  should  immediately  exert 
his  own  miraculous  power  on  trifling 
occasions,  and  upon  the  pei'formance  ot 
such  idle  tricks  as  are  generally  made 
the  condition  of  receiving  such  benefits." 

CHASTITY, purity  from  fleshly  lust. 
In  men  it  is  termed  continence.'  See 
Continence.  There  is  a  chastity  of 
speech,  behaviour,  and  imagination,  as 
well  as  of  body.  Grove  gives  us  the  fol- 
lowing rules  for  the  conservation  of 
chastity. — 1.  To  keep  ourselves  fully 
employed  in  labours  either  of  the  body 
or  the  mind:  idleness  is  frequently  the 
introduction  to  sensuality. — 2.  To  guard 
the  senses,  and  avoid  every  thing  which 
may  be  an  inceative  to  lust.  Does  the 
free  use  of  some  meats  and  drinks  make 
the  body  ungovernable  ?  Does  reading 
certain  books  debauch  the  imagination 
and  inflame  the  passions  ^  Do  tempta- 
tions often  enter  by  the  sight?  Have 
public  plays,  dancings,  effeminate  mu- 
sic, idle  songs,  loose  habits,  and  the  like, 
the  same  effect  :*  He  who  resolves  upon 
chastity  cannot  be  ignorant  what  his  du- 
ty is  in  all  these  and  such  like  cases. — 
3.  To  implore  the  Divine  Sj^int,  which 
is  a  spirit  of  purity;  and  by  the  utmost 
regard  to  his  presence  and  operations 
to  endeavour  to  retain  him  with  us. 
Grove's  Aloral  Philos.  p.  2.  sec.  6. 
!     CHAZINZARIANS,  a  sect  whicli 


CHI 


86 


CHK 


arose  in  Armenia  in  the  seventh  centu- 
ry. They  are  so  called  from  the  Arme- 
nian word  chaziis,  which  signifies  a 
cross,  because  they  were  charged  with 
adoring  the  cross. 

CHEATS  are  deceitful  practices,  in 
defrauding,  or  endeavouring  to  defraud, 
another  of  his  known  right,  by  means  of 
some  artful  device  contrary  to  honesty. 
See  HoxESTY,  Justice. 

CHEERFULNESS,  a  disposition  of 
mind  free  from  dejection.  Opposed  to 
gloominess.  If  we  consider  cheerfulness, 
says  Addison,  in  three  lights,  with  re- 
gard to  ourselves,  to  those  we  converse 
with,  and  to  the  Great  Author  of  our 
being,  it  will  not  a  little  recommend  it- 
self on  each  of  these  accounts.  The  man 
who  is  possessed  of  this  excellent  frame 
of  mind  is  not  only  easy  in  his  thoughts, 
but  a  perfect  master  of  all  the  powers 
and  faculties  of  his  soul ;  his  imagination 
is  always  clear,  and  his  judgment  undis- 
turbed ;  his  temper  is  even  and  unruffled, 
whether  in  action  or  in  solitude.  He 
comes  with  a  relish  to  all  those  goods  ' 
which  Nature  has  provided  for  him, 
tastes  all  the  pleasures  of  the  creation 
which  are  poured  about  him,  and  does  j 
not  feel  the  fiill  weight  of  those  evils  i 
which  may  befaU  him.  See  Happiness,  j 
Joy. 

CHILDREN,  duties  of,  to  parents.  \ 
Dr.  Doddiidge  obsen-es,  "  1.  That  as 
children  have  received  important  fa-  i 
vours  from  their  parents,  gratitude,  and  ! 
therefore  virtue,  requires  that  they  i 
should  love  them. — 2.  Considering  the  j 
superiority  of  age,  and  the  probable  su- 
-periority  of  wisdom,  which  there  is  on 
the  side  of  parents,  and  also  how  much 
the  satisfaction  and  comfort  of  a  parent 
depend  on  the  respect  shown  him  by  his 
children,  it  is  fit  that  children  should 
reverence  their  parents. — 3.  It  is  fit  that, 
while  the  parents  are  living,  and  the  use 
of  their  understanding  continued,  their 
children  should  not  ordinarily  under- 
take any  matter  of  great  importance, 
without  advising  with  them,  or  without 
very  cogent  reasons  pursue  it  contrary 
to  their  consent. — 4.  As  young  people 
need  some  guidance  and  govenimeut  in 
their  minority,  and  as  there  is  some  pe- 
culiar reason  to  trust  the  pi-udence,care, 
and  affection  of  a  parent,  preferable  to 
anv  other  person,  it  is  reasonable  that 
children,  especially  v/hile  in  tlieir  niimv 
rity,  shoidd  obey  their  parents;  without 
which  neither  the  order  of  families,  nor 
the  happiness  of  the  rising  generation 
could  be  secured:  nevertheless, still  sup- 
posing that  the  commands  of  tlie  parent 
are  not  inconsistent  with  the  will  of 
Gotl. — 5.  Virtiue  requires  tliat,if  parents 


come  to  want,  children  should  take  care 
to  fiirnish  them  with  the  necessaries  of 
life,  and,  so  far  as  their  ability  will  per- 
mit, with  the  conveniences  of  it."  Dod- 
dr-idge^s  Lectures,  p.  241.  vol.  i.  Paley's 
Mor.  Phil.  V- 572.  vol.  i. 

CHOREPISCOPI  (ttis  xuqas  tirtsnonsi, 

bishops  of  the  coimtry.)  In  the  ancient 
church,  when  the  dioceses  became  en- 
larged by  the  conversions  of  pagans  in  |j 
the  country,  and  \-illages  at  a  great  dis-  ■ 
tance  from  the  city  church,  the  bishops 
appointed  themseh'es  certain  assistants, 
whom  thev  called  Chore/iisco/2i,because 
by  their  office  they  were  bishops  of  the 
country.  There  have  been  gi-eat  dis- 
putes among  the  learned  concerning 
this  order,  some  thinking  that  they 
were  mere  pi-esbyters ;  others  that 
there  were  two  sorts,  some  that  had  re- 
ceived episcopal  ordination,  and  some 
that  were  presbyters  only ;  others  think 
that  they  were  all  bishops. 

CHRISM,  oil  consecrated  by  the 
bishop,  and  used  in  the  Romish  and 
Greek  churches  m  the  administration 
of  baptism,  confirmation,  ordination,  and 
extreme  unction. 

CHRIST,  the  Lord  and  Saviour  of 
mankind.  He  is  called  Christ,  or  Mes- 
siah, because  he  is  anointed,  sent,  and 
furnished  by  God  to  execute  his  media- 
torial office.    See  Jesus  Christ. 

CHRISTIAN,  by  Dr.  Johnson,  is 
defined,  "  a  professor  of  the  religion  of 
Chiist ;"  but  in  reality  a  Christian  is 
more  than  a  professor  of  Christianity. 
He  is  one  who  imbibes  the  spirit,  parti- 
cipates the  grace,  and  is  obedient  to  the 
will  of  Christ. 

The  disciples  and  followers  of  Christ 
were  first  denominated  Christians  at 
Antioch,  A.  D.  42.  The  first  Christians 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  most 
remai'kable  manner,  by  their  conduct 
and  their  virtues.  The  faithful,  whom 
the  preaching  of  St.  Peter  had  couAert- 
ed,  hearkened  attentively  to  the  exhor- 
tations of  the  apostles,  who  failed  not 
carefully  to  instruct  them  as  persons 
who  were  entering  upon  an  entire  new 
life.  They  attended  the  temjjle  daily, 
doing  nothing  different  from  the  other 
Jews,  because  it  was  yet  not  time  to  se- 
parate fiom  them.  But  they  made  a  still 
greater  progress  in  ^irtue;  for  they  sold 
all  that  they  possessed,  and  distributed 
their  goods  to  the  wants  of  their  breth- 
ren. The  primitive  Christians  were  not 
only  remarkable  for  tlie  consistency  of 
their  conduct,  but  were  also  \  ery  emi- 
nently distinguished  by  the  many  mira- 
cidous  gifts  and  gi-aces  bestowed  by 
God  upon  tlicm. 

The  Jews  were  the  first  and  the  most 


CIIR 


87 


cim 


inveterate  enemies  the  Christiiins  had. 
Thev  put  them  to  deuth  as  often  as  they  : 
had  It  in  their  power ;  and  when  they 
revolted  against  the  Romans,  in  the  time 
of  the  emperor  Adrian,  Burchoehebas, 
who  was  at  the  head  of  tliat  revolt,  em- 
ployed against  the  Christians  the  most 
rigorous  punishments  to  compel  them 
to  blaspheme  and  renounce  Jesus  Christ. 
And  we  find  that  even  in  the  third  cen- 
tury thev  endeavoured  to  get  into  tlieir 
hands  Christian  women,  in  order  to 
scourge  and  stone  them  in  their  syna- 
gogues. They  cursed  the  Christians 
tiiree  times  a  day  in  their  synagogues ; 
and  their  rabbins  would  not  suffer  them 
to  converse  witli  Christians  upon  any 
occasion ;  nor  were  they  contented  to 
hate  and  detest  them,  but  they  dispatch- 
ed emissaries  all  over  the  world  to  de- 
fame the  Christians  and  spread  all  sorts 
of  calumnies  against  them.  They  ac- 
cused them  among  other  things,  of  wor- 
shipping the  sun,  and  the  head  of  an 
ass ;  they  reproached  them  with  idle- 
ness, and  being  a  useless  set  of  people. 
They  charged  them  with  treason,  and 
endeavouring  to  erect  a  new  monarchy 
against  that  of  the  Romans.  They  af- 
firmed that  in  celebrating  their  mvste- 
ries,  they  used  to  kill  a  child,  and  eat 
his  flesh.  Thev  accused  them  of  the 
most  shocking  incests,  and  of  intempe- 
rance in  their  feasts  of  charity.  But  the 
lives  and  behaviour  of  the  first  Chris- 
tians were  sufficient  to  refute  all  that 
was  said  against  them,  and  evidentlv  de- 
monstrated that  these  accusations  were 
mere  calumny,  and  the  effect  of  invete- 
rate malice.  Plinv  the  Younger,  who 
was  governor  of  Pontus  and  Bithynia 
between  the  years  103  and  105,  gives  a 
very  particular  account  of  the  Chris- 
tian's in  that  province,  in  a  letter  which 
he  wrote  to  the  emperor  Trajan,  of 
which  the  following  is  an  extract:  "I 
take  the  liberty,  Sir,  to  give  you  an  ac- 
count of  every  difficulty  which  arises  to 
me :  I  had  never  been  present  at  the 
examinations  of  the  Christians;  for 
which  reason  I  know  not  what  questions 
have  been  put  to  them,  nor  in  what 
manner  they  have  been  punished.  Mv 
behaviour  towai-ds  those  who  have  been 
accused  to  me  has  been  this ;  I  have 
inten-ogated  them,  in  order  to  know 
whether  they  were  reallv  Christians. 
When  they  have  confessed  it,  I  have  re- 
peated the  same  question  two  or  three 
times,  threatening  them  with  death  if 
they  did  not  renounce  this  religion. 
Those  who  have  persisted  in  their  con- 
fession have  been  by  my  order  led  to 
Sunishment.  I  have  even'met  with  some 
.Oman  citizens  guilty  of  this  phrenzy, 


whom,  In  regard  to  their  quality,  I  have 
set  apart  fifun  the  rest,  in  order  to  send 
them  to  Rome.  These  persons  declare 
that  their  whole  crime,  if  they  are  guil- 
ty, consists  in  this :  That  on  certain  days 
they  assemble  before  sun-rise,  to  sin^ 
alternately  the  praises  of  Christ,  as  ot 
Ciod ;  and  to  oblige  themselves,  by  the 
performance  of  their  religious  rites,  not 
to  be  guilty  of  theft  or  aduiteiy,  to  ob- 
serve in\iolably  their  word,  and  to  be 
true  to  their  ti-ust.  This  disposition  has 
obliged  me  to  endeavour  to  inform  my- 
self still  farther  of  this  matter,  by  jnit- 
ting  to  the  tortui-e  two  of  their  women 
servants,  whom  they  called  deaconesses ; 
but  I  could  learn  nothing  more  from 
them  than  that  the  superstition  of  these 
people  is  as  ridiculous  as  their  attach- 
ment to  it  is  astonishing." 

It  is  easy  to  discover  the  cause  of  the 
many  persecutions  to  which  the  Chris- 
tians were  exposed  during  the  first  three 
centuries.  1  he  purity  of  the  Christian 
morality,  directly  opposite  to  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  pagans,  was  doubtless  one 
of  the  most  poweiiiil  motives  of  the  pub- 
lic aversion.  To  this  may  be  added  the 
many  calumnies  unjustly  spread  about 
concerning  them  by  their  enemies,  par- 
ticularly the  Jews ;  and  this  occasioned 
so  strong  a  prejudice  against  them,  that 
the  pagans  condemned  them  without  en- 
quiring into  their  doctrine,  or  permitting 
them  to  defend  themselves.  Besides, 
their  vv"orshipping  Jesus  Christ  as  God, 
was  conti-ary  to  one  of  the  most  ancient 
laws  of  the  Roman  empire,  which  ex- 
pressly forbade  the  acknowledging  of 
any  God  which  had  not  been  approved 
of  by  the  senate.  But,  notwithstanding 
the  violent  opposition  made  to  the  esta- 
blishment ot  the  Christian  religion,  it 
gained  gi-ound  daily  and  \eiy  soon  made 
surprising  progress  in  the  Roman  em- 
pire. In  the  third  centuiy  there  were 
Christians  in  the  senate,  in  the  camp,  in 
the  palace ;  in  short  exeTV  where  but  iiv 
the  temple  and  the  theatres ;  they  filled 
the  towns,  the  countiy,  the  islands.  Men 
and  women  of  all  ages  and  conditions,  and 
even  those  of  the  first  dignities,  embra- 
ced the  faith ;  insomuch  that  the  pagaiis 
complained  that  the  revenues  of  their 
temples  were  i-uined.  They  were  in  .suc'n 
great  numbers  in  the  empire,  that  (as 
TertuUian  expresses  it)  %vere  they  t>> 
have  retired  into  another  country,  they 
would  have  left  the  Romans  only  afright- 
ful  solitude.  For  persecutions  of  th.» 
j|  Christians,  see  article  Persecution. 
I  Christians  mav  be  considered  as  tzowi/- 
ij  7ial  and  real.  There  are  vast  number^ 
I!  who  are  called  Christians,  not  because 
ij  they  possess  any  love  for  Christ,  but 


GHR 


'ss 


CHR 


because  they  happen  to  be  born  in  a 
Christian  counti'v,  educated  by  Chris- 
tian parents,  and  sometimes  attend 
Christian  worship.  There  are  also 
majiy  whose  minds  are  well  informed 
respecting  the  Christian  system,  who 
prefer  it  to  every  other,  and  who  make 
an  open  profession  of  it ;  and  yet,  after 
all,  feel  but  little  of  the  real  power  of 
Christianity.  A  real  Christian  is  one 
whose  understanding  is  enlightened  by 
the  influences  of  divine  gi-ace,  who  is 
convinced  of  the  depravity  of  his  nature, 
who  sees  his  own  inability  to  help  him- 
self, who  is  taught  to  behold  God  as  the 
chief  good,  the  Lord  Jesus  as  the  only 
way  to  obtain  felicity,  and  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  is  the  grand  agent  in  apphing  the 
blessings  of  the  Gospel  to  his  soul.  His 
heart  is  renovated,  and  inclined  to  re- 
vere, lionour,  worship,  trust  in,  and  live  to 
God.  His  affections  are  elevated  above 
the  world,  and  centre  in  God  alone.  He 
embraces  him  as  his  portion,  loves  him 
supremely,  and  is  zealous  in  the  defence 
and  support  of  his  cause.  His  temper 
is  regulated,  his  powers  i-oused  to  vigo- 
i*ous  action,  his  thoughts  spiritual,  and 
his  general  deportment  amiable  and 
uniform.  In  fine,  the  true  Christian 
character  exceeds  all  others  as  much  as 
the  blaze  of  the  meridian  sun  outshines 
the  feeble  light  of  the  glow-worm. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  JOHN,  a 
sect  of  Christians  very  numerous  in  Bal- 
fara,  and  the  neighbouring  towns  :  they 
formerly  inhabited  along  tlie  river  Jor- 
dan, where  St.  John  ba]itized,  and  it  was 
from  thence  they  had  their  name.  They 
hold  an  anniversary  feast  of  five  days, 
during  which  they  all  go  to  the  bishop, 
who  baptizes  them  with  the  baptism  of 
St.  John.  Their  baptism  is  also  per- 
formed in  rivers,  and  that  only  on  Sun- 
daj's:  they  have  no  notion  of  the  third 
person  in  the  Trinity ;  nor  have  they 
any  canonical  book,  but  abundance  full 
of  charms,  8cc.  Their  bishoprics  de- 
scend by  inheritance  as  our  estates  do, 
though  they  have  the  ceremony  of  an 
election. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS, 
a  sort  of  Christians  in  a  peninsula  of 
India  on  this  side  the  gulf;  they  inhabit 
chiefly  at  Cranganor,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring country ;  these  admit  of  no 
images,  and  receive  only  the  cross,  to 
which  they  pay  a  great  veneration. 
They  affirm,  that  the  souls  of  the  saints 
do  not  sec  God  till  after  the  day  of  judg- 
ment ;  they  acknowledge  but  three  sa- 
craments, viz.  baptism,  orders,  and  the 
eucharist ;  they  make  no  use  of  holy 
oils  in  the  administration  of  ba])lism,  but 
after  the  ceremony,  anoint  the  infant 


with  an  vmction  composed  of  oil  and 
walnuts,  wit4iont  any  benediction.  In 
the  eucharist  they  consecrate  with  little 
cakes  made  of  oil  and  salt,  and  instead 
of  wine  make  use  of  water  in  which 
raisins  have  been  infused. 

In  the  Asiatic  Researches  of  the  So- 
ciety instituted  in  Bengal,  may  be  found 
an  enlarged  account  of  the  Christians  of 
St.  Thomas,  which  was  laid  before  that 
society  by  F.  Wrede,  Esq.  See  also 
Monthly  Magazine  for  1804,  p.  60.  and 
Dr.  Kerr's  Report  to  Lord  Bentick,  on 
the  state  of  the  Christians  inhabiting 
the  kingdom  of  Cochin  and  Travan- 
core.     hvang.  Mag.  1807.  p.  473. 

CHRISTIANI'IT,  the  religion  of 
Christians. 

I.  Christianity,  foundation  of. 
Most,  if  not  all  Christians,  whatever 
their  particular  tenets  may  be,  acknow- 
ledge the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  as  the  sole  foundation 
of  their  faith  and  practice.  But  as  these 
books,  or  at  least  particular  passag'es  in 
them,  have  from  the  ambiguity  of  lan- 
guage been  variously  interpreted  by  dif- 
ferent commentators,  these  diversities 
have  given  birth  to  a  multiplicity  of  dif- 
ferent sects.  These,  however,  or  at 
least  the  greatest  number  of  them,  ap- 
peal to  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  as  the  ullimate  stan- 
dard, the  only  infallible  rule  of  faith  and 
manners.  If  asked  by  what  authority 
these  books  claim  an  absolute  right  to 
determine  the  consciences  and  under- 
standings of  men  with  regard  to  what 
they  should  believe,  and  what  they 
should  do,  they  answer,  that  all  Scrip- 
ture, whether  for  doctrine,  coirection 
or  rejiroof,  was  gi\'en  by  immediate  in- 
spiration from  God.  If  again  interroga- 
ted how  those  books  which  they  call 
Sc7i/iture  are  authenticated,  they  reply, 
that  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  are 
proved  to  be  the  word  of  (iod,  by  evi- 
dences both  external  and  inteiTial.  Sec 
§  2.  and  article  Revel.^tion. 

II.  Christianity,  evidences  of  the 
truth  of  The  external  evidences  of  the 
authen'ticity  and  divine  authority  of  the 
Scriptures  have  been  divided  into  direct 
and  collateral.  The  direct  evidences 
are  such  as  arise  from  the  nature,  coi: 
sistency,  and  probabilitv  of  tire  fact^^, 
and  from  the  simplicity,  uniformity , 
competency,  and  fidelity  of  the  testimo- 
nies by  which  they  are  supported.  Th'- 
collateral  evidences  are  either  the  saiir. 
occurrences  supported  by  heathen  tes- 
timonies, or  others  which  concur  with 
and  corroborate  the  history  of  Chris- 
tianity, its  internal  evidences  arise 
either  from  its  exact  conformity  with 


CHR 


S9 


CHR 


the  character  of  Goil,  from  its  aptitude 
to  the  frame  and  circumstances  of  man, 
or  from  those  supeniatural  convictions 
and  assistances  which  are  impressed  on 
the  mind  bv  the  immediate  operation  of 
the  Divine  Spirit.  We  sh:Jl  here  chiefly 
follow  Dr.  Doddridge,  and  endeavour  to 
gi\e  some  of  the  chief  evidences  which 
iiave  been  brought  forwarJ,  and  which 
every  unprejudiced  mind  must  confess 
are  unanswerable. 

First.  Taking  the  matter  merely  in 
theory,  it  will  appear  highly  probable 
that  such  a  system  as  the  Gospel  should 
be,  indeed,  a  divine  revelation. 

1.  The  case  of  mankind  is  naturally 
such  as  to  need  a  divine  revelation,  1 
John  v.  19.  Rom.  i.  Eph.  iv. — 2.  There 
is  from  the  light  of  nature  considerable 
encouragement  to  hope  that  God  would 
favour  his  creatures  with  so  needful  a 
blessing  as  a  revelation  appeal's. — 3. 
We  may  easily  conclude,  that  if  a  re- 
velation were  given,  it  would  be  intro- 
duced and  transmitted  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  Christianity  is  said  to  have  been. 
— 4.  That  the  main  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel  are  of  such  a  nature  as  we  might 
in  general  suppose  those  of  a  divine  re- 
velation would  be ;  rational,  pi-actical, 
and  sublime,  Heb.  xi.  6.  Mark  xii.  20. 
1  Tim.  ii.  5.  Matt.  v.  48.  Matt.  x.  29, 
30.  Philippians  iv.  8.  Romans  ii.  6,  40. 

Secondly.  It  is,  in  fact,  certain  that 
Christianity  is  indeed,  a  divine  revela- 
tion; for,  I.  The  books  of  the  .Ve^v  Tes- 
tamenf,  now  in  our  hands,  tvere  ivriiten 
by  the  first  preachers  and  p.ubli§fiers  of 
Christianity.    In  proof  of  this,  observe, 

I.  That  it  is  certain  that  Christianity  is 
not  a  new  religion,  bvit  that  it  was  main- 
tained by  great  multitudes  quickly  after 
the  time  in  wliich  Jesus  is  said  to  have 
appeared. — 2.  That  there  was  certainly 
such  a  person  as  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  wlio 
was  cmciiied  at  Jerusalem,  when  Pon- 
tius Pilate  VN'as  governor  there. — 3.  The 
first  publishers  of  this  religion  wrote 
books  which  contained  an  account  of 
the  life  and  doctrine  of  Jesus,  their  mas- 
ter, and  which  went  by  the  name  of  those 
that  now  make  up  our  New  Testament. 
— 4.  That  the  books  of  the  Ncav  Tes- 
tanient  have  been  preserved,  in  the 
main,  uncoiTupted  to  the  present  time, 
in  the  original  language  in  which  they 
were  written.— 5.  That  the  ti-anslatioii 
of  them  now  m  our  hands  may  be  de- 
pended upon  as,  m  all  things  most  ma- 
terial, agi-eeable  to  the  original.    Now, 

II.  From  allowing- the  Al-w  Testament  to 
he  genuine,  accoraine  to  the  above  proof, 
it  will  certainly  follow  That  Christianity 
is  a  divine  revelation ;  for,  in  the  first 
place,  it  is  exceedingly  e\  ident  that  the 


writers  of  the  New  Testament  certainlv 
knew  whether  the  facts  were  ti-ue  or 
false.    John  i.  3.  Jolui  xix.  27,  35.    Acts 
i,  xx\  ii.  7,  9. — 2.    That  the  character  of 
!  these  writei's,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  by 
their  works,  seems  to  render  them  wor- 
ii  thy  of  regard,  aiid  leaves  no  room  to 
;  imagine  they  intended  to   deceive   u.s. 
i  The   manner  in  which  they  tell  their 
I'  story  is  most  happily  adapted  to  gain 
I!  our  belief.    There  is  no  air  of  declama- 
tion and  harangiie ;  nothing  that  looks 
;'  like  artifice  and  design :  no  apologies, 
j  no  encomiums,  no   characters,  no  re- 
i  flections,  no  digressions ;  but  the  facts 
I  are  recounted  with  great  simplicity,  just 
:■  as  thev  seem  to  have  happened ;  and 
l|  those  facts  are  left  to  speak  for  them- 
!'  selves. — Their  integi'ity   likewise   evi- 

I  dently  appears  in  the  freedom  with 
''  which  they  mention  those  circumstances 
|l  which  might  have  exposed  their  Master 
I;  and  themselves  to  the  greatest  contempt 
i  amongst  prejudiced  and  inconsiderate 
''.'  men,  such  as  they  knew  they  must  ge- 
'  nerally  expect  to  meet  with.   John  i.  45, 

II  46.  John  vii.  52.  Luke  ii.  4,  7.  Mark 
:i  vi.  3.  Matt.  viii.  20.  John  vii.  48.  It  is 
i  certain  that  there  are  m  their  writings 
i'  the  m.ost  genuine  traces  not  only  of  a 
I  plain  and  honest,  but  a  most  pious  and 
j;  devout,  a  most  benevolent  and  generous 
1:  disposition,  as  every  one  must  acknow- 

I  ledge  who  reads  their  writings. — 3.  The 

II  apostles  were  under  no  temptation  to 
j'  forge  a  stoiy  of  this  kind,  or  to  publish 
1  it  to  the  world  knowing  it  to  be  talse. — 
j  4.  Had  they  done  so,  humanly  speaking, 

they  must  quickbr  have  perished  in  it, 
I  and  their  fooli^5h  cause  must  have  died 
!i  with  them,  without  ever  gaining  any 
I  credit  in  the  world.  Reflect  more  par- 
''  ticularly  on  the  nature  of  those  gi-and 
j  facts,. the  death,  resurrection,  and  exal- 
;  tation  of  Christ,  which  formed  the  gi-eat 
:  foundation  of  the  Christian  scheme,  as 
I  first  exhilDited  by  the  apostles.  The 
j  resun-ection  of  a  dead  man,  and  his  as- 
/  cension  into  an  aljode  in  the  upper 
i  world,  wei"e  such  strange  things,  that  a 
Ij  thousand  objections  would  immediately 
1|  have  been  raised  against  them ;  and 
I  some  extraordinary  proof  would  have 
!  been  justly  required  as  a  balance  to 
j  them.  Consider  the  manner  in  which 
jl  the  apostles  undertook  to  prove  the 
j  truth  of  their  testimony  to  these  facts; 

and  it  will  evidently  appear,  that,  in- 
I  stead  of  confirming  then-  scheme,  it 
!|  must  have  been  sufficient  utterly  to  have 
■  overthrown  it,  had  it  been  itself  the 
|i  most  probable  imposture  that  the  wit  of 
j  man  could  ever  have  contrived.  See 
'  Acts  iii.  ix.  xiv.  xix.  &C.  They  did  not 
;'  merely  assert  that  thev  had  seen  miia- 
M 


CHR 


90 


CHR 


cles  wrought  b}'  Jesus,  but  that  he  had 
endowed  them  with  a  variety  of  mira- 
culous powers ;  and  these  they  under- 
took to  display  not  in  such  idle  and  use- 
less tricks  as  slight  of  hand  might  per- 
foiTn,  but  in  such  solid  and  important 
works  as  appeared  worthy  of  divine 
interposition,  and  entirely  superior  to 
human  power.  Nor  were  these  things 
undertaken  in  a  corner,  in  a  circle  of 
friends  or  dependants;  nor  were  they 
said  to  be  wrought,  as  might  be  sus- 
pected, by  any  confederates  in  the 
fraud  ;  but  they  were  done  often  in  the 
most  public  manner.  Would  impostors 
liave  made  such  pretensions  as  these  i* 
or,  if  they  had,  must  they  not  imme- 
diately have  been  exposed  and  ruined  ? 
Now,  if  the  New  Testament  be  genuine, 
then  it  is  certain  that  the  apostles  pre- 
tend to  have  wroug-ht  miracles  in  the 
very  presence  of  tliose  to  whom  their, 
writings  were  addressed;  nay,  more, 
th.ey  profess  likewise  to  have  conferred 
those  miraculous  gifts  in  some  consi- 
derable degrees  on  others,  even  on  the 
very  persons  to  whom  they  wi'ite,  and 
they  appeal  to  their  consciences  as  to 
the  truth  of  it.  And  could  there  possilily 
be  room  for  delusion  here  ? — 5.  It  is 
likewise  certain  that  the  apostles  did 
gain  early  credit,  and  succeeded  in  a 
most  wonderful  manner.  This  is  abun- 
dantly proved  by  the  vast  number  of 
churches  established  in  early  ages  at 
Rome,  Corinth,  Ephesus,  Collosse,  &c. 
&c.  &c. — 6.  That,  admitting  the  facts 
which  they  testified  concerning  Christ 
to  be  true,  then  it  was  reasonable  for 
their  contemporaries,  and  is  reasonable 
for  us,  to  receive  the  Gospel  which  they 
have  transmitted  to  us  as  a  divine  reve- 
lation.  The  great  thing  thev  asserted 
was,  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  and  tliat 
he  was  proved  to  be  so  by  prophecies 
accomplished  in  him,  and  by  miracles 
wrought  by  him,  and  by  others  in  his 
name.  If  we  attend  to  "these,  we  shall 
find  them  to  be  no  contemptible  argu- 
ments ;  but  must  be  forced  to  acknow- 
ledge, that,  the  premises  being  esta- 
blished, the  conclusion  most  easily  and 
necessarily  follows;  and  this  conclusion, 
tliat  Jesus  is  tlie  Christ,  taken  in  all  its 
extent,  is  an  aljstract  of  the  Gospel  re- 
velation, and  therefore  is  sometimes  put 
for  the  whole  of  it.  Acts  viii.  37.  Acts 
xvii.  18.  See  Articles  Miracle  and 
Prophecy. — 7.  The  truth  of  the  Gos- 
pel has  also  received  farther  and  very 
considerable  confirmation  from  what  has 
happened  in  fhe  world  since  it  was  first 
published.  And  here  we  must  desire 
every  one  to  consider  what  Ciod  has 
been  doing  to  confirm  the  Gospel  since 


its  first  publication,  and  he  will  find  it  a 
farther  evidence  of  its  Divine  original. 
We  might  argue  at  lai'ge  from  its  sur- 
prising propagation  in  the  world ;  from 
the  miraculous  powers  with  which  not 
only  the  apostles,  but  succeeding  preach- 
ers of  the  Gospel,  and  other  converts, 
were  endowed ;  from  the  accomplish- 
ment of  prophecies  recorded  in  the  New 
Testament ;  and  from  the  presei-vation 
of  the  Jews  as  a  distinct  people,  notwith- 
standing the  various  difficulties  and 
persecutions  through  which  tb.ey  have 
passed.  We  must  not,  howeveis  forget 
to  mention  the  confirmation  it  receives 
from  the  methods  which  its  enemies 
have  taken  to  destroy  it ;  and  these  have 
generally  been  either  persecution  or 
falsehood,  or  cavilling  at  some  particu- 
lars in  revelation,  without  entering  into 
the  grand  argument  on  which  it  is  built, 
and  fairly  debating  what  is  offered  in  its 
defence.  The  cause  has  gained  con- 
siderably by  the  opposition  made  to  it : 
the  more  it  has  been  tried,  the  more  it 
has  been  approAed :  and  Ave  are  bold  to 
say  no  honest  man,  unfettered  by  preju- 
dice, can  examine  this  system  in  all  its 
parts,  without  being  convinced  that  its 
origin  is  divine. 

III.  Christianity,  j^eueral  doc' 
trines  of.  "It  must  be  obvious,"  says  an 
ingenious  author,  "to  every  reflecting 
mind,  that,  whether  Ave  attempt  to  form 
the  idea  of  any  religion  a  priori,  or  con- 
template those  which  have  already  been 
exhibited,  certain  facts,  principles,  or 
data,  must  oe  pre-established ;  from 
Avhcnce  Avill  result  a  particular  frame 
of  mind  and  course  of  action  suitable  to 
the  character  and  dignity  of  that  Being 
by  Avhom  the  religion  is  enjoined,  and 
adapted  to  the  nature  and  situation  of 
those  agents,  Avho  are  commanded  to 
o])serve  it.  Hence  Christianity  may  be 
divided  into  credenda  or  doctrines,  and 
as^eiida  or  precepts.  As  the  great  foun- 
dation of  his  religion,  therefore,  the 
Christian  believes  the  existence  and 
government  of  one  eternal  and  infinite 
Essence,  Avhich  for  ever  retains  in  itself 
the  cause  of  its  OAvn  existence,  and  in- 
herently possesses  all  those  pei'fections 
Avliich  are  compatible  Avith  its  nature; 
sucli  are  its  ahnightv  poAver,  omniscient 
Avisdom,  infinite  justice,  boundless  good- 
ness, and  universal  presence.  In  this 
indivisible  essence  the  Christian  recog- 
nises three  distinct  subsistences,  yet  dis- 
tinguished in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  be 
incompatible  eitlier  Avith  essential  unit\ , 
or  simplicity  of  being,  or  with  tlieir 
personal  distinction  ;  each  of  them  pos- 
sesses the  same  nature  and  properties 
to  the  same  extent.   This  infinite  Beins 


CHR 


91 


CIIR 


\vas  graciously  pleased  to  create  an  uni- 
\erse  replete  with  intcUi;jjences,  who 
might  enjoy  his  s^oiW,  participate  his 
liappiness,  and  imitate  his  perfections. 
But  as  these  beings  were  not  immutable, 
but  left  to  the  freedom  of  their  own 
will,  degeneracy  took  place,  and  that  in 
a  rank  of  intelligence  superior  to  man. 
But  guilt  is  never  stationary.  Impatient 
of  itself,  and  cursed  witli  its  own  fecl- 
uigs,  it  proceeds  from  bad  to  worse, 
wiiilst  the  poignancy  of  its  torments  in- 
creases with  the  number  of  its  perpe- 
trations. Such  was  the  situation  of  Sa- 
tan andJup  apostate  angels.  They  at- 
tempted TO  transfer  their  turpitude  and 
misery  to  man,  and  were,  alas,  but  too 
successful !  Hence  the  heterogeneous 
and  irreconcilaijle  principles  which  ope- 
rate in  his  nature  ;  hence  that  inexpli- 
cable medley  of  wisdom  and  folly,  of 
rectitude  and  error,  of  benevolence  and 
malignity,  of  sincerity  and  fraud,  exhi- 
bited tlirough  his  whole  conduct ;  hence 
the  darkness  of  his  understanding,  the 
depravity  of  his  will,  the  pollution  of 
his  heart,  the  irregularity  of  his  affec- 
tions, and  the  absolute  subversion  of  his 
whole  internal  economy.  The  seeds  of 
perdition  soon  I'ipened  into  overt  acts 
of  guilt  and  horror.  All  the  hostilities  of 
nature  were  confronted,  and  the  whole 
sublunary  creation  became  a  theatre  of 
tlisorder  and  mischief.  Here  the  Chris- 
tian once  more  appeals  to  fact  and  ex- 
perience. If  these  things  are  so;  if  man 
be  the  vessel  of  guilt,  and  the  victim  of 
miseiy,  he  demands  how  this  constitu- 
tion of  things  can  be  accounted  for  ?  how 
can  it  be  supposed  that  a  being  so  wicked 
and  unhappy  should  be  the  production 
of  an  infinitely  good  and  infinitely  per- 
fect Creator  ^  He  therefore  insists  that 
human  nature  must  have  been  disar- 
ranged and  contaminated  by  some  vio- 
lent shock;  and  that,  of  consequence, 
without  the  light  diifused  over  the  face 
of  things  by  Christianity,  all  nature  must 
remain  in  inscrutable  and  inexplicable 
mystery.  To  redress  these  evils,  to  re- 
establish the  empire  of  rectitude  and 
happiness,  to  restore  the  nature  of  man 
to  Its  primitive  dignity,  to  satisfy  the  re- 
monstrances of  infinite  justice,  to  purify 
every  original  or  contracted  stain,  to 
expiate  the  guilt  and  destroy  the  power 
of  vice,  the  etemal  Son  of'  God,  from 
whom  Chi-istianity  takes  its  name,  and 
to  whom  it  owes  its  origin,  descended 
from  the  bosom  of  his  Father,  assumed 
the  human  nature,  became  the  i-epre- 
sentative  of  man ;  endured  a  severe  pro- 
bation in  that  character;  exhibited  a 
pattern  of  perfect  righteousness,  and 
at  last  ratified  his  doctripe,  and  fully  ac- 


complished all  the  ends  of  his  mission, 
by  a  cruel,  unmerited,  and  ignominious 
di:atli.  Betbre  he  left  the  world,  he 
delivered  the  doctrines  of  salvation,  and 
the  rules  of  human  conduct,  to  his  apos- 
tles, whom  he  empowered  to  instruct 
the  world  in  all  that  concerned  their 
eternal  felicity,  and  whom  he  invested 
with  miraculous  gifts  to  ascertain  the 
reality  of  what  they  taught.  To  them 
he  likewise  promised  another  comfort- 
er, even  the  Divine  Spirit,  who  should 
remove  the  darkness,  console  the  woes, 
and  purify  the  stains  of  human  nature. 
Having  remained  for  a  part  of  three 
days  under  the  power  of  death,  he  rr.se 
again  from  the  grave;  appeared  to  his 
disciples,  and  many  others ;  conversed 
with  them  for  some  time,  then  re-as- 
cended to  heaven ;  from  whence  the 
Christian  expects  him,  according  to  liis 
promise,  to  appear  as  the  Sovereign 
Judge  of'  the  living  and  the  dead,  from 
whose  awards  there  is  no  appeal,  and 
by  whose  sentence  the  destiny  of  the 
righteous  and  the  wicked  shall'be  eter- 
nally fixed.  Soon  after  his  departure 
to  the  right  hand  of  his  Father  (whei-e 
in  his  human  nature  he  sits  supreme  of 
all  created  beings,  and  invested  with  tlie 
absolute  administration  of  heaven  and 
earth,)  the  Spirit  of  grace  and  consola- 
tion descended  on  his  apostles  with  visi- 
ble signatures  of  divine  power  and  pre- 
sence. Nor  were  his  salutary  opera- 
tions confined  to  them,  but  extended  to 
all  who  did  not  by  obstinate  guilt  repel 
his  influences.  These,  indeed,  were  less 
conspicuous  than  at  the  glorious  a;ra 
when  they  were  visibly  exhibited  in  the 
persons  of  the  apostles.  But,  though 
his  energy  be  less  observalile,  it  is  by 
no  means  less  effectual  to  all  the  pur- 
poses of  grace  and  mercy.  The  Chris- 
tian is  convinced  that  there  is  and  shall 
continue  to  be  a  society  upon  earth, 
who  worship  God  as  revealed  in  Jesus 
Christ,  who  believe  his  doctrines,  who 
observe  his  precepts,  and  who  shall  be 
saved  by  the  merits  of  his  death,  in  the 
use  of  these  external  means  of  salvation 
which  he  hath  appointed.  He  also  be- 
lieves that  the  sacraments  of  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  supper,  the  inteipreta- 
tion  and  application  of  Scripture,  the 
habitual  exercise  of  public  and  private 
devotion,  are  obviously  calculated  to  dif- 
fuse and  promote  the  interests  of  tiiith 
and  religion  by  superinducing  the  salu- 
tary habits  of  faith,  love,  and  repentance. 
He  is  firmly  persuaded,  that,  at  the  con- 
summation of  all  things,  when  the  pur- 
poses of  Providence  in  the  various  revo- 
lutions of  progressive  nature  are  ac- 
complished, the  whole  human  racs;  shall 


CHR 


i)2 


CHR 


once  more  issue  from  their  graves; 
some  to  immortal  felicity  in  tlie  actual 
perception  and  enjoyment  of  their 
Creator's  pi-csence,  and  others  to  ever- 
lasting shame  and  misery." 

I'V.  Christianity,  vioralitij  midsu- 
fierioritij  of.  It  has  been  -well  observed, 
"  that  the  two  grand  principles  of  ac- 
tion, according  to  the  Christian,  ai-e  the 
love  of  God,  which  is  the  sovereign  pas- 
sion in  every  gracious  mind ;  and  the 
love  of  man,  whicli  regulates  our  ac- 
tions according  to  the  various  relations 
in  which  we  stand,  whether  to  commu- 
nities or  individuals.  This  sacred  con- 
nection ought  never  to  be  totally  extin- 
guished by  any  temporary  injury.  It 
ought  to  subsist  in  some  degree  even 
amongst  enemies.  It  requires  that  we 
should  pardon  the  offences  of  others, 
as  we  expect  pardon  for  our  own ; 
and  that  we  should  no  farther  resist 
evil  than  is  necessary  for  the  preser- 
vation of  personal  rights  and  social 
happiness.  It  dictates  every  relative 
and  reciprocal  duty  between  pai'ents 
and  children,  masters  and  servants, 
governors  and  subjects,  friends  and 
triends,  men  and  men :  nor  does  it  mere- 
ly enjoin  the  observation  of  equity,  but 
likewise  inspires  the  most  sublime  and 
extensive  charity ;  a  boundless  and  dis- 
interested effusion  of  tenderness  for  the 
whole  species,  which  feels  their  dis- 
tress, and  operates  for  their  relief  and 
improvement." 

"  Christianity,"  it  has  also  been  obser- 
ved (and  with  the  grea.test  propriety,) 
"is  superior  to  all  other  religions.  The 
disciple  of  Jesus  not  only  contends  that 
no  system  of  religion  has  ever  yet  been 
exhibited  so  consistent  with  itself,  so 
congruous  to  philosophy  and  the  com- 
mon sense  of  mankind,  as  Christianity  : 
he  likewise  avers  that  it  is  infinitely 
more  productive  of  real  consolation  than 
all  othei-  religious  or  philosophical  te- 
nets wliich  have  ever  entered  into  the 
soul,  or  been  applied  to  the  heart  of 
man.  For  what  is  death  to  that  mind 
which  considers  eternity  as  the  career 
of  its  existen.ce  ?  What  are  the  frowns 
of  men  to  him  who  claims  an  eternal 
world  as  his  inheritance  ?  What  is  the 
loss  of  friends  to  that  heart  which  feels, 
v,ith  more  than  natural  conviction,  that 
it  shall  quickly  rej(;in  them  in  a  more 
tender,  intimate,  and  permanent  inter- 
course, than  any  of  wliich  the  present 
life  is  susceptible  ?  What  are  tlie  vicis- 
situdes of  external  things  to  a  mind 
which  strongly  and  uniformly  anticipates 
a  state  of  endless  and  imnuitai)le  fel ici- 
ly j"  What  are  mortifications,  disaji- 
pointments,  and  insults,  to  a  spirit  which 


is  conscious  of  being  the  original  off- 
spring and  adopted  child  of  God :  which 
knows  that  its  omnipotent  Father  will 
in  proper  time  effectually  assert  the 
dignity  and  privileges  of  its  nature  ?  In 
a  Avord,  as  this  earth  is  but  a  speck  in 
the  creation,  as  time  is  not  an  instant 
in  proportion  to  eternity,  such  are  the 
hopes  and  prospects  of  the  Chi'istian  m 
comparison  of  every  sublunary  misfor- 
tune or  difficulty.  It  is  therefore,  in  his 
judgment,  the  eternal  wonder  of  angels, 
and  indelible  opprobrium  of  man,  that 
a  religion  so  wortliy  of  God,  so  suitable 
to  the  frame  and  circumstance*  of  our 
nature,  so  consonant  to  all  the  dictates 
of  reason,  so  friendly  to  the  dignity  and 
improvement  of  intelligent  beings,  so 
pregnant  v/ith  genuine  comfort  and  de- 
light, should  be  rejected  and  despised 
by  any  of  .the  human  race." 

V.  Christianity, /iro//«§-flA/o«  and 
success  of.  Despised  as  Christianity  has 
been  by  many,  yet  it  has  had  an  exten- 
sive progress  through  the  world,  and  still 
remains  to  be  professed  by  great  num- 
bers of  mankind ;  tliough  it  is  to  be  la- 
mented many  are  unacquainted  with  its 
genuine  influence.  It  was  early  and 
rapidly  propagated  through  the  whole 
Roman  empire,  which  then  contained 
almost  the  whole  known  world :  and 
herein  we  cannot  but  admii-e  both  the 
wisdom  and  the  power  of  God.  "Des- 
titute of  all  human  advantages,"  says  a 
good  writer,  "protected  by  no  authority, 
assisted  by  no  art;  not  recommended 
by  the  reputation  of  its  author,  not  en- 
forced by  eloquence  in  its  advocates,  the 
word  of  God  grew  mightily  and  pre- 
vailed. Twelve  men,  poor,  artless,  and 
illiterate,  we  behold  triumphing  over 
the  fiercest  and  most  determined  oppo- 
sition ;  over  the  tyranny  of  the  ma- 
gistrate, and  tlie  subtleties  of  the  philo- 
sopher; over  the  prejudices  of  the  Gen- 
tile, and  the  bigotry  of  the  Jew.  Thev 
established  a  religion  which  held  forth 
higli  and  venerable  mystei-ies,  such  as 
the  pride  of  man  would  induce  him  to 
suspect,  because  he  could  not  perfectly 
comprehend  them ;  which  preached 
doctrines  pure  and  spiritual,  such  as 
cornijjt  nature  was  prone  to  oppose,  be- 
cause it  shrunk  from  the  severity  of  tlieir 
discipline ;  which  required  its  followers 
to  renounce  almost  every  opinion  they 
had  embraced  as  sacred,  and  every  in- 
terest they  had  pursued  as  important ; 
which  even  exposed  them  to  every  spe- 
cies of  danger  and  infamy  ;  to  perse- 
cution unmerited  and  unpiticd ;  to  the 
gloom  of  a  ])rison,  and  to  the  pangs  of 
death.  Hopeless  as  this  prospect  might 
ap)jear  to  tlie  view  of  short-sighted  ma», 


CHR 


93 


CHR 


Xhe  Gospel  yet  emerged  from  the  obscu- 
rity in  which  it  was  likely  to  be  over- 
whelmed bv  the  complicated  distiesses 
of  its  friends,  and  the  unrelenting  cru- 
elty of  its  foes.  It  succeeded  in  a  pe- 
culiar degi-et,  and  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner; it  derived  that  success  from  truth, 
and  obtained  it  under  circumstances 
where  falsehood  must  have  been  de- 
tected and  crashed." 

"Although,"  says  the  elegant  Portcus, 
"  Christianity  has  not  always  been  so 
well  understood,  or  so  honestly  practi- 
sed, as  it  ought  to  ha\  e  been  ;  although 
its  spirit  has  been  often  mistaken,  and 
its  precepts  misapphed,  yet,  under  all 
tliese  disadvjiutages,  it  has  gradually 
produced  a  visible  change  in  those  points 
which  most  materially  concern  the  peace 
and  quiet  of  the  world.  Its  beneficent 
spirit  has  spread  itself  through  all  the 
(lifFerent  relations  and  modifications  of 
life,  and  communicated  its  kindly  in- 
fluence to  almost  every  public  and  pri- 
vate concern  of  mankind.  It  has  insensi- 
bly worked  itself  into  the  inmost  frame 
and  constitution  of  civil  states.  It  has 
given  a  tinge  to  the  complexion  of  their 
governments,  to  the  temper  and  admi- 
nistra.tion  of  their  laws.  It  has  restrained 
the  sjjirit  of  the  prince  and  the  madness 
of  tlie  people.  It  has  softened  the  rigour 
of  despotism,  and  tamed  the  insolence  of 
conquest.  It  has  in  some  degree  taken 
away  the  edge  of  the  sword,  and  thrown 
even  over  the  honx)rs  of  w  ar  a  veil  of 
mercy.  It  has  descended  into  families, 
has  diminished  the  pressure  of  private 
t\  ranny  ;  improved  every  domestic  en- 
dearment ;  given  tenden'iess  to  the  pa- 
rent, humanity  to  the  master,  respect 
to  superiors,  to  inferiors  ease;  so  that 
mankind  are,  upon  the  whole,  even  in  a 
temporal  view,  under  infinite  obligations 
to  the  mild  and  pacific  temper  of  the 
Gospel,  and  have  reaped  from  it  more 
substantial  worldly  benefits  than  from 
any  other  institution  upon  earth.  As  one 
proof  of  this  (among  many  others,)  con- 
sider only  the  shocking  cai-nage  made 
in  the  human  species  by  the  exposure 
of  infants,  the  gladiatorial  shows,  which 
sometimes  cost  Europe  twenty  or  thirty 
thousand  lives  in  a  month  ;  and  the  ex- 
ceedingly cruel  usage  of  slaves,  allowed 
and  practised  by  the  ancient  pagans. 
I'hese  were  not  the  accidental  and  tem- 
porary excesses  of  a  sudden  fury,  but 
were  legal  and  established,  and  con- 
stant methods  of  murdering  and  tor- 
•menting  mankind.  Had  Christianity 
done  nothing  more  than  brought  into 
disuse  (as  it  confessedly  has  done)  the 
two  former  of  these  human  customs, 
entire!}-,  and  the  latter  to  a  verj'  great 


degree,  it  had  justh^  merited  the  title 
of  the  bene-volent  religion:  but  this  is 
far  from  being  all.  Throughout  the 
more  enlightened  parts  of  Christendom 
there  prevails  a  gentleness  of  manners 
widely  different  from  the  ferocity  of  the 
most  civilized  nations  of  antiqiHty  ;  and 
that  liberahty  witlj  which  every  species 
of  distress  is  relieved,  is  a  virtue  pecu- 
liar to  the  Christian  name." 

But  we  mat  ask  farther,  what  success 
has  it  had  on  the  mind  of  man,  as  it  re- 
spects his  etenial  welfare  ?  How  many 
thousands  have  felt  its  power,  rejoiced 
in  its  benign  influence,  and  under  its  dic- 
tates been  constrained  to  devote  them- 
selves to  the  glory  and  praise  of  God? 
Bui'dencd  with  guilt,  incapable  of  find- 
ing relief  from  human  resources,  the 
mind  has  here  found  peace  unspeakable, 
in  beholding  that  sacrifice  which  alone 
could  atone  for  transgression.  Hei-e  the 
hard  and  impenitent  heart  has  been 
softened,  the  impetuous  passions  re- 
strained, the  ferocious  tempe'.-  subdued, 
powerful  prejudices  conquered,  igno-» 
I'ance  dispelled,  and  the  obstacles  to  real 
happmess  removed.  Here  the  Chris- 
tian, looking  round  on  the  glories  and 
blandishments  of  this  world,  has  been 
enabled  with  a  noble  contempt  to  de- 
spise all.  Here  death  itself,  the  king  of 
terrors,  has  lost  its  sting ;  and  the  soul, 
with  an  holy  magnanimity,  has  bonie  up 
in  the  agonies  of  a  dying  hour,  and  sweet- 
ly sung  itself  away  to  everlasting  bliss. 

In  respect  to  its  future  spread,  we 
have  reason  to  believe  that  all  nations 
shall  feel  its  happy  effects.  The  pro- 
phecies are  pregnant  with  matter  as  to 
this  belief.  It  seems  that  not  only  a  na- 
tion or  a  country,  but  the  whole  habitable 
globe,  shall  become  the  kingdom  of  our 
Lord  and  of  his  Christ :  and  who  is  there 
that  has  ever  known  the  excellency  of 
this  system ;  who  is  there  that  has  ever 
experienced  its  happy  efficacy ;  who  is 
there  that  has  e\  er  been  comanced  of 
its  divine  origin,  its  delightful  nature, 
and  peaceful  tendency,  but  what  must 
join  the  benevolent  and  royal  poet  in 
saying,  "Let  the  whole  earth  be  filled 
with  its  glory,  amen,  and  amen." 

See  article  Christiaxity  in  Enc. 
Brit.;  Pa  ley's  Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity; La'rdnei-'s  and  Mackmght's 
Credibility  of  the  Gospel  Histoi-y;  Lord 
Hailes  on  the  Injluence  of  Gibbon's  Five 
Causes  ;  E'azvcett's  Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity;  Doddridge's  ditto;  E'ell's  and 
Hunter's  Lectures  on  ditto;  Beattie's 
Evidences  of  the  Christian  Beligion; 
Soame  Jenyns's  Evidences  of  ditto; 
Whitens  Sermons ;  B/i.  Porteua's  Ser- 
mons, vol.  i.  ser.  12,  13 ;  and  his  Essay 


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'V>?  the  beneficial  Effects  of  Christianitij 
vn  the  tem/ioral  Concei'ns  of  Mankincl. 

CHRISTMAS,  the  day  on  which  the 
nativity  of  our  blessed  Saviour  is  cele- 
brated. 

The  first  footsteps  we  find  of  the  ob- 
servation of  this  day  are  in  the  second 
century,  about  the  time  of  the  Emperor 
Com  modus.  The  decretal  epistles,  in- 
deed, carry  it  up  a  little  higher,  and  say 
that  Telesphorus,  who  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Antoninus  Pius,  ordered  divine  ser- 
vice to  be  celebrated,  and  an  angelic 
hymn  to  be  sung  the  night  before  the 
nativity  of  our  Saviour.  That  it  was 
kept  before  the  time  of  Constantine  we 
have  a  melancholy  proof;  for  whilst  the 
persecution  raged  under  Dioclesian, 
who  then  kept  his  court  at  Nicomedia, 
that  tyrant,  among  other  acts  of  ciiielty, 
finding  multitudes  of  Christians  assem- 
bled together  to  celebrate  Christ's  na- 
tivity, commanded  the  church  doors 
where  they  were  met  to  be  shut,  and 
fire  to  be  pvit  to  it,  which  soon  reduced 
them   and  the  church  to  ashes.    See 

HOLYDAY. 

CHRONOLOGY,  the  science  of 
computing  and  adjusting  the  periods  of 
time,  referring  each  event  to  the  proper 
year.  We  have  not  room  here  to  pre- 
sent the  reader  with  a  system  of  chro- 
nology; but  should  he  be  desirous  of 
studying  this  science,  he  may  consult 
the  systems  of  Ciuviar,  Calvisius,  Ush- 
er, Simso7i,  Bedford,  Marshman,  Blair, 
Plaiifair,  and  Dr.  Hales. 

CHURCH.  1.  The  Greek  word 
E)(K\iiffia  denotes  an  assernbly  met  about 
business,  Avhether  lawfid  or  unlawful. 
Acts  xix.  32,  39. — 2.  It  is  understood 
of  tlie  collective  body  of  Christians,  or 
all  those  over  the  face  of  the  earth  who 
profess  to  believe  in  Christ,  and  ac- 
knowledge him  to  be  the  Saviour  of 
mankind:  this  is  called  the  visible 
church,  Eph.  iii.  21.  1  Tim.  iii.  15. 
Eph.  iv.  11, 12. — 3.  By  the  word  church, 
also,  we  are  to  understand  the  whole 
body  of  God's  chosen  people,  in  every 
period  of  time:  this  is  the  invisible 
church.  Those  on  earth  are  also  called 
the  militant,  and  those  in  heaven  the 
triumphant  church,  Heb.  xii.  23.  Acts 
XX.  28.  Eph.  i.  22.  Matt.  xvi.  28.-4. 
By  a  particular  church  we  understand 
an  assembly  of  Christians  united  to- 
gether, and  meefing  in  oneplace  for  the 
solemn  worshi]>  of  God.  To  this  agree 
the  definition  giv-en  by  the  com])ilers  of 
the  thirty-nine  articles: — "A  congrega- 
tion of  faithfiil  men,  in  which  the  truc 
word  of  Ciod  is  preached,  and  the  sacra- 
meiits  duly  administered  according  to 
Christ's  ordinances,  in  all  those  things 


that  of  necessity  are  i-equisite  to  the 
same,"  Acts  ix.  31.  Gal.  i.  2, 22.  1  Cor, 
xiv.  34.  Acts  XX.  17.  Col.  iv.  15. — ^5. 
The  word  is  now  used  also  to  denote  any 
particular  denomination  of  Christians 
distinguished  by  particular  doctrines, 
ceremonies,  &c. ;  as  the  Romish  church, 
Greek  church,  English  church,  &c. 

Congregational  church  is  so  called 
from  tneir  maintaining  that  each  con- 
gregation of  Christians  which  meet  in 
one  place  for  religious  worship  is  a  com- 
plete church,  and  'has  sufficient  power 
to  act  and  perform  e\ery  thing  relative 
to  religious  government  within  itself, 
and  is  in  no  respect  subject  or  ac- 
countable to  any  other  church.  It  does 
not  appear,  say  they,  that  the  primitive 
churches  were  national ;  they  were  not 
even  provincial ;  for,  though  there  were 
many  believers  and  professing  Chris- 
tians in  Judea,  in  Galilee,  in  Samaria,  in 
Macedonia,  in  Galatia,  and  other  pro- 
vinces, yet  we  never  read  of  a  provin- 
cial church  in  any  of  those  places.  The 
particular  societies  of  Christians  in 
these  districts  are  mentioned  in  the  plu- 
ral number,  2  Cor.  viii.  1.  Gal.  i.  2.  Acts 
ix.  31.  According  to  them,  we  find 
no  mention  made  of  diocesan  churches 
in  the  New  Testament.  In  the  days  of 
the  apostles,  bishops  were  so  far  from 
presiding  over  more  churches  than  one, 
that  sometimes  a  plurality  of  bishops 
presided  over  the  same  church.  See 
Phil.  i.  1.  Nor  do  we  find  any  mention 
made  of  parochial  churches.  Some  of 
the  inhabitants  of  a  parish  may  be  Infi- 
dels, Mahometans,  or  Jews;  but  Gos- 
pel churches  consist  of  such  as  make  an 
open  profession  of  their  faith  in  Christ, 
and  subjection  to  the  Gospel,  Rom.  i.  7. 
1  Cor.  xiv.  33.  It  seems  plain,  then,  that 
the  primitive  churches  of  Christ  were 
properly  congregational.  The  first 
church  at  Jerusalem  met  together  in 
one  place  at  the  same  time,  Acts  i.  14, 
15.  The  church  of  Antioch  did  the 
same.  Acts  xiv.  27.  The  church  of 
Corinth  the  same,  1  Cor.  xiv.  23.  The 
same  did  the  church  at  Troas,  Acts  xx. 
7.  There  was  a  church  at  Cenchrea, 
a  port  of  Corinth,  distinct  from  the 
church  in  that  city,  Rom.  xvi.  He  that 
was  a  member  of  one  church  was  not  a 
member  of  another.  The  apostle  Paul, 
writing  to  the  Colossian  society,  says— 
"  Epapliras,  who  is  one  of  you,  saluteth 
you,"  Col.  iv.  12. 

Such  a  church  is  a  body  distinguished 
from  the  ci\il  societies  of  the  world  by 
the  s])iritual  nature  and  design  of  it's 
goveriniient ;  for,  though  Christ  would 
iiave  order  kept  in  his  church,  yet  with- 
out any  coercive  force ;  a  thing  iiicon- 


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sistent  with  the  veiy  nature  of  such  a  i 
society,  whose  end  is  insti-uctioii ;  and 
a  practice  suitable  to  it,  which  can  i 
never  in  the  natui-e  of  things  be  accom-  i 
plished  bv  penal  laws  or  exteraal  coer-  1 
cion,  Isa.  xxxiii.  52.  Matt,  xxiii.  8,  10.  | 
John  xviii.  36.  Ps.  ii.  6.  2  Cor.  x.  4,  5.  [ 
'/ech.  iv.  6,  See.  j 

1.  Church  members  are   those   who, 
compose  or  belong  to  the  church.  As  to  '■ 
the  visible  church,  it  may  be  observed 
that  real  saintship  is  not  the  distinaaiish- 
ing  criterion  of  the  members  of  it.  None, 
indeed,  can   without   it   honestly  offer 
themselves  to  clmrch  fellowship ;  but 
they  cannot  be  refused  admission  for  the  |! 
mere  want  of  it;  for  1.  God  .alone  can 
judge  the  heart.  Deceivers  can  counter- 
feit saintship,  1  Sam.  xvi.  1,  7. — 2.  God 
himself  admitted  many  members  of  the 
Jewish  church  whose  hearts  were  un- 
sanctifiedj  Deut.  xxix.  3,  4, 13.   John  vi. 
70. — 3.  John  the  Baptist  and  the  apostles 
required  no  more  than  ouHvard  appear- 
ances of  faith  and  repentance  in  order 
to  baptism.  Matt.  iii.  5,  7.    Acts  ii.  28. 
viii.  13,  23. — 4.  Many  that  were  admit- 
ted members  in  the  churches  of  Judea, ! 
Corinth,  Philippi,  Laodicea,  Sardis,  &:c.  I! 
were  unreeenerated.  Acts  v.  1,  10.  viii.  j| 
13,  23.     1  Cor.  i.  11.  v.  11.    Phil.  iii.  18, ' 
19.    Rev.  iii.  5,  15,  17.-^.  Christ  com-  jj 
pares  the  Gospel  church  to  a  floor  on  j 
which  corn  and  chaff  are  mingled  tc-  ' 
gether ;  to  a  net  in  which  good  and  bad 
are  gathered,  &c.    See  Matt.  xiii.  !, 

As  to  the  real  church,  1.  The  time  - 
members  of  it  are  such  as  are  bom  1 
again. — 2.  They  come  out  from  the  ; 
world,  1  Cor.  v'i.  17. — 3.  They  openlv  i; 

Srofess  love  to  Christ,  James  ii.  14,  26.  [; 
lark  viii.  34,  8cc. — 4.  They  walk  in  all  [i 
the  ordinances  of  the  Lord  blameless.  :i 
None  but  such  are  proper  members  of  ij 
the  true  church  ;  nor  should  any  be  ad-  i 
mitted  to  any  particular  church  Avithout  !^ 
some  appearance  of  these,  at  least.  I 

2.  Church  felloivship  is  the  commu- I, 
nion  that  the  members  enjoy  one  with 
another. 

The  end  of  church  fellowship  is,  1. 
The  maintenance  and  exhibition  of  a 
system  of  sound  principles,  2  Tim.  i.  13. 

1  Tim.  vi.  3, 4.  1  Cor.  viii.  5,  6.  Heb.  ii.  j 
1.  Eph.  iv.  21.— 2.  The  support  of  the  \\ 
ordinances  of  Gospel  v.-orship  in  their  1 

Surity  and  simplicity,  Deut.  xii.  31,  32.  il 
om.  XV.  6. — 3.  The  impartial  exercise  \ 
of  church   government  and  discipline, " 
Heb.  xii.  15.  Gal.  vi.  1.  2  Tim.  ii.  24,  26. 
Tit.  iii.  10.    1  Cor.  v.    James  iii.  17. — 4. 
The  promotion  of  holiness  in  all  man- 
ner ot  convei-sation,  Phil.  i.  27.  ii.  15, 16 

2  Pet.  iii.  11.    Phil.  iv.  8. 

The  more  particular  duties  are.    1. 


Earnest  studv  to  keep  peace  and  unity, 
Eph.  iv.  3.  Phil.  ii.  2,  3.  Phil.  iii.  15, 
16. — 2.  Bearing  of  one  another's  bu'.- 
thens.  Gal.  vi.  1,  2. — 3.  Earnest  endea- 
vours to  prevent  each  otlier's  stumbling, 
iCor.  X.  2,  3.  Heb.x.  24, 27.  Rom.  xiv. 
13. — 4.  Stedfast  continuance  in  the 
faith  and  worship  of  the  (iospel.  Acts 
ii.  42. — 5.  Pi-aying  for  and  sympathizing 
with  each  other,  1  Sam.  xii.  23.  Eph. 
vi.  18. 

The  advantages  are,  1.  Peculiar  in- 
citements to  holiness,  Eccl.  iv.  11. — 
2.  There  are  some  promises  applicable 
to  none  but  those  who  attend  the  ordi- 
nances of  God,  and  hold  communion 
with  the  saints,  Ps.  xcii.  13.  Isa.  xxv.  6. 
Ps.  cxxxii.  13,  16.  Ps.  xxxvi.  8.  Jer. 
xxxi.  12. — 3.  Such  are  under  the  watch- 
ful eye  and  care  of  theii-  pastor,  Heb. 
xiii.  7. — 4.  Subject  to  the  friendly  re- 
proof or  kind  advice  of  the  saints,  1  Cor. 
xii.  25. — 5.  Their  zeal  and  love  are  ani- 
mated by  reciprocal  conversation,  Mai. 
iii.  16.  Vvo\.  xxvii.  17. — 6.  They  may 
restore  each  other  if  they  fall,  Eccl.  iv. 

10.  Gal.  vi.  1. — 7.  More  easily  promote 
the  cause,  and  spread  the  Gospel  else- 
where. 

3.  Church  ordinances  are,  1.  Reading 
of  the  Scriptures,  Neh.  ix.  3.    Acts  x^m. 

11.  Neh.  viii.  3,  4.  Luke  iv.  16.— 2- 
Preaching  and  expounding,  1  Tim.  iii.  2. 
2  Tim.  ii.  24.  Eph.  iv.  8.  Rom.  x.  15. 
Heb.  V.  4. — 3.  Hearing,  Is.  Iv.  1.  James 
i.  21.  1  Pet.  ii.  2.  1  Tim.  iv.  13. — 4. 
Pi-aver,  Ps.  v.  1, 2.   Ps.  xcv.  6.    Ps.  cxxi. 

1.    "Ps.  xxviii.  2.    Acts  xii.  12.  i.  14 5. 

Singing  of  psalms,  Ps.  xlvii.  1  to  6.  Col. 
iii.  16.  1  Cor.  xiv.  15.  Eph.  v.  19. — 6. 
Thanksgiving,  Ps.  1. 14.  Ps.  c.  James  v. 
13. — 7.  The  Lord's  supper,  1  Cor.  xi. 
23,  8cc.    Acts  XX.  7. 

Baptism  is  not  properly  a  church  or- 
dinance, since  it  ought  to  be  adminis- 
tered before  a  person  be  admitted  into 
church  fellowship.    See  Baptism. 

4.  Church  officers  are  those  appointed 
by  Christ  for  preaching  the  word,  and 
the  superintendence  of  church  affairs : 
such  are  bishops  and  deacons,  to  which 
sdme  add,  elders.    See  these  articles, 

5.  As  to  church  order  and  dixciplhie, 
it  may  be  observed,  that  eveiy  Christian 
society  formed  on  the  congregational 
plan  is  strictly  independent  of  all  othei' 
T-eligious  societies.  No  other  church, 
however  numerous  or  respectable;  no 
person  or  persons,  however  eminent  for 
authority,  abilities,  or  influence,  ha\e 
anv  right  to  assume  arbitrarv  jurisdic- 
tion over  such  a  society.  They  have 
but  one  master,  who  is  Christ.  See  Matt, 
xviii.  15,  19.  Even  the  officers  w^hicli 
Christ  has  appointed  in  his  church  have 


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tin  power  to  give  new  laws  to  it;  but 
only,  in  conjunction  with  tiie  other  mem- 
bers of  the  society,  to  execute  the  com- 
mands of  Christ.  They  have  no  do- 
minion o\er  any  man's  faith,  nor  any 
compulsive  power  over  the  consciences 
of  any.  Every  particular  church  has  a 
right  to  judge  of  the  fitness  of  those 
who  offer  themselves  as  members,  Acts 
ix.  26.  If  they  are  found  to  be  proper 
persons,  they  must  then  be  admitted; 
and  this  should  always  be  followed  with 
jirayer,  and  Avith  a  solemn  exhortation 
to  the  persons  received.  If  any  mem- 
ber walk  disorderly,  and  continue  to  do 
so,  the  church  is  empowered  to  exclude 
him,  1  Cor.  v.  7.  2  Thess.  iii.  6.  Rom. 
xvi.  17.  which  should  be  done  with  the 
greatest  tenderness;  but  if  evident  signs 
of  repentance  should  be  disco\-ered, 
such  must  be  received  again,  Gal.  vi.  1. 
This  and  other  church  business  is  gene- 
rally done  on  some  day  preceding  the 
sabbath  on  which  the  ordinance  is  ad- 
ministered. 

See  art.  Excommunication  ;  Dr. 
Oiven  on  the  .Yature  of  a  Gospel  Church 
find  its  Goi'ernment ;  Watts's  Rational 
Foundation  of  a  Chr^istian  Church; 
Turner^s  Compe?idium  of  Sac.  Rel.; 
Faivcett's  Constitution  and  Order  of  a 
Gospel  Church;  Wutts's  Jl'orks,  sei". 
53.  vol.  i. ;  Goodrjin's  Works,  vol.  iv. ; 
Fuller's  Remarks  on  the  Discipline  of 
the  Primitive  Churches ;  and  Bi^yson's 
Compendious  ■Vieiv. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND,  is  the 
church  established  by  law  in  this  king- 
dom. 

When  and  by  whom  Christianity  was 
first  introduced  into  Britain  cannot  per- 
haps be  exactly  ascertained.  Eusebius, 
indeed,  positi\x-ly  declares  that  it  was 
by  the  apostles  and  their  disciples.  It  is 
also  said  that  numbers  of  persons  pro- 
fessed the  Chi'istian  faith  here  about  the 
year  150;  and  according  to  Usher,  there 
was  in  tlie  year  182  a  school  of  learn- 
ing, to  provide  the  British  churches 
with  proper  teachers.  Popery,  how- 
ever, was  established  in  England  by 
Austin  the  monk  ;  and  the  errors  of  it 
we  find  every  where  prevalent,  until 
Wickliife  was  raised  up  bv  Divine  Pro- 
vidence to  refute  them.  The  church  of 
England  remained  in  subjection  to  the 
pope  until  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 
Henry,  indeed,  in  early  life,  and  din-ing 
the  former  part  of  his  reign,  was  a 
bigotted  papist:  he  burnt  the  famous 
Tyudal  (who  made  one  of  the  first  and 
best  translations  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;)  and  wrote  in  defence  of  the 
seven  sacraments  against  Luther,  for 
which  the  >^f  •^.-  "-ive  him  tlv  f'^'"  iS 


"The  Defender  of  the  Faith."  But, 
falling  out  with  the  pope  about  his  mar- 
riage, he  took  the  government  of  eccle- 
siastical affairs  into  his  own  hand ;  and, 
having  reformed  many  abuses,  entitled 
himself  supreme  head  of  the  church. 
See  Reformation. 

The  doctrines  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land, which  are  contained  in  the  thirtv- 
nine  articles,  are  certainly  Calvinistical, 
though  this  has  been  denied  by  some 
modeiTi  writers,  especially  by  Dr.  Kip- 
ling, in  a  tract  entitled,  "  The  Articles 
of  the  Church  of  England  proved  not 
to  be  Calvinistic."  These  articles  were 
founded,  for  the  most  pait,  upon  a  body 
of  articles  compiled  and  published  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  They  were 
first  passed  in  the  convocation,  and  con- 
firmed by  I'oyal  authority  in  1562.  They 
were  afterwards  i-atified  anew  in  the 
3"ear  1571,  and  again  by  Charles  I.  The 
law  requires  a  subscription  to  these  ar- 
ticles of  all  persons  who  are  admitted 
mto  holy  orders.  In  the  course  of  the 
last  century  disputes  arose  among  the 
clergy  respecting  the  propriety  of  sub- 
scribing to  any  human  formulary  of  I'e- 
ligious  sentiments.  An  application  for 
its  removal  was  made  to  parliament,  in 
1772,  by  the  petitioning  clergy ;  and 
received  the  most  jDublic  discussion  in 
the  house  of  commons,  but  was  rejected 
in  the  house  of  lords. 

The  government  of  the  church  of 
England  is  episcopal.  The  king  is  the 
supreme  head.  There  are  t-iAO  arch- 
bishops, and  twenty-four  bishops.  The 
benefices  of  the  bishops  were  converted 
by  William  the  Conqueror  into  tempo- 
ral baronies ;  so  that  every  prelate  has 
a  seat  and  a  vote  in  the  house  of  peers. 
Dr.  Hoadley,  however,  in  a  sermon 
preached  from  this  text — "My  king- 
dom is  not  of  this  world,"  insisted  that 
the  clergy  had  no  pretensions  to  tempo- 
ral jurisdiction  ;  which  gave  rise  to  va- 
rious publications,  termed  by  way  of 
eminence,  the  Bangorian  Controversy, 
because  Hoadley  was  then  bishop  of 
Bangor.  Dr.  Wake,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbuiy,  formed  a  project  of  peace  and 
union  between  the  English  and  Galilean 
churches,  founded  upon  this  condition, 
that  each  of  the  two  communities  should 
retain  the  greatest  part  of  their  respec- 
tive and  peculiar  doctrines ;  but  tliis 
pi-oject  came  to  nothing.  In  the  cluirch 
of  England  there  are  deans,  arclidea^ 
cons,  rectors,  vicai's,  &:c. ;  for  an  account 
of  which,  see  the  respective  articles. 

The  church  of  England  has  a  public 
form  read,  called  a  Liturgy.  It  was 
composed  in  1547,  and  has  undergone 
'^^Acral   alterations,  tlic  last  of  which 


cnu 


D7 


CHU 


was  in  1661.,  Since  that  time,  several 
attempts  have  been  made  to  amend  the 
litur^v,  articles,  and  some  other  things 
relating  to  the  intcmal  governmei^t,  hut 
without  effect.  I'here  are  many  excel- 
lencies in  the  liturgy ;  and,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  most  impartial  Grotius  (who  was 
no  member  of  this  church,)  "  it  comes 
so  near  the  primiti\'e  pattern,  that  none 
of  the  reformed  churches-can  compare 
with  it."    See  Liturgy. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  inhabitants 
cf  England  axe  prof esscdly  members  of 
this  church;  but,  perhaps,  very  few 
cither  of  her  ministers  or  members 
strictly  adhere  to  the  articles  in  their 
true  sense.  Those  who  are  called  me- 
thodistic  or  evangelical  preachers  in  the 
establishment  are  allowed  to  come  the 
nearest. 

Seeil/r.  Overton's  True  Churchman  ; 
Bishoji  Jewel's  Afiology  for  the  Church 
of  England;  Abp.  Potter's  Treatise  on 
Church  Government ;  Tucker's  ditto; 
Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity ;  Pear- 
son on  the  Creed;  Burnet  07i  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles;  Bishofi  Pretty- 
man's  Elements  of  Theology;  and  Mrs. 
H.  More's  Hints  on  forming  the  Cha- 
racter of  a  young  Princess,  vol.  ii.  ch. 
37.  Onthe  subject  of  the  first  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity  into  Britain,  see  the 
1st  vol.  of  Henry's  Histoin)  of  Great 
Britain. 

CHURCHGALLIC AN,  denotes  the 
ci-devant  church  of  France  under  the 
government  of  its  respective  bishops  and 
pastors.  This  church  always  enjoyed 
ceilain  franchises  and  immunities,  not 
as  grants  from  popes,  but  as  deri^'ed  to 
her  from  her  hrst  oi'iginal,  and  which 
she  took  care  never  to  relinquish.  These 
libei-ties  depended  upon  two  maxims; 
the  first,  that  the  pope  had  no  right  to 
order  any  thing  in  which  the  temporali- 
ties and  civil  lights  of  the  kingdom  were 
concerned;  the  second,  that,  notwith- 
standing the  pope's  supremacy  was  ad- 
mitted in  cases  purely  spiritual,  yet  in 
France  his  power  was  limited  by  the 
decrees  of  ancient  councils  received  in 
that  realm. 

In  the  established  church  the  Jansen- 
ists  were  very  numerous.  The  bishop- 
rics and  prebends  Avere  entirely  in  the 
gift  of  the  king ;  and  no  other  catholic 
state,  except  Italv,  had  so  numerous  a 
clergj^  as  France.  There  were  in  this 
kingdom  eighteen  archbishops,  one  hun- 
dred and  eleven  bishops,  one  hundred 
and  sixty-six  thousand  clergymen,  and 
three  thousand  four  hundred  convents, 
containing  two  thousand  persons  devo- 
ted to  a  monastic  life. 
Since  the  repeal  of  the  edict  of  Nantz, 


the  protcstants  have  suffered  much  frojn 
persecution.  A  solemn  law,  which  did 
much  honour  to  Louis  XVI.  late  king 
of  France,  gave  to  his  non-Roman  Ca- 
tholic subjects,  as  they  were  called,  all 
the  civil  advantages  and  privileges  of 
their  Roman  Catliolic  l)i'etliren. 

The  above  statement  was  made  pre- 
viously to  the  French  revolution :  great 
alterations  have  taken  place  since  that 
period.  And  it  may  be  hiteresting  to 
those  who  have  not  the  means  of  fuller* 
information,  to  give  a  sketch  of  the 
causes  which  gave  rise  to  those  impor- 
tant events. 

It  has  been  asserted,  that  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  a  conspiracy 
was  formed  to  overthrow  Christianity, 
without  distinction  of  worship,  whether 
Protestant  or  Catholic.  Voltaire,  D'- 
Alembert,  Frederick  II.  king  of  Prus- 
sia, and  Diderot,  w^ere  at  the  head  of 
this  conspiracy.  Numerous  other  adepts 
and  secondary  agents  were  induced  to 
join  them.  These  pretended  philoso- 
phers used  every  artifice  that  impiety 
could  invent,  by  union  and  secret  cor- 
respondence, to  attack,  to  debase,  and 
annihilate  Christianity.  They  not  only 
acted  in  concert,  sparing  no  polit'cal  or 
impious  art  to  effect  the  destraction  of 
the  Christian  religion,  but  they  were 
the  instigators  and  conductors  of  those 
secondary  agents,  whom  tlicy  had  se- 
duced, and  pursued  their  plan  with  all- 
the  ardour  and  constancy  which  de- 
notes the  most  finished  conspirators. 
The  French  clergy  amounted  to  one 
j;  hundred  and  thirty  thousand,  the  higher 
ij  orders  of  whom  enjoyed  immense  re- 
venues ;  but  the  cures,  or  great  body  of 
acting  clergy,  seldom  possessed  more 
than  twenty-eight  pounds  sterling  a 
vear,  and  the  vicars  about  half  the  sum. 
The  clergy  as  a  body,  independent  of 
their  titles,  possessed  a  revenue  arising 
from  their  property  in  land,  amounting 
to  five  millions  sterling  annually  ;  at  the 
same  time  they  were  exempt  from  tax- 
ation. Before'  the  levelling  system  had 
taken  place,  the  clergy  signified  to  the 
commons  the  instvucilons  of  their  con- 
stituents, to  contribute  to  the  exigencies 
of  the  state  in  equal  proportion  witli 
the  other  citizens.  Not  contented  with 
this  offer,  the  tithes  and  revenues  of  the 
clergy  were  taken  av^-ay ;  in  lieu  of 
which,  it  was  proposed  to  grant  a  cer- 
tain stipend  to  the  different  ministers 
of  religion,  to  be  payable  by  the  nation. 
The  possessions  of  the  church  were 
then  considered  as  national  property  by 
a  decree  of  the  constituent  assembly. 
The  religious  orders,  viz.  the  commu- 
nities of  monks  and  nuns,  possessed 
■     N 


CliU 


9S 


CIIU 


imTfiense  landed  estates ;  aiul,  uftei- 
having  abolished  the  orders,  the  assem- 
bly seizcfl  the  estates  for  the  use  of  the 
nation :  the  gates  of  the  cloisters  were 
now  thrown  open.  The  next  step  of 
the  assembly  was  to  establish  Avhat  is 
called  the  civil  conalitiition  of  the  cleri^ij. 
This,  the  Roman  Catholics  assert,  was 
in  dh-ect  opposition  to  their  religion. 
But  though  opposed  witli  energetic  elo- 
quence, the  decree  passed,  and  was  soon 
after  followed  by  another,-  oliliging  the 
clergy  to  swear  to  maintain  their  civil 
constitution.  Every  artifice  which  cun- 
ning, and  el'ery  menace  which  cruelty 
could  invent,  were  used  to  induce  them 
to  take  the  oath  ;  great  numbers,  how- 
ex  er,  refused.  One  hundred  and  thirty- 
eight  bishops  and  arch-bisliops,  sixty- 
eight  curates  or  vicars,  were  on  this 
account  driven  from  their  sees  and  pa- 
rishes. Three  hundred  of  the  priests 
■were  massacred  in  one  day  in  one  city. 
All  the  other  pastors  Avho  adhered  to 
their  religion  were  either  sacrificed,  or 
banished  from  their  country,  seeking 
through  a  thousand  dangers  a  refuge 
among  foreign  nations.  A  penisal  of  the 
horrid  massacres  of  the  priests  who  re- 
fused to  take  the  oaths,  and  the  various 
forms  of  persecution  employed  by  those 
who  were  attached  to  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion, must  deeply  wound  the  feelings 
of  humanity.  Tliose  readers  who  are 
desirous  of  farther  information,  are  re- 
ferred to  Abbe  Bannii's  History  of  the 
Clergy. 

Sonie  think  that  there  -was  another 
cause  of  the  revolution,  and  which  may 
be  ti'aced  as  far  back  at  least  as  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantz  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  the  great 
body  of  French  Protestants  Avho  were 
men  of  principle,  were  either  nmrdered 
or  banished,  and  the  rest  in  a  maimer 
silenced.  The  effect  of  this  sauguinaiy 
measure  (say  they)  must  needs  be  the 
.  general  prevalence  of  infidelity.  Let 
the  religious  part  of  any  nation  be  ba- 
nished, and  a  general  spread  of  irreli- 
gion  must  necessarily  follow  :  such  were 
the  effects  in  Finance.  Through  the 
Avhole  of  the  eighteenth  century  infide- 
litv  has  been  the  fashion,  and  that  not 
only  among  the  princes  and  noblesse, 
but  even  among  the  greater  part  of  the 
bishops  and  clergy.  And  as  they  had 
united  their  influence  in  banishing  true 
religion,  and  cherishing  the  uumster 
•which  succeeded  it,  so  have  they  been 
united  in  sustaining  the  calamitous  ef- 
fects which  tliat  numster  lias  jiroduced. 
However  imiiri.iciplcd  and  cruel  the 
French  revolutionists  have  bcpn,  and 
however  much  the  suffeiers,  as  fellow- 


creatures,  are  entitled  to  our  pity  ;  yet, 
considei"ing  the  event  as  the  just  retri- 
bution of  God,  we  are  constrained  to 
say,  "  Thou  ait  righteous,  O  Lord,  who 
art,  and  wast,  and  shalt  be,  because 
thou  hast  judged  thus ;  for  they  have 
.shed  the  blood  of  saints  and  prophets, 
and  thou  hast  given  them  blood  to 
drink  ;  for  they  are  worthy." 

l"hc  Catholic  religion  is  now  again 
established,  but  with  a  toleration  of  the 
Protestants,  under  some  restriction. — 

See  tiie  Ci5/7corf/a^,  or  religious  esta- 
blisliment  of  the  French  Republic,  rati- 
fied September  10th,  1801. 

CHURCH,  GREFJv  or  EASTERN, 
comprehends  the  chuirhes  of  all  the 
countries  anciently  subject  to  the  Greek 
or  T-Lastcrn  empire,  and  through  Avhich 
their  language  was  carried ;  that  is,  all 
the  space  extended  from  Greece  to 
Mesopotamia  and  Persia,  and  thence 
into  Egvpt.  I'his  church  has  been  di- 
vided from  the  Roman  ever  since  the 
time  of  the  emperor  Phocas.  See  ar- 
ticle Greek  Church. 

CHURCH,  HIGH.  See  High 
Church. 

CHURCH  OF  IRELAND  is  the 
same  as  the  chm-ch  of  England,  and  is 
governed  by  four  ai  chbishops  and  eigh- 
teen bishops. 

CHURCH,  LATIN  or  .VESTERN, 
comprehends  all  the  churches  of  Italy, 
Portugal,  Spain,  Africa,  the  noith,  and 
all  other  countries  whither  the  Romans 
carried  their  language.  Great  Britain, 
j)art'  of  the  Netherlands,  of  German)-, 
and  of  the  north  of  E\n-ope,  have  been 
separated  from  it  almost  ever  since  the 
reformation. 

CHURCH,  REFORMED,  compre- 
hends the  whole  Protestant  churches 
in  Europe  and  America,  whether  Iai- 
theran,  Calvinistic,  Independent.  Qua- 
ker, Baptist,  or  of  any  other  denomina- 
tion who  dissent  finin  the  church  of 
Rome.  'I'he  tcnn  Reformed  is  now, 
however,  cm])loye.d  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  to  distinguish  the  Calvinists 
from  the  Lutherans. 

CHURCH,  ROMAN  CATHOLIC, 
claims  the  title  of  being  the  mother 
church,  and  is  undonlitcdly  the  most 
ancient  of  all  tlie  cst;'.l->lished  churches 
in  Christendom,  if  antiquity  be  held  as 
a  proof  of  primitive  purity.  See  Po- 
pery. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND,  esta- 
blished bv  law  in  that  kingdom,  is  pres- 
bvterian,  which  has  existed  (with  some 
iiiterriqitions  during  the  reign  of  the 
Stuarts)  e\er  since  the  time  of  John 
Knox,  when  the  voice  of  the  people 
prevailed  against  the  influence  of  the 


CJR 


99 


CJR 


croAS'n  in  getting  it  established.     Its  dor^- 
trincs  are  Cal  vinistic.  Sec  article  PuES- 

BYTFRIANS. 

CHURCHW^VRDENS,  officei-s  cho- 
sen yearly,  either  by  the  consent  of  the 
ininwter,  or  of  the  parishioners,  or  of 
both.  Their  Inisiness  is  to  look  to  the 
rliurch,  chnrch-vard,  and  to  observe 
the  behaviour  (tf  the  parishioners ;  to 
levy  a  shilling  forfeiture  on  all  such  as 
do  not  go  to  ciiurch  on  Sundays,  and  to 
keep  persons  orderly  in  church-time, 
&c. 

CHURCH-YARD,  a  piece  of  ground 
adjoining  to  the  church,  set  apart  for 
the  interment  of  the  dead.  In  the  church 
of  Rome,  church-yards  are  consecrated 
with  great  solemnity.  If  a  church-yard 
which  has  1)een  thus  consecrated  shall 
afterwards  be  polluted  by  any  hidecent 
action,  or  profaned  by  the  burial  of  an 
infidel,  an  heretic,  an  excommunicated 
or  unbuptizcd  person,  it  must  be  recon- 
ciled;  and  the  ceremony  of  the  recon^ 
ciliation  is  performed  with  the  same 
solemTiity  as  that  of  the  consecration ! 

See  CONSKCRATIOX. 

CIRCONCELLIONES,  a  species  of 
fanatics;  so  called  because  tliey  were 
continually  ramljljng  i\)und  the  houses 
in  the  country.    They  took  tlieir  rise 
among  the  Donatists,  in  the   reign  of  \ 
the  emperor  Constantine.     It  is  incre- 
dible wliat  ravages   and  ci-ueities  they 
committed    in  Africa,  through  a  long 
cries  of  years.    Thcj-   Avere  illiterate 
tvage  peasants,  who  understood  only 
tiie  Punic  langirage.    Intoxicated  with 
a  barbar'ovis  zeal,  they  renomiced  agri- 
culture, professed  continence,  and   as- 
sumed the  title  of  "  Vindicators  of  jus- 
tice, and  protc-ctors  of  the  oppressed." 
To  accomplish  their  mission,  they  en- 
franchized slaves,  scoured  the    roads, 
forced  masters  to  alight  from  their  cha- 
riots, and  nm  before  their  slaves,  whom 
they  oljliged  to  mount  in  their  place ; 
and'  discharged  debtee's,  killing  the  cre- 
tlitors  if  tliey  refused  to  cancel  their 
bonds.    But  the  chief  objects  of  their 
cruelty  were  the  Catholics,  and  espe- 
cially those  who  had  renounced  Dona- 
tism.    At  first   they   used    no    swords, 
because  God  had  forbidden  the  use  of 
one   to   Peter:   but  they  were  amied, 
with- clubs,  which  thcv  called  the  clubs  j 
oflarafl,  and  which  they  handled  in  such  | 
u  manner  as  to  break  a  man's  bones  | 
without  kilUng  him  immediately,  so  that  i 
he  languished   a  long  time,  and  then  i 
died.    When  they  took  away  a^  man's  I 
lile  at  once,  they  looked  upon  it  as  a  I 
favour.    They  became  less  scrupulous  1 
afterwards,  and  made  use  of  all  sorts  i 
of  arms.    Their  shout  was  Praise  be  to  \ 


(rod.  these  words  jn  their  months 
were  the  signal  of  slaughter  more  ter- 
rible than  the  i-oaring  of  a  lion,  'I'lu.v 
had  invented  animheard-of  punislinieiit, 
which  was  to  co\  er  witli  hme,  diluted 
with  vinegar,  the  eyes  of  those  unhap]>y 
wretches  whom  the\'  had  crushed  with 
blows  and  covered  with  wounds,  and 
to  abandrtn  them  in  that  condition. 
Never  was  a  stronger  pinof  what  hor- 
rors superstition  can  beget  in  minds 
destitute  of  knowledge  and  humanity. 
These  brutes,  who  had  made  a  vow  of 
chastity,  gaxe  themselves  up  to  wine, 
and  all  sorts  of  impurities;  nnming 
about  with  -ivonien  and  young  girls  as 
drunk  as  themsehes,  whom  they  called 
sacred  virgins,  and  who  often  carried 
proof  of  their  incontinence.  Theii' 
chief  took  the  name  of  chief  of  the 
saints.  After  having  glutted  themsehes 
with  blood,  they  turned  their  rage  u])on 
themselves,  and  sought  death  with  the 
same  fury  with  which  they  gave  it  to 
others.  Some  scrambled  up  to  the  tops 
of  rocks,  and  cast  themselves  dov.ii 
headlong  in  multitudes  ;  others  burned 
themselves,  or  threw  themselves  into 
the  sea.  Those  who  proposed  to  ac- 
quire the  title  of  mart\  rs,  published  it 
long  before ;  upon  wliich  tliey  were 
feasted  and  fattened  like  oxen  for  the 
slaughter;  after  these  preparations  they 
set  out  to  be  destroyed.  Sometimes 
they  gave  money  to  those  whom  lliey 
met,  and  threatened  to  murder  them  if 
they  did  not  make  them  martyrs.  Theo- 
doret  gives  an  accoinit  of  a  stout  young 
man,  who  meeting  with  a  troop  of  these 
fanatics,  consented  to  kill  them,  pro- 
vided he  might  bind  them  first ;  and 
having  by  this  means  put  it  out  of  their 
power  to  defend  themselves,  whipped 
them  as  long  as  he  wiis  able,  ;md  then 
left  them  tied  in  that  manner.  Thuir 
bishops  pretended  to  blame  tlieni,  but 
in  reality  made  use  of  them  to  intimi- 
date such  as  might  be  tempted  to  for- 
sake their  sect ;  they  even  honoured 
them  as  saints.  They  were  not,  ho\/- 
ever,  able  to  govern  those  furJ<uis  mon- 
sters; and  more  than  once  found  tlu-m- 
selves  under  a  necessity  of  abandoning 
them,  and  even  of  imploring  tlie  assist- 
ance of  the  secular  power  against  them. 
The  counts  l^^rsacius  and  Tauriiius  were 
employed  to  quell  them  ;  they  destroy- 
ed a  great  number  of  them,  of  whom 
the  Donatists  made  as  many  martyrs. 
Ursaoius,  who  was  a  Catholic,  and  a 
religious  man,  having  lost  his  life  in  an 
engagement  with  tlie  barbarians,  the 
Donatists  did^  not  fail  to  triumph  in  his 
death,  as  an  'effect  of  the  vengeance  of 
heaven.  Africa  was  the  Irheatrc  of  these 


CLE 


100 


CLE 


bloody  scenes  during  a,  great  pait  of  , 
Constantine's  life. 

CISTERCIANS,  a  religious  order 
founded  by  St.  Robert,  a  Benedictine, 
in  the  eleventh  century.  They  became 
so  powerful,  that  they  governed  almost 
all  Europe  both  in  spirituals  and  tem- 
porals. Cardinal  de  Vetri,  describing 
their  observances,  says,  they  neither 
wore  skins.nor  shirts,  nor  ever  ate  flesh, 
except  in  sickness ;  and  abstained  from 
fish,  eggs,  milk  and  cheese:  they  lay 
upon  straw  beds  in  tunics  and  cowls; 
they  rose  at  midnight  to  prayers ;  they 
spent  the  day  in  labour,  reading,  and 
prayers ;  and  in  all  their  exercises  ob- 
served a  continual  silence. 

CLEMENCY  denotes  much  the 
same  as  mercy.  It  is  most  generally 
used  in  speaking  of  the  forgiveness  ex- 
ercised by  princes.  It  is  the  result,  in- 
deed, of  a  disposition  which  ought  to 
be  cultivated  by  all  ranks,  though  its 
effects  cannot  be  equally  conspicuous. 

Clemency  is  not  only  the  privilege, 
the  honour,  and  the  duty  of  a  prince, 
but  it  is  also  his  security,  and  better 
than  all  his  garrisons,  forts,  and  guai'ds, 
to  preserve  himself  and  his  dominions 
in  safety.  That  prince  is  truly  I'oyal 
who  masters  himself,  looks  upon  all  in- 
juries as  below  him,  and  governs  by 
equity  and  reason,  not  by  passion  or 
caprice.  David,  king  of  Israel,  appears 
in  no  instance  greater  or  more  amiable 
than  in  sparing  the  life  of  his  persecu- 
tor Saul,  when  it  was  in  his  power. 

CLERGY  (from  the  Greek  word 
kXtijoj,  heritage,)  in  the  general  sense 
of  the  woi'd,  as  used  by  us,  signifies  the 
body  of  ecclesiastics  of  the  Christian 
church,  in  contradistinction  to  the  laity : 
but  strictly  speaking,  and  according  to 
Scripture,  it  means  the  church. — 
"  When  Joshua,"  as  one  observes,  "  di- 
vided the  Holy  Land  by  lot  among  the 
Israelites,  it  pleased  God  to  provide  for 
a  thirteenth  part  of  them,  called  Le- 
vites,  by  assigning  them  a  personal 
estate  equivalent  to  that  provision  made 
by  real  estate,  which  was  allotted  to 
each  of  the  other  twelve  parts.  In  con- 
formity to  the  style  of  the  transaction, 
the  Levites  .were  called  God's  lot,  in- 
heritance, or  clergy.  This  style,  how- 
cvei',  is  not  always  used  by  the  Old 
Testament  writers.  Sometimes  they  call 
all  the  nations  God's  lot,  Dcut.  xxxii.  9. 
j*s.  Ixxviii.  71.  Ps.  xxviii.  9,  &c.  The 
New  Testament  writers  adopt  this  term, 
and  apply  it  to  the  whole  Christian 
church,  1  Pet.  v.  3.  Thus  it  is  the 
church  distinguish(^d  from  the  world, 
and  not  one  part  of  the  church  as  dis- 
tinguished from  another  part."    The 


word  clergy,  however,  anlpng  us,  al- 
wavs  refers  to  ecclesiastics. 

The  clerg}"-  originally  consisted  of 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons;  but  in 
the  third  century  many  inferior  orders 
were  appointed ;  such  as  sub-deacons, 
acoluthists,  readers,  &c.  The  clergy  of 
the  church  of  Rome  are  divided  into 
regular  and  secular.  The  regular  con- 
sists of  those  monks  or  religious  who 
have  taken  upon  them  holy  orders  of 
the  priesthood  in  their  respective  mo- 
nasteries. The  secular  clerg}'  are  those 
who  are  not  of  any  religious  order,  and 
have  the  cai'e  and  direction  of  parishes. 
The  Protestant  clergy  are  all  secular. 
For  archbishops,  bishops,  deans,  &c.  8cc. 
see  those  articles. 

The  clergy  have  large  privileges  al- 
lowed them  by  our  municipal  laAvs,  and 
had  formerly  much  greater,  which  were 
abridged  at  the  reformation,  on  account 
of  the  ill  use  which  the  popish  clergy 
had  endeavoured  to  make  or  them ;  lor 
the  laws  having  exempted  them  from 
almost  every  personal  duty,  they  at- 
tempted a  total  exemption  from  every 
secular  tie.  The  personal  exemptions, 
indeed,  for  the  most  part,  continue.  A 
clergyman  cannot  be  compelled  to  serve 
on  a  jury,  nor  to  appear  at  a  court  leet, 
which  almost  every  other  pei'son  is 
obliged  to  do ;  but  if  a  layman  be  sum- 
moned on  a  jury,  and  before  the  trial 
takes  orders,  he  shall  notwithstanding 
appear,  and  be  sworn.  Neither  can  he 
be  chosen  to  any  temporal  office;  as 
bailiff,  reeve,  constable,  or  the  like,  in 
regard  to  his  own  continual  attendance 
on  the  sacred  function.  During  his  at- 
tendance on  divine  service,  he  is  privi- 
leged from  arrests  in  civil  suits.  In 
cases  of  felony  also,  a  clerk  in  orders 
shall  have  the  benefit  of  clergy,  without 
being  bi-anded  in  the  hand,  and  may 
likewise  have  it  more  than  once  ;  in  both 
which  cases  he  is  distinguished  from  a 
layman. 

Benefit  of  Clergy  was  a  privilege 
whereby  a  clergyman  claimed  to  be 
delivered  to  his  ordinary  to  purge  him- 
self of  felony,  and  which  anciently  was 
allowed  only  to  those  who  were  in  or- 
ders ;  but,  by  the  statute  of  18th  Eliz., 
every  man  to  whom  the  benefit  of  cler- 
gy is  granted,  though  not  in  orders,  is 
put  to  read  at  the  bar,  after  he  is  found 
guilty,  and  convicted  of  felony,  and  so 
burnt  in  the  hand;  and  set  free  for 
the  first  time,  if  the  ordinary  or  deputy 
standing  by  do  say,  Legit  ut  clericus : 
otherwise  he  shall  suffer  death.  As 
the  clergy  have  their  privileges,  so  they 
have  also  their  disabilities,  on  account 
of    their    .spiritual    avocations.     Cler- 


€0C 


101 


COL 


gj-men  are  incapable  of  sitting  in  tlie 
house  of  commons;  and  by  statute  21 
Henrv  \'lil.  c.  13,  are  not  in  general 
allowed  to  take  any  lands  or  tenements 
to  fann,  upon  paiii  of  10/.  per  montli, 

•  and  total  avoidance  of  the  lease;  nor 
upon  like  pain  to  keep  any  tap-hoase  or 
brewhouse ;  nor  engage  in  any  trade, 
nor  sell  any  merchandise,  under  for- 
feiture of  the  treble  value  ;  which  pro- 
hibition is  consonant  to  the  canon  law. 

The  iiumhcr  of  clerg\-  in  England 
and  Wales  amwuit,  according  to  the 
best  calculation,  to  18,000.  The  reve- 
nues of  the  clergy  were  formerly  con- 
siderable, but  since  the  reformation 
they  are  comparatively  small,  at  least 
those  of  the  mferior  clerg}'.  See  the 
BUhofi  of  Landaff^s  Valuation  of  the 
Church  and  Univerfiity  Revenues ;  or. 
Cove  on  the  Revenues  of  the  Church, 
1797,  2d  edition  ;  Burnett's  Hist,  of  his 
own  Times,  cgnclusion.  See  article  Mi- 

r.  KISTER. 

y         CLERK:  1.  A  word  originally  used 
to  denote  a  learned  man,  or  man  of 
'  letters ;  but  now  is  the  common  appel- 

•  lation  by  which  clergy^men  distinguish 
themselves  in  signing  any  deed  or  in- 
strument.— 2.  Also  the  person  who  reads 
the  responses  of  the  congi-egation  in  the 
church,  or  gi\-es  out  the  hymns  at  a 
meeting. 

COCCEIANS,  a  denomination  which 
arose  in  the  seventeenth  centuiy ;  so 
called  from  John  Cocceius,  professor  of 
divinity  m  the  University  of  Leyden. 
He  i-epresented  the  whole  history  of  the 
Old  Testament  as  a  mirror,  which  held 
forth  an  accurate  view  of  the  transac- 
tions and  events  that  were  to  happen  in 
tlie  church  under  the  dispensation  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  unto  the  end 
of  the  world.  He  maintained  that  by 
far  the  greatest  part  of  the  ancient  pro- 
phecies foretold  Christ's  ministiy  and 
mediation,  and  the  rise,  progress,  and 
revolutions  of  the  church,  not  only 
under  the  figure  of  persons  and  trans- 
actions, but  in  a  literal  manner,  and  bv 
the  very  sense  of  the  words  used  in 
these  predictions ;  and  laid  it  down  as  a 
fimdamental  rule  of  interpretation,  that 
the  words  and  phrases  of  Scriptuie  are 
to  be  understood  in  every  sense  of  which 
they  are  susceptible,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  they  signify  in  effect  every  thing 
that  they  can  possibly  signi^^ 

Cocceius  also  taught,  that  the  cove- 
nant made  between  God  and  the  Jewish 
nation,  by  the  ministry  of  Moses,  was  of 
the  same  nature  as  the  new  covenant, 
obtained  by  the  mediation  of  Jesus 
Christ.  In  conscciuence  of  this  general 
principle,  he  mamtained  that  the  ten 


commandments  were  pmmulgated  by 
Moses,  not  as  a  rule  of  obedience,  but 
as  a  representation  of  the  covenant  of 
grace — tliat  wiien  the  Jews  had  pro- 
voked the  Deity  by  their  various  trans- 
gressions, particularly  by  the  worship 
of  the  golden  calf,  the  se\  ere  and  ser- 
vile voke  of  the  ceremonial  law  was 
added  to  the  decalogue,  as  a  punishment 
inflicted  on  them  by  the  Supreme  Being 
in  his  righteous  displeasui-e — that  this 
yok,e,  wiiich  was  painful  in  itself,  be- 
came dovibly  so  on  account  of  its  tA'pical 
signification;  since  it  admonished  the 
Israelite^  from  day  to  day  of  the  imper- 
fection and  uncertainty  of  their  state, 
filled  them  with  anxiety,  and  was  a 
peipetual  proof  that  they  had  meiited 
the  righteous  displeasure  of  God,  and 
could  not  expect  before  tlie  coming  of 
the  Messiah  the  entire  remission  of  their 
iniquities — that  indeed  good  men,  even 
under  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  v/ere 
immediately  after  death  made  paila- 
kers  of  everlasting  gloiy  ;  but  that  they 
were  nevertheless,  during  the  whole 
course  of  their  lives,  far  removed  from 
that  finn  hope  and  assurance  of  salva- 
tion, which  rejoices  the  faithful  under 
the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel — and 
that  their  anxiety  flowed  naturally  from 
this  consideration,  that  their  sins,  though 
they  remained  unpunished,  v.ere  not 
pardoned ;  because  Christ  had  not  as 
yet  offered  himself  up  a  sacrifice  to  the 
Father,  to  make  an  entire  atonement 
for  them. 

CCENOBITE,  one  who  lives  in  a 
convent,  or  in  community,  under  a  cer- 
tain rule ;  in  opposition  to  a  hermit,  who 
lives  in  solitude.  Cassian  makes  this 
difference  between  a  convent  and  a  mo- 
nastery,  that  the  latter  may  be  applied 
to  the  residence  of  a  single  religious  or 
recluse ;  whereas  the  convent  implies 
coenobites,  or  numbers  of  religious  living 
in  common.  Fleury  speaks  of  three 
kinds  of  monks  in  lEg}"pt ;  anachorets, 
who  live  in  solitude ;  ccsnobites,  who 
continue  to  live  in  community  ;  and  sa- 
rabaites,  v\'ho  are  a  kind  of  monks- 
errant,  that  stroll  from  place  to  place. 
He  refers  the  institution  of  coenobites 
to  the  time  of  the  apostles,  and  makes 
it  a  kind  of  imitation  of  the  ordinary 
lives  of  the  faithful  at  Jerusalem'; 
though  St.  Pachomius  is  ordinarily  own- 
ed to  be  the  institutor  of  the  ccenobite 
life,  as  being  the  first  who  gave  a  rule 
to  anv  communitv. 

COLLECT,  a"  short  prayer.  In  the 
liturgy  of  the  church  ot  England,  and 
the  rnass  of  the  Romanists,  it  denotes  a 
prayer  accommodated  to  any  particular 
day,  occasion,  or  the  likCf    In  general. 


coHi 


102 


COM 


an  the  prayers  in  each  office  are  called 
collects,  either  because  the  priest  speaks 
in  the  name  of  the  whole  assembly, 
whose  sentiments  and  desires  he  snms 
«p  by  the  word  " Orcmus."  "Let  us 
pray,"  or  because  those  prayers  are  ot- 
tered when  the  people  are  assemljled 
together.  The  jjopes  Gelasius  and  Gre- 
gory are  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
established  collects.  Dr.  Despence,  of 
Paris,  wrote  a  treatise  on  collects,  their 
origin,  antiquitv,  &c. 

'  COLLECilANS,  or  Collegiants, 
a  sect  formed  among  the  Arminians  and 
Anabaptists  in  Holland,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century ;  so' 
called  because  of  their  colleges  or 
meetings  twice  every  week,  where 
cveiy  one,  females  excepted,  has  the 

.  same  liberty  of  expounding  the  Scrip- 
ture, praying,  &c.  They  »re  said  to  be 
all  either  Avians  or  Socuiians :  they 
never  commimicate  in  the  college,  but 
meet  twice  a  year,  from  all'  parts  of 
Holland,  at  Rlunsberg  (whence  the}' 
are  also  called  Rhuifiherghers,)  a  village 
two  miles  from  Leyden,  where  they 
comipunicate  together;  admitting  every 
one  that  presents  himself,  professing 
his  faith_  in  tlie  divinity  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  resolution  to  live  suita- 
bly to  theii'  precepts  and  doctrines, 
withriut  regard  to  his  sect  or  opini-^. 
They  have  no  particular  ministers,  but 
each  officiates  as  he  is  disposed.  They 
ba])tize  by  immersion. 

COMMENTARY,  an  exposition, 
book,  of  annotations  or  remarks.  There 
are  some  people  so  wise  in  their  own 
conceit,  and  think  human  helps  of  so 
Jittle  worth,  that  they  despise  commen- 
taries on  the  Scriptures  altogether ;  but 
every  student  or  preacher  whose  busi- 
ness is  to  explain  the  sacred  oracles,  to 
make  known  the  mind  of  God  to  others, 
to  settle  cases  of  conscience,  to  oppose 
the  sophistry  of  sceptics,  and  to  con- 
found the  arguments  of  infidels,  would 
do  well  to  avail  himself  of  the  most 
judicious,  clear,  copious,  critical,  and 
sound  commentaries  on  the  Bible.  Nor 
can  I  sup])()se  that  commentaries  can 
be  useless  to  the  common  people,  for 
though  a  spirit  of  serious  enquiry,  with 
a  little  good  sense,  will  go  a  great  way 
in  understanding  the  Bible,  yet  as  tl\e 
lang\iage  is  often  figurative,  as  allusions 
are  made  to  ancient  customs,  and  some 
parts  require  more  investigation  than 
many  common  Christians  have  time 
fqr,  a  plain  <;xi)osition  certainlv  must  Idc 
useful.  Ex])ositions  of  the  Bible,  how- 
ever, may  lie  made  a  bad  use  of.  He 
who  takes  the  ij^se  dixit  of  a  commen- 
tator, without  ever  examining  whether ;! 


the  meaning  given  comport  with  tl)e 
text!*  he  who  gives  himsell  no  trouble 
to  investigate  the  Scripture  for  himself, 
but  takes  occasion  to  be  indolent,  be- 
cause others  have  laboured  for  him, 
surely  does  wrong.  Nor  can  it  be  said 
that  those  preachers  use  them  properlv, 
who,  in  making  their  sermons,  form 
their  plans  from  the  commentator  be- 
fore they  liave  thought  upon  the  text. 
Perhaps  the  best  way  is  to  follow  our 
own  talents ;  first,  by  prayer,  study,  and 
attention  to  form  our  scheme,  and  then 
to  examine  the  opinions  of  others  con- 
cerning it.  We  will  here  pf'esent  the 
reader  with  a  view  of  some"  of  those 
commentai'ies  which  are  the  most  ge- 
nerally fipproved.  And,  1st.  in  my 
opinion,  Henry  takes  the  lead  for  com- 
mon utility.  The  s])rightly  notes,  the 
just  inferences,  tlie  original  thoughts, 
and  the  warm  applications  to  the  con- 
science, makes  this  work  jjistly  admired. 
It  is  true  that  there  are  some  expres- 
sions which  do  not  agree  with  the  evan- 
gelic system  ;  but,  as  the  late  Mr.  Ry- 
land  observes,  "  'Tis  impossible  for  a 
person  of  piety  and  taste  to  read  him 
without  wishing  to  be  shut  out  from  all 
the  Avorkl  to  read  him  through  ivithout 
one  moment^s  iuterrnption."  Mr.  Henry 
did  not  live  to  complete  this  work.  He 
went  as  far  as  the  end  of  yVcts.  Romans 
was  done  by  Dr.  Evans  ;  the  1st  Corin- 
thians, Sam.  Brown;  2d  Corinthians,  Dr. 
Mayo  ;  Galatians,  Mr.  Bayes  ;  Ephe- 
sians,  Mr.  Boswell  ;  Phi1i])pians,  Mr. 
Harris ;  Colossians,  Mr.  Harris ;  1  and 
2  Thessalonians,  Mr.  Mayo ;  1  and  2 
Timothy,  Mr.  Atkinson  ;  Titus,  Jer. 
Smith  ; '  Philemon,  Mr.  Mottershead  ; 
Hebrews,  Mr.  Tong ;  James,  Mr. 
Wi-ight ;  1  Peter,  Mr.  Hill ;  2  Peter, 
Mr.  Morril ;  1,  2,  and  3  John,  Mr.  Rey- 
nolds ;  Jude,  Mr.  Billingsley ;  and  Re- 
velations by  Mr.  Tong. 

2.  Pooli  Svnopsis  Criticorum,  5  folio 
volumes.  This  is  a  valuable  work,  and 
ought  to  be  in  the  possession  of  every 
student :  it  is  much  esteemed  abroad, 
three  editions  of  it  having  been  pub- 
lished on  the  continent. 

^3.  Poole's  Annotations,  a  rich  and 
useful  work.  These  were  printed  at  T.iOn- 
don  in  1685,  in  two  volumes,  folio.  Poole 
did  not  complete  this  work  himself. 
Mr.  Jackson,  of  Moulsey,  is  the  author 
of  the  annotations  on  the  59th  and  fiOth 
chap,  of  Isaiah.  Dr.  CnUings  drew  up 
the  notes  on  the  rest  of  Isaiah,  Jci-e- 
miah,  and  Lamentations,  as  also  those 
on  the  four  Evangelists,  the  two  epistles 
to  the  Corinthians,  and  that-  to  the  Ga- 
latians. I'hose  to  Timothy,  Titus,  Phi- 
lenion,  aixl  the  Rcvelat^ion,  Ezckiel,  and 


CO-M 


103 


COM 


tlic  niiiioi"  Pi-oplicts,  were  done  b\'  Mr. 
Hurst,  Dunicl  l)y  Mr.  Cooper  ;  the 
Acts  by  Mr.  Vin.ke;  tlic  Epistle  to  the 
Roni.ins  hy  Mr.  Mayo ;  the  l^pliesians, 
Mr.  \'ealc';  tlit  ]'hi!ippi:ins.and  Colos- 
sians,  Mr.  Adams;  the  IJebrews,  Mr. 
Obadiali  Hughes ;  the  epistle  of  St. 
James,  the  two  of  St.  Peter,  and  that 
of  Jude,  by  Mr.  Veale  :  the  three  epis- 
tles of  St.  John  by  Mr.  Howe. 

4.  Dr.  Gill's,  m  9  vol.  quarto,  is  an 
immense  work ;  and  though  it  contain 
a  good  deal  of  repetition  and  extraneous 
matter,  there  is  certainly  a  vast  fund 
of  information  together  with  evangeli- 
cal sentiment. 

5.  Brown's  Self-interpreting  Bible,  in 
2  vols,  quarto.  Its  chief  excellencies 
are  the  marginal  references,  )vhich  are 
exceedingly  useful  to  preachers ;  and 
the  dose,  plain,  and  practical  improve- 
ment to  each  chapter. 

6.  Scott's  Exposition  is  truly  excel- 
Jcnt.  It  abounds  with  practical  remarks, 
and  the  last  edition  contains  the  mar- 
ginal references.  The  improvements 
are  also  vcn-  useful  for  families. 

r.  Dr.  Adam  Clarke's  commentary, 
with  critical  notes,  and  marginal  re- 
ferences, possess  considerable  merit, 
and  will  be  found  a  \aluabie  treasure 
for  the  Biblical  student. 

On  the  .Yew  Testament. 

1.  Burkitt  contains  many  higenious 
observations,  fine  turns,  natural  plans, 
and  pungent  addresses  to  the  conscience. 
There  are  some  expressions,  however, 
that  grate  upon  the  ear  of  the  evange- 
lical Christian. 

2.  Guyse's  Paraphrase  is  deservedly 
held  in  high  estimation  for  sound  doc- 
trine, fair  explication,  and  just  senti- 
ment. 

3.  Doddridge's  Family  Expositor. 
The  criticisms  in  this  work  render  it 
valuable.  It  must  be  owned  that  the 
doctor  laboured  to  come  as  near  as  pos- 
sible to  the  true  sense  of  the  text. 

4.  Bezje  Annotationcs,  in  quibus  ratio 
interpretationis  redditur ;  accessit  etiam 
J.  Camerarii  in  novem  fosdus  commea- 
tarius,  fol.  Cantab.  1642,  contains,  be- 
sides the  old  Latin  \ersion,  Beza's  ov/n 
version  ;  and  in  the  side  margin  is  given 
a  summary  of  the  passage,  and  in  the 
argumentative  parts  the  connexion. 

5.  VVolfii  Curic  Philologies,  6c  Cri- 
tics, in  Omncs  Libros,  Nov.  Test.  5 
vols.  4to.  1739,  Hamb.  Basil,  1741.  This 
is  in  a  great  measure  a  compilation 
after  the  manner  of  Poole's  Synopsis, 
but  interspersed  with  his  own 'critical 
animadversions. 

6.  Bengelii  Gnomon  Nov.  Test.  4to. 
Tubingx,  1759,  and  Ulmx,  1763,  con- 


I  tains  an  instructive  preface,  a  pcrspi- 
'  cuous  analysis  of  each  book,  with  short 
I  notes. "  It  is  a  perfect  contrast  to  that 
j  of  Wolfius. 

7.  Raphelii  Annotationcs  in  S.  Scrip- 
'  turam,  ifcc.  is  ah  attempt  to  illustrate 

the  Holy  Scriptures  from  the  classical 

(ireek  historians,  Xenophon,  Polybius, 

Arrian,  and  Herodotus. 
1     8.  Hammond's  Paraphrase  and  An- 

notatif)ns  upon  all  the  books  of  the  New 
,  Testament,  folio. 

9.  Whitby's  Paraphrase  and  Com- 
mentai-y  on  New  Test.  2.  vols.  fol. 

10.  Wesley's  Explanatory  Notes,  4to. 
or  3  vols.  12mo.  Of  different  transla- 
tions, see  article  Bible. 

Comjnentators  on  Select  Parts. 

1.  Auisworth  on  the  Pentateuch, 
Psalms,  and  Song  of  Solomon. 

2.  Patrick's  Commentaries  on  the 
Historical  Pai-ts  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
3  vols. 

3.'  Lightfoot's  Works,  2  vols.  fol.  con- 
tain a  chronic!^  of  the  times,  and  the 
order  of  the  text  of  the  Old  Testament. 
The  harmony,  chronicled,  and  order  of 
the  New  Testament ;  the  harmony  of 
the  four  Evangelists  ;  a  commcntan^  on 
the  Acts  ;  Horx  He'jraicae,  &c.  on  the 
four  Evangelists,  Acts,  and  1  Corin- 
thians. 

4.  Chiysostomi  Opera,  8  vols.  fol.  con- 
tain expositions  of  various  parts. 

5.  Calvini  Opera  Omnia,  9  vols,  con- 
tain commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch, 
Joshua,  homilies  on  Samuel,  sermons  on 
Job,  commentaries  on  Psalms,  Isaiah, 
Evangelists,  Acts,  Paul's  epistles,  ancl 
the  other  Catholic  epistles;  and  prxlec- 
tiones  on  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Daniel, 
and  the  Minor  Prophets. 

6.  Lowth  on  the  Propliets. 

7.  Pocock  on  some  ot  the  Minor  Pro- 
phets. 

8.  Lix:ke  on  Paul's  epistles. 

9.  Hutcheson  on  J:he  Smaller  Pro- 
phets. 

10.  Ncwcome  on  Ezekiel  and  Minor 
Prophets. 

11.  Macknight's  llaj-mony  of  tlie 
Gospel,  and  Literal  Translation  of  all 
the  Apostolical  Epistles,  with  Comnieii- 
tarv  and  Notes. 

12.  Campbell's  Translation  of  the 
Gospels,  with  Notes  and  Dissertations. 

On  Select  Book^. 

On  Ruth  :  Macgowan,  Lawson. 

On  Job :  1.  Caryll,  2  vols,  fol.— 2.  Hut- 
chmson,  1669,  fol". — 3.  Peters's  Critical 
Disseitation  on  Book  of  Job. — 4.  Cha- 
pellou. 

On  the  Psalms :  1.  ]M|p>lleri  Enan-. 
Psalm,  fol.  1619.— 2.  Hammond's  Para- 
phrase.— 5.  Amesii  Lectiones  in  Omnes 


COM 


104 


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Psalmos,  Oct.  1636. — 4.  Dickson. — 
5.  Home's  Commentary. — On  Select 
Psalms  :  1.  Hildersham's  152  Lectures 
on  Psalm  li. — 2.  Uecoetlogon's  Serm. 
on  Psalm  li. — 3.  Greenham  on  Psalm 
cxix. — 4.  Manton  on  Psalm  cxix. — 5. 
Owen  on  Psalm  cxxx. — 6.  Luther  on 
the  15  Psalms  of  Degrees.— 7.  Horton 
on.  Psalms  iv.  xlii.  li.  and  Ixiii. 

On  Proverbs:  Dr.  Mayer,  Taylor, 
lo.  Trapp. 

Ecclcslastes  :  Broughton,  Wardlaw, 
Jermyn. 

Canticles :  Bp.  Foliot,  Mercier,  San- 
chez, Bossuet,  Cocceius,  Dr.  James, 
Ainsworth,  Durham,  Bishop  Hall,  Bi- 
shop Patrick,  Dove,  Trapp,  Jackson, 
Dr.  CoUines,  Dr.  Gill,  Dr.  Percy,  Har- 
nier,  Dr.  Durell ;  but  the  most  recent, 
and  perhaps  the  best,  is  Williams's  new 
translation  with  commentary,  8cc.  where 
the  reader  will  find  a  list  of  other  names 
•who  have  translated  and  written  on 
parts  of  this  book. 

Isaiah  :  Vitringa,  Lowth,  M'CuUoch. 

Jeremiah :  Blayney. 

p.zekiel :  Greenhill,  Newcome. 

Dajxiel:  Willet's  Hexapla,  fol.  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  on  Prophecies  of  Daniel. 

Hosea  :  Burroughs,  Bishop  Horsley's 
translation,  with  explanatory  notes. 

Of  the  other  Minor  Prophets,  see 
Commentai'ies  on  Select  Parts. 

Gosjiels :  See  above,  and  article  Har- 
^lONY.  Also  Hildersham  on  John  iv. 
fol.  Burgess  on  John  xvii.  Manton  on 
John  xvii. 

jlcts :  Mayer,  Trapp. 

Ro?nans :  Wilson,  rarr. 

Galatians :  Luther,  Ferguson,  Per- 
kins. 

Efihesians :  Ferguson,  Goodwin. 

Colossians :  Byfield,  Davenant,  Elton. 

Titus  :  Dr.  Thomas  Taylor. 

Hebrews :  Dr.  Owen. 

James :  Manton. 

1  Peter:  Leighton,  and  N.  Byfield  on 
the  first  three  chapters. 

2  Peter:  Adam. 

John  :  Hardy  on  1  Epistle,  and  Haw- 
kins on  the  three  Epistles  of  John. 

Jude :  Jenkins,  Manton,  Otes. 

Revelation  :  Mede,  Daubuz,  Bright- 
man,  Peganius,  Waple,  Robertson,  Vi- 
tringa, Pyle,  Goodwin,  Lowman,  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  Durham,  Cradock,  Dr. 
H.  Mooi'c,  Bifihop  Newton,  Dr.  Bryce 
Johnston. 

As  this  article  may  be  consulted  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  mformation  as 
to  the  best  helps  for  understanding  the 
Scriptures,  we  may  add  to  the  above  : 
— Jacobi  Elsder,  Observat.  Sacra; ;  Al- 
berti  Observ.  Philolog.;  Lamberti  Bos, 
Exercitat.  Philolog.;  Lamberti  Bos, Ob- 


seiT^^at.  iVIiscell.  Fortuity  Sacra.  These, 
together  with  Wolfius  and  Raphelius, 
before  mentioned,  says  Dr.  Doddridge, 
ai-e  books  which  I  cannot  but  reconi- 
mend  to  my  young  friends,  as  proper 
not  only  to  asceilain  the  sense  of  a  va- 
riety of  words  and  phrases  which  occur 
in  the  apostolic  writings,  but  also  to 
form  them  to  the  most  useful .  method 
of  studying  the  Greek  classics ;  those 
great  masters  of  solid  sense,  elegant 
expression,  just  and  lively  painting,  and 
masculine  eloquence,  to  the  neglect  of 
which  I  cannot  but  ascribe  that  ener- 
vate, dissolute,  and  puerile  manner  of 
writing,  which  is  growing  so  much  on 
the  present  age,  and  will  probably  con- 
sign so  many  of  its  productions  to  speedy 
oblivion.  •  See  also  books  recommended 
under  articles  Bible,  Scriptures. 

COMMINATION,  an  office  in  the 
church  of  England  appointed  to  be  read 
on  Ash  Wednesday.  It  is  substituted  in 
the  room  of  that  godly  disci/iUne  in  the 
primitive  church,  by  which  (as  the  in- 
troduction to  the  office  expresses  it) 
"  such  persons  as  stood  convicted  of 
notorious  sins  were  put  to  open  penance, 
and  punished  in  this  world,  that  their 
souls  might  be  sa^ed  in  the  day  of  the 
Lord ;  and  that  others,  admonished  by 
their  example,  might  be  the  more 
afraid  to  offend."  This  discipline,  in  af- 
ter ages,  degenerated  in  the  church  of 
Rome  into  a  formal  confession  of  sins 
upon  Ash  Wednesday,  and  the  empty 
ceremony  of  sprinkling  ashes  upon  the 
head  of  the  people.  Our  reiormers 
wisely  rejected  this  ceremony  as  mere 
shadow  and  show  ;  and  substiluted  this 
office  in  its  room,  which  is  A  denuncia- 
tion of  God's  anger  and  jtidg?ne?i^ 
against  si?2ne7-s  ;  that  the  people,  being 
apprised  of  God's  wrath  and  indignation 
against  their  sins,  might  not,  through 
want  of  discipline  to  the  church,  be  en- 
couraged to  pursue  them. 

CO'MMISSARY,  an  officer  of  the 
bishop,  who  exercises  spiritual  juris- 
diction in  places  of  a  diocese  so  far  from 
the  episcopal  see,  that  the  chancellor 
cannot  call  the  people  to  the  bishop's 
principal  consistory  court  without  great 
inconvenience. 

COMMUNICATING,  a  term  made 
use  of  to  denote  the  act  of  receiving  the 
Lord's  supper.  Those  of  the  reformed 
and  of  the  Greek  church  communicate 
under  both  kinds ;  those  of  the  Romish 
onlj'  under  one.  The  oriental  commu- 
nicants receive  the  species  of  wine  by  a 
spoon ;  and  anciently  they  sucked  it 
through  a  pipe,  as  has  been  observed 
by  Beat  Rheanus  on  Tertullian. 

COMMUNION,  in  its  strict  and  pro- 


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per  sense  signifies  holding  something  in 
common  with  another,  Acts  ii.  42. — 
2.  In  a  more  general  sense,  it  denotes 
conformity  or  agreement,  2  Cor.  vi.  14. 
Eph.  V.  11. — 3.  It  signifies  converse,  or 
friendly  intercourse,  wherein  men  con- 
trive or  consult  together  about  matters 
of  common  concern,  Luke  vi.  11.  Ps. 
iv.  4. — 4.  Communion  is  also  used  for 
the  Lord's  supper,  because  we  herein 
make  a  public  profession  of  our  con- 
formity to  Christ  and  his  laws  ;  and  of 
our  agreement  with  other  Christians  in 
the  spirit  and  faith  of  the  Gospel.  See 
Lord's  Supper. 

The  fourth  council  of  Lateran  de- 
crees, that  ever^f  believer  shall  receive 
the  communion,  at  least,  at  Easter ; 
which  seems  to  import  a  tacit  desire 
that  they  sliould  do  it  oftener,  as  in 
effect  they  did  it  much  oftener  in  the 
primitive  days.  Gratian  and  the  master 
of  the  sentences,  prescribe  it  as  a  rule 
for  the  laity  to  communicate  three  times 
a  year;  at  Easter,  Whitsuntide,  and 
Christmas:  but  in  the  thiileenth  centu- 
ry the  practice  pre\"ailed  of  never  ap- 
pi'oachmg  the  eucharist  at  Easter ;  and 
the  council  thought  fit  to  enjoin  it  then 
hy  a  law,  lest  their  coldness  and  remiss- 
ness should  go  farther  still :  and  the 
council  of  Trent  renewed  the  same  in- 
junction, and  recommended  frequent 
communion  without  enfoi-cing  it  by  an 
express  decree.  In  the  ninth  centur>' 
the  communion  was  still  received  by 
the  laity  in  both  kinds,  or  rather  the 
species  of  bread  was  dipped  in  the  wine, 
as  is  owned  by  the  Romanists  them- 
selves. M.  de  Marca  observes,  that 
they  received  it  at  first  in  their  hands ; 
and  believes  the  communion  under  one 
kind  alone  to  have  had  its  rise  in  the 
West,  under  pope  Urban  II.  in  1096,  at 
the  time  of  the  conquest  of  the  Holy 
Land.  It  was  more  solemnly  enjoined 
bv  the  council  of  Constance,  in  1414. 
Tlie  twenty -eighth  canon  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Clermont  enjoins  the  communion 
to  be  received  under  both  kinds  dis- 
tinctly ;  adding,  however,  two  excep- 
tions,— ^the  one  of  necessity,  the  other 
of  caution;  the  first  in  favour  of  the 
sick,  and  the  second  of  the  abstemious, 
or  those  who  had  an  aversion  for  wine. 
It  was  foi-merly  a  kind  of  canonical  pu- 
nishment for  clerks  guilty  of  any  crime 
to  be  reduced  to  lay  communion ;  i.  e. 
only  to  receive  it  as  the  laity  did,  viz. 
under  one  kind.  Thev  had  another 
punishment  of  the  same  nature,  though 
under  a  different  name,  called  foreign 
communion,  to  which  the  canons  fre- 
quently condemned  their  bishops  and 
other  clerks.    This  punishment  was  not 


any  excommunication  or  deposition,  but 
a  kind  of  suspension  from  the  function 
of  the  order,  and  a  degradation  from 
the  rank  they  held  in  the  church.  It 
had  its  name  because  the  communion 
was  only  granted  to  the  criminal  on  the 
foot  of  a  foreign  clerk ;  i.  e.  being 
reduced  to  the  lowest  of  his  order,  he 
took  his  place  after  all  those  of  his 
i-ank,  as  all  clerks,  Sec.  did  in  the 
churches  to  which  they  did  not  belong. 
The  second  council  of  Agda  orders 
every  clerk  that  absents  himself  from 
the  church  to  be  reduced  to  foreign 
communion. 

Church  comviunioji  is  fellowship  with 
any  particular  church.  See  Church 
Feli.oavship.  It  is  sometimes  applied 
to  different  churches  united  in  doctrine 
and  discipline.  The  three  grand  com- 
munions into  which  the  Christian  church 
is  divided  is  that  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
the  Greek  church,  and  the  Protestant 
church ;  but  originally  all  Christians 
were  in  communion  with  each  other, 
ha\'ing  one  communion,  faith,  and  dis- 
cipline. 

Free  Communion,  a  term  made  use 
of  in  relation  to  the  Lord's  supper,  by 
which  it  is  understood  that  all  those 
who  have  been  baptized,  whether  in 
infancy  or  adult  age,  may,  on  profession 
of  their  faith,  sit  down  at  the  Lord's 
table  with  others  of  different  denomina- 
tions. Some  of  the  Baptists  object  to 
free  or  mixed  communion,  and  do  not 
allow  of  persons  who  have  been  bap- 
tized in  their  infancy  to  join  in  the  cele- 
bi'ation  of  the  Lord's  supper  with  them : 
because  they  look  upon  such  as  not 
having  been  baptized  at  all,  and  conse- 
quently cannot  be  admitted  to  the  table. 
Others,  however,  suppose  that  this 
ought  to  be  no  objection ;  and  that  such 
who  believe  ■  themselves  to  be  really 
baptized  (though  in  infancy,)  are  par- 
takers of  grace,  belong  to  the  true 
church  of  Clu'ist,  and  are  tinily  devoted 
to  God,  ought  not  to  be  I'ejected  on 
account  of  a  different  opinion  about  a 
mere  ordinance.  Mr.  KiUingwoith  and 
Mr.  Booth  have  written  against  free 
communion ;  John  Bunvan,  Dr.  FostCT, 
Mr.  Bulkley,  Mr.  Wiclie,  and  Mr.  Ro- 
binson, for  it. 

COMMUNION,  sfiiritual  or  divine, 
is  that  delightful  fellowship  and  inter- 
course which  a  believer  enjoys  with 
God.  It  is  founded  upon  union  with 
him,  and  consists  in  a  communication  of 
divine  graces  from  him,  and  a  return  of 
devout  affections  to  him.  The  believer 
holds  communion  with  God  in  his  works, 
in  his  word,  and  in  liis  ordinances, 
ii  There  can  be  no  communion  withouJL 
O 


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likeness,  nov  witlioul-  Christ  as  the  me- 
diator. Some  distinguished  communion 
with  God  from  the  sense  and  feehng  of 
it;  that  is,  that  we  ma}' hold  commu- 
nion with  him  without  raptures  of  joy ; 
and  that  a  saint,  even  under  desertion, 
may  have  communion  with  God  as 
really,  though  not  sofirlingly,  as  at  any 
other  time.  This  comuumion  cannot  be 
interrupted  by  any  local  mutations :  it 
is  far  superior  to  all  oxitward  services 
and  ordinances  whatsoe\er;  it  concerns 
the  whole  soul,  all  the  affections,  facul- 
ties, and  motions  of  it  being  under  its 
influence :  it  is  only  imperfect  in  this 
life,  and  will  be  unspeakably  enlarged 
in  a  better  woi'ld. — In  order  to  keep  up 
communion  with  God,  we  should  inform 
ourselves  of  his  will,  John  v.  39.  be  often 
in  prayer,  Luke  viii.  1.  embrace  oppor- 
tunities of  retirement,  Ps.  iv.  4.  contem- 
Slate  on  the  divine  perfections,  provi- 
ences,  and  promises,  Ps.  civ.  34.  watch 
against  a  vain,  trifling,  and  volatile 
spirit,  Eph.  iv.  30.  and  be  found  in  the 
use  of  all  the  means  of  grace,  Ps.  xxvii. 
4.  The  advantages  of  communion 
■with  God  are,  deadness  to  the  Avorld, 
Phil.  iii.  8.  patience  under  trouble. 
Job  i.  22.  fortitude  in  danger,  Ps.  xxvii. 
1.  gratitude  for  mercies  received,  Ps. 
ciii.  1.  direction  under  dLfHculties,  Prov. 
iii.  5,  6.  peace  and  joy  in  opposition, 
Ps.  xvi.  23.  happiness  in  death,  Ps. 
xxiii.  4.  and  an  earnest  desire  for 
heaven  and  glory,  2  Tim.  iv.  7,  8.  See 
Shaw's  Immanuel ;  Onven  and  Hejiry 
sn  Cormnunion ;  and  article  Fellow- 
ship. 

COMPASSION  is  that  species  of 
affection  Avhich  is  excited  either  by  the 
actual  distress  of  its  object,  or  by  some 
impending  calamity  which  appears  in- 
evitable. It  is  a  benevolent  sorrow  for 
the  sufferings  or  approaching  misery  of 
another.  The  etymology  o!F  the  word 
expresses  this  idea  with  strict  proprie- 
ty, as  it  signifies  suffering  ivilh  the  ob- 
ject. Hobbes  makes  this  a  mere  selfish 
passion,  and  defines  it  as  "being  fear 
for  ourselves."  Hutcheson  resolves  it 
into  instinct ;  but  Dr.  Butler  much  more 
properly  considers  it  as  an  original  dis- 
tinct particular  affection  in  human  na- 
ture. It  may  be  considered  as  a  generic 
name,  comprehending  several  other 
affections;  as  mercy,  comviiseration, 
pity.  This  affection,  (as  well  as  every 
other  of  oar  nature,)  no  doubt,  was 
■wisely  given  us  Iw  our  Creator.  "  Ideas 
of  fitness,"  as  Saurin  observes,  "  sel- 
dom make  much  impression  on  the  bulk 
of  mankind;  it  was  necessary  therefore 
to  make  sensiljility  supply  the  want  of 
veliection ;  and  by  a  countcr-l)low  with 


wdiich  the  miseries  of  a  neiglibour 
strike  our  feelings,  to  produce  a  dispo- 
sition in  us  to  relieve  him." 

COMPASSION  OF  (iOD  is  the  in- 
finite greatness  of  his  mercy  and  love, 
whereby  he  relieves  the  miseries  of  his 
people.  Tliis  perfection  of  Jehovah  is 
consi^icuously  displayed  in  the  gift  of 
his  Son,  John  iii.  16.  the  revelation  of 
his  will,  Hos.  viii.  12.  the  bounties  of 
his  providence,  Ps.  cxlv.  9.  the  exercise 
of  his  patience,  Rom.  ii.  4.  the  promise 
of  his  mercy,  Ps.  Ixxviii.  38.  the  mani- 
festation of  his  presence.  Matt,  xviii. 
20.  and  the  provision  of  eternal  glorv, 
1  Pet.  i.  4.    See  Mercy. 

COMPLUTENSIAN  BIBLE.  See 
Bible,  No.  29. 

COMPREHENSION,  in  English 
church  history,  denotes  a  scheme  pi*o- 
posed  by  Sir  Orlando  Bridgman,  in 
1667-8,  for  relaxing  the  terms  of  con- 
formity on  behalf  of  the  Protestant  Dis- 
senters, and  admitting  them  into  the 
communion  of  the  church.  A  bill  for 
this  purpose  was  drawn  up  by  Judge 
Hale,  but  disallowed.  The  attempt  was 
renewed  by  Tillotson  and  Stillingfleet, 
in  1674,  and  the  terms  were  settled,  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  non-conformists  ; 
but  the  bishops  refused  their  assent. 
Tlie  scheme  was  likewise  revived  again 
immediately  after  the  revolution.  The 
king  and  queen  expressed  their  desire 
of  an  union :  however,  the  design  failed, 
after  two  attempts,  and  the  act  of  tole- 
ration was  obtained. 

CONCEPTION  OF  CHRIST,  the 
supernatural  and  miraculous  formation 
of  the  human  natui-e  of  Jesus  Christ. 
"It  were  not  difficult  to  show,"  says 
a  divine,  "that  the  miraculous  concep- 
tion, once  admitted,  naturally  brings  up 
after  it  the  great  doctrines  of  the  atone- 
ment and  the  incarnation.  The  mira- 
culous conception  of  our  Lord  evidently 
implies  some  higher  purpose  of  his 
coming  than  the  mere  business  of  a 
teacher.  The  business  of  a  teacher 
might  have  been  performed  by  a  mere 
man,  enlightened  by  the  prophetic  spi- 
rit. For  whatever  instruction  men  have 
the  capacity  to  receive,  a  man  might 
have  been  made  the  instrument  to  con- 
vey. Had  teaching,  therefore,  been  the 
sole  purpose  of  our  Saviour's  coming,  a 
mere  man  might  have  done  the  whole 
business,  and  the  supernatural  concep- 
tion had  been  an  unnecessary  miracle. 
He,  therefore,  who  came  in  this  mira- 
culous way,  came  upon  some  higher 
business,  to  which  a  mere  man  was  un- 
equal. He  came  to  be  made  a  sin 
offering  for  us,  that  we  might  be  made 
the  righteousness  of  God  in  him."    See 


CON 


107 


CON 


Up.  Hovslcy's  Tracts,  and  article  Hu- 
manity of  Christ. 
CONCEPTION   IMMACULATE 

of  tin-  Holy  Virgin,  is  a  popish  fcsti\  al 
established  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  Ma- 
ry, on  the  supposition  of  her  having 
l/een  conceived,  and  born  immaculate, 
i.  e.  without  original  sin :  held  on  the 
8th  of  December.  The  immacidate  con- 
ception is  the  great  head  of  controversy 
lietwecn  the  Scotists  and  Thomists;  the 
former  maintaining  and  the  latter  im- 
pugning it.  Peter  D'Alva  has  published 
48  huge  folio  volumes  on  the  mysteries 
of  the  conception. 

CONCLAVE,  the  assembly  or  meet- 
ing of  the  cardinals  shut  up  for  tlie 
election  of  a  Pope.  Conclave  also  sig- 
nifies the  place  in  which  the  cardinals 
of  the  Romish  church  meet  for  the 
above-mentioned  purpose.  The  con- 
clave is  a  range  of  small  cells,  ten  feet 
square,  made  of  wainscot :  these  are 
numbered,  and  drawn  by  lot.  They 
stand  in  a  line  along  the  galleries  and 
hall  of  the  Vatican,  with  a  small  space 
between  each.  Every  cell  has  the  arms 
of  the  cardinal  over  it.  The  conclave  is 
not  fixed  to  any  one  determinate  place, 
for  the  constitutions  of  the  church  al- 
low the  cardinals  to  make  choice  of 
such  a  place  for  the  conclave  as  they 
think  most  con\'enient :  yet  it  is  gene- 
rally held  m  the  Vatican. — The  con- 
clave is  very  strictly  guarded  by  troops: 
neither  the  cardinals,  nor  any  person 
shut  up  in  the  conclave,  are  spoken  to, 
but  at  the  hours  allowed  of,  and  then  in 
Italian  or  Latin:  even  the  provisions 
for  the  conclave  are  examined,  that  no 
letters  be  conveyed  by  that  means  fi*om 
the  ministers  of  foreign  powers,  or 
other  persons,  who  may  have  an  inte- 
rest in  the  election  of  the  pontiff. 

CONCORD,/or7n  o/— Form  of  con- 
coi-d,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a  stan- 
dard-book among  the  Lutherans,  com- 
posed at  Torgaw  in  1576,  and  thence 
called  the  book  of  Torgaw,  and  review- 
ed at  Berg  by  six  Lutheran  doctors  of 
Germany,  the  principal  of  whom  was 
James  Anderx.  This  book  contains,  in 
two  parts,  a  system  of  doctrine,  the  sub- 
scription of  which  was  a  condition  of 
communion,  and  a  formal  and  very  se- 
vere condemnation  of  all  who  diflfered 
from  the  compilers  of  it ;  particularly 
with  respect  to  the  majesty  and  omnf- 
presence  of  Christ's  body,  and  the  real 
manducation  of  his  flesh  and  blood  in  the 
eucharist.  It  was  first  imposed  upon  the 
Saxons  by  Augustus,  and  occasioned 
great  opposition  and  disturbance.  The 
dispute  about  it  was  revived  in  Switzer- 
land in  1718,  when  the  magistrates  of 


Bern  pul^lished  an  order  for  adopting  Jt 
as  a  rule  of  faith  ;  the  consequence^  of 
whicli  was  a  contest  that  re;kicod  its 
credit  and  authority. 

CONCORDANCE,  a  dictionary  or 
index  to  the  Bible,  wherein  all  the  lead- 
ing words  are  ranged  alphabetically, 
and  the  books,  chapters,  and  verses 
wherein  they  occur  referred  to,  to  as- 
sist in  finding  out  passages,  and  compa- 
ring with  the  several  significations  of 
the  same  word.  Cardinal  Hugo  de  St. 
Charo  seems  toha\ebeen  the  first  who 
c.omi)iled  a  concordance  to  the  Holy 
Scri])tures ;  and  for  carrying  on  tiiis 
woi'k,  it  is  said,  he  employed  500  monks 
to  assist  him.  Rabbi  MoVdecai  l>rathan 
published  a  Hebrew  concoi'dance, print- 
ed at  Venice  in  1523,  containing  all  the 
Hebrew  roots,  branched  into  their  va- 
rious significations,  and  under  each  sig- 
nification all  the  places  in  Scripture 
wherein  it  occurs;  but  the  best  and 
most  useful  Hebrew  concordance  is  that 
of  Buxtorf,  printed  at  Basil  in  1632. 
Calasius,  an  Italian  cordelier,  has  given 
us  concordances  of  the  Hebrew,  Latin, 
and  Greek,  in  two  columns:  the  first, 
which  is  Hebrew,  is  that  of  rabbi  Moi'- 
decai  Nathan  verbatim,  and  according 
to  the  order  of  the  books  and  chapters : 
in  the  other  column  is  a  Latin  interpre- 
tation of  each  passage  of  Scripture 
quoted  by  R.  Mordecai:  this  interpre- 
tation is  Calasius's  own ;  but  in  the 
margin  he  adds  that  of  the  LXX  and 
the  Vulgate,  when  difierent  from  his. 
The  work  is  in  4  vols,  folio,  printed  at 
Rome  in  1621.  A  new  edition  of  this 
work  was  published  by  subscri]Dtion  in 
London,  in  1747,  8,  9,  by  Mr.  Romaine, 
to  which  he  obtained  the  signature  of 
every  crowned  head  in  Europe,  his  Ho- 
liness not  excepted.  Dr.  Taylor  pub- 
lished, in  1754,  a  Hebrew  concordance, 
in  2  vols,  folio,  adapted  to  the  English 
Bible,  and  disposed  after  the  same  man- 
ner as  Buxtorf.  This  is  perhaps  the 
best  for  English  readers. 

The  Greek  concordances  are  only 
for  the  New  Testament,  except  one  by 
Conrad  Kircher  on  the  Old,  containing 
all  the  Hebrew  words  in  alphabetical 
order ;  and  underneath,  all  the  inter- 
pretations of  them  in  the  LXX,  and  in 
each  interpretation  all  the  places  where 
they  occur  in  that  version.  In  1718, 
Trommius  published  his  Greek  concor- 
dance for  the  LXX,  at  Amsterdam,  in 
2  vols,  folio ;  and  Schmidius,  impi-oving; 
on  a  similar  woi'k  of  H.  Stephen,  has 
given  an  excellent  Greek  concordance 
ifor  the  New  Testament,  the  best  edi- 
tion of  which  is  that  of  Leipsic,  anno 
1717.    Williajns's  conooi'dance  to  the 


CON 


lOS 


CON 


Greek  Testament  gives  'tlie  English 
version  to  each  word,  and  points  out 
the  principal  Hebrew  roots  correspond- 
ing to  the  Greek  words  of  the  Septua- 
gint,  4to.  1767.  We  have  several  con- 
cordances in  English,  as  Fisher's,  But- 
terworth's,  Newman's,  Brown's;  but 
the  best  esteemed  is  that  in  4to.  by 
Alexander  Cruden,  which  no  minister 
or  student  should  be  without,  except  he 
have  such  a  prodigious  memory  as  to 
supersede  the  necessity  of  it.  Cnit- 
%veirs  Concordance  of  Parallels  may 
also  be  consulted  with  profit.  Talbot's 
complete  Analysis,  and  new  Arrange- 
ment of  the  Bible ;  Dodd  and  Locke's 
Common-place  Books;  with  Clark  on 
the  Promises,  and  Gastrin's  Institutes, 
may  also  be  useful  to  preachers. 

CONCUBINAGE,  the  act  of  living 
with  a  woman  to  whom  the  man  is  not 
legally  married.  It  is  also  used  for  a 
marriage  with  a  woman  of  inferior  con-r 
dition  (performed  with  less  solemnity 
than  the  formal  marriage,)  and  to  whom 
the  husband  does  not  convey  his  rank. 
As  polygamy  was  sometimes  practised 
by  the  patriarchs,  it  was  a  common 
thing  to  see  one,  two,  or  many  wives  in 
a  family,  and  besides  these  several  con- 
cubines, 2  Sam.  iii.  3,  &c.  1  Kings  xi.  3. 
2  Chi'on.  xi.  21;  but  ever  since  the 
abrogation  of  polygamy  by  Jesus  Christ, 
and  the  reduction  of  marriage  to  its 
primitive  institution,  concubinage  has 
been  forbidden  and  condemned  among 
Christians. 

CONDESCENSION  is  that  species 
of  benevolence  which  designedly  waves 
the  supposed  advantages  of  birth,  title, 
or  station,  in  order  to  accommodate 
ourselves  to  the  state  of  an  inferior,  and 
diminish  that  restraint  Avhich  the  appa- 
rent distance  is  calculated  to  produce 
in  him.  It  is  enjoined  on  the  Christian, 
and  is  peculiarly  ornamental  to  the 
Christian  character,  Rom.  xii.  16.  The 
condescension  of  God  appears  every 
way  great,  when  we  consider  his  infinite 
perfection,  his  absolute  independence  of 
his  creatures,  his  pui-poses  of  mercy  to- 
ward them,  and  his  continual  care  over 
them. 

CONDITION,  a  term  of  a  bargain 
to  be  performed.  It  has  been  debated 
whether  faith  should  be  called  the  co7i- 
(ti'tion  of  our  salvation.  If  by  it  we 
mean  a  valuable  equivalent  for  the 
benefit  received,  or  something  to  be 
performed  in  our  own  strength,  or  that 
will  l)e  meritorious,  it  is  certainly  in- 
applicable ;  but  if  by  it  be  meant,  that 
it  is  only  a  mean,  without  which  we 
cannot  be  saved,  in  that  sense  it  is  not 
improper.    Yet  as  the  term  is  often 


made  use  of  improperly  by  those  who 
arc  mere  legalists,  perhaps  it  would  be 
as  well  to  decline  the  use  of  it. 

CONFERENCE,  the  act  of  discour- 
sing with  another  in  order  to  treat  upon 
some  subject,  or  to  settle  some  point  of 
dispute.  Conference  Meetings,  in  a  re- 
ligious sense,"  are  meetings  assembled 
for  the  purpose  of  relating  experience, 
discoursing  on  some  i-eligious  subject, 
or  for  transacting  religious  business. 
"Religious  conference,"  says  a  divine, 
"is  one  way  of  teaching  religion.  We 
all  have  leisure  time,  and  it  is  well  spent 
when  it  is  employed  in  set  conferences 
on  religion.  There  the  doubting  man 
may  open  all  his  suspicions,  and  con- 
I  firmed  Christians  will  strengthen  his 
belief;  there  the  fearful  may  learn  to  be 
A'aliant  for  the  truth  ;  there  the  liberal 
may  learn  to  devise  liberal  things; 
there  the  tongue  of  the  stammerer 
may  learn  to  speak  plainly ;  there 
Paul  may  withstand  Peter  to" the  face, 
because  he  deserves  to  be  blamed ; 
there  the  Gospel  may  be  communi- 
cated severally  to  them  of  reputation ; 
there,  in  one  woi'd,  ye  may  all  prophesy 
one  by  one,  that  all  may  learn,  and  all 
may  be  comforted.  One  hour  hi  a  week 
spent  thus  will  contribute  much  to  our 
edification,  provided  we  abstain  from 
the  disorders  that  have  often  disgraced, 
and  sometimes  destroyed,  this  excellent 
Christian  practice.  Time  should  be 
kept,  order  should  be  pVesemed,  no 
idle  question  should  be  asked ;  freedom 
of  inquiry  should  be  nourished  ;  immo- 
dest forwardness  should  be  restrained  ; 
practical,  experimental,  and  substan- 
tial subjects  should  be  examined; 
Charity  with  all  its  gentle  train  should 
be  there,  for  she  openeth  her  mouth 
with  wisdom,  and  in  her  tongue  is  the 
law  of  kindness."  See  Experience 
Meetings. 

CONFESSION,  the  verbal  acknow- 
ledgment which  a  Christian  makes  of 
his  sins.  Among  the  Jews,  it  was  the 
custom,  on  the  annual  feast  of  expiation, 
for  the  high  priest  to  make  confession 
of  sins  to  God,  in  the  name  of  the  whole 
people :  besides  this  general  confession, 
the  Jews  were  enjoined,  if  their  sins 
were  a  breach  of  the  first  table  of  the 
law,  to  make  confession  of  them  to  God; 
but  violations  of  the  second  table  were 
to  be  acknowledged  to  their  brethren. 
Confession,  according  to  Dr.  Watts,  is 
the  third  part  of  prayer,  and  includes, 
1.  A  confession  of  the  meanness  of  our 
original,  our  distance  from  God,  our 
suljjection  to  him,  and  constant  depen- 
dence on  him. — 2.  A  confession  of  our 
sins,  both  original  and  actual,  m  thought, 


GON 


109 


CON 


life,  omission  and  commission. — 3.  A 
confession  of  our  deseit  of  punishment, 
and  our  unworthincss  of  mercy. — i-  A 
confession  or  humble  representation  of 
our  wants  and  sorrows  of  every  kind. 
Confession  also  may  be  considered  as  a 
relative  duty,  or  the'  acknowledgnient  of 
anv  offence  we  have  been  guilty  of  against 
a  fellow- creature.  The  Romish  church 
i-equires  confession  not  only  as  a  duty, 
but  has  advanced  it  to  the  dignity  of  a 
sacrament.  These  confessions  are  made 
to  the  priest,  and  are  private  and  auri- 
cular ;  and  the  priest  is  not  to  reveal 
them  under  pain  of  the  highest  punish- 
ment. This,  however,  is  both  uimeces- 
sary  and  unscriptural ;  for,  in  the  first 
place,  there  is  no  proof  that  the  power 
of  remitting  and  retaining  sins  (the 
pretended  grovind  of  sacramental  con- 
lession)  was  imparted  to  any  but  the 
apostles,  or  at  the  most  to  those  to  whom 
a  discernment  of  spirits  were  commu- 
nicated.— 2.  If  our  saviour  had  designed 
this  to  have  been  a  duty,  he  would  most 
probably  have  delivered  us  an  express 
command  to  this  purpose. — 3.  This  au- 
thority of  pardoning  sins  immediately 
in  relation  to  God  (the  foundation  of  the 
pretended  duty  of  secret  confession,) 
without  any  reference  to  church  cen- 
sui'es,  was  never  claimed  for  many  ages 
after  Clirist. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  private 
auricular  confession  is  not  of  divme  au- 
thority, yet,  as  one  obsen-es,  "  there  are 
many  cases  wherein  men  under  the  guilt 
and  trouble  of  their  shis  can  neither  ap- 
pease their  own  minds,  nor  sufficiently 
direct  themselves  without  recouree  to 
some  pious  and  prudent  guide:  in  these 
cases  men  certainly  do  very  well,  and 
many  times  pi-event  a  great  deal  of  trou- 
ble and  perplexity  to  themselves  by  a 
timely  discovery  of  their  condition  to 
some  faithful  minister ;  and  to  this  pur- 
pose a  geheral  confession  is  for  the  most 
part  sufficient :  and  where  there  is  oc- 
casion for  a  more  particular  discovery, 
there  is  no  need  of  raking  into  the  par- 
ticular circumstances  of  men's  sins  to 
give  that  advice  which  is  necessary  for 
the  ease  and  comfort  of  the  penitent." 
See  Absolution;  TVat(s  on  Prayer; 
Tillotson's  Ser.,%Q.v.  160,  161;  Sinith's 
Errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

CONFESSION  OF  FAITH,  a  list 
of  the  several  articles  of  the  belief  of  I 
any  church.    There  is  some  difference  I 
between  creeds  and  confessions.  Creeds  \ 
in  their  commencement  were   simply  i 
expressions  of  faith   in   a   few  of  the 
leading  and  undisputed  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel.     Confessions  were  on  the  con- 
trary the  resiilt  of  many  an  hazea-dous 


and  laborious  effort,  at  the  dawn  of  re- 
viving literature  to  recover  these  doc- 
trhies,  and  to  separate  them  from  the 
enormous  mass  of  erroneous  and  cor- 
rupted tenets,  which  the  negligence  or 
ignorance  of  some,  and  tlie  artifices  of 
avarice  and  ambition  in  others,  had  con- 
duced to  accumulate  for  a  space  of  1000 
years,  under  an  implicit  obedience  to 
the  arrogant  pretensions  of  an  absolute 
and  infallible  authority  in  tlie  church  of 
Rome.  Objections  have  been  formed 
against  all  creeds  or  confessions  of  faith, 
as  it  is  said  they  infringe  Christian  li- 
berty, supersede  the  Scriptures,  ex- 
clude such  as  ought  not  to  be  excluded, 
and  admit  such  as  ought  not  to  be  ad- 
mitted ;  are  often  too  particular  and 
long;  are  liable  to  be  abused;  tempt 
men  to  hypocrisy ;  preclude  improve- 
ment; and  have  been  employed  as 
means  of  persecution.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  advocates  for  them  observe, 
tliat  all  the  arts  and  sciences  have  been 
reduced  to  a  system  ;  and  why  should 
not  the  truths  of  religion,  which  are  of 
greater  importance  ?  That  a  compen- 
diou;«  view  of  the  chief  and  most  neces- 
saiy  points  of  the  Christian  religion, 
which  lie  scattered  up  and  down  in  the 
Scripture,  must  be  useful  to  inform  the 
mind,  as  well  also  to  hold  forth  to  the 
world  what  are  in  general  the  senti- 
ments of  such  a  particular  church  or 
churches ;  they  tend  to  disco\'er  the 
common  friends  of  the  same  faith  to  one 
another,  and  to  unite  them  ;  that  the 
Scriptures  seem  to  authorize  and  coun- 
tenance them ;  such  as  the  moral  law, 
the  Lord's  prayer,  the  form  of  doctrine 
mentioned  oy  Paul,  Rom.  vi.  17 ;  and 
again,  "the  fonn  of  sound  words,"  in 
2  Tim.  i.  13,  &c. ;  that  their  becoming 
the  occasion  of  h\'pocrisy  is  no  fault  of 
tlie  articles,  but  of  those  who  subscribe 
them ;  that  persecution  has  been  raised 
more  by  the  turbulent  tempers  of  men 
than  from  the  nature  of  confessions. 
Some  think  that  all  articles  and  confes- 
sions of  faith  should  be  expressed  in  tlie 
bare  words  of  Scripture ;  but  it  is  re- 
plied, that  this  would  destroy  all  expo- 
sition and  interpretation  of  Scripture ; 
that  it  would  have  a  tendency  to  make 
the  ministry  of  the  word  useless ;  in  a 
great  measure  cramp  all  religious  con- 
\ersation ;  and  that  the  sentiments  of 
one  man  could  not  be  distinguished 
from  another  in  some  points  of  impor- 
tance. Some  of  the  most  notcil  confes- 
sions are,  the  39  Articles,  and  the  con- 
stitutions and  canons  of  the  church  of 
England ;  the  TFestminster  jissernhly^s 
Confession  of  Faith ;  the  Savoy  Co?i- 
fession,  or  a  declaration  of  the  faith 


CON 


110 


CON 


and  order,  owned  and  practised  in  the 
congregational  churches  in  Englaiul. 
See  also  Corpus  et  Syntagma  confessi- 
onum  Jidei,  cjuse  in  diversis  7'egnis  et 
7iaHonibus  ecclesiarum  nomiTie,jueriint 
authentice  edltee,  which  exhibits  a  body 
of  numerous  confessions.  See  likewise, 
^n  Harmony  of  the  Coiifessions  of  Faith 
of  the  Christian  and  Reformed  Church- 
es;  Watts's  Ratio7ial  Foundation  of  a 
Christian  Church,  qu.  8;  Graham  on 
JLstablishments,  p.  265,  &c.;  Bishop 
Cleaver's  Sermon  on  the  Formation  of 
the  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England; 
JPaley's  Phil.  vol.  2.  p.  321. 

COKFESSOR,  a  Christian  who  has 
made  a  solemn  and  resolute  profession 
of  the  faith,  and  has  endured  toiTnents 
in  its  defence.  A  mere  saint  is  called 
a  confessor,  to  distinguish  him  from  the 
roll  of  dignified  saints,  such  as  apostles, 
martyrs,  &c.  In  ecclesiastical  history, 
the  woi'd  confessor  is  sometimes  used 
for  martyr ;  in  after  times  it  was  con- 
fined to  those  who,  after  having  been 
tormented  by  the  tyrants,  were  per- 
mitted to  live  and  die  in  peace  ;  and  at 
last  it  was  also  used  for  those  who.  after 
having  lived  a  good  life,  died  under  an 
opinion  of  sanctit)-.  According  to  St. 
Cyprian,  he  who  presented  himself  to 
torture,  or  even  to  martyrdom,  witliout 
being  called  to  it,  was  not  called  a  coji- 
fessor  but  a  professor;  and  if  any  out 
of  want  of  courage  abandoned  his  coun- 
try, and  became  a  \oluntar)'  exile  for 
the  sake  of  the  faith,  he  was  called  ejc- 
tcrris. 

Confessor  is  also  a  priest  in  the  Ro- 
mish church,  who  has  a  power  to  hear 
•sinners  in  the  sacrament  of  penance, 
and  to  give  them  absolution.  The  con- 
fessors of  the  kings  of  France,  from  the 
time  of  Hem-y  I\  .  have  been  constantly 
Jesuits ;  before  him,  the  Dominicans 
and  Cordeliers  shared  the  office  be- 
tween them.  The  confessors  of  the 
house  of  Austria,  have  also  ordinarily 
been  Dominicans  and  Cordeliers,  but 
the  latter  emperors  have  all  taken 
Jesuits. 

CONFIRMATION,  the  act  of  esta- 
blishing any  thing  or  person. — 1.  Divine 
confirmation  is  a  work  of  the  Spirit  of 
God,  strengthening,  comforting,  and 
establishing  believers  in  faith  and  obe- 
dience, 1st.  Pet.  v.  10.  1st.  Cor.  i.  8.-2. 
Ecclesiastical  confirmation  is  a  rite 
"U'hereby  a  person,  arri\ed  to  years  of 
discretion,  undertakes  the  performance 
of  every  part  of  the  bajitismal  vow 
made  for  him  by  his  godfathers  and 
godmothers. 

In  tlic  primitive  church  it  was  done 
inimediatcly  after  baptism,  if  the  bishop 


'  happened  to  be  present  at  the  solem- 
I  nity.  Throughout  the  East  it  still  ac- 
j  companies  baptism  ;  but  the  Romanists 
i  make  it  a  distinct  independent  sacra- 
1  ment.  Seven  years  is  the  stated  time 
for  confirmation;  however,  they  are 
sometimes  after  that  age.  The  person 
j  to  be  confirmed  has  a  godfather  and 
I  godmother  appointed  him,  as  in  bap- 
j  tism.  In  the  church  of  England,  the 
I  age  of  the  persons  to  be  confirmed  is 
I  not  fixed.  Clark's  Essay  on  Confir- 
\  mation  ;  Wood  on  ditto  ;  How's  Epis- 
copacy, p.  167,  174. 

CONFLAGRATION,  GENERAL, 
a  term  used  to  denote  that  grand  period 
or  catastrophe  of  our  world,  when  the 
face  of  nature  is  to  be  changed  by  fire, 
as  foiTnerly  it  was  by  water. 

1.  Scripture  assures  us  in  the  general, 
that  this  earth  in  its  present  form  will 
not  be  perjjetual,  but  shall  come  to  an 
end. — 2.  It  farther  tells  us,  that  this  dis- 
solution of  the  world  shall  be  by  a  gene- 
ral conflagi'ation,  in   which   all  things 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth  shall  be  de- 
stroyed, bv  which  the  atmosphere  shall 
also' be  sensibly  affected,  as  in  such  a 
case  it^ necessarily  must  be,  2  Pet.  iii. 
5 — 7.  10.  12.  where,  from  the  connec- 
tion  of  the  words,  the   opposition  be- 
tween the  conflagration  and  the  deluge, 
I  as  well  as  the  most  literal  and  apparent 
■  import  of  the  phrases  themselves,  it  is 
I  plain  tliey  cannot,  as   Dr.   Hammond 
I  strangely  supposes,  refer  to  the  desola- 
I  tion  brought  on  Judca  when  destroyed 
bv  the  Romans,  but  must  refer  to  the 
j  dissolution  of  the  whole  earth. — 3.  The 
I  Scripture   represents  this  great  burn- 
I  ijig  as  a  circumstance  nearly  connected 
with  the  day  of  judgment,  2  Pet.  iii.  7. 
I  compared  Avith  2  Tliess.  i.  7,  8.    Heb. 
X.  27.    1  Cor.  iii.  12, 13  ;  and  it  is  proba- 
I  ble  that  there  may  be  an  allusion  to  tliis 
I  in  several  passages  of  the  Old  Testa- 
I  ment,  such  as  Ps.  xi.  6.    Ps.  1.  3.    Ps. 
I  xcvi.  3.    Is.  xxxiv.  4.  8. 10.    Is.  Ixvi.  15. 
Dan.  vii.  9,  10.    Mai.  iv.  1.    Zeph.  iii.  8. 
Dent,  xxxii.  22.  to  which  many  parallel 
expressions  might  be  added,  from  the 
canonical  and  apocryphal  books. — 4.  It 
is  not  express!}'  declared  how  this  burn- 
ing shall  be  kindled,  nor  how  it  shall 
end ;  which  has  gi\en  occasion  to  va- 
rious conjectures  about  it,  which  see 
below. 

The  ancient  Pythagoreans,  Platonists, 
Epicureans,  and  Stoics,  apjjear  to  have 
had  a  notion  of  the  conflagi'ation ;  though 
whence  tlicy  should  derive  it,  imless 
from  the  sacred  books,  is  difficult  to 
conceive ;  except,  perhaps,  from  .the 
Phanicians,  wlio  themselves  had  it  from 
the  Jews.    ^lention  of  the  eonflagration 


CON 


111 


CON 


is  made  in  the  books  of  the  Sibyls,  So- 
phocles, Hystaspcs,  Ovid,  Lucan,  dec. 
Dr.  Burnet,  after  J.  I'achard  and  others, 
relates  that  the  Siamese  believe  that 
the  earth  will  at  last  be  parched  up 
with  heat,  the  mountains  melted  down, 
the  earth's  wliole  surface  reduced  to  a 
level,  and  then  consumed  with  fire. 
And  the  Bramins  of  Siam  do  not  only 
hold  that  the  world  shall  be  destroyed 
by  fire,  but  also  that  a  new  eaith  shall 
be  made  out  of  the  cinders  of  the  old. 

Divines  ordinarily  account  for  the 
conflai:,'ration  metaphysically,  and  will 
have  it  take  its  rise  from  a  miracle,  as 
a  fire  from  heaven.  Philosophers  con- 
tend for  its  being  produced  from  natural 
causes,  and  will  have  it  effected  accor- 
ding tovthe  laws  of  mechanics.  Some 
think  an  eruption  of  the  central  fire 
sufficient  for  the  purpose;  and  add,  that 
this  may  be  occasioned  several  ways, 
viz.  cither  by  having  its  intention  in- 
creased, which  again  may  be  elfectcd 
either  by  being  driven  into  less  space 
by  the  encroachments  of  the  superfi- 
cial cold,  or  by  an  increase  of  the  in- 
flammability of  the  fuel  -whereon  it  is 
fed  ;  or  by  having  the  resistance  of  the 
imprisoning  earth  weakened,  Avhich  maj' 
happen  either  from  the  diminution  of 
its  matter,  by  the  consumption  of  its 
central  parts,  or  by  weakening  the  co- 
hesion of  the  constituent  parts  of  the 
mass  by  the  excess  of  the  defect  of 
moisture.  Others  look  for  the  cause  of 
the  conflagration  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
suppose  that  some  of  the  meteors  there 
engendered  in  unusual  quantities,  and 
exploded  with  unusual  vehemence,  from 
the  concurrence  of  various  circumstan- 
ces, may  effect  it  without  seeking  any 
farther. — Lastly,  others  have  recourse 
to  a  still  more  efTectual  and  flaming 
machine,  and  conclude  the  world  is  to 
undergo  its  conflagration  from  the  near 
approach  of  a  comet  in  its  return  fi'om 
the  sun. 

Various  opinions  also  are  entertained 
as  to  the  renovation  of  the  earth  after 
the  conflagration. — l.Some  Suppose  that 
the  earth  will  not  be  entirelv  consumed, 
but  that  the  matter  of  which  it  consists 
will  be  fixed,  purified,  and  refined, 
which  they  sav  will  be  the  natural  con- 
sequence of  the  action  of  fire  upon  it ; 
though  it  is  hard  to  say  what  such  a 
purification  can  do  towards  fitting  it  for 
its  intended  pui-pose,  for  it  is  certain  a 
mass  of  crystal  or  glass  would  very  ill 
answer  the  following  parts  of  this  'hy- 
pothesis.— 2.  They  suppose  that  from 
these  materials  thiis  refined,  as  from  a 
second  chaos,  there  will  by  the  power 
of  God  arise  a  new  creation  j  and  then 


the  face  of  the  earth,  and  likewise  the 
atmosphere,  will  then  be  so  restored, 
as  to  resemble  what  it  originally  was  in 
the  paradisaical  state;  and  consequently 
to  render  it  a  more  desirable  abode  for 
human  creatures  than  it  at  present  is: 
and  they  urge  for  this  purpose  the  fol- 
lowing texts,  viz.  2  Pet.  lii.  13.  (com- 
pare Is.  Ixv.  17.  Ixvi.  22.)  Matt.  xix. 
28,  29.  (compare  Mark  x.  29,  30.  Luke 
xviii.  29, 30.)  Ps.  cii.  25, 26.  Acts  iii.  21. 
1  Cor.  vii.  31.  Rom.  viii.  21. — 3.  They 
agree  in  supposing,  that  hi  this  new 
state  of  things  there  will  be  no  sea. 
Rev.  xxi.  1. — 4.  They  suppose  that  the 
earth,  thus  beautified  and  impro\ed, 
shall  be  inhabited  by  those  who  shall 
inherit  the  first  resurrection,  and  shall 
here  enjoy  a  very  considerable  degree 
of  happiness,  though  not  equal  to  that 
which  IS  to  succeed  the  general  judg- 
ment ;  which  judgment  shall,  according 
to  them,  open  when  those  thoimund 
i/ears  are  expired,  mentioned  in  Rev, 
XX.  4,  8cc.  1  Thess.  iv.  17.  compare 
ver.  15.,  which  passage  is  thought  by 
some  to  contain  aTi  insinuation  that  Paul 
expected  to  be  alive  at  the  appearance 
of  Christ,  which  must  imply  an  ex- 
pectation of  being  thus  raised  from  the 
dead  before  it ;  but  it  is  answered  that 
the  expression  ive  that  are  alive  may 
only  signify  "that  of  us  that  are  so," 
speaking  of  all  Christians  as  one  body, 
1st  Cor.  XV.  49—52.  Dr.  Hartley  de- 
clared it  as  his  opinion,  that  the  millen- 
nium will  consist  of  a  thousand  prophe- 
tical years,  where  each  day  is  a  j'ear, 
i.  e.  360,000 ;  pleading  that'  this  is  the 
language  used  in  other  parts  of  the 
Revelation.  But  it  seems  an  invincible 
oljjection  against  this  hypothesis,  which 
places  the  millennium  after  the  confla- 
gration, that  the  saints  inhabiting  the 
earth  after  the  first  resurrection  are 
represented  as  distressed  by  the  inva- 
sion of  some  Avicked  enemies,  Rev.  xx. 
7 — 9.  Ezekiel  xxxviii.  xxxix.  See 
Millennium. 

After  all,  little  can  be  said  with  cer- 
tainty as  to  this  subject.  It  is  probable 
that  the  earth  will  survive  its  fiery  trial, 
and  become  the  everlasting  abode  of 
righteousness,  as  part  of  the  holy  em- 
pire of  God ;  but,  seeing  the  language 
used  in  Scripture,  and  especially  in  the 
book  of  Revelation,  is  often  to  be  con- 
sidered as  figurative  rather  than  literal, 
it  becomes  us  to  be  cautious  in  our  con- 
clusions. Burnet\^  Theory  of  the  Earth; 
Whitby  on  the  Millcnninni;  Hartley  on 
Man,  vol.  ii.  p.  400 ;  Fleming  on  the  first 
Resurrection  ;  Ray's  three  Discourses  ; 
Whiston's  Theory  of  the  Earth ;  and 
article  Dissolution  in  this  work. 


CON 


112 


CON 


CONFUSION  OF  TONGUES,  a 
memorable  event  which  happened  in 
the  one  hundred  and  first  year,  accord- 
ing to  the  Hebrew  chronology,  and  the 
four  hundred  and  first  }'ear  by  the  Sa- 
maritan, after  the  flood,  at  the  over- 
throw of  Babel,  Gen.  xi.  Until  this  pe- 
riod there  had  I)een  but  one  common 
language,  which  formed  a  bond  of  union 
that  prevented  the  separation  of  man- 
kind into  distinct  nations.  Writers  have 
differed  much  as  to  the  natm'e  of  this 
confusion,  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
was  effected.  Some  think  that  no  new 
languages  were  formed ;  but  that  this 
event  was  accomplished  by  ci'eating  a 
misunderstanding  and  variance  among 
the  builders  without  any  immediate  in- 
fluence on  their  language ;  and  that  a 
distinction  is  to  be  made  between  con- 
founding a  language  and  forming  new 
ones.  Others  account  for  this  event  by 
the  privation  of  all  langTiage,  and  by 
supposing  that  mankind  wei'e  under  a 
necessity  of  associating  together,  and  of 
imposing  new  names  on  things  by  com- 
mon consent.  Some,  again,  ascribe  the 
confusion  to  such  an  indistinct  remem- 
brance of  the  original  language  which 
they  spoke  before,  as  made  them  speak 
it  very  difi"erently :  but  the  most  com- 
mon opinion  is,  that  God  caused  the 
builders  actually  to  forget  their  former 
language,  and  each  family  to  speak  a 
new  tongue ;  whence  originated  the  va- 
rious languages  at  present  in  the  world. 
It  is,  however,  but  of  httle  consequence 
to  know  precisely  how  this  was  eltected, 
as  the  Scriptures  are  silent  as  to  the 
manner  of  it ;  and  after  all  that  can  be 
said,  it  is  but  conjecture  still.  There 
are  some  truths,  however,  we  may  learn 
from  this  part  of  sacred  writ. — 1.  It 
teaches  us  God's  sovereignty  and  pow- 
er, by  which  he  can  easily  blast  the 
gi'eatest  attempts  of  men  to  aggrandize 
themselves,  Gen.  xi.  7,  8. — -2.  God's 
justice  in  punishing  of  those  who,  in  ido- 
lizing their  own  fame,  forget  him  to 
whom  praise  is  due,  ver.  4. — 3.  God's 
wisdom  in  overruling  evil  for  good  ;  for 
by  this  confusion  he  facilitated  the  dis- 
persion of  mankind,  in  order  to  execute 
his  own  purposes,  ver.  8,  9.  See  Henry 
and  Gill  in  loc.  'Sdllinq-Jlprt's  Orig.  Sac. 
3.  iii.  c.  V.  §  2-4;  Shuck-ford's  Con.  vol. 
i.  p.  124-140 ;  Vitringa'a  Ohs.  vol.  i.  diss. 
1.  c.  ix.  Le  Clerc's  Diss.  No.  vi.  Hutch- 
inson on  the  Confusion  of  Tongues; 
Bji.  Law's  Theory  of  Reliq^ion,  p.  66. 

CONCiREGATlON,  anassembly  of 
people  met  together  for  religious  wor- 
ship. The  term  has  been  also  used  for 
assemljlies  of  cardinals  ap])ointed  by 
the  pope  for  the  dis'-lrtv^c  nf  certain 


functions,  after  the  manner  of  our  offices 
and  courts ;  such  as  the  congregation 
of  the  inquisition,  the  congregation  of 
7ites  of  ai?ns,  &c.  &c. — It  also  signifies 
a  company  or  society  of  religious  per- 
sons cantoned  out  of  this  or  that  order, 
and  making  an  inferior  order,  Sec.  Such 
are  the  congregations  of  the  Orator}' ; 
those  of  Cluny,  6cc.  among  the  Bene- 
dictines. 

CONGREGATION ALISTS,  a  de- 
nomination of  Protestants  who  reject  all 
church  government,  except  that  of  a 
single  congregation  under  the  direction 
of  one  pastor,  with  their  elders,  assis- 
tants, or  managers.    See  Church. 

CONONITES,  a  denomination  which 
appeared  in  the  sixth  century.  They  de- 
rived their  name  from  Conon,  bishop  of 
Tarsus.  He  taught  that  the  body  never 
lost  its  form  ;  that  its  matter  alone  was 
subject  to  corruption  and  decay,  and 
was  to  be  restored  Avhen  this  mortal 
shall  put  on  immortality. 

CONSCIENCE  signifies  knowledge 
in  conjunction ;  that  is,  in  conjunction 
with  the  fact  to  which  it  is  a  witness, 
as  the  eye  is  to  the  action  done  before 
it ;  or,  as  South  observes,  it  is  a  double 
or  joijit  knowledg-e,  namely,  one  of  a 
divine  law  or  rule,  and  the  other  of  a 
man's  own  action.  It  may  be  defined  to 
be  the  judgment  which  a  man  passes  on 
the  moi-ality  of  his  actions  as  to  their 
purity  or  turpitude ;  or  the  secret  tes- 
timony of  the  soul,  whereby  it  approves 
things  that  are  good,  and  condenms 
those  tliat  arc  evil.  Some  object  to  its 
being  called  an  act,  habit,  or  faculty. 
An  act,  say  they,  would  be  represented 
as  an  agent,  whereas  conscience  is  a  tes- 
timony. To  say  it  is  a  habit,  is  to  speak 
of  it  as  a  disposition  acting,  which  is 
scarce  more  accurate  than  ascribing 
one  act  to  another;  and,  besides,  it 
would  be  strange  language  to  say  that 
conscience  itself  is  a  habit.  Agaiwst  de- 
fining it  by  the  name  of  a  power  or  fa- 
culty, it  is  objected,  that  it  occasions  a 
false  notion  of  it,  as  a  distinct  power 
from  reason. 

IVie  rules  of  conscience.  We  miust 
distinguish  between  a  rule  that  of  itself 
and  immediately  binds  the  conscience, 
and  a  rule  that  is  occasionally  of  use  to 
direct  and  satisf\  the  conscience.  Now 
in  the  first  sense  the  will  of  God  is  the 
only  rule  immediately  binding  the  con- 
science. No  one  has  authority  over  the 
conscience  but  God.  All  penal  laws, 
thei'efore,in  matters  of  mere  conscience, 
or  things  that  do  not  evidently  afiect  the 
civil  state,  are  certainly  unlawful ;  jet, 
secondly,  the  commands  of  superiors, 
not  only  natural  parents,  but  civil,  as 


CON 


113 


CON 


magistrates  or  musters,  and  every  man's 
private  engau,ements,  arc  rules  of  con- 
science in  thint;s  indifVercnt. — 3.  The 
examples  of  wise  and  good  men  may 
become  rules  of  conscience  :  but  here  it 
must  be  observed,  that  no  exam]:ile  or 
judgment  is  of  any  authority  against 
law ;  where  the  law  is  doul)tful,  and 
even  where  there  is  no  doubt,  the  side 
of  example  cannot  be  taken  till  enquiry 
has  been  first  made  conceming  what 
the  law  directs. 

Conscience  has  been  considered,  as, 
1.  natural,  or  that  common  principle 
which  instnicts  men  of  all  countries  and 
religions  in  the  duties  to  which  they  are 
all  alike  obliged.  There  seems  to  be 
something  of  this  in  the  minds  of  all 
men.  Even  in  the  darkest  regions  of 
the  earth,  and  among  the  radest  tribes 
of  men,  a  distinction  has  ever  been 
made  between  just  and  unjust,  a  duty, 
and  a  crime. 

2.  A  right  conscience  is  that  which 
decides  aright,  or,  according  to  the  only 
i-ule  of  rectitude,  the  law  of  God.  This 
is  also  called  a  tuell-informed  coiiscience, 
which  in  all  its  decisions  pi'oceeds  upon 
the  most  evident  principles  of  truth. 

3.  Kfirobable  conscience  is  tJiat  which, 
in  cases  which  admit  of  the  brightest  and 
fullest  light,  contents  itself  with  bare 
probabilities.  The  consciences  of  many 
are  of  no  liigher  character;  and  though 
we  must  not  say  a  man  cannot  be  saved 
with  such  a  conscience,  yet  such  a  con- 
science is  not  so  perfect  as  it  might  be. 

4.  An  ignorant  conscience  is  that 
which  may  declare  right,  l)ut,  as  it 
were,  by  chance,  and  without  any  just 
ground  to  build  on. 

5.  An  erroneous  conscience  is  a  con- 
science mistaken  in  its  decisions  about 
the  nature  of  actions. 

6.  A  doubting  conscience  is  a  con- 
science unresolved  about  the  nature  of 
actions ;  on  account  of  the  equal  or  near- 
ly equal  probabilities  which  appear  for 
and  against  each  side  of  the  question. 

7.  Of  an  evil  conscience  there  ai'e  se- 
veral kinds.  Conscience,  in  regard  to 
actions  in  general,  is  evil  when  it  has 
lost  more  or  less  the  sense  it  ought  to 
liave  of  the  natural  distinctions  of  moral 
good  and  evil :  this  is  a  polluted  or  de- 
filed conscience.  Conscience  is  evil  in 
itself  when  it  gives  either  none  or  a  false 
testimony  as  to  past  actions  ;  when  re- 
flecting upon  wickedness  it  feels  no 
pains,  it  is  evil,  and  said  to  be  seared  or 
hardened,  1  Tim.  iv.  2.  It  is  also  evil 
when  during  the  commission  of  sin  it 
lies  (fiiiet.  In  regard  to  future  actions, 
conscience  is  evil  if  it  does  not  startle  at 
the  proposal  of  sin,  or  connives  at  the 
comniisbion  of  it. 


For  the  right  management  of  con- 
science, we  siiould,  1.  rliideavour  to  ol)- 
tain  acquaintance  with  the  law  of  God, 
and  v.ltli  our  own  tempers  and  lives,  and 
frequently  compare  them  together. 

2.  Furnish  conscience  with  general 
principles  of  the  most  extensive  nature 
and  strongest  inHuence ;  such  as  the  su- 
preme love  of  God  ;  love  to  our  neigh- 
bours as  ourselves;  and  that  the  care  of 
our  souls  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 

3.  Preserve  the  purity  of  conscience. 

4.  Maintain  the  freedom  of  conscience, 
particularly  against  interest,  passion, 
temper,  example,  and  the  authority  of 
great  names. 

5.  We  should  accustom  ourselves  to 
cool  reflections  on  our  past  actions.  See 
Grove's  and  Palci/s  Moral  Philoso- 
phy;  South'" s  Sermons,  \o\.  ii.  sermon 
12 ;  and  books  under  Casuistry. 

CONSCIOUSNESS,  the  perception 
of  what  passes  in  a  man's  own  mind. 
We  must  not  confound  the  terms  con- 
sciousness and  conscience ;  for  though 
the  Latin  be  ignorant  of  any  such  dis- 
tinction, including  both  in  the  word  con- 
scientia,  yet  there  is  a  great  deal  of  dif- 
ference between  them  in  our  language. 
Consciousness  is  confined  to  the  actions 
of  the  mind,  being  nothing  else  but  that 
knowledge  of  itself  which  is  insepara- 
ble from  even-  thought  and  voluntary 
motion  of  the  soul.  Conscience  extends 
to  all  human  actions,  bodily  as  well  as 
mental.  Consciousness  is  the  knowledge 
of  the  existence  ;  conscience  of  the  mo- 
ral nature  of  actions.  Consciousness  is 
a  pro\ince  of  metaphysics ;  conscience 
of  moralitv. 

CONSECRATION,  a  rite  or  cere- 
mony of  dedicating  things  or  persons  to 
the  service  of  God.  It  is  used  for  the 
benediction  of  the  elements  at  the 
eucliarist :  the  ordination  of  bishops  is 
also  called  consecration. 

The  Mosaical  law  ordained  that  all 
the  first-born,  both  of  man  and  beast, 
should  be  sanctified  or  consecrated  to 
God.  We  fiiiid  also,  that  Joshua  conse- 
crated the  Gibeonites,  as  David  and  So- 
lomon did  the  Nethhiims,  to  the  sei-vice 
of  the  temple ;  and  that  the  Hebrews 
sometimes  consecrated  their  fields  and 
cattle  to  the  Lord,  after  which  they 
were  no  longer  in  their  power.  Among 
the  ancient  Christians,  the  consecration 
of  churches  was  performed  with  a  great 
deal  of  pious  solemnity.  In  what  manner 
it  was  done  for  the  first  three  ages  is  un- 
certain, the  authentic  accounts  reach- 
ing no  higher  than  the  fourth  century, 
when,  in  the  peaceable  reign  of  Con- 
stantine,  churches  were  every  where 
built  and  dedicated  with  great  solemni- 
P 


CON 


114 


CON 


ty.  The  RoniaTii;ts  have  a  great  desil  of 
fc'ppery  in  the  cei'eninnies  of  consecra- 
tion, which  they  bestow  on  almost  every 
thing';  as  bells,  candles,  books,  water, 
oil,  ashes,  palms,  swords,  banners,  pic- 
tures, ci'osses,  agnus  deis,  roses,  Sec.  In 
England,  churclies  have  been  always 
consecrated  with  particular  ceremonies, 
the  form  of  which  was  left  to  the  discre- 
tion of  the  bishop.  That  observed  by 
Abp.  Laud,  in  consecrating  Saint  Cathe- 
I'ine  Cree  church  in  London,  gave  great 
oiFence,and  well  it  might.  It  w^as  enough, 
as  one  observes,  to  have  made  even  a 
popish  cardinal  blush,  and  which  no 
Protestant  can  read  but  with  indignant 
Goncern.  "The  bishofi  came  attended 
with  several  of  the  high  commission, 
and  some  civilians.  At  his  approach  to 
the  west  door  of  the  church,  which  was 
shut,  and  guarded  by  halberdeers,  some 
that  were  appointed  fur  that  pui-pose 
cried  with  a  loud  voice — Ofiev,  open,  ye 
evei'lasthig  doora,  that  the  King  of  Crlo- 
nj  may  come  in  !  Presently  the  doors 
were  opened,  ard  the  bhhofi,  with  some 
doctors  and  principal  men,  entered.  As 
soon  as  the}'  were  within  the  place,  his 
lordship  fell  down  upon  his  knees ;  and, 
with  his  eyes  lifted  up,  and  his  arms 
spread  abroad,  said,  Thi!<  /ilace  is  hoh/ ; 
the  ground  is  holy :  in  the  ?ianie  of  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Hcly  Ghost,  r p,ro- 
nounce  it  holy.  Then,  walking  up  the 
middle  aisle  towards  the  chancel,  he 
took  up  some  of  the  dust,  and  threw  it 
into  the  air  several  times.  \Mien  he  ap- 
proached near  the  rail  of  the  commu- 
nion table,  he  bowed  tOAvards  it  five  or 
six  times;  and, returning,  went  round  the 
church,  Avith  his  attendants  in  proces- 
sion ;  saying  first  the  hundredth  and  then 
the  nineteenth  Psalm,  as  prescribed  in 
the  Romaji  Pontifical,  fie  then  read 
several  collects,  iu  one  of  which  he  prays 
God  to  accept  of  that  beautitul  building, 
and  concludes  thus:  We  consecrate  this 
church,  and  separate  it  unto  thee  as 
Holy  Ground,  not  to  be  profaned  any 
more  to  common  use.  In  another  he 
prays — That  ALL  nvho  should  hereaf- 
ter be  buried  within  the  circuit  of  tnis 
holy  and  sacred  place,  may  rest  in  their 
sepulchres  i?i  peace,  till  Christ's  coming 
to  judgment,  and  /nay  then  rise  to  eter- 
nal  life  and  happiness.  Then  the  bishop, 
sitting  under  a  cloth  of  state  in  the  aisle 
of  the  chancel,  near  the  communion  ta- 
ble, t-ook  a  written  book  in  his  hand,  and 
pronounced  curses  upon  those  Avho 
should  hereafter  profane  that  holy  place 
by  musteis  of  soldiers,  or  keeping  pro- 
fane law  courts,  or  carrying  burdens 
through  it ;  and  at  the  end  of  every 
curse  he  bowed  to  th«  ciist,  and  said, 


Let  all  the  people  say,  Amen.  When 
the  curses  were  ended,  Avhich  Avei'e 
about  tAventy,  he  pronounced  a  like 
number  of  blessings  upon  ALL  that  had 
any  hand  in  framing  and  building  that 
sacred  and  beautifiil  church  ;  and  on 
those  that  had  given,  or  should  hereafter 
give,  any  chalices,  plate,  ornaments,  or 
other  utensils ;  and,  at  the  end  of  every 
blessing,  he  bowed  to  the  east,  and  saicl. 
Let  alt  the  people  say.  Amen.  After  this 
came  the  sennon,  then  the  sacrament, 
Avhich  the  bishop  consecrated  and  ad- 
ministered in  the  folloAving  manner: — 
As  he  approached  the  altar,  he  made 
fiA  e  or  six  loAV  boAvs ;  and  coming  up  to 
the  side  of  it,  where  the  bread  and  wine 
were  covered,  he  boAved  seven  times. 
Tlien,  after  reading  many  prayers,  he 
came  near  the  bread,  and,  gently  lifting 
up  the  comer  of  the  napkin,  beheld  it ; 
and  immediately  letting  fall  the  napkin, 
he  retreated  hastily  a  step  or  tAvo,  and 
made  three  low  obeisances :  his  lordship 
then  adA^anced,  and,  having  uncovei-ed 
the  bread,  bowed  three  times  as  before. 
Then  he  laid  his  hand  on  the  cup,  Avhicli 
Avas  full  of  Avine,  Avith  a  coA'er  upon  it; 
Avhich  having  let  go,  he  stepped  back, 
and  bowed  three  times  toAvards  it;  then 
he  came  near  again,  and  lifting  up  the 
cover  of  the  cup,  looked  in  it ;  and  see- 
ing the  wi/ie,  let  fall  the  cover  again,  re- 
tired back,  and  bowed  as  before.  Then 
the  elements  Avere  consecrated ;  and 
the  bishop,  having  first  received,  gave 
it  to  some  principal  men  in  their  sur- 
plices, hoods,  and  tippets ;  after  Avhich, 
many  prayers  being  said,  the  solemnity 
of  the  consecration  ended." 

CONSISTENTES,  a  kind  of  peni- 
tents, Avho  Avere  alloAved  to  assist  at 
pravers,  but  Avho  could  not  be  admitted 
to  receive  the  sacrament. 

CONSISTORY,  a  Avord  commonly 
used  for  a  council  house  of  ecclesiastical 
persons,  or  place  of  justice  in  the  spi- 
ritual court :  a  session  or  assembly  of 
prelates.  Every  archljishojj  and  bishop 
of  CA'erv  diocese  hath  a  consistory  court, 
held  before  his  chancellor  or  commis- 
sary, in  his  cathedral  church,  or  other 
convenient  place  of  his  dit^cese  for  ec- 
clesiastical causes.  The  Ijishop's  chan- 
cellor is  the  judge  of  this  court,  suppo- 
sed to  be  skilled  in  the  civil  and  canon 
laAv  ;  and  in  places  of  the  diocese  far 
remote  from  the  bishop's  consistory,  the 
bishop  apponits  a  commissary  to  judge 
in  all  causes  Avithin  a  certain  district, 
and  a  register  to  enter  his  decrees,  &c. 
Consistory  at  Rome,  denotes  the  college 
of  cardinals,  or  the  pope's  senate  and 
council,  before  Avhom  judiciary  causes 
arc  pleaded.    Consistory  is  also  usefl 


CON 


115 


CON 


iimong  the  rcfonucd  for  a  council  or  as- 
Kcmbly  of  ministfi  s  and  elders  to  regu- 
late their  affairs,  discipline,  2cc. 

CONSTANCY,  in  a  general  sense, 
denotes  immutability,  or  invai'iahleness. 
When  applied  to  the  human  mind,  it  is 
a  steady  adherence  to  those  schemes 
and  resolutions  which  have  been  ma- 
turely formed;  the  effect  of  which  is, 
that  a  man  never  drops  a  good  design 
out  of  fear,  and  is  consistent  with  him- 
self in  all  his  words  and  actions. 

Constancy  is  more  particularly  requi- 
red of  us. — 1.  In  oiu'  devotions,  laike 
xviii.  1.  1  Thcss.  v.  17,  18.— 2.  Under 
our  sufferings,  Matt.  v.  1 2, 13.  1  Pet.  iv. 
12,  13. — 3.  In  our  profession  and  cha- 
racter, Heb.  X.  23. — 4.  In  our  benefi- 
cence, Gal.  vi.  9. — 5.  In  our  friendships, 
Prov.  xxvii.  10. 

CONSUBSTANTIAL,  a  term  of 
like  import  with  co-essential,  denoting 
something  of  the  same  substance  with 
another.  Thus  we  say  that  Chi'ist  is 
consubstantial  with  the  Father.  The 
term  ojjjacriDs,  consubstantial,  was  first 
adopted  by  the  fathers  of  the  councils  of 
Antioch  and  TTice,  to  express  the  ortho- 
dox doctrine  the  more  precisely,  and  to 
serve  as  a  barrier  and  precaution  against 
the  errors  and  subtleties  of  the  Arians, 
who  owned  every  thing  except  the  con- 
substantiality.  The  Arians  allowed  that 
the  word  was  God,  as  having  been  made 
Ciod ;  but  they  denied  that  he  was  the 
same  God,  and  of  the  same  substance 
with  the  Father :  accordingly  they  ex- 
erted themselves  to  the  utmost  to  abo- 
lish the  use  of  the  word.  The  emperor 
Constantine  used  all  his  authority  with 
the  bishops  to  have  it  expunged  out  of 
the  symbols;  but  it  was  retaiaied,  and 
is  at  this  day,  as  it  was  then,  the  distin- 
guishing criterion  between  an  Athana- 
sian  and  an  Arian.  See  articles  Arians, 
and  Jesus  Christ. 

CONSUBSTANriATION,a  tenet 
of  the  Lutheran  church,  with  regard  to 
the  manner  of  the  change  made  in  the 
bread  and  wine  in  the  eucharist.  The 
divines  of  that  profession  maintain  that, 
after  consecration,  the  body  and  blood 
of  our  Saviour  are  substantialh"  present, 
together  with  the  substance  of 'the  bread 
and  wine,  which  is  called  consub.stantia- 
tion,  or   impanation.     See  Thaxsub- 

STAXTIATION. 

CONTEMPLATION,  studious 
thought  on  any  subject;  continued  at- 
tention. "  Monks  and  mystics  consider 
contem/ilut/071  as  the  highest  degree  of 
moral  excellence ;  and  with  them  a  si- 
lent spectator  is  a  divine  man :"  but  it  is 
evident  we  are  not  j^laced  here  only  to 
think.    There  is  something  to  be  done 


as  well  as  to  contemplate.  There  are 
duties  toil!.-  crfomicd,  offices  to  be  dis- 
charged :  and  if  wc  wish  to  be  happy 
in  onrsehes,  and  useful  to  others,  we 
must  be  act'we  as  well  as  thoughtful. 

CON'lT.NTMEN'r  is  a  dispo^^'tion 
of  «niiid  in  which  our  desires  are  conft^ 
ned  to  what  we  enjoy,  without  murmur- 
ing at  our  lot,  or  wishing  ardently  for 
more.  It  stands  opposed  to  envy,  James 
iii.  16.  to  avarice,  Heb.  xiii.  5.  to  pride 
and  ambition,  Prov.  xiii.  10.  to  anxiety 
of  mind.  Matt.  vi.  25,  34.  to  murmur- 
ings  and  repinings,  1  Cor.  x.  10.  Con- 
tentment does  not  imply  unconcern 
about  our  welfare,  or  that  we  should  not 
have  a  sense  of  any  thing  uneasy  or  dis- 
tressing; nor  does  it  give  any  counte- 
nance to  idleness,  or  prevent  diligent 
endeavours  to  impro\e  our  circumstan- 
ces. It  implies,  however,  that  our  de- 
sires of  worldl}'  good  be  moderate;  that 
we  do  not  indulge  unnecessary  care,  or 
use  unlawful  efforts  to  better  ourselves ; 
but  that  we  acquiesce  with  and  make 
the  best  of  our  condition,  whate\'er  it  be. 
Contentment  arises  not  from  a  man's 
outward  condition,  but  from  his  inward 
disposition,  and  is  the  genuine  offspring 
of  humility,  attended  with  a  fixed  ha- 
bitual sense  of  God's  particular  provi- 
dence, the  recollection  of  past  mercies, 
and  a  just  estimate  of  the  tnie  nature  qf 
all  earthly  tilings.  Motives  to  content- 
ment arise  fixmi  the  consideration  of  the 
rectitude  of  the  Divine  government,  Ps. 
xcvii.  1,  2.  the  Ijrenignity  of  the  Divine 
providence,  Ps.  cxlv.  the  greatness  of 
the  Divine  promises,  2  Pet.  i.  4.  our  own 
unworthiness.  Gen.  xxxii.  10.  the  pun- 
ishments we  deserve.  Lam.  iii.  39,  40. 
the  j-eward  which  contentment  itself 
brings  with  it,  1  Tim.  vi.  6.  the  speedy 
termination  of  all  our  troubles  here,  and 
the  prospect  of  eternal  felicity  in  a  fu- 
ture state,  Rom.  v.  2.  Barrow's  JVorks, 
vol.  iii.  ser.  5,  6,  7,  8,  9  ;  Burroui^hs  on 
Contentment ;  Watson's  Art.  of  ditto  i 
Hale's  Con.  p.  59 ;  Mason's  Christian 
Morals,  \  ol.  i.  ser.  2. 

CONl'INENCY  is  that  moral  virtue 
by  which   we   restrain   concupiscence. 
'I  here  is  this  distinction  between  chas- 
tity and  continence  : — Chastity  require? 
no   effoit,  because  it  ma\'  result  from 
t  constitution ;    whereas   continency    ap- 
j  pears  to  be  the  consequence  of  a  victory 
gained  o\  er  ourselves.     The  term   is 
j|  most  usually  applied  to  men;  as  chas- 
'\  titv  is  to  women.     See  Chastity. 
II     CONTINGENT,    any    thing    that 
j!  hajjpens  without  a  fore-known  cause ; 
ij  commonly  called  accidental.    An  event 
I  not  come  to  pass  is  said  to  be  contingent, 
Ji  which  eicher  may  or  may  not  be :  what 


CON 


116 


CON 


is  already  done,  is  said  to  l^ave  been 
contingent,  if  it  m'ght  or  miglit  not  have 
been.  Whut  is  contingent  or  casual  to 
us  is  not  so  witii  God.  As  effects  stand 
related  to  a  second  cause,  they  are 
many  times  contingent ;  but  as  they 
stand  related  to  the  first  cause,  thef  are 
acts  of  God's  counsel,  and  directed  by 
his  wisdom. 

CONTRITE:  this  word  signifies  beat- 
en or  bruised,  as  with  hard  blows,  or  an 
heavy  burden ;  and  so  in  Scripture  lan- 
guage imports  one  whose  heart  is  bro- 
ken and  wounded  for  sin,  in  opposition 
to  the  heart  of  stone,  Is.  Ixvi.  2.  Ps.  li. 
17.     Ps.  Ivii.  15. 

The  evidences  of  a  broken  and  con- 
trite spirit  are,  1.  Deep  conviction  of  the 
evil  of  sin. — 2.  Humiliation  under  a  sense 
of  it.  Job  xlii.  5,  6. — 3.  Pungent  sorrow 
for  it,  Zech.  xii.  10. — 4.  Ingenuous  con- 
fession of  it,  1  John  i.  9. — 5.  Prayer  for 
deliverance  from  it,  Ps.  li.  10.  Luke 
xviii.  13. — 6.  Susceptibility  of  good  im- 
pressions. Ezek.  xi.  19. 

CONTROVERSIAL  DIVINITY. 
See  Disputation. 

CONVENT.  See  Abbey,  Monas- 
tery, Monk. 

CONVENTICLE,  a  diminutive  of 
convent,  denoting  properly  a  cabal,  or 
secret  assembly  of  a  part  of  the  monks 
of  a  convent,  to  make  a  party  in  the 
election  of  an  abbot.  The  term  conven- 
ticle is  said  by  some  to  have  been  first 
applied  in  England  to  the  schools  of 
Vvickliffe,  and  has  been  since  used  in  a 
wav  of  reproach  for  those  assemblies 
which  dissent  from  the  established 
church. 

In  1664  what  was  called  the  conventi- 
cle act  was  passed,  decreeing  that  if  any 
person  above  16  years  of  age,  was  pre- 
sent at  any  meeting  for  worship,  differ- 
ent from  the  church  of  England,  where 
there  should  be  fi\^e  persons  moi-e  than 
the  household,  they  should  for  the  first 
offence,  suffer  three  months  imprison- 
ment, or  pay  51.  for  the  second  the  pun- 
ishment is  doubled,  and  for  the  third 
they  were  to  be  banished  to  America, 
or  pay  100/.  and  if  they  returned  to  suf- 
fer death.  This  act  having  expired,  it 
was  revived  in  16G9,  for  by  22  Car.  II. 
cap.  1.  it  is  enacted,  That  it  any  persons 
of  the  age  of  sixteen  years,  subjects  of 
this  kingdom,  shall  be  present  at  any 
conventicle  where  there  are  five  or  moi-e 
assembled,  they  shall  be  fined  five  shil- 
hngs  for  the  first  ofVence,  and  ten  shil- 
lings for  the  second :  and  persons 
preaching,  incur  a  penalty  of  twent\' 
pounds.  Also  suffernig  a  meeting  to  l/e 
held  in  a  house  is  twenty  pounds  penal- 
ty :  justices  of  peace  have  poAver  to  en- 


ter such  houses,  and  seize  persons  as- 
sembled :  and  if  they  neglect  their  duty, 
they  forfeit  1 00/.  And  if  any  constable, 
&c.  know  of  such  proceedings,  and  do 
not  inform  a  justice  of  peace  or  chief 
magistrate,  he  shall  forfeit  5/.  But  the 
1st  of  William  and  Mar)',  cap.  18.  or- 
dains that  Protestant  dissenters  shall  be 
exempted  from  these  penalties ;  though 
if  they  meet  in  a  house  with  the  doors 
locked,  barred,  or  bolted,  such  dissen- 
ters sli.all  have  no  benefit  from  the  1st 
of  Vv^illiam  and  Mary.  Officers  of  the 
government,  &c.  present  at  any  conven- 
ticle at  which  there  shall  be  ten  per- 
sons, if  the  royal  family  be  not  prayed 
for  in  express  words,  shall  forfeit  40/. 
and  be  disa!)led,  Stat.  10.  Anne,  cap.  2. 

CONVERSATION,  or  discourse, 
signifies  an  interlocution  between  two  or 
more  persons,  with  this  distinction,  that 
conversation  is  used  for  any  general 
intercourse  of  sentiments  whatever, 
whereas  a  discourse  means  a  conversa- 
tion limited  to  some  particular  subject. 

To  render  conversation  at  all  times 
agreeable,  the  following  rules  have  been 
laid  down,  1.  The  parties  should  meet 
together  with  a  determined  resolution 
to  please  and  to  be  pleased. — 2.  No  one 
should  be  eager  to  interrupt  others,  or 
be  uneasy  at  being  interrupted. — 3.  All 
should  have  leave  to  speak  in  turn. — 4. 
Inattention  should  be  carefully  avoid- 
ed.— 5.  Private  concei'ns  should  ne\er 
be  mentioned,  unless  particularly  en- 
quired into,  and  even  then  as  briefly  as 
possible. — 6.  Each  person  should,  as  far 
as  propriety  will  admit,  be  afforded  an 
opportunity  of  discoursing  on  the  sub- 
ject with  which  he  is  best  acquainted. — 

7.  Stories  should  be  avoided,  unless 
short,  pointed,  and  quite  a  propos. — 

8.  Each  per.son  should  speak  often,  but 
not  long.  Haranguing  in  private  com- 
pany is  insupportable. — 9.  If  the  majo- 
rity of  the  company  be  naturally  silent 
or  reserved,  the  conversation  will  flag, 
unless  it  be  often  renewed  by  one  who 
can  stait  new  subjects. — 10.  It  is  im- 
proper to  laugh  at  one's  own  wit  and 
humour;  this  should  be  left  to  the  com- 
pany.— 11.  When  the  conversation  is 
flowing  in  a  serious  and  useful  channel, 
never  mterrupt  it  by  an  ill-timed  jest. — 
12.  It  is  at  all  times  extremely  indeli- 
cate to  whisper  to  one's  next  neighbour: 
this  is  in  some  degree  a  fraud,  conver- 
sation Ijeing  a  kind  of  commo7i  proper- 
ty.— 13.  In  .speaking  of  absent  jjeople, 
the  infallil)le  rule  is,  to  say  no  more  than 
we  should  say  if  they  were  present.  "I 
resolve,"  said  bishop  Bevendge,  "never 
to  speak  of  a  uuui's  virtues  to  his  face, 
nor  of  his  faults  behind  his  back."    A 


CON 


117 


CON 


golden  rule  I  the  observation  of  which 
•would  at  once  banish  flattery  and  defa- 
mation tVom  the  world. 

CONVERSION,  a  change  from  olie 
state  to  another.  Conversion  may  be 
J.  Merely  external,  or  that  which  con- 
sists only  in  an  outward  reformation. — 
2.  Doctrinal,  or  a  change  of  sentiments. 
— .'>.  Savinff,  which  consists  in  the  reno- 
vation of  the  heart  and  life,  or  a  ticrn- 
in[f  from  the  power  of  sin  and  Satan  un- 
to'God,  Acts  xxvi.  18.  and  is  produced 
by  the  influence  of  Divine  grace  on  the 
soul. — 4.  Sometimes  it  is  put  for  resto- 
ration, as  in  the  case  of  Peter,  Luke 
xxji.  32.  The  instrumental  cause  of 
conversion  is  usually  the  ministry  of  the 
\Vord ;  though  sometimes  it  is  produced 
by  reading,  by  serious  and  appropriate 
conversation,  sanctified  afflictions.  Sec. 
"  Conversion,"  says  the  great  Char- 
nock,  "  is  to  he  distinguished  from  re- 
generation thus. — Regeneration  is  a  spi- 
ritual change ;  conversion  is  a  spiritual 
motion:  in  regeneration  there  is  a  power 
conferred ;  conversion  is  the  exercise 
of  this  power :  in  regeneration  there  is 
given  us  a  principle  to  turn ;  conversion 
is  our  actual  turning.  In  the  covenant, 
God's  putting  his  Spirit  into  us  is  dis- 
tinguished from  our  walking  in  his  sta- 
tutes from  the  first  step  we  take  in  the 
way  of  God,  and  is  set  down  as  the  cause 
of  our  motion,  Ezek.  xxxvi.  27.  In  re- 
newing us,  God  gives  us  a  power;  in 
converting  us,  he  excites  that  power. 
Men  are  naturally  dead,  and  have  a 
stone  upon  them :  regeneration  is  a 
rolling  away  the  stone  from  the  heart, 
and  a  raising  to  newness  of  life;  and 
then  convei'sion  is  as  natural  to  a  rege- 
nerate man  as  motion  is  to  a  lively  body. 
A  principle  of  activity  will  produce  ac- 
tion. In  regeneration,  man  is  wholly 
passive ;  in  conversion,  he  is  active. 
i\\Q  first  reviving  us  is  wholly  the  act 
of  God,  without  any  concurrence  of  the 
creature ;  but  after  we  are  revived  we 
do  actively  and  voluntarily  live  in  his 
sight.  Regeneration  is  the  motion  of 
God  in  the  creature  ;  conversion  is  the 
motion  of  the  creature  to  God,  by  virtue 
of  that  first  principle :  from  this  prin- 
ciple all  the  acts  of  believing,  repent- 
ing, mortifying,  quickening,  do  spring. 
In  all  these  a  man  is  active;  in  the 
other  he  is  merely  passive."  Conver- 
sion evidences  itself  by  ardent  love  to 
God,  Ps.  Ixxiii.  25.  delight  in  his  peo- 
ple, John  xiii.  35.  attendance  on  his  or- 
dinances, Ps.  xxvii.  4.  confidence  in  his 
promises,  Ps.  ix.  10.  abhorrence  of  self, 
and  renunciation  of  tl\e  world,  Job  xlii. 
5.  James  iv.  4.  submission  to  his  au- 
thority, and  imiform  obedience  to  his 


word.  Matt.  vii.  20.    See  Calling,  Re- 

GKNF.RATION. 

CONVERT,  a  person  who  is  con- 
verted. In  a  monastic  sense,  converts 
arc  lay  friars,  or  brothers  admitted  for 
the  service  of  the  house,  without  orders, 
and  not  allovifed  to  sing  in  the  choir. 

CONVICTION,  in  general,  is  the  as- 
surance of  the  truth  of  any  proposition. 
In  a  religious  sense,  it  is  the  first  degree 
of  repentance,  and  implies  an  affecting 
sense  that  we  are  }^uilty  before  (iod ; 
that  we  can  do  nothing  of  ourselves  to 
gain  his  forfeited  favour ;  that  we  de- 
serve and  are  exposed  to  the  wrath  of 
God  ;  that  sin  is  very  odious  and  hate- 
ful, yea,  the  greatest'of  evils.  There  is 
a  natural  conviction  which  arises  fi'om 
natural  conscience,  fear  of  punishment, 
moral  suasion,  or  alarming  providences, 
but  which  is  not  of  a  permanent  nature. 
Saving  conviction  is  the  work  of  the 
Spirit,  as  the  cause ;  though  the  law, 
the  conscience,  the  Gospel,  or  affliction, 
may  be  the  means,  John  xvi.  8,  9.  Con- 
\ictions  of  sin  differ  \'ery  much  in  their 
degree  in  different  persons.  It  has  been 
observed  tliat  those  who  suff'er  the  most 
agonizing  sensations  are  such  as  never 
before  enjoyed  the  external  call  of  the 
Gospel,  or  were  not  favoured  with  the 
tuition  of  religious  parents,  but  have 
neglected  or  notoriously  abused  the 
means  of  grace.  To  these,  conviction 
is  often  sudden,  and  produces  that  hor- 
ror and  shame  which  are  not  soon  over- 
come; whereas  those  who  have  sat 
under  the  Gospel  from  their  infancy 
have  not  had  such  alarming  convictions, 
because  they  have  already  some  notion 
of  these  things,  and  have  so  much  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Ciospel  as  admi- 
nisters immediate  comfort.  As  it  is 
not,  therefore,  the  constant  method  of 
the  Spii'it  to  convince  in  one  way,  it  is 
improper  for  any  to  distress  themselves 
because  they  are  not,  or  have  not  been 
tormented  almost  to  despair :  they 
should  be  rather  thankful  that  the  Spi- 
rit of  God  has  dealt  tenderly  with  them, 
and  opened  to  them  the  source  of  con- 
solation. It  is  necessary  however  to 
observe,  that,  in  order  to  repentance  and 
conversion  to  God,  there  must  be  real 
and  lasting  coiiviction,  which,  though  it 
m.ay  not  be  the  same  in  degree,  is  the  , 
same  in  nature.  Evangelical  conviction 
differs  from  legal  conviction  thus:  legal 
arises  from  a  consideration  of  God's  jus- 
tice, power,  or  omniscience ;  evangelical 
from  God's  goodness  and  holiness,  and 
from  a  disafftction  to  sin :  legal  convic- 
tion still  conceits  there  is  some  remain- 
ing good ;  but  evangelical  is  sensible 
there  is  no  good  at   all :  legal  wishes 


COP 


lis 


COR 


freedom  fi-om  pain ;  evangelical  from 
sin:  legal  hardens  the  hea'.-t;  evangeli- 
cal softens  it:  legal  is  only  temporary; 
ex>angelical  lasting. 

CONVOCATION,  an  assembly  of 
persons  for  the  worship  of  God,  Lev. 
xxiii.  Numb,  xxviii.  Exod.  xii.  16.  An 
assembl\-  of  the  clerg}-  for  consultation 
upon  matters  ecclesiastical. 

As  the  parliament  consists  of  two  dis- 
tinct houses,  so  does  this  convocation. 
The  one  called  the  upper  house,  where 
the  archbishops  and  bishops  sit  several- 
ly by  themselves ;  the  other  the  lower 
house,  where  all  the  rest  of  the  clergy 
arc  represented  by  their  deputies. — 
The  inferior  clergy  are  represented  b.v 
their  proctors ;  consisting  of  all  the 
deans  and  ai-chdeacons ;  of  one  proctor 
for  every  chapter,  and  two  for  the 
clergy,  of  every  diocese — in  all,  one 
hundred  and  forty-three  divines,  viz. 
twenty-two  deans,  iifty-three  archdea- 
cons, twent)"-four  prebendaries,  and 
forty-four  proctors  of  the  diocesan  cler- 
gy. The  lower  house  chooses  its  pro- 
locutor, who  is  to  take  care  that  the 
members  attend,  to  collect  their  debates 
and  votes,  and  to  carrv  their  resolutions 
to  the  upper  house.  The  convocations 
is  summoned  by  the  king's  writ,  directed 
to  the  archbishop  of  each  province,  re- 
quiring him  to  summon  all  bishops, 
cleans,  archdeaccms,  &c.  The  power  of 
the  convocation  is  limited  by  a  statute 
of  Henry  VIII.  They  are  not  to  make 
any  canons,  or  ecclesiastical  laws,  with- 
out the  king's  license ;  nor,  when  per- 
mitted, can  they  put  them  in  execution 
i)ut  under  several  restrictions. — The\- 
have  the  examining  and  censuring  ail 
heretical  and  schismatical  books  and 
persons,  &c. ;  but  there  lies  an  appeal 
to  the  king  in  chancery,  or  to  his  dele- 
gates. The  clergy  in  convocation,  and 
their  servants,  have  the  same  privileges 
as  members  of  parliament.  In  1665,  the 
con\ocation  of  the  clerg\-  ga\"e  up  the 
privilege  of  taxing  themselves  to  the 
house  of  commons,  in  consideration  of 
their  being  allowed  to  vote  at  the  elec- 
tion of  members  for  that  house.  Since 
that  jieriod  they  have  been  seldom  al- 
lowed to  do  any  business ;  and  are  ge- 
Aerally  prorogued  from  time  to  time  till 
dissolved,  a  new  convocation  being  ge- 
nerally called  along  with  a  new  pai-lia- 
ment. 

COPHTI,  CopHT,  or  Copti,  a  name 
given  to  the  Christians  of  Egypt  who 
are  of  the  sect  of  the  Jacot>itcs.  Sec  Ja- 
coniTKs.  The  Cophts  have  a  patri- 
arch, who  resides  at  Cairo;  but  he  takes 
his  title  from  Alex:mdria.  He  has  no 
archbishop  under  him,  but  ck-vcn  or 


twelve  bishops.  The  rest  of  the  clergy., 
whether  secular  or  regular,  are  compo- 
sed of  the  orders  of  St.  Anthony,  St. 
Paul,  St.  Macarius,  who  have  each  their 
monasteries.  Besides  the  orders  of 
priests,  deacons,  and  sub-deacons,  the 
Cophts  have,  likewise,  archimandrites, 
or  abbots ;  the  dignity  whereof  they  con- 
fer with  all  the  prayers  and  ceremonies 
of  a  strict  ordination.  Bv  a  custom  of 
six  hundred  years  standing,  if  a  priest 
elected  bishop  be  not  already  archiman- 
drite, that  dignity  must  be  conferred  on 
||  him  before  episcopal  ordination.  The 
second  person  among  the  clergy  after 
the  patiiarch  is  tlie  titular  patriarch  of 
Jei-usalem,  who  also  resides  at  Cairo. 
To  him  belongs  the  government  of  the 
Cophtic  church  during  the  vacancy  of 
the  patriarchal  see.  To  be  elected  pa- 
triarch, it  is  necessary  tlie  person  have 
lived  all  his  life  in  continence.  To  be 
elected  bishop,  tlie  person  must  be  in 
the  celibate;  or  if  he  have  been  mar- 
ried, it  must  not  be  above  once.  The 
priests  and  inferior  ministers  are  allow- 
ed to  be  married  before  ordination  ;  but 
not  forced  to  it,  as  some  have  observed. 
They  have  a  great  number  of  deacons, 
and  even  confer  the  dignity  frequently 
on  their  children.  None  but  the  lowest 
rank  among  the  people  commence  ec- 
clesiastics: whence  arises  that  excessive 
ignorance  found  among  them  ;  yet  the 
respect  of  the  laity  towards  the  clergy 
is  very  extraordinary.  The  monastic 
Ufe  is  in  great  esteem  among  them  :  to 
be  admitted  into  it,  there  is  always  re- 
quired the  consent  of  the  bishop.  The 
religious  Cophts,  it  is  said,  make  a  vow 
of  peipetual  chastity ;  renounce  the 
world,  and  live  with  great  austerity  in 
deserts:  they  are  obliged  to  sleep  in 
their  clothes  and  their  girdle,  on  a  mat 
stretched  on  the  ground ;  and  to  pros- 
trate themselves  every  evening  one 
hundred  and  fifty  times  with  their  face 
and  breast  on  the  ground.  They  are 
all,  both  men  and  women,  of  the  lowest 
class  of  the  people,  and  live  on  alms. 
The  nunneries  are  properly  hospitals, 
and  few  enter  but  widows  reduced  to 
beggaiy. 

COIiBAN,  in  Jewish  antiquity,  were 
those  oftcrings  whicli  had  life;  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  minchah^  or  those  whicli 
had  not.  It  is  deri\ed  from  the  word 
karab,  which  signifies,  "to  approach;" 
because  the  victims  were  brought  to  the 
door  of  the  tabemacle.  The  corban 
were  always  looked  upon  as  the  most 
sacred  ofRrings.  The  Jews  are  re- 
I)roacIied  with  defeating,  by  means  of 
the  corban,  the  precept  of  the  fifth  com- 
iHan^byicnt,  which  enjoins  the  respect 


COR 


119 


cov 


due  to  parents ;  for  when  a  child  had 
no  mind  to  rche\  c  the  wants  of  his  fa- 
ther or  mother,  lie  would  say  to  them — 
"It  is  a  gift  (corban)  by  whatsoever 
thou  mightest  be  profited  by  me;''  i.  e. 
"  I  have  devoted  that  to  God  which  you 
ask  of  me,  and  it  is  no  longer  mine  to 
give."  Mark  vii.  11. 

CORDELIER,  a  Franciscan,  or  re- 
ligious of  the  order  of  St.  Francis.  The 
denomination  cordelier,  is  said  to  have 
been  given  in  the  war  of  St.  Lewis 
against  the  infidels,  wherein  ihefricir.i 
minor  having  repulsed  the  barbarians, 
and  that  king  having  enquired  their 
name,  it  was  answered,  they  were  peo- 
ple cordeliez,  "  tied  with  ropes ;"  allu- 
ding to  the  girdle  of  rope,  or  cord,  tied 
with  three  knots,  which  they  wore  as 
part  of  their  habit. 

CORNARISTS,  the  disciples  of 
Theodore  Cornhert,  an  enthusiastic 
secretary  of  the  states  of  Holland.  He 
wrote,  at  the  same  time,  against  the  Ca- 
tholics, Lutherans,  and  Calvinists.  He 
maintained  that  every  religious  com- 
munion needed  reformation  ;  but  he  ad- 
ded, that  no  person  had  a  right  to  en- 
gage in  accomplishing  it  without  a  mis- 
sion supported  by  miracles.  He  was 
also  of  opinion,  that  a  person  might  be  a 
good  Christian  without  being  a  member 
of  any  visible  cliurch. 

COVENANT,  a  contract,  or  agree- 
ment between  two  or  more  parties  on 
certain  terms.  The  terms  made  use 
of  in  the  Scriptures  for  covenant  are 
iT13  and  iiafinxn.  The  former  signifies 
choosifig,  or  friendly  parting ;  as  in  co- 
venants each  party,  in  a  friendh'  man- 
ner, consented,  and  so  bound  hiniself  to 
the  chosen  terms ;  the  latter  signifies 
testament,  as  all  the  blessings  of  the  co- 
venant are  freely  disposed  to  us.  The 
word  covenant  is  also  used  for  an  im- 
mutable ordinance,  Jer.  xxxiii.  20.  a 
promise,  Exod.  xxxiv.  10.  Is.  lix.  21. 
and  also  for  a  precept,  Jer.  xxxiv.  13, 
14.  In  Scripture  we  read  of  various  co- 
venants; such  as  those  made  with  Noah, 
Abraham,  and  the  Hebrews  at  large. 
Anciently  covenants  were  made  and  ra- 
tified with  great  solemnitv.  The  Scrip- 
tures allude  to  the  cutting  of  animals 
asunder;  denoting  that,  in  the  same 
manner,  the  perjured  and  covenant- 
breaker  should  be  cut  asunder  by  the 
vengeance  of  God,  Jer.  xxxiv.  18. 

The  covenants  which  more  especially 
relate  to  the  human  race,  are  generally 
called  the  covenant  of  works  and  the 
covenant  of  grace. 

The  covenant  of  works  is  that  where- 
by God  requires  perfect  obedience  from 
his  creatures,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 


make  no  express  provision  for  tlic  par- 
don of  oftlnces,  committed  against  the 
precepts  of  it  on  the  repentance  of  such 
offenders,  but  pronounces  a  sentence  of 
death  upon  them,  Gen.  ii.  Gal.  iv.  24. 
Ps.  Ixxxix.  S,  4.  The  covenant  of 
,^7-ace  is  generally  defined  to  be  that 
which  was  made  with  Christ,  as  the  se- 
cond Adam,  and  in  liim  with  all  the  elect 
as  his  seed,  Isa.  xlii.  1 — 6.  1  Pet.  i.  20. 
Is.  lii.  13. 

I.  The  covenant  of  wor/cs  was  made 
with  Adam ;  the  condition  of  which  was, 
his  perseverance  during  the  whole  time 
of  his  probation;  the  reward  annexed 
to  this  obedience  was  the  continuance  of 
him  and  his  posterity  in  such  perfect  ho- 
liness and  felicity  he  then  liad  while  upon 
earth,  and  everlasting  life  with  God 
hereafter.  The  fienalty  threatened  for 
the  breach  of  the  command  was  condem- 
nation ;  terminating  in  death  temporal, 
spiritual,  and  eternal.  The  seals  of  this 
covenant  were,  the  tree  of  knowledge 
and  the  tree  of  life ;  and,  perhaps,  the 
Sabbath  and  Paradise,  Gen.  ii.  iii.  GaJ. 
vi.  24.  Rom.  v.  12,  19.  This  covenant 
was  broken  by  Adam's  eating  of  tlie  for- 
bidden fruit,  Avhereby  he  and  his  pos- 
terity were  all  subject  to  ruin,  Gen.  iii. 
Rom.  V.  12,  19 ;  and  without  the  inter- 
vention of  the  divine  grace  and  mercv, 
would  have  been  lost  for  ever,  Rom.  iii. 
23.  The  Divine  Being,  foreseeing  this, 
in  infinite  wisdom  and  unspeakable  com- 
passion planned  the  covenant  of  grace  ; 
by  virtue  of  which  his  people  are  rein- 
stated in  the  blessings  of  purity,  know- 
ledge, and  felicity,  and  that  without  a 
possibility  of  any  farther  defalcation. 

II.  The  covenant  of  grace.  Some  di- 
vines make  a  distinction  betvv'een  the  co- 
venant of  redemption  and  tliat  of  grace ; 
the  former,  they  sa}^  was  made  with 
Christ  in  eternity  ;  tlie  latter  with  be- 
lievers in  time.  Others  object  to  this, 
and  suppose  it  a  needless  distinction ; 
for  there  is  but  one  covenant  of  grace, 
and  not  two,  in  which  the  head  and 
members  are  concerned ;  and,  besides, 
the  covenant  of  grace,  properly  speak- 
ing, could  not  be  made  betv/een  God 
and  man ;  for  what  can  man  restipulate 
with  God,  which  is  in  liis  power  to  do 
or  give  him,  and  which  God  has  not  a 
prior  right  unto  ?  Fallen  man  ha,s  nei- 
ther inclination  to  yield  obedience,  nor 
power  to  perform  it.  The  parties,  there- 
fore,in  this  covenant, M'e  generally  said 
to  be  the  Father  and  the  Son;  but 
Dr.  Gill  supposes  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
should  not  be  excluded,  since  he  is 
promised  in  it,  and  in  consequence  of 
It,  is  sent  down  into  the  hearts  of  be- 
lievers ;  and  which  must  be  by  agi-ee- 


GOV 


120 


GOV 


ment,  and  with  liis  consent.  If  we  be- 
lieve, therefore,  in  a  Ti-inity,  it  is  more 
proper  to  suppose  that  they  were  all 
engaged  in  this  plan  of  the  covenant, 
than  to  suppose  that  the  Father  and  Son 
were  engaged  exclusive  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  1  John  v.  6,  7 .  As  to  the  work  of 
the  Son,  it  was  the  will  and  appointment 
of  the  Father  that  he  should  take  the 
charge  and  care  of  his  people,  John  vi. 
39.  Heb.  ii.  13,  redeem  them  by  his 
blood,  John  xvii.  Heb.  x.  obey  the  law 
in  their  room,  Rom.  x.  4.  justify  them 
by  his  righteousness,  Dan,  ix.  24,  &c., 
and  finally,  presen'e  them  to  glorv,  Is. 
xl.  11.  Jesus  Christ,  according  to  the 
divine  puipose,  became  the  representa- 
tive and  covenant  head  of  his  people, 
Eph.  i.  22,  23.  Col.  i.  18.  They  were 
all  considered  in  him,  and  represented 
bv  him,  Eph.  i.  4.  promises  of  grace  and 
glory  made  to  them  in  him.  Tit.  i.  2. 

1  Cor.  i.  20.  he  suffered  in  their  stead. 

2  Cor.  v.  21.  He  is  also  to  be  considei'ed 
as  the  mediator  of  the  covenant  bv  whom 
justice  is  satisfied,  and  man  reconciled  to 
God.  See  art.  Mediator.  He  is  also 
the  surety  of  this  covenant,  Heb.  vii.  22. 
as  he  took  the  whole  debt  upon  him, 
freed  his  people  from  the  charge,  obey- 
ed the  law,  and  engaged  to  bring  his 
people  to  glory,  Heb.  ii.  13.  Is.  xlix.  5,  6. 
He  is  called  the  testator  of  the  cove- 
nant, which  is  denominated  a  Testa- 
ment, Heb.  vii.  22.  Heb.  ix.  15.  He  dis- 
poses of  his  blessings  according  to  his 
will  or  testament,  which  is  unalterable, 
signed  h\  his  hand,  and  sealed  by  his 
blood.  In  this  covenant,  as  we  before 
observed,  the  Holy  Spirit  also  is  enga- 
ged. His  assent  is  given  to  every  part 
thereof;  he  brings  his  people  into  the 
enjoyment  of  its  blessings,  1  Pet.  i.  2. 
2  Xhess.  ii.  13.  He  was  concerned  in  the 
incarnation  of  Christ,  Matt.  i.  18.  and 
assisted  his  human  nature,  Heb.  ix.  14. 
He  takes  of  the  things  of  Christ,  and 
shows  them  unto  us ;  cleanses,  enlight- 
ens, sanctifies,  establishes,  and  comforts 
his  people,  according  to  the  plan  of  the 
covenant,  Rom.  A'iii.  15,  16.  See  Holy 
Ghost. 

HI.  The  profterties  of  this  covenant 
are  such  as  these:  1.  It  is  eternal,  being 
made  before  time,  Eph.  i.  3,  4.  2  Tim.  i. 
9. — 2.  Divhie  as  to  its  origin,  springing 
entirely  from  free  grace,  Rom.  xi.  5,  6. 
Ps.  Ixxxix.  2,  3,  28. — 3.  It  is  absolute 
and  unconditional,  Eph.  ii.  8,  9. — 4.  It 
is  perfect  and  complete,  wanting  no- 
thing, 2  Sam.  xxiii.  5. — 5.  It  is  sure  and 
inmiovcable,  Isa.  liv.  10.  Isa.  Iv.  3. — 6. 
Called  new  in  0])position  to  the  old,  and 
as  its  blessings  will  be  always  new,  Heb. 
viii.  6,  8. 


IV.  These  two  covenants  above-men' 
tioned  ac(ree  in  some  fftings,  in  others 
they  cliff',  r.  1.  "In  both,"  says  Witsius, 
"  the  parties  concerned  are  God  and 
man. — 2.  In  both,  the  same  promise  of 
eternal  life. — 3.  The  condition  of  both  is 
the  same,  perfect  obedience  to  the  law 
prescribed ;  for  it  is  not  worthy  of  God 
to  admit  man  to  a  blessed  communion 
with  him  but  in  the  way  of  holiness. — 
4.  In  both  is  the  same  end,  the  glory  of 
God.  But  they  differ  in  the  following 
respects :  1.  In  the  covenant  of  works, 
the  character  or  relation  of  God  is  that 
of  a  supreme  lawgiver,  and  the  chief 
good  rejoicing  to  communicate  happi- 
ness to  his  creatures.  In  the  covenant 
of  grace  he  appears  as  infinitely  merci- 
ful, adjudging  life  to  the  elect  sinner, 
agrecal:)ly  to  his  wisdom  and  justice. — 2. 
In  the  coAenant  of  works  there  was  no 
mediator :  the  covenant  of  gi*ace  has  a 
mediator,  Christ. — 3.  In  the  covenant 
of  works,  the  condition  of  perfect  obe- 
dience was  recjuired  to  be  performed  by 
man  himself  in  covenant.  In  the  cove- 
nant of  grace  the  same  condition  is  pro- 
posed, but  to  be  performed  by  a  media- 
tor.— 4.  In  the  covenant  of  works  man  is 
considered  as  working,  and  the  reward 
as  to  l)e  given  of  debt.  In  the  covenant 
of  grace  the  man  in  covenant  is  consi- 
dered as  believing ;  eternal  life  being 
given  as  the  merit  of  the  mediator,  out 
of  free  grace,  Avhich  excludes  all  boast- 
ing.— 5.  In  tiie  covenant  of  works  some- 
thing is  required  as  a  condition,  which 
being  performed  entitles  to  reward.  The 
covenant  of  grace  consists  not  of  condi- 
tions, but  of  promises :  the  life  to  be 
obtained ;  faith,  by  which  we  are  made 
partakers  of  Christ ;  perseverance,  and, 
m  a  word,  the  whole  of  salvation,  are 
alisolutely  promised. — 6.  The  special 
end  of  the  covenant  of  works  was  the 
manifestation  of  the  holiness,  goodness, 
and  justice  of  God ;  but  the  special  end 
of  the  coAenant  of  grace,  is  the  praise 
of  the  glory  of  his  grace,  and  the  reve- 
lation of  his  unsearchable  and  manifold 
wisdom." — 7.  The  covenant  of  works 
was  only  for  a  time,  but  tlie  covenant  of 
grace  stands  sure  for  ever. 

V.  The  administration  ofthccovenajit 
of  grace. — The  coAciiant  of  grace,  under 
the  Old  Testament,  was  exhibited  by 
promises,  sacrifices,  types,  ordinances, 
and  prophecies.  Under  the  New  it  is 
admmistered  in  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel,  baptism,  and  the  Lord's  sup- 
per ;  in  which  grace  and  salvation  are 
held  forth  in  more  fulness,  evidence,  and 
efficacy  to  all  nations,  2  Cor.  iii.  6 — 18. 
Heb.  viii.  Matt,  xxviii.  19,  20.  But  in 
both  periods,  the  mediator,  the  whtsU- 


GOV 


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cou 


substance,  blessings,  and  manner  of  ob- 
taining an  interest  therein  by  fiutli,  are 
the  very  same,  without  any  difference, 
Heb.  xi.  6.  Gal.  iii.  7,  14.  The  reader, 
•who  may  wish  to  have  a  more  enlarged 
view  of  this  subject,  may  peruse  1/7/- 
&ius,  Strong;  or  Boston  on  the  Cove- 
nants, in  the  former  of  which  especially 
he  will  find  the  subject  masterly  hand- 
led. 

Covenant,  in  ecclesiastical  histon", 
denotes  a  contract  or  convention  agreed 
to  by  the  Scotch,  in  the  year  1638,  for 
maintaining  their  religion  free  from  in- 
novation. In  1581,  the  genei-al  assembly 
of  Scotland  drew  up  a  confession  of 
faith,  or  national  covenant,  condemning 
episcopal  government,  under  the  name 
of  hierarchy, vf\\\z\\  was  signed  by  James 

1.  and  which  he  enjoined  on  all  his  sub- 
jects. It  was  again  subscribed  in  1590 
and  1596.  The  subscription  was  re- 
newed in  1638,  and  the  subscribers  en- 
gaged by  oath  to  maintain  religion  in 
the  same  state  as  it  was  in  1580,  and  to 
reject  all  innovations  introduced  since 
that  time.  This  oath,  annexed  to  the 
confession  of  faith,  received  the  name 
of  Covenant,  as  those  who  subscribed 
it  were  called  Covejianters. 

Solermi  league  and  covenant,  was  es- 
tablished in  the  year  1643,  and  formed 
a  bond  of  union  between  Scotland  and 
England.  It  was  sworn  to  and  subscribed 
ny  many  in  both  nations ;  who  hereby 
solemnly  abjured  popen^  and  prelacy, 
and  conibined  together  for  their  mutual 
defence.  It  was  approved  bv  the  par- 
liament and  assembly  at  Westminster, 
and  ratified  by  the  general  asserablv  of 
Scotland  in  1645.  King  Charles  I.  dis- 
approved of  it  when  he  surrendered 
himself  to  the  Scots  army  in  1646  ;  but, 
in  1650,  Charles  II.  declared  his  appro- 
bation both  of  tliis  and  the  national  co- 
venant by  a  solemn  oath  ;  and,  in  Au- 
gust of  the  same  year,  made  a  farther 
declaration  at  Dunfermline  to  the  same 
purpose,  which  was  also  renewed  on  oc- 
casion of  his  coronation  at  Scone,  in  1651. 
The  covenant  was  ratified  by  parlia- 
ment in  this  year  ;  and  the  subscription 
of  it  was  required  by  every  member, 
without  which,  the  constitution  of  the 
parliament  was  declared  null  and  void. 
It  produced  a  series  of  distractions  in 
the  subsequent  historv  of  that  country, 
and  was  voted  illegal  by  parliament,  arid 
provision  made  against  it.  Stat.  14.  Car. 

2,  c.  4. 

'  COVETOUSNESS,  an  unreasonable 
desire  after  that  we  have  not,  with  a 
dissatisfaction  with  what  we  have.  It 
may  farther  be  considered  as  consisting 
in,  1.  An  anxious  carking  care  about 


the  things  of  this  v.orld. — 2.  A  rapacity 
in  getting. — 3.  Too  frequently  includes 
sinister  and  illegal  ways  of"  obtaining 
wealth. — 4.  A  tenacious'ness  in  keeping. 
It  is  a  A  ice  which  mar\  ellously  prevails 
upon  and  insinuates  into  the  heart  of 
man,  and  for  these  reasons :  it  often 
bears  a  near  resemblance  to  virtue ; 
braigs  with  it  many  plausible  rsasons ; 
and  raises  a  man  to  a  state  of  reputation 
on  accoimt  of  his  riches.  '■  There  can- 
not be,"  as  one  observes,  "  a  more  un- 
reasonable  sin  than  this.  It  is  unjust  j 
only  to  covet,  is  to  wish  to  be  unjust. 
It  is  crue/ :  the  covetous  must  harden 
themselves  against  a  thousand  plaintive 
voices.  It  is  ungrateful :  such  forget 
their  former  obligations  and  their  pre- 
sent supporters.  It  is  foolish :  it  de- 
stroys reputation,  breaks  the  rest,  un- 
fits for  the  performance  of  duty,  and  is 
a  contempt  of  God  himself :  it  is  unfire- 
cedentecl  in  all  our  examples  of  virtue 
mentioned  in  the  Scripture.  One,  in- 
deed, spoke  unadvisedly  with  his  lips ; 
another  cursed  and  swore  ;  a  third  was 
in  a  passion  ;  and  a  fourth  committed 
adultery  ;  but  which  of  the  saints  ever 
lived  in  a  habit  of  covetousness  ?  Lastly, 
it  is  idolatry.  Col.  iii.  5.  the  idolatry  of 
the  heart ;  where,  as  in  a  temple,  tlte 
miserable  wretch  excludes  God,  sets 
up  gold  instead  of  him,  and  places  that 
confidence  in  it  which  belongs  to  the 
Great  Supreme  alone."  Let  those  who 
live  in  the  habitual  practice  of  it  con- 
sider the  judgments  that  have  been  in- 
flicted on  such  characters,  Jo.sh.  vii.  21. 
Acts  V. ;  the  miseiy  with  which  it  is  at- 
tended ;  the  curse  such  persons  are  to 
society  ;  the  denunciations  and  cautions 
respecting  it  in  the  Holy  Scripture ; 
and  how  effectually  it  bars  men  from 
God,  from  happiness,  and  from  heaven. 
Scott's  Essays,  72,  73.  South's  Serm., 
vol.  iv.  ser.  1 ;  Robinson's  Mor.  Exer- 
cises, ex.  iv  ;  Saurin's  Serm.,  vol.  v.  ser. 
12.  Eng.  Trans.  \ 

COUNCIL,  an  assembly  of  persons 
met  together  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
sultation :  an  assembly  of  deputies  or 
commissioners  sent  from  several  church- 
es, associated  by  certain  bonds  in  a  gene- 
ral body.  Acts  i.  vi.  xv.  xxi. 

Council,  Oecumenical  or  General,is 
an  assembly  which  represents  the  whole 
body  of  the  Christi'an  church.  The 
Romanists  reckon  eighteen  of  them. 
BuUinger  six.  Dr.  Prideaux  seven,  and 
bishop  Beveridge  eight,  which,  he  says, 
are  all  the  general  councils  which  have 
ever  been  held  since  the  time  of  the 
first  Christian  emperor.  They  are  as 
follow : — 1.  The  council  of  Nice,  held 
in  the  reign  of  Constantiue  the  Great, 


cou 


122 


COU 


on  acc(Mint  of  the  heves}'  of  Arius. — 
2.  The  council  of  Constantinople,  called 
under  the  reign  and  b)'  the  command  of 
Theodosius  the  Great,  for  much  the 
same  end  that  the  former  council  was 
summoned. — 3.  The  council  of  Ephesus, 
convened  by  Theodosius  the  Younger, 
at  the  suit  of  Nestorius. — 4.  The  coun- 
cil at  Chalcedon,  held  in  the  reign  of 
Martianus,  which  approved  of  the  Eu- 
tychian  heresy. — 5.  'The  second  council 
of  Constantinople,  assembled  by  the 
emperor  Justinian,  condemned  the  three 
chapters  taken  out  of  the  book  of  Theo- 
dorus,  of  Mopsuestia,  having  first  de- 
cided that  it  was  lawful  to  anathematize 
the  dead.  Some  authors  tell  us  that 
they  likewise  condemned  the  several 
errors  of  Origen  about  the  Trinity,  the 
plurality  of  woi'lds,  and  pre-existence 
of  souls. — 6.  The  third  council  of  Con- 
stantinople, held  by  the  command  of 
Constantius  Pogonatus,  the  emperor,  in 
"which  they  received  the  definitions  of 
the  first  five  general  councils,  and  parti- 
cularly that  against  Origen  and  Theo- 
dorus,  of  Mopsuestia. — 7.  The  second 
Nicene  council. — 8.  The  fourth  council 
of  Constantinople,  assembled  when 
Louis  II.  was  emperor  of  the  West. 
Their  regulations  a\-e  contained  in 
twenty-seven  canons,  the  heads  of  which 
the  reader  may  find  in  Dupin.  What- 
ever may  be  said  in  favour  of  genei'al 
councils,  their  utility  has  been  doubted 
by  some  of  the  wisest  men.  Dr.  Jortin 
says,  "  they  have  been  too  much  extol- 
led by  Papists,  and  by  some  Protestants. 
They  were  a  collection  of  men  who 
were  frail  and  fallible.  Some  of  those 
councils  were  not  assemblies  of  pious 
and  learned  divines,  but  cabals,  the  ma- 
jority of  Avhich  were  (Quarrelsome,  fana- 
tical, domineering,  dishonest  prelates, 
who  wanted  to  compel  men  to  approve 
all  their  opinions,  of  which  they  them- 
selves had  no  clear  conceptions,  and  to 
anathematize  and  oppress  those  who 
would  not  implicitly  submit  to  their  de- 
terminations. Jortbi's  IVorks,  vol.  vii. 
charge  2 ;  Broui^htoii's  Diet. ;  Mo- 
sheini's  Eccl.  Hint.  Index. 

Councils,  Provincial  or  Occasional, 
have  been  numerous.  At  Aix  la  Cha- 
pelle,  A.  D.  816,  a  council  was  held  for 
regulating  the  canons  of  cathedral  chur- 
ches. The  council  of  Savonnieries,  in 
8.i9,  was  the  first  Avhich  gave  the  title 
of  Most  Christian  King  to  the  king  of 
France  ;  but  it  did  not  become  the  pe- 
culiar appellation  of  that  sovereign  till 
1469.  Of  Troyes,  in  887,  to  decide  the  ; 
disputes  about  the  imperial  dignity. 
The  second  council  of  Troyes,  1107, 
restrains   the   clergy  from    marrying. 


The  council  of  Clermont,  in  1095.  The 
first  crusade  was  determined  in  this 
council.  The  bishops  had  yet  the  pre- 
cedency of  cardinals.  In  this  assembly 
the  name  of  Pope  was  for  the  first  time 
given  to  the  head  of  the  church,  exclu- 
sively of  the  bishops,  who  used  to  as- 
sume that  title.  Hei'e,  also,  Hugh, 
archbishop  of  Lyons,  obtained  of  the 
pope  a  confirmation  of  the  primacy  of 
his  see  over  that  of  Sens.  The  council 
of  Rheims,  summoned  by  Eugenius  III. 
in  1148,  called  an  assembly  of  Cisastrian 
Gaul,  in  which  advowses,  or  pati'ons  of 
churches,  are  prohil^ited  taking  more 
than  ancient  fees,  upon  pain  of  depriva- 
tion and  ecclesiastical  burial.  Bishops, 
deacons,  sub-deacons,  monks,  and  nuns, 
are  restrained  fi-om  marrying.  In  this 
council  the  doctrine  of  the  1  rinity  was 
decided  :  but  upon  separation  the  pope 
called  a  congregation,  in  which  the  car- 
dinals pretended  they  had  no  right  to 
judge  of  doctrinal  points  ;  that  this  was 
the  privilege  peculiar  to  the  pope.  The 
council  of  Sutrium,  in  1046,  wherein 
three  popes  who  had  assumed  the  chair 
were  deposed.  The  council  of  Claren- 
don in  England,  against  Becket,  held  in 
1164.  The  council  of  Lombez,  in  the 
country  of  Albigeois,  in  1200,  occasion- 
ed by  some  disturbances  on  account  of 
the  Albigensis ;  a  crusade  was  formed 
on  this  account,  and  an  army  sent  to 
extirpate  them.  Innocent  III.  spirited 
up  this  barbarous  war.  Dominic  Avas 
the  apostle,  the  count  of  Toulouse  the 
victim,  and  Simon,  count  of  Montfort, 
the  conductor  or  chief.  The  council  of 
Paris  in  1210,  in  which  Aristotle's 
metaphysics  were  condemned  to  the 
flames,  lest  the  refinements  of  that  phi- 
losopher should  have  a  bad  tendency 
on  men's  minds,  by  applying  those  sub- 
jects to  religion.  The  council  of  Pisa, 
begun  March  the  2d,  1409,  in  which 
Benedict  XIII.  and  Gregory  XII.  were 
deposed.  Another  council,  sometimes 
called  general,  held  at  Pisa  in  1505. 
Lewis  XII.  of  France,  assembled  a  na- 
tional council  at  Tours  (being  highly 
disgusted  with  the  pope,)  1510,  where 
was  present  the  cardinal  De  Gurce,  de- 
puted by  the  emperor ;  and  it  was  then 
agreed  to  convene  a  general  council  at 
Pisa.    iMun-ui/'s  History  of  Religion. 

Council  of  Trent.    See  Trknt. 

COURAGE  is  that  quality  of  the 
mind  that  enables  men  to  encounter  dif- 
ficulties and  dangers.  Mtlural  courage 
is  that  which  arises  chiefly  from  consti- 
tution ;  7noral  or  fi/iiritnal  is  that  which 
is  produced  from  principle,  or  a  sense 
of  duty.  Courage  and  Fortitude  are 
often  used  as  synonymous,  but  they  may 


CRE 


\23 


CRE 


Lie distin^ishcd  thus:  fortitude  is  firm- 
ness of  mind  tliat  supixiils  pain  ;  cou- 
rage is  active  fortitude,  tliat  meets  dan- 
gers, and  attempts  to  repel  them.  See 
Fortitude. 

Courage,  says  Addison,  that  grows 
from  constitution,  very  often  foi^akes  a 
man  when  lie  has  occasion  for  it ;  and 
when  it  is  only  a  kind  of  instinct  in  the 
soul,  it  breaks  out  on  all  occasions,  with- 
out judgment  or  discretion  ;  but  that 
courage  which  arises  from  a  sense  of 
duty,  and  from  a  fear  of  offending  Him 
that  made  us,  always  acts  in  an  uniform 
manner,  and  according  to  the  dictates 
of  right  reason. 

CREATION,  in  its  primary  import, 
si^ifies  the  bringing  into  being  some- 
thing which  did  not  before  exist.  The 
term  is  therefore  most  generally  appli- 
ed to  the  original  production  of  the  ma- 
terials whereof  the  visible  world  is  com- 
posed. It  is  also  used  in  a  secondary  or 
subordinate  sense  to  denote  those  sub- 
sequent operations  of  the  Deitv  upon 
the  matter  so  produced,  by  which  the 
whole  system  of  Nature,  and  all  the 
primitive  genera  of  things,  receive  their 
form,  qualities,  and  laws. 

There  is  no  subject  concerning  which 
IcaiTied  men  have  differed  in  their  con- 
jectures more  than  in  this  of  creation. 
"  It  is  certain,"  as  a  good  writer  ob- 
serves, "  that  none  of  the  ancient  philo- 
sophers had  the  smallest  idea  of  its  be- 
ing possible  to  produce  a  substance  out 
of  nothing,  or  that  even  the  power  of 
the  Deity  himself  could  work  Avithout 
any  materials  to  work  upon.  Hence 
some  of  them,  among  whom  was  Aris- 
totle, asserted  tliat  the  world  was  eter- 
nal, both  as  to  its  matter  and  form. 
Others,  though  they  Ijelieved  that  the 
gods  had  given  the' world  its  form,  yet 
imagined  the  materials  whereof  it  is 
composed  to  have  been  eternal.  In- 
deed, the  opinions  of  the  ancients,  who 
had  not  the  benefit  of  revelation,  were 
on  this  head  so  confused  and  contradic- 
tory, that  nothing  of  any  consequence 
can  be  deduced  from  them.  The  free- 
thinkers of  our  own  and  of  former  ages 
have  denied  the  possibility  of  creation, 
as  being  a  contradiction  to'  reason  ;  and 
of  consequence  have  taken  the  oppor- 
tunity from  thence  to  discredit  revela- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  manv  defend- 
ers of  the  sacred  writings  have  assert- 
ed that  creation  out  of  nothing,  so  far 
from  being  a  contradiction  to  reason,  is 
not  only  probable,  but  demonstrably 
certain.  Nay,  some  have  gone  so  far  as 
to  say,  that  from  the  very  inspection  of 
the  visible  system  of  Nature,  we  are 
able  to  infer  that  it  was  once  in  a  state 


I  of  non-existence."    We   cannot,   how- 
'  ever,  here  enter  into  the  multiplicity  of 
'  tlic  arguments  on  l)Oth  sides;  it  is  enough 
I  for  us  to  know  what   Cod  has  been 
j  pleased  to  reveal,  both  concerning  him- 
self and  the  works  of  his  hands.  "  Men, 
and  other  animals  that  inhabit  the  earth 
I  and  the  seas ;  all  the  immense  varieties 
of  herbs  and  plants  of  which  the  vcge- 
I  table  kingdom  consists ;  the  globe  of  the 
earth,  and  the  expanse  of  the  ocean; 
i  these  we  know  to  have  been  produced 
I  by  his  power.     Besides  the  tenestrial 
world,  which  we  inhabit,  we  sec  many 
other  material  bodies  disposed  around 
it  in  the  wide  extent  of  space.    The 
moon,  which  is  in  a  pailicular  manner 
connected  with  our  earth,  and  even  de- 
pendent upon  it ;  the  sun,  and  the  other 
planets,  witli  their  satellites,  which  like 
the  earth  circulate  round  the  sun,  and 
appear  to  derive  from  him  light  and 
heat ;  those  bodies  which  we  call  fixed 
stars,  and  consider  as  illuminating  and 
cherishing  with  heat  each  its  pecidiar 
system  of  jjlanets;  and  the  cometswliich 
at  certain  ])eriods  surprise  us  with  their 
appearance,  and  the  nature  of  whose 
connection  with  the  general  system  of 
Nature,  or  with  any  particular  sjstem 
of  planets,  we  cannot  pretend  to  have 
fully  discovered  ;   these   are   so   many 
]  more  of  tlie   Deity's  works,  from  tlie 
j  contemplulion  of  which  v/e  cannot  but 
conceive  the  most  awful  ideas  of  his 
]  creative  power. 

"  Matter,  however,  whatever  the  va- 
I  rieties  of  form  under  which  it  is  made 
\  to  appear,  tlie  relative  disposition  of  its 
parts,  or  tlie  motions  commimicated  to 
;  it,  is  but  an  inferior  part  of  the  works  of 
I  creation.    We  believe  ourselves  to  be 
I  animated  witli  a  much  higher  principle 
j  than  bnite  matter  ;  in  viewing  the  man- 
ners and  economy  of  the  lower  ani- 
1  mals,  we  can  scarce  avoid  acknowiedg- 
!  ing  even  them  to  consist  of  something 
I  more  than  various  modifications  of  mat- 
I  ter  and  motion.    The  other  planetary 
I  bodies,  which  seem  to  be  in  circumstan- 
!  ces  nearly  analogous  to  those  of  our 
I  earth,  are  surel}',  as  well  as  it,  destined 
for  the  habitations  of  rational  intelligent 
beings.     The  existence  of  intelligences 
of  an  higher  order  than  man,  though  in- 
:  finitely  below  the  Deity,  appears  ex-- 
I  tremcly  probable.    Of  these   spiritual 
I  bemgs,  called  angels,  we  have  express 
intimation  in  Scripture  (see  the  article 
!  Angel.)  But  the  limits  of  the  creation 
we  must  not  pretend  to  define.    How 
far  the  regions  of  space  extend,  or  how 
they  are  filled,  we  know  not.    How  the 
planetary  worlds,  the  sun,  and  the  fixed 
'  stars  are  occupied,  we  do  not  pretend 


CKE 


1:21 


CRE 


to  have  ascertained.  Vx'e  are  even  ig- 
norant how  wide  a  diversity  of  forms, 
Avhat  an  infinity  of  living  animated  be- 
ings may  inhabit  our  own  globe.  So 
confined  is  our  knowledge  or  creation, 
yet  so  grand,  so  awful,  that  part  which 
our  narrow  understandings  can  com- 
prehend 1 

"  Concerning  the  periods  of  time  at 
which  the.  Deity  executed  his  several 
W'orks,  it  cannot  be  pretended  that  man- 
kind have  had  opportunities  of  receiv- 
ing veiy  particular  information.  Many 
have  been  the  conjectures,  and  curious 
the  fancies  of  learned  men,  respecting 
it ;  but,  after  all,  v.e  must  be  indebted 
to  the  sacred  writings  for  the  best  infor- 
mation." Different  copies,  indeed,  give 
different  dates.  The  Hebrew  copy  of 
the  Bible,  which  we  Christians,  for  good 
reasons,  consider  as  the  most  authentic, 
dates  the  creation  of  the  world  3944 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
Samaritan  Bible,  again,  fixes  the  era  of 
the  creation  4305  years  before  the  birth 
of  Christ.  And  the  Greek  translation, 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Septuagint 
version  of  the  Bi'ole,  gives  3270  as  the 
rmmber  of  the  years  which  intei'vened 
between  these  two  periods.  By  com- 
paring the  various  dates  in  the  sacred 
writings,  examining  how  these  have 
come  to  disagree,  and  to  be  diversified 
in  different  copies  ;  endeavouring  to  re- 
concile the  most  authentic  profane  Avith 
sacred  chronology,  some  ingenious  men 
have  formed  schemes  of  chronology 
plausible,  indeed,  but  not  supported  by 
sufficient  authorities,  which  they  would 
gladly  persuade  us  to  receive  in  pre- 
ference to  any  of  those  above-mention- 
ed. Usher  makes  out  from  the  Hebrew 
Bible  4004  years  as  the  term  between 
the  ci'eation  and  the  birth  of  Christ. 
Josephus,  according  to  Dr.  Wills,  and 
Mi\  Whiston,  makes  it  4658  years;  and 
M.  Pezi'on,  with  the  help  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint, extends  it  to  5872  years.  Ush- 
er's svstem  is  the  most  generally  receiv- 
ed. But  though  these  different  systems 
of  chronology  are  so  inconsistent,  and 
so  slenderly  supported,  yet  the  differ- 
ences among  them  are  so  inconsider- 
able, in  comparison  with  those  which 
arise  before  us  when  we  contemplate 
the  chronology  of  the  Chinese,  the 
Chaldeans,  and  the  Egyptians,  and  they 
agree  so  well  with  the  general  informa- 
tion of  authentic  history,  and  with  the 
appearances  of  nature  and  of  society, 
that  they  may  be  considered  as  nearly 
fixing  the  ti-ue  period  of  the  creation  of 
the  earth."  Uncertain,  however,  as  we 
may  be  as  to  the  exact  time  of  the  crea- 
tion, we  may  profitably  apply  ourselves 


'!  to  the  contemplation  of  this  immense 
;!  fabric.    Indeed,  the  beautiful  and  mul- 
.,  tiforni  works  around  us  must  strike  the 
||  mind  of  e^  ery  beholder  with  wonder 
I'  and  admiration,  unless  he  be  enveloped 
i^  in  ignorance,  and  chained  down  to  the 
'  earth  with    sensuality.     These  works 
I  eveiy  way  proclaim   the  wisdom,  the 
|,  power,  and  the  goodness  of  the  Creator. 
j  Creation  is  a  book  which  the  nicest 
I  philosopher  may  study  with  the  deepest 
[  attention.    Unlike  the  works  of  art,  the 
ij  more  it  is  examined,  the  more  it  opens 
j  to  us  sources  of  admiration  of  its  great 
j  Author ;  the  more  it  calls  for  our  in- 
j  spection,  and  the  more  it  demands  our 
ii  praise.    Here  every  thing  is  adjusted  in 
the  exactest  order;  all  answering  the 
j  wisest  ends,  and  acting  according  to  the 
,  appointed   laws  of   Deity.     Here  the 
I!  Christian  is  led  into  the  most  delightfiU 
field  of  contemplation.    To  him  every 
pebble  becomes  a  preacher,  and  every 
atom  a  step  by  which  he  ascends  to  his 
Creator.    Placed  in  this  beautiful  tem- 
ple, and  looking  around  on  all  its  vari- 
ous parts,  he  cannot  help  joining  with 
the  Psalmist  in  saying,  "O  Lord,  how 
manifold  are  thy  works ;  in  wisdom  hast 
thou  made  them  all !"    See  Eternity 
of  God. 

See  Baij  and  Blackmore  on  the  Crea- 
tion; art.  Creation,  Enc.  Brit.;  Der- 
/!a?}i's  Astro  and  Physico-theolo^y ; 
Hei-uey''s  Meditations ;  La  Pluche's 
A'ature  Displayed ;  Sturm's  Rejlections 
on  the  Works  of  God. 

CREDULITY,  the  belief  of  any  pro- 
position without  sufficient  evidence  of 
its  tnith. 

CREED,  a  fonn  of  words  in  which 
the  articles  of  faith  are  comprehended. 
See  Confession. 

The  most  ancient  form  of  creeds  is 
that  which  goes  under  the  name  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed  (see  below ;)  besides 
this,  there  are   several   other  ancient 
foiTns  and  scattered  remains  of  creeds 
to  be  met  with  in  the  primitive  records 
of  the  church  ;  as,  1.  1  he  form  of  apos- 
tolical doctrine  collected  by  Origen. — 
2.  A  fragment  of  a  creed  preserved  by 
Tertullian. — 3.  A  remnant  of  a  creed  in 
the  works  of  Cx^prian. — 4.  A  creed  com- 
jl  posed   by  Gregory'  Thaumaturgus  for 
ij  the  use  of  hisowni  church. — 5.  The  creed 
jl  of  Lncian,  the  martyr. — 6.  The  creed 
li  of  the  apostolical  constitutions.   Besides 
'j  these  scattered  remains  of  the  ancient 
ii  creeds,  there  are  extant  some  perfect 
^;  foiTns,  as  those  of  Jerusalem,  Cesarea, 
Antioch,  &c. 

CREED,  APOSTLES',  is  a  formula 
or  summary  of  the  Christian  faith, 
dra^vn  up,  according  to  Ruffinus,  by  the 


CRE 


125 


CRI 


apostles  themselves  ;  who,  during  their 
stay  at  Jerusalem,  soon  after  our  Lord's 
ascension,  agreed  upon  this  creed  as  a 
ni!e  of  faith.  Baronius  and  others  con- 
jecture tliat  they  did  not  compose  it 
till  the  second  year  of  Claudius,  a  little 
before  their  dispersion ;  but  there  are 
many  reasons  which  induce  us  to  ques- 
tion whether  the  apostles  composed 
any  such  creed.  For,  1.  Neither  St. 
Liike,  nor  any  other  writer  before  the 
fifth  century,  make  any  mention  of  an 
assembly  of  the  apostles  for  composing  a 
creed. — 2.  The  fathers  of  the  first  three 
centuries,  in  disputing  against  the  here- 
tics, endeavour  to  pi-ove  that  the  doc- 
trine contained  in  this  creed  w^as  the 
same  which  the  apostles  taught ;  but 
they  never  pretend  that  the  apostles 
composed  it. — 3.  If  the  apostles  had 
made  this  creed,  it  would  have  been 
the  same  in  all  churches  and  in  all  ages ; 
and  all  authors  would  have  cited  it  af- 
ter the  same  manner.  But  the  case  is 
quite  otherwise.  In  the  second  and 
third  ages  of  the  church  there  were  as 
many  creeds  as  authors  ;  and  the  same 
authors  sets  down  the  creed  after  a  dif- 
ferent manner  in  several  places  of  his 
works  ;  which  is  an  evidence,  that  there 
was  not,  at  that  time,  any  creed  reputed 
to  be  the  apostles'.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, Ruffinus  compares  together  the 
three  ancient  creeds  of  the  churches  of 
Aquileia,  Rome,  and  the  East,  which 
differ  verv"  considerably.  Besides,  these 
creeds  differed  not  only  in  the  terms 
and  expressions,  but  even  in  the  articles, 
some  of  which  were  omitted  in  one  or 
other  of  them  ;  such  as  those  of  the  de- 
scent into  hell,  the  communion  of  the 
saints,  and  Ihe  life  everlasting:  From 
all  which  it  m'av  be  gathered,  that 
though  this  creed  may  be  said  to  be 
that  of  the  apostles,  in  regard  to  the 
doctrines  contained  therein,  vet  it  can- 
not be  referred  to  them  as  the  authors 
of  it.  Its  great  antiquity,  however,  may 
be  inferred  from  hence,  that  the  whole 
form,  as  it  now  stands  in  the  English 
liturgy,  is  to  be  found  in  the  works  of 
St.  Afnbi'ose  and  Ruffinus ;  the  former 
of  whom  flourished  in  the  third,  and  the 
lattei;  in  the  fourth  century.  The 
primitive  Christians  did  not 'publicly 
recite  the  creed,  except  at  baptisms, 
which,  unless  in  cases  of  necessity,  were 
only  at  Easter  and  Whitsuntide'.  The 
constant  repeating  of  it  was  not  intro- 
duced into  the  church  till  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century ;  about  which  time  Peter 
(inaphius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  prescribed 
the  recital  of  it  every  time  divine  ser- 
vice was  performed.  See  Kind's  His- 
tory of  the  ylfiostles'  Creed  ;  and  £ar- 


ronu^s  Exfiositioji  of  it  in  his  Works, 

CREED,  ATH  AN  ASIAN,  a  formu- 
laiy  or  confession  of  faith,  long  sup- 
posed to  have  been  drawn  up  by  Atha- 
nasius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  in  the 
fourth  century,  to  justify  himself  again.st 
the  calumnies  of  his  Arian  enemies ; 
but  it  is  now  generally  allowed  not  to 
have  been  his.  Dr.  Waterland  ascribes 
it  to  Hilaiy,  bishop  of  Aries.  This 
creed  obtained  in  France  about  A.  D. 
850,  and  was  received  in  Spam  and 
Germany  about  180  years  later.  As  to 
our  own  countiy,  we  have  clear  proofs 
of  its  being  sung  alternately  in  our 
churches  in  the  tenth  centuiy.  It  was 
in  common  use  in  some  parts  of  Italy  in 
960,  and  was  received  at  Rome  about 
1014.  As  to  the  Greek  and  Oriental 
churches,  it  has  been  questioned 
whether  they  have  ever  received  it, 
though  some  writei's  are  of  a  contrary 
persuasion.  The  episcopal  churches  of 
America  have  rejected  it.  As  to  the 
matter  of  it,  it  is  given  as  a  summary  of 
the  true  orthodox  faith.  Unhappily, 
however,  it  has  proved  a  fruitful  source 
of  unprofitable  controversy.  See  Dr. 
IVuterland's  Critical  Histor-y  of  it. 

CREED,  NICENE,  a  formulaiy  of 
Christian  faith  ;  so  called,  because  it  is 
a  paraphrase  of  that  creed  which  was 
made  at  the  first  general  council  of 
Nice.  This  latter  was  drawn  up  by  the 
second  general  council  of  Constantino- 
ple, A.  D.  381 :  and  therefore  might  be 
more  properly  styled  the  Constantino- 
politan  creed.  The  creed  was  carried 
by  a  majority,  and  admitted  into  the 
church  as  a  barrier  against  Arius  and 
his  followers. 

The  three  creeds  above-n?entioned  are 
used  in  the  public  offices  of  the  church 
of  England  ;  and  subscription  to  them  is 
required  of  all  the  established  clergy. 
Subscription  to  these  was  also  required 
of  the  dissenting  teachers  by  the  tolera- 
tion act ;  but  from  which  they  are  now 
relieved  bv'  19  Geo.  IIL 

CRIME,  a  voluntary  breach  of  any- 
known  law.  Faults  result  from  human 
weakness,  being  transgressions  of  the 
rules  of  duty.  Crimes  proceed  from  the 
wickedness  of  the  heart,  bring  actions 
against  the  rules  of  nature.  See  Pun- 
ishment and  Sin. 

CRISPITES,  those  who  adopt  the 
sentiments  of  Dr.  Crisp,  a  divine  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  was  fond,  it 
is  said,  of  expressions  which  alarm,  and 
paradoxes  which  astonish ;  and  per- 
plexed himself  much  about  the  dixine 
purposes.  He  did  not  distinguish  as  he 
ought,  between  God's  secret  v,'ill  in  his 


CRO 


126 


CRO 


decrees,  and  his  revealed  will  in  his  co- 
venant and  promises.  The  root  of  his 
erroi'  seems  to  be  this  : — he  viewed  the 
union  between  Christ  and  the  believer 
to  be  of  such  a  kind  as  actuallj-  to  make 
a  Sa\'iour  of  the  sinner,  and  a  sinner  of 
the  Saviour.  He  speaks  as  if  God  con- 
sidered the  sinner  as  doing  and  suffering 
■what  Christ  did  and  suffered;  and  Christ 
as  having  committed  their  sins,  and  as 
being  actually  guilty  of  them.  See  book 
Txnder  articles  Antinomians  and  Neo- 
NOMiANs.  Crisp's  Sermo7is,  edited  by 
Dr.  Gill ;  Bogtie  and  Bennet's  History 
of  Dissenters,  vol.  i.  p.  400. 

CROISADE,  or  Crusade,  may  be 
applied  to  any  war  undertaken  on  pre- 
tence of  defending  the  cause  of  religion, 
but  has  been  chiefly  used  for  the  expe- 
ditions of  the  Christians  against  the 
infidels  for  the  conquest  of  Palestine. 

These  expeditions  commenced  A.  D. 
1096.  The  foundation  of  them  was  a 
superstitious  veneration  for  those  places 
Avhere  our  Saviour  performed  his  mi- 
racles, and  accomplished  the  work  of 
man's  redemption.  Jerusalem  had  been 
taken  and  ralestine  conquered  by 
Omar.  This  proved  a  considerable  in- 
terruption to  the  pilgrims,  who  flocked 
from  all  quarters  to  perform  their  de- 
\'Otions  at  the  holy  sepulchre.  Tliev 
had,  however,  still  been  allowed  this 
liberty,  on  paying  a  small  tribute  to  the 
Saracen  caliphs,  who  were  not  much 
inclined  to  molest  them.  But,  in  1064, 
this  city  changed  its  masters.  The 
Turks  took  it  from  the  Saracens ;  and 
being  much  more  fierce  and  barbarous, 
the  pilgrims  now  found  they  could  no 
longer  perform  their  devotions  with  the 
same  safety.  An  opinion  was  about  this 
time  also  prevalent  in  Europe,  which 
made  these  pilgrimages  much  more 
frequent  than  formerly :  it  was  ima- 
gined, that  the  1000  years  mentioned  in 
Rev.  XX.  were  fulfilled  ;  that  Christ  was 
soon  to  make  his  appearance  in  Pales- 
tine to  judge  the  world ;  and  conse- 
quently that  journeys  to  that  country 
were  in  the  highest  degree  meritorious, 
and  even  absolutely  necessaiy.  The 
multitudes  of  pilgrims  who  now  flocked 
to  Palestine  meeting  with  a  veiy  rough 
reception  from  the  Tuj-ks,  filled  all 
Europe  with  complaints  against  those 
infidels,  who  profaned  the  holy  city,  and 
derided  the  sacred  mysteries  of  Chris- 
tianity even  in  the  place  where  they 
were  fulfilled.  Pope  (Jregory  VII.  had 
formed  a  design  of  uniting  all  the 
princes  of  Christendom  against  the  Ma- 
nometans ;  but  his  exorbitant  encroach- 
ments upon  the  civil  power  of  princes 
had  created  him  so  many  enemies,  and 


rendered  his  schemes  so  suspicious,  that 
he  was  not  able  to  make  great  progress 
in  his  undertaking.  The  work  was  re- 
served for  a  meaner  instrument.  Peter, 
commonly  called  the  Hermit,  a  native 
of  Amiens  in  Picardy,  had  made  the 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  ;  and  being 
deeply  affected  with  the  dangers  to 
which  that  act  of  piety  now  exposed 
the  pilgrims,  as  well  as  with  the  op- 
pression under  which  the  eastern  Chris- 
tians now  laboured,  formed  the  bold, 
and,  in  all  appearance,  impracticable 
design  of  leading  into  Asia,  from  the 
farthest  extremities  of  the  West,  armies 
sufficient  to  subdue  those  potent  and 
warlike  nations  that  now  held  the  holy 
land  in  slavery.  He  proposed  his  scheme 
to  pope  Martin  II.  who,  pi-udently  re- 
solving not  to  intei-pose  his  authority 
till  he  saw  a  probability  of  success,  sum- 
moned at  Placentia  a  council  of  4000 
ecclesiastics  and  30,000  seculars.  As 
no  hall  could  be  found  large  enough  to 
contain  such  a  multitude,  the  assembly 
was  held  in  a  plain.  Here  the  pope 
himself,  as  well  as  Peter,  harangued  the 
people,  representing  the  dismal  situa- 
tion of  their  brethren  in  the  East,  and 
the  indignity  offered  to  the  Christian 
name  in  allowing  the  holy  city  to  re- 
main in  the  hands  of  the  infidels.  These 
speeches  were  so  agreeable  to  those 
who  heard  them,  that  the  whole  multi- 
tude suddenly  and  violently  declared 
for  the  warj  and  solemnly  de\'Oted 
themselves  to  perform  this  service, 
which  thev  believed  to  be  meritorious 
in  the  sight  of  God.  But  though  Italy 
seemed  to  have  embraced  the  design 
with  ardour,  Martin  thought  it  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  obtain  perfect  success, 
to  engage  the  greater  and  more  warlike 
nations  in  the  same  enterprise.  Having, 
therefore  exhorted  Peter  to  visit  the 
chief  cities  and  sovereigns  of  Christen- 
dom, he  summoned  another  council  at 
Clermont  in  Auvergne.  The  fame  of 
this  great  and  pious  design  being  now 
universallv  diffused,  procured  the  at- 
tendance of  the  greatest  prelates,  nobles, 
and  princes;  and  when  the  pope  and 
the  hermit  renewed  their  pathetic  ex- 
hortations, the  whole  assembly,  as  if 
imjjcllcd  by  immediate  inspiration,  ex- 
claimed with  one  voice,  "  It  is  the  will 
of  God  I"  These  words  were  deemed 
so  much  the  effect  of  a  divine  impulse, 
that  tliey  were  employed  as  the  signal 
of  rendezvous  and  battle  in  all  future 
exploits  of  these  adventurers.  Men  of 
all  ranks  now  flew  to  arms  with  the 
utmost  ardour,  and  a  cross  was  affixed 
to  their  right  shoulder  by  all  who  enlist- 
ed in  this  holy  eiiteipris'e.    At  this  time 


CRO 


127 


CRO 


Europe  was  sunk  in  the  most  profound 
ignorance  and  superstition.  The  eccle- 
siastics had  gained  the  greatest  ascend- 
ant over  the  human  mind ;  and  the  peo- 
ple who  committed  the  most  horrid 
crimes  and  disorders,  knew  of  no  other 
expiation  than  the  observances  imposed 
on  them  by  their  spiritual  pastors.  But 
amidst  the  abject  superstition  which 
now  prevailed,  the  military  spii-it  had 
also  universally  diifused  itself;  and, 
though  not  supported  by  ait  or  disci- 
pline, was  become  the  general  passion 
of  the  nations  governed  by  the  feudal 
law.  All  the  great  lords  possessed  the 
right  of  peace  and  war.  They  wei-e 
engaged  in  continual  hostilities  with  one 
another  :  the  open  country  was  become 
a  scene  of  outrage  and  disorder :  the 
cities,  still  mean  and  poor,  were  neither 
giiarded  by  walls  nor  protected  by  pri- 
vileges. Every  man  was  obliged  to  de- 
pend for  safety  on  his  own  force,  or  his 
private  alliances ;  and  valour  was  the 
only  excellence  which  was  held  in  es- 
teem, or  gave  one  man  the  pre-eminence 
above  another.  When  all  the  particular 
superstitions,  therefore,  were  here  uni- 
ted in  one  great  object,  the  ai'dour  for 
private  hostilities  took  the  same  direc- 
tion ;  "  and  all  Europe,"  as  the  princess 
Anna  Comnena  expresses  it,  "  torn  from 
its  foundations,  seemed  ready  to  pre- 
cipitate itself  in  one  united  body  upon 
Asia." 

All  ranks  of  men  now  deeming  the 
croisades  the  only  road  to  heaven,  were 
impatient  to  open  the  wav  with  their 
swords  to  the  holy  city.  Nobles,  arti- 
zans,  peasants,  even  priests,  enrolled 
their  names ;  and  to  decline  this  service 
was  branded  with  the  reproach  of  im- 
piety or  cowardice.  The  nobles  were 
moved,  by  the  romantic  spirit  of  the 
age,  to  hope  for  opulent  establishments 
in  the  East,  the  chief  seat  of  arts  and 
commerce  at  that  time.  In  pursuit  of 
these  chimerical  projects,  they  sold  at 
low  prices  their  ancient  castles  and  in- 
heritances, which  had  now  lost  all  value 
in  their  eyes.  The  infirm  and  aged  con- 
tributed to  the  expedition  by  presents 
and  money,  and  many  of  them  attended 
it  in  person ;  being  determined,  if  possi- 
ble to  breathe  then-  last  in  sight  of  that 
city  where  their  Saviour  died  for  them. 
Even  women,  concealing  their  sex  un- 
der the  disguise  of  armour,  attended  the 
camp  ;  and  often  forgot  their  duty  still 
more,  by  prostituting  themselves  to  the 
army.  The  greatest  criminals  v/ere  for- 
ward in  a  service  which  thev  consider- 
ed as  an  expiation  for  all  crimes ;  and 
the  most  enormous  disorders  were,  du- 
ring the   course  of  these  expeditions. 


committed  by  men  inured  to  wicked- 
ness, encouraged  by  example,  and  im- 
pelled by  necessity.  The  adventurers 
were  at  last  so  numerous,  that  their  sa- 
gacious leaders  became  apprehensive 
lest  the  greatness  of  the  armament 
would  be  the  cause  of  its  own  disap- 
pointment. For  this  reason  they  per- 
mitted an  undisciplined  multitude,  com- 
puted at  300,000  men,  to  go  before  them 
under  the  command  of  Peter  the  her- 
mit, and  Gautier  or  Walter,  surnamed 
the  moiieyless,  from  his  being  a  soldier 
of  fortune.  These  took  the  road  towai'ds 
Constantinople  through  Hungary  and 
Bulgaria ;  and  trusting  that  heaven,  by 
supernatural  assistance,  would  supply 
all  their  necessities,  they  made  no  pro- 
vision for  subsistence  m  their  march. 
They  soon  found  themselves  obliged  to 
obtain  by  plunder  what  they  vainly  ex- 
pected from  miracles  :  and  the  enraged 
mhabitants  of  the  countries  through 
which  they  passed  attacked  the  disoi*- 
derly  multitude,  and  slaughtered  them 
without  resistance.  The  more  disciplined 
armies  followed  after;  and,  passing  the 
straits  of  Constantinople,  were  muster- 
ed in  the  plains  of  Asia,  and  amounted 
in  the  whole  to  "00,000  men.  The 
princes  engaged  in  this  first  crusade 
were,  Hugo,  count  of  Vermandois,  bro- 
ther to  Philip  I.  king  of  France ;  Ro- 
bert, duke  ot  Normandy ;  Robert,  earl 
of  Flanders  ;  Raimond,  earl  of  Toulouse 
and  St.  Giles;  the  celebrated  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon,  duke  of  LoiTain,  Avith  his 
brothers  Baldwin  and  Eustace ;  Ste- 
phen, earl  of  Chartres  and  Blois ;  Hugo, 
count  of  St.  Paul ;  with  many  other 
lords.  The  general  rendezvous  Avas  at 
Constantinople.  In  this  expedition,  God- 
frey besieged  and  took  the  city  of  Nice. 
Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  confede- 
rated army,  and  Godfrey  chosen  king. 
The  Christians  gained  the  famous  bat- 
tle of  Ascalon  against  the  Sultan  of 
Eg}"pt,  which  put  an  end  to  the  first 
crusade,  but  not  to  the  spirit  of  cini- 
sading.  The  rage  continued  for  near  two 
centuries.  The  second  crusade,  in  1144, 
was  headed  bv  the  emperor  Conrad  III. 
and  Louis  Vll.  king  of  France.  The 
emperor's  army  was  either  destroyed 
by  the  enemy,  or  perished  through  the 
treachery  of  Manuel,  the  Greek  empe- 
ror ;  and  the  second  army,  through  the 
unfaithfulness  of  the  Christians  of  Syria, 
was  forced  to  break  up  the  siege  of  Da- 
mascus. The  third  crusade,  in  1188,  im- 
mediately followed  the  taking  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Saladin,  the  Sultan  of  Egypt. 
The  princes  engaged  in  this  expedition 
were,  the  emperor  Frederic  Barbaros- 
sa ;  Frederic,  duke  of  Suabia,  his  secoTiti 


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son  ;  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria ;  Ber- 
thold,  duke  of  Moravia ;  Herman,  mar- 
qiiis  of  Baden ;  the  counts  of  Nassau, 
Thuringia,  Missen,  and  Holland;  and 
above  sixty  other  princes  of  the  em- 
pire ;  with  the  bishops  of  Besan§on, 
Cambray,  Munster,  Osnaburg,  Missen, 
Passau,  Visburg,  and  several  others.  In 
this  expedition  the  emperor  Frederic 
defeated  the  Sultan  of  Iconium  :  his  son 
Frederic,  joined  by  Guy  Lusignon,  king 
of  Jerusalem,  in  vain  endeavoured  to 
take  Acre  or  Ptolemais.  During  these 
transactions,  Philip  Augustus,  king  of 
France,  and  Richard  I.  king  of  England, 
joined  the  croisade ;  by  which  means 
the  Christian  army  consisted  of  300,000 
figliting  -men ;  but  great  disputes  hap- 
pening between  the  kings  of  France  and 
England,  the  former  quitted  the  holy 
land,  and  Richard  concluded  a  peace 
with  Saladin.  The  fourth  croisade  was 
undertaken  in  1195,  by  the  enaperor 
Henry  VI.  after  Saladin  s  death.  In  this 
expedition  the  Christians  gained  several 
battles  against  the  infidels,  took  a  great 
many  towns,  and  were  in  the  way  of 
success,  when  the  death  of  the  emperor 
obliged  them  to  quit  the  holy  land,  and 
return  into  Germany.  The  fifth  croisade 
was  published  by  pope  Innocent  III.  hi 
1198.  Those  engaged  in  it  made  fruit- 
less efforts  for  the  recovery  of  the  holy 
land:  for,  though  John  de  Neule,  who 
commanded  the  fleet  equipped  in  Flan- 
ders, arrived  at  Ptolemais  a  little  after 
Simon  of  Montfort,  Renard  of  Dam- 
pierre,  and  others,  yet  the  plague  de- 
stroying many  of  them,  and  the  rest 
either  returning,  or  engaging  in  the 
petty  quarrels  of  the  Christian  princes, 
there  was  nothing  done ;  so  that  the 
sultan  of  Aleppo  easily  defeated  their 
troops  in  1204.  The  sixth  croisade  be- 
gan in  1228  ;  in  Avhich  the  Christians 
took  the  tov/n  of  Damietta,  but  were 
forced  to  surrender  it  again.  In  1229, 
the  emperor  Frederic  made  peace  with 
the  sultan  for  ten  years.  About  1240, 
Richard,  earl  of  Corawall,  brother  to 
Henry  III.  king  of  England,  arrived  at 
Palestine,  at  the  head  of  the  English 
croisade ;  but  finding  it  most  advan- 
tageous to  conclude  a  peace,  he  rc- 
ernbarked,  and  steered  towards  Italy. 
In  1244,  the  Karasmians  being  driven 
out  of  Turkey  by  the  Tartars,  broke 
into  Palestine,'  and  gave  the  Christians 
a  general  defeat  near  Gaza.  The  se- 
venth croisade  was  headed,  in  1249,  by 
St.  Lewis,  who  took  the  town  of  Dami- 
etta; l)ut  a  sickness  happening  in  the 
Christian  ai-mv,  the  king  endca\ourcd 
a  retreat ;  in  wliicli,  being  pursued  by 
the  infidels,  most  of  his  army  were  mi- 


serably butchered,  and  himself  and  the 
nobility  taken  prisoners.  A  truce  was 
agreed  upon  for  ten  years,  and  the  king 
and  lords  set  at  liberty.  The  eighth 
croisade,  in  1279,  was' headed  by  the 
same  prince,  who  made  himself  master 
of  the  port  and  castle  of  Carthage  in 
Africa ;  but  dying  a  short  time  after,  he 
left  his  army  in  a  very  ill  condition. 
Soon  after,  the  king  of  Sicily  coming  up 
with  a  good  fleet,  and  joining  Philip  the 
bold,  son  and  successor  of  Lewis,  the 
king  of  Tunis,  after  several  engage- 
ments Avith  the  Christians,  in  which  he 
was  always  worsted,  desired  peace, 
which  was  granted  upon  conditions  ad- 
vantageous to  the  Christians ;  after 
which  both  princes  embarked  to  their 
own  kingdoms.  Prince  Edward,  of 
England,  who  arrived  at  Tunis  at  the 
time  of  this  treaty,  sailed  towards  Pto- 
lemais, where  he  landed  a  small  body 
of  300  English  and  French,  and  hinder- 
ed Bendochar  from  la)dng  siege  to  Pto- 
lemais: but  being  obliged  to  return  to 
take  possession  of  the  crown  of  England, 
this  croisade  ended  without  contributing 
any  thing  to  the  recovery  of  the  holy 
land.  In  1291,  the  town  of  Acre  or 
Ptolemais  was  taken  and  plundered  by 
the  sultan  of  Egypt,  and  the  Christians 
quite  driven  out  of  Syria.  There  has 
been  no  croisade  since  that  period, 
though  several  popes  have  attempted 
to  stir  up  the  Christians  to  such  an  un- 
dertaking ;  particularly  Nicholas  IV. 
in  1292,  and  Clement  V.  in  1311. 

Though  these  croisades  wei'e  effects 
of  the  most  absurd   superstition,  they 
tended  greatly  to  promote  the  good  of 
Europe.     Multitudes,  indeed,  were  de- 
stroyed.    M.    Voltaire    computes    the 
people  who  perislied  in  the  different 
expeditions  at  upwai'ds  of  two  millions. 
Many  thei-e  were,  however,  who  re- 
turned ;  and  these  having  conversed  so 
long  with  people  who  lived  in  a  much 
more  magnificent  way  than  themselves, 
began  to  entertain  some  taste  for  a  re- 
fined and  polished  way  of  life.     Thus 
the  bai-barism   in  which   Eui'ope  had 
been  so  long  immersed  began  to  wear 
off  soon  after.     The  princes  also  who 
I  remained  at  home,  found  means  to  avail 
'  themselves  of  the  frenzy  of  the  people. 
j  By  the  absence  of   such  numbers  oi 
I  restless  and  martial  adventurer.s,  peace 
I  was    established    in    their    dominions. 
j  They  also  took  the  opportunity  of  an- 
I  nexing  to  their  ci'ov>'ns  many  consider- 
j  able  fiefs,  either  by  purchase,  or  the 
extinction  of  the  heirs ;  and  thus  the 
mischiefs  which    must  always  attend 
I  feudal  governments  were  considera1)!> 
i  lessened.    With  rega-rd  to  the  bud  sue- 


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•ess  of  the  croisaders,  it  was  scarcely 
possible  that  anv  other  thing  could  hap- 
pen to  thtni.  The  cmperoi-s  of  Constan- 
tinople, instead  of  assisting,  did  all  in 
their  power  to  disconcert  their  schemes : 
they  were  jealous,  and  not  without  rea- 
son,' of  such  :in  inundation  of  barbarians. 
Yet,  had  they  considered  then-  true  in- 
terest, they  would  rather  have  assisted 
them,  or  at   least    stood  neuter,  than 
enter  hito   alliances  with  the  Turks. 
They  followed  the  latter  method,  how- 
ever, and  were  often  of  very  great  dis- 
service   to    the    western    adventurers, 
■which   at  last   occasioned  the  loss  of 
their  city.    But  the  worst  enemies  the 
croisaders  had  were  their  own  internal 
feuds    and    dissentions.    They   neither 
could  agree  while   marching  together 
in  armies  with  a  view  to  conquest,  nor 
could  they  unite  their  conquests  under 
one  government   after  they  had  made 
them.    They  set  up  three  small  states, 
one  at  Jerusalem,  another  at  Antioch, 
and  another  at  Edessa.    These  states, 
instead   of   assisting,   made   war   upon 
each  other,  and  on  the  Greek  empe- 
rors ;  and  thus  became  an  «asy  prey  to 
the  common  enemy.   The  homd  cruel- 
ties  they    committed,  too,  must   have 
inspired  the  Turks  with  the  most  in- 
vincible hatred  against  them,  and  made 
them  resist  with  the  greatest  obsthiac). 
They  were  saich  as  could  have  been 
committed  only  by  barbarians  inflamed 
with    the    most    bigoted    enthusiasm. 
"N^^Tien  Jerusalem  was  taken,-  not  only 
the  numerous  garrisons  were  put  to  the 
sword,  but  the  mhabitants  were  massa- 
cred without  mercy  and  Avithout  dis- 
tinction.   No  age  or  sex  was  spared, 
not  e\en  sucking  children.    According 
to  Voltaire,  some  Christians,  who  had 
been  suffered  by  the  Turks  to  live  in 
that  city,  led  the  conquerors  into  the 
most  private  caves,  where  women  had 
conccrJed   themselves  with  their  chil- 
dren, and  not  one  of  them  was  suffered 
to  escape.    What  eminently  shows  the 
enthusiasm  by  which  these  conquerors 
were  animated,  is,  their  behaviour  after 
this  terrible  slaughter.    They  marched 
over  heaps  of  dead  bodies  towards  the 
holy  sepulchre ;  and  while  their  hands 
were  polluted  with  the  blood  of  so  many 
innocent  persons,  sung  anthems  to  tlie 
common  Saviour  of  Mankind  !  Nay,  so 
far  did  their  reUgious  enthusiasm  over- 
come  their  fur\-,  that  these  ferocious 
conquerors  now  burst  into  tears.    If  the 
absurdity  and  wickedness  of  their  con- 
duct can  be  exceeded  by  any  thing,  it 
must  be  by  what  follows.    In  1204,  the 
frenzy  of  croisading  seized  the  children, 
who  are  ever  readv  to  imitate  what 


they  see  their  parents  engaged  in. 
Their  childish  folly  was  encouraged  by 
the  monks  and  schoolma-sters ;  and 
thousands  of  those  innocents  were  con- 
ducted from  the  houses  of  their  parents 
on  the  superstitious  interpretation  of 
these  words:  "Out  of  the  mouths  of 
babes  and  sucklings  hast  thoii  perfected 
pi^aise."  Their  base  conductors  sold  a 
part  of  them  to  the  Turks,  and  the  rest 
perished  miseralily.  Hume's  Hist,  of 
England,  vol.  I.  p."  292,  &c.  and  vol.  li.  ■ 
p.  280 ;  Enc.  Brit,  and  Mosheim's  Ecc.  f 
Hist.  f 

CROISTERS,  a  religious  order,  found- 
ed in  honour  of  the  invention  or  discove- 
I'v  of  the  cross  by  the  empress  Helena. 
They  were,  tUl  of  late,  dispersed  in  se- 
veral parts  of  Europe,  particularlv  in 
the  Low  Countries,  France,  and  Bohe- 
mia; those  of  Italy  were  suppressed 
even  brfore  the  late  revolutions.  These 
religious  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Augus- 
tine. They  had  In  England  the  name 
of  Crouched  Friars. 

CROSIER,  orCROziER,a  shepherd's 
crook  ;  a  symbol  of  pastoral  authority, 
consisting  of  a  gold  or  silver  staff,  crook- 
ed at  the  top,  carried  occasionally  be- 
fore bishops  and  abbots,  and  held  in  the 
hand  when  they  give  the  solemn  bene- 
dictions. 

CROSS,  in  Scripture  language,  means 
the  sufferings  of  Christ,  Gal.  vi.  14. 
The  sufferings,  trials,  or  persecutions 
of  the  people  are  also  called  a  cross. 
Matt.  xvi.  24.  Cross  signifies  also  a 
gibbet,  made  with  two  pieces  of  wood, 
placed  crosswise,  whether  they  cross 
with  right  angles  at  the  top  like  a  T, 
or  in  the  middle  of  their  length  like  an 
X.  The  cross  to  which  our  Saviour 
was  fastened,  and  on  which  he  died, 
was  of  the  former  kind ;  being  thus  re- 
presented by  old  monuments,  coins,  and 
crosses.  The  death  of  the  cross  was 
the  most  dreadful  of  all  others,  both  for 
the  shame  and  pain  of  it ;  and  so  scan- 
dalous, that  it  was  mflicted  as  the  last 
mark  of  detestation  upon  the  vilest  of 
people.  It  was  the  punishment  of  rob- 
bers and  murderers,  provided  that  they 
were  slaves  too ;  but  otherwise,  if  they 
were  fi-ee,  and  had  the  privilege  of  the 
city  of  Rome,  this  was  then  thought  a 
prostitution  of  that  honour,  and  too  in- 
famous a  punishment  for  such  a  one, 
let  his  crimes  be  what  they  would.  The 
form  of  a  cross  being  such  as  has  been 
already  described,  the  body  of  the  cri- 
minal was  fastened  to  the  upright  piece 
by  nailing  the  feet  to  it,  and  on  the 
other  transverse  piece  generalh-  by 
nailing  the  hands  on  each  side.  Now, 
because  these  parts  of  the  borlv,  being 
R  ' 


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the  instnimcnts  of  action  and  motion, 
are  p:■o^  ided  by  Natui'e  with  a  much 
greater  quaiitity  of  nei*\'cs  than  otliers 
have  occ-ision  for ;  and  because  all  sen- 
sation is  perfoiTncd  by  the  spirit  con- 
tained in  the  nen^es ;  it  will  follow,  as 
Stanhcpe  observes,  that  wherever  they 
abound,  tiie  sense  of  pain  must  needs  in 
proportion  be  more  quick  and  tender. 
The  JcAvs  confess,  indeed,  that  tliey 
crucified  people  in  their  n-ttion,  but 
deny  that  they  inflicted  this  punishment 
upon  any  one  alive.  They  first  put 
them  to  death,  and  then  fastened  them 
to  the  ci'oss,  either  by  tl:e  hands  or 
neck.  But  there  are  indisputable  pi-oofs 
of  their  cracifying  men  frequently  alive. 
Tlie  worshippei'^  of  Baal-pcor,  and  the 
king  of  Ai  were  hung  up  alive ;  as  were 
also  the  descendants  of  Saul,  who  were 
put  into  the  hands  of  the  Gibeonites, 
2  Sam.  xxi.  9. 

Befare  crucifixion,  the  criminal  w^as 
generally  scourged  with  cords;  some- 
times little  bones,  or  pieces  of  bones, 
were  tied  to  these  scourges,  so  that  the 
condemned  person  might  suffer  more 
severely.  It  avus  also  a  custom,  tliat  he 
who  was  to  he  crucified  should  bear  his 
cw"i  cross  to  the  place  of  execution. 
Aftf;r  this  manner,  we  find  Christ  was 
compelled  to  lieoi"  his  cross ;  and  as  he 
sunk  under  tlie  burden,  Simon  the  Cy- 
renian  was  constrained  to  bear  it  after 
him  and  with  him.  But  whereas  it  is 
generallv  su])po5ed  that  our  Lord  bore 
the  vrh<>]e  cross,  i.  c.  the  long  and  trans- 
verse part  both,  this  seems  to  be  a  thing 
impfissible ;  and  therefore  Lipsius  (in 
his  treatise  De  SiifipUcio  Crucis)  has 
set  the  matter  in  a  ti-ue  light,  when  he 
tells  us  that  Jesus  only  carried  tlie 
transverse  beam ;  because  the  long ! 
beam,  or  the  body  of  the  cross,  Avas 
either  fixed  in  the  ground  before,  or 
made  ready  to  be  set  up  as  soon  as  the 
prisoner  came ;  and  from  hence  he  ob- 
ser\cs,  that  painters  are  very  much 
mistaken  in  the  description  of  our  Sa- 
viour carrying  the  whole  cross.  There 
were  several  ways  of  cnicifying;  some- 
times the  criminal  was  fastened  Avith 
cords  to  a  tree,  sometimes  he  was  cni- 
cified  Avith  h'.s  head  doAvuAvards.  This 
Avay,  it  is  said,  Peter  chose,  out  of  re- 
spect to  his  master,  Jesus  Christ,  not 
thinking  himself  Avortliy  to  be  crucified 
like  him  ;  though  the  common  Avay  of 
cruc'fyin>v  Avas  bv  f  istening  the  ci-iniinal 
Avith  liails,  one  through  each  hand,  and 
one  through  both  feet,  or  one  tln'ough 
each  of  them  ;  for  this  Avas  not  always 
performed  in  the  same  manner;  the 
ancients  sometimes  represent  Jesus 
Christ  cnicified  Avith  four  nails,  and 


sometimes  with  three.  The  criminal 
Avas  fixed  to  the  cross  quite  naked ;  and, 
in  all  probabilitA",  the  Saviour  of  sinners 
Avas  not  used  AVith  any  greater  tender- 
ness than  others  upon  Avhom  this  pu- 
nishment was  hiflicted.  The  text  of  the 
Gospel  shoAvs  clearly  that  Jesus  Chnst 
Avas  fastened  to  the  cross  with  nails; 
and  tlfe  Psalmist  (Ps.  xxii.  16.)  had 
foretold  long  before,  that  they  sliould 
pierce  his  hands  and  his  feet ;  but  there 
are  great  disputes  concerning  the  num- 
ber of  these  naUs.  The  Greeks  repre- 
sent our  Saviour  as  fastened  to  tlie  cross 
Avith  foiir  nails ;  in  Avhich  particular 
Gregoiy  of  Tours  agrees  Avith  them, 
one  on  each  hand  and  foot.  But  seA'eral 
are  of  opinion  that  our  SaA'iour's  hands 
and  feet  Avere  pierced  Avith  tliree  nails 
onlA%  A"iz.  one  on  each  hand,  and  one 
through  both  his  feet :  and  the  custonj 
of  the  Latins  is  rather  for  this  last 
opinion;  for  the  generality  of  the  old 
cnicifixes  made  m  the  Latin  church 
have  only  three  nails.  Nonnus  thinks 
that  our  Saviour's  ai'ms  Avere  besides 
bound  fast  to  the  cross  Avith  chains;  and 
St.  Hilary  speaks  of  the  coixls  Avhere- 
Avith  he  was  tied  to  it.  Sometimes  they 
A7ho  Avere  fastened  upon  the  cross  liveH 
a  good  Avhile  in  that  condition.  St.  An- 
drcAv  is  belicA-ed  to  haA-e  continued  three 
days  alive  upon  it.  Eusebius  speaks  of 
certain  martyrs  in  Egypt  Avho  Avere  kept 
upon  the  cross  till  they  Avere  starved  to 
death.  Pilate  Avas  amazed  at  Jesus 
Christ's'dying  so  soon,  because  natural- 
ly he  must  have  lived  longer,  if  it  had 
not  been  in  his  poAvcr  to  haA-e  laid  doAvn 
his  life,  and  to  take  it  up  again.  The 
thighs  of  the  tAvo  thicA  es,  Avho  Avere 
crucified  Avith  our  SaA-iour,Avere  broken, 
in  order  to  hasten  their  death,  that  their 
bodies  might  not  remain  upon  the  cross 
on  the  Sabbath  day,  John  xix.  31,33; 
and  to  com])ly  Avith  the  law  of  Moses, 
Avhich  forbids  the  bodies  to  be  left  there 
after  sun-set.  But,  among  other  nations, 
tney  Avere  suiTered  to  remain  upon  the 
cross  a  long  time.  Somct'uues  they  Avere 
dcA'Oured  alive  by  bii-ds  and  beasts  of 
prey.  Guards  Avere  ajjjjointed  to  ob- 
serve that  none  of  their  friends  or  rela- 
tions should  take  them  doAvn  and  buiy 
them.  The  Roman  soldiers,  AV'ho  had 
cnicified  Jes\is  Clirist  and  the  tAvo 
thicA'es,  continued  near  the  crosses  tDl 
the  bodies  Avere  taken  doAvn  and  buried. 
Invention  of  fhe  Cross,  an  ancient 
feast  solemnized  oti  the  3cl  of  May,  in 
memoiy  of  St.  Helena's  (the  mother  of 
Constahtiue)  finding  the  true  cross  of 
Christ  deep  in  the  gi-ound  on  Mount 
Calvary,  Avhere  she  erected  a  church 
for  the  preservation  of  part  of  it  j  the 


CRU 


131 


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rest  being  brouglit  to  Rome,  and  depo- 
sited m  the  chui-ch  of  the  Holy  Cross 
of  Jemsalcm. 

Exaltation  of  the  Cross,  an  ancient 
feast  held  on  the  14th  of  September,  in 
memory  of  tins,  that  Heraclitus  resto- 
red to  Mount  Calvary  the  true  cross,  in 
642,  which  had  been  carried  off  four- 
teen years  before  by  Cosrocs,  kin,^  of 
Pei-sia,  upon  his  taking  Jei-usalem  irom 
the  emperor  Phocas. 

The  Jdoratioii  of  the  Cross  seems  to 
have  been  practised  in  the  ancient 
church,  in  as  much  as  the  heathens, 
particularly  Julian,  reproached  the  pri- 
mitive Christians  with  it ;  and  we  do 
not  find  that  their  apologists  disclaimed 
the  charge.  Mornay,  indeed,  asserted 
that  this  had  been  done  by  St.  Cyril, 
but  could  not  support  his  allegation  at 
the  conference  of  Fontainbleau.  St. 
Helena  is  -said  to  have  reduced  the  ado- 
ration of  the  cross  to  its  just  principle, 
since  she  adored  Christ  in  the  wood,  not 
the'  wood  itself.  With  such  modifica- 
tions some  Protestants  have  been  in- 
duced to  admit  the  adoration  of  the 
CTOSS.  John  Huss  allowed  of  the  phrase, 
pro^^ded  it  were  expressly  added,  that 
the  adoration  was  relative  to  the  person 
of  Christ.  But,  however  Roman  catho- 
lics may  seem  to  triumph  by  virtue  of 
such  distinction  and  mitigations,  it  is 
well  known  they  have  no  great  place 
in  their  own  practice.  Imbert,"  the 
prior  of  Gascom%  was  severely  prose- 
cuted in  16S3,  for  telling  the  people, 
that,  in  the  ceremony  ot  adoring  the 
cross,  practised  in  that  church  on  Good 
Friday,  the}'-  were  not  to  adore  the 
wood,  but  Christ,  who  was  crucified  on 
it.  The  curate  of  the  parish  told  them 
the  contrary.  It  was  the  wood;  the 
wood  they  were  to  adore !  Imbert  re- 
plied, it  was  Christ,  not  the  wood ;  for 
which  he  was  cited  before  the  arch- 
bishop of  Bourdeaux,  suspended  from 
his  fimctions,  and  even  threatened  with 
chains  and  pei-petual  imprisonment.  It 
little  availed  hmi  to  cite  the  bishop  of 
Meaux's  distinction ;  it  was  answered, 
that  the  church  allowed  it  not. 

CROSS-BEARER,  in  the  Romish 
church,  the  chaplain  of  an  archbishop, 
who  bears  a  cross  before  him  on  solemn 
occasions.  Cross-bearers  iilso  denote 
certain  officers  in  the  Inquisition,  who 
make  a  vow  before  the  Inquisitors,  or 
their  vicars,  to  defend  the  catliolic  faith, 
though  with  the  loss  of  fortune  and  life. 
Their  business  is  also  to  provide  the 
Inquisitors  with  necessaries. 

CRUCIFIX,  a  cross,  upon  which  the 
body  of  Christ  is  fastened  in  effigy,  used 
by  the  Roman  catholics,  to  excite  in 


their  minds   a  strong  idea  of  our  Sa- 
viour's passion.         * 

CRUCIFIXION  OF  CHRIST.  See 
Cross. 

CRUSADE.    See  Croisade. 

CURATE,  the  lowest  degree  in  the 
church  of  England  ;  he  who  represents 
the  incumbent  of  a  church,  parson,  or 
vicar,  and  officiates  in  his  stead :  he  is 
to  be  licensed  and  admitted  by  the  bi- 
shop of  the  diocese,  or  by  an  ordinaiy 
having  episcopal  jurisdiction ;  and  when 
a  curate  hath  the  approbation  of  the 
bishop,  he  usually  appoints  the  salary 
too ;  and,  in  such  case,  if  he  be  not  paid, 
the  curate  hath  a  proper  remedy  in  the 
ecclesiastical  court,  by  a  sequestration 
of  the  pi'ofits  of  the  benefice  :  but  if  the 
curate  be  not  licensed  ijy  the  bishop, 
he  is  put  to  his  remedy  at  common  law, 
where  he  must  pro\-e  the  agi-eement, 
&c.  A  curate,  having  no  fixed  estate 
in  his  curacy,  not  being  uistituted  and 
inducted,  may  be  removed  at  pleasure 
by  the  bishop,  or  mcumbent.  But  there 
are  perpetual  curates  as  well  as  tem- 
porary, who  are  appointed  where  tithes 
are  impi'opriate,  and  no  vicarage  en- 
dowed: these  are  not  removeal)le,  and 
the  improprietors  are  obliged  to  find 
them  ;  some  whereof  have  certain  por- 
tions of  the  tithes  settled  on  them.  Cu- 
rates must  subscribe  the  declaration 
.according  to  the  act  of  uniformity,  or 
are  liable  to  imprisonment.  Though 
the  condition  of  curates  be  somewhat 
ameliorated  by  a  late  act,  it  must  be 
confessed  that  they  are  still,  in  many 
respects,  exposed  to  hardships:  their 
salaries  are  not  equal  to  manj'  dissent- 
ing ministers,  who  have  nothing  to  de- 
pend on  but  the  liberality  of  their  peo- 
ple. Can  there  be  a  greater  reproach  to 
the  dignified  ecclesiastics  of  this  coun- 
tiy,  than  the  comparatively  miserable 
pittance  allowed  the  curates,  who  do  all 
the  labour?  Surely  they  must  be  a  set  of 
useless  l^eings,  to  reap  so  little  wages ; 
or  else  they  are  unjustly  treated ! ! ! 

CURIOSITY,  a  propensity  or  dispo- 
sition of  the  soul  which  inclines  it  to 
enquire  after  new  objects,  and  to  delight 
in  viewing  them.  Curiosity  is  proper, 
when  it  springs  from  a  desire  to  know 
our  duty,  to  mature  our  judgments,  to 
enlarge  our  minds,  and  to  regulate  our 
conduct ;  but  improper  when  it  wishes 
to  know  more  of  God,  of  the  decrees ;  the 
origin  of  evil ;  the  •  state  of  men,  or  the 
nature  of  things,  than  it  is  designed  for 
us  to  know.  The  evil  of  this  is  evident. 
It  reproaches  God's  goodness;  it  is  a 
violation  of  Scripture,  Deut.  xxii.  29 ;  it 
robs  us  of  our  time  ;  it  often  makes  us 
unliappy,  lessens   our  usefulness,'  and 


CUK 


132 


CYN 


produces  mischief.  To  cui-e  this  dispo- 
sition let  us  considfer  the  divine  com- 
mand, Phil.  iv.  6.  that  every  thing  es- 
sential is  revealed ;  that  God  cannot 
err ;  that  we  shall  be  satisfied  in  a  fu- 
tui*e  state,  Is.  xiii.  7.  Curiosity  concern- 
ing the  affairs  of  others  is  exceedingly 
i-eprehensiblc.  "  It  internipts,"  says  an 
elegant  writer,  "  the  order,  and  breaks 
the  peace  of  society.  Persons  of  this 
disposition  are  dangerous  troublers  of 
the  world.  Crossing  the  lines  in  which 
others  move,  they  create  confusion,  and 
awaken  resentment.  Hence,  many  a 
friendship  has  been  broken ;  the  peace 
of  many  a  family  has  been  overthrown; 
and  much  bitter  and  lasting  discord  has 
been  propagated  through  society.  Such 
a  disposition  is  entirely  the  reverse  of 
that  amiable  spirit  of  chai'ity  our  Lord 
inculcates.  Charity,  like  the  sun,  bright- 
ens every  object  on  which  it  shines:  a 
censorious  disposition  casts  every  cha- 
I'acter  into  the  darkest  shade  it  will 
bear.  It  is  to  be  further  observed,  that 
all  impertinent  curiosity  about  the  af- 
fairs ot  others  tends  gi-eatly  to  obstruct 
personal  reformation.  They  who  are 
so  officiously  occupied  about  their  neigh- 
bour, have  little  leisure,  and  less  in- 
clination, to  observe  their  own  defects, 
or  to  mind  their  own  duty.  From  their 
inquisitive  researches,  they  find,  or 
imagine  they  find,  in  the  behaviour  of 
others,  an  apology  for  their  own  fail- 
ings ;  and  the  fa^^ourite  result  of  their 
enquiries  genei'ally  is,  to  rest  satisfied 
with  themselves.  We  should  consider, 
also,  that  eveiy  excursion  of  vain  curi- 
osity about  others  is  a  subtraction  from 
that  time  and  thought  which  are  due  to 
ourselves,  and  to  God.  In  the  great 
circle  of  human  affairs,  there  is  room 
for  every  one  to  be  busy,  and  well  em- 
ployed In  his  own  province,  without 
encroaching  upon  that  of  others.  It  is 
the  province  of  superiors  to  direct ;  of 
inferiors  to  obey ;  of  the  learned  to  bo 
instnactive ;  of  the  ignorant  to  be  docile ; 
of  the  old  to  be  communicative ;  of  the 
young  to  be  adviseable  and  diligent. 
In  all  the  various  relations  which  sub- 
sist among  us  in  life,  as  husband  and 
•wife,  master  and  ser\'ants,  parents  and 
children,  relations  and  friends,  nilers 
and  subjects,  innumerable  duties  stand 
ready  to  be  performed ;  innumerable 
calls  to  activity  present  themselves  on 
every  hand,  sufficient  to  fill  up  with 
advajitage  and  honour  the  whole  time 
of  man."  Blair's  Serm,  vol.  iv.  ser.  8 ; 
Clark's  Ser?n.  ser.  on  Deut-  xxix.  29 ; 
Seed's  Posth.  Serm.  ser.  7. 

CURSE,  the  action  of  wishing  any 
tremendous  evil  to  another.    In  Scrip- 


ture language  it  signifies  the  just  and 
lawfiil  sentence  of  God's  law,  condemn- 
ing sinners  to  suffer  the  full  punishment 
of  their  sin,  Gal.  iii.  10. 

CURSING  and  Swearing.  See 
Swearing. 

CUSTOM,  a  very  comprehensive 
term,  denoting  the  manners,  ceremo- 
nies, and  fashions  of  a  people,  which 
having  tunied  into  habit,  and  passed 
into  use,  obtain  the  force  of  laws.  Cus- 
tom and  habit  are  often  confounded. 
By  custom,  we  mean  a  frequent  reitera- 
tion of  the  same  act ;  and  by  habit,  the 
effect  that  custom  has  on  the  mind  or 
the  body.    See  Habit. 

"Viewing  man,"  says  Lord  Karnes, 
"as  a  sensitive  being,  and  percei\ing 
the  influence  of  novelty  upon  him,  would 
one  suspect  that  custom  has  an  equal 
influence .-'  and  yet  our  nature  is  equally 
susceptible  of  both ;  not  only  in  different 
objects,  but  frequently  in  the  same. 
W  hen  an  object  is  new,  it  is  enchanting; 
familiaritv  renders  it  indifferent;  and 
custom,  after  a  longer  familiarity,  makes 
it  again  desirable.  Human  nature,  di- 
versified with  many  and  various  springs 
of  action,  is  wonderful,  and  indulging 
the  expression,  inti-icately  constinacted. 
Custom  hath  such  influence  upon  many 
of  our  feelings,  by  warping  and  var^'ing 
them,  that  we  must  attend  to  its  opera- 
tions, if  we  would  be  acquainted  with 
human  nature.  A  walk  upon  the  quar- 
ter-deck, though  intolerably  confined, 
becomes,  however,  so  agreeable  by 
custom,  that  a  sailor,  in  his  walk  on 
shore,  confines  himself  commonly  with- 
in the  same  bounds.  I  knew  a  man  who 
liad  relinquished  the  sea  for  a  country 
life :  in  the  comer  of  his  garden  he 
reared  an  artificial  mount,  with  a  level 
summit,  resembling,  most  accurately,  a 
quarter-deck,  not  only  in  shape,  but  in 
size ;  and  here  was  his  choice  walk." 
Such  we  find  is  often  the  power  of  cus- 
tom. 

CYNICS,  a  sect  of  ancient  philoso- 
phers, who  valued  themselves  upon 
their  contempt  of  riches  and  state,  arts 
and  sciences,  and  e\'ery  thing,  in  short, 
except  A'irtue  and  morality.  Tliey  owe 
their  origin  and  institution  to  Antisthenes 
of  Athens,  a  disciple  of  Socrates  ;  who 
Ijeing  asked  of  what  use  his  philosophy 
had  been  to  him,  replied,  "it  enables 
me  to  live  with  myself."  Diogenes  was 
the  most  famous'  of  his  disciples,  in 
whose  life  the  system  of  this  philosophy 
ajipears  in  its  greatest  perfection.  He 
led  a  most  whimsical  life,  despising 
e\ery  kind  of  convenience;  a  tub  serving 
him  for  a  lodging,  which  he  rolled  be- 
fore him  wherever  he  went :  yet  he  was 


D^M 


133 


DiEM 


not  the  more  humble  on  account  of  his 
ragged  cloak,  bag  and  tub.  One  day 
entering  Plato's  house,  at  a  time  when 
there  was  a  splendid  entertainment  for 
several  persons  of  distinction,  he  jump- 
ed, in  all  his  dirt, upon  a  very  rich  couch, 
saying,  "  I  trample  on  the  pride  of 
Plato!"  "yes,"  replied  Plato,  "but  with 


I  still  greater  pride,  Diogenes !"  He  had 
the  utmost  contempt  for  all  the  human 
race  ;  for  he  walked  the  street  of  Athens 

!  at  noon  day,  with  a  lighted  lanttni  in 

I  his  hand,  telling  the  people  "  he  w  ■,\y  in 
search  of  an  honest  man.       But  with  all 

I  his  maxims  of  morality,  he  held  some 

I  very  penucious  opinions. 


D. 


DAMIANISTS,  a  denomination  in 
the  sixth  century,  so  called  from  Da- 
mian,  bishop  of  Alexandria.  Their  opi- 
nions were  the  same  as  the  AngeUtes, 
•which  see. 

DiBMONS,  a  name  given  by  the  an- 
cients to  certain  spirits  or  genii,  which, 
they  say,  appeared  to  men,  either  to  do 
them  service,  or  to  liurt  them. 

Se\eral  of  the  heathen  philosophers 
held  that  there  were  ditferent  kinds  of 
daemons  ;  that  some  of  them  were  spi- 
ritual substances,  of  a  more  noble  origin 
than  the  human  race,  and  that  others 
had  once  been  men. 

But  those  daemons  who  were  the  more 
immediate  objects  of  the  established 
worship  among  tlie  ancient  nations  were 
human  spirits,  such  as  were  believed  to 
become  daemons,  or  deities,  after  their 
departure  from  their  bodies. 

It  has  been  generally  thought,  that  by 
daemons  we  are  to  understand  devils, 
in  the  Septuaeint  version  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Others  tliink  the  word  is 
in  that  version  certainly  applied  to  the 
ghosts  of  such  dead  men  as  the  hea- 
thens deified,  in  Deut.  xxxii.  17.  Ps.  cvi. 
37.  That  daemon  often  bears  the  same 
meaning  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
particularly  in  Acts  xvii.  18.  1  Cor.  x. 
21.  1  Tim.  iv.  1.  Rev.  ix.  13.  is  shown 
at  large  by  Mr.  Joseph  Mede,  (see 
Works,  p.  623,  et.  seq.)  That  the  word 
is  applied  always  to  human  spirits  in 
the  New  Testament,  Mr.  Farmer  has 
attempted  to  shew  in  his  Essay  on  Dae- 
moniacs,  p.  208.  et.  seq.  As  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  word  D^mon  in  the  fathers 
of  the  Christian  church,  it  is  used  by 
them  in  the  same  sense  as  it  was  by  the 
heathen  philosophers,  especially  the 
latter  Platonists ;  that  is,  sometimes  for 
departed  human  spirits,  and  at  other 
times  for  such  spirits  as  had  never  in- 
habited human  bodies.  In  the  fathers, 
indeed,  the  word  is  more  commonly  ta- 
ken in  an  evU  sense,  than  in  the  ancient 
philosophers. 

D.3iM0NIAC,  a  human  being  whose 


I  volition  and  other  mental  faculties  are 
!  oveipowered  and  restrained,  and  his 
\  body  possessed  and  actuated  by  some 
created  spiritual  being  of  superior  pow- 
er. Such  seems  to  be  the  dctemnmate 
sense  of  the  word;  but  it  is  disputed 
w'hether  any  of  mankind  ever  were  in 
this  unfortunate  condition.  That  the 
reader  may  foiTn  some  judgment,  we 
shall  lay  before  him  the  arguments  on 
both  sides. 

I.  Dsemoniacs,  arguments  against  the 
eocistence  of.    Those  who  are  unwUling 
to  allow  that  angels  or  devils  have  ever 
intermeddled  with  the  concerns  of  hu- 
man life,  urge  a  number  of  specious  ar- 
guments.   The  Greeks  and  Romans  of 
old,  say  they,  did  believe  in  the  reality 
of  dxmoniacal  possession.    They  sup- 
posed that  spiritual  beings  did  at  times 
enter  into  the  sons   and  daughters   of 
men,  and  distinguish  themsehes  in  that 
situation  by  capricious  freaks,  deeds  of 
I  wanton  mischief,  or  prophetic  envmcia- 
I  tions.    But  in  the   instances   in  which 
I!  they  supposed  this  to  happen,  it  is  evi- 
ji  dent  no  such  thing  took  place.    Their 
'accounts  of  the  state  and  conduct  of 
those  persons  whom  they  believed  t«lbe 
possessed  in  this  supernatural  manner, 
show  plainly  that  what  they  ascribed 
to  the  mfluence  of  daemons  were  merely 
the  effect  of  natural  diseases.    What- 
ever they  relate  concerning  the  larvati, 
the  cerriti,  and  the  lymfihatici,  shows 
that  these  were  merely  people  disor- 
dered in  mind,  in  the  same  unfortunate 
situation   with   those    madmen,   ideots, 
and  melancholy  persons,  whom  we  have 
among  ourselves.     Festus  describes  the 
larvati,  as  being  furiosi  et  mente  moti. 
jXucian  describes  dasmoniacs  as  lunatic, 
I  and  as  staring  with  their  eyes,  foaming 
,  at  the  mouth,  and  being  speechless.    It 
'  appears  still  mdre  evident  that  all  the 
'  persons   spoken  of  as  possessed  with 
;  devils   in   the   New   Testament,  were 
either  mad  or  epileptic,  and  precisely 
I  in  the  same  condition  with  the  madmen 
rand  epileptics  of  modem  times.    The 


D.EM 


134 


DJSM 


Jews,  among  other  i-eproaches  which 
they  threw  out  against  our  Saviour, 
said,  He  hath  a  devil,  and  is  mad ;  tvhij 
hear  ye  him  ?  The  expressions  he  hath 
a  devil,  and  is  ?nad,  were  certainly 
used  on  this  occasion  as  synonymous. 
With  all  their  virulence,  they  would 
not  surely  ascribe  to  him  at  once  two 
things  that  were  inconsistent  and  con- 
tradictory. Those  who  thought  more 
favourably  of  the  character  of  Jesus, 
asserted  concerning  his  discourses,  in 
reply  to  his  adversaries.  These  are  not 
the  words  of  him  that  hath  a  deemon; 
meaning,  no  doubt,  that  he  spoke  in  a 
more  rational  manner  than  a  madman 
could  be  expected  to  speak.  The  Jews 
appear  to  have  a^ribed  to  the  influence 
of  dxmonsjuot  only  that  species  of  mad- 
ness in  which  the  patient  is  raviyig  and 
furious,  but  also  melancholy  madness. 
Of  John,  who  secluded  himself  from  in- 
tercourse with  the  world,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished for  abstinence  and  acts  of 
mortification,  they  said.  He  hath  a  dee- 
mon. The  youth,  whose  father  applied 
to  Jesus  to  free  him  fronf  an  evil  spirit, 
describing  his  unhappy  concUtion  in 
these  words,  have  mercy  on  my  soji, 
for  he  is  lunatic,  and  sore  vexed  with  a 
deemon  ;  for  oft  times  he  falleth  into  the 
Jire,  and  oft  into  the  water,  was  plainly 
epileptic.  Every  thing,  indeed,  that  is 
T'elated  ui  the  New  Testament  concern- 
ing dxmoniacs,  proves  that  they  were 
people  affected  with  such  natural  disea- 
ses as  are  far  fiom  being  uncommon 
among  mankind  in  the  present  age. 
"VN'hen  the  symptoms  of  the  disorders 
cured  by  our  Saviour  and  his  a])ostles 
as  cases  of  dxmoniacal  possession  cor- 
respond so  exactly  with  those  of  disea- 
ses well  knoAvn  as"  natural  in  the  present 
agiJI  it  would  be  absurd  to  impute  them 
to  a  supernatural  cause.  It  is  .  much 
more  consistent  with  common  sense  and 
sound  philosophy  to  suppose  that  our 
SaA'iour  and  his  apostles  wisely,  and 
with  that  condescension  to  the  weak- 
ness and  prejudices  of  those  with  whom 
they  conversed,  which  so  eminently  dis- 
tinguished the  character  of  the  Author 
of  our  holy  religion,  and  must  always  be 
a  prominent  feature  in  the  cliaracter  of 
the  true  Christian,  adopted  the  vulgar 
language  in  speaking  of  those  unfortu- 
nate persons  who  were  groundlessly 
imagined  to  be  possessed  with  dxmons, 
though  thejr  well  knew  the  notions 
which  had  given  rise  to  "such  modes  of 
expression  to  be  ill  founded,  than  to 
imagine  that  diseases  which  arise  at 
present  from  natural  causes,  were  pro- 
duced in  days  of  old  by  the  intervention 
of  d«mons,'or  that  e\il  spirits  still  con- 


tinue to  enter  into  mankind  in  all  cases 
of  madness,  melancholy,  or  epilepsy 
Besides,  it  is  by  no  means  a  sufficient 
reason  for  receiving  any  doctrine  as 
ti'ue,  that  it  has  been  generally  received 
through  the  world.  Error,  like  an 
epidemical  disease,  is  communicated 
f''om  one  to  another.  In  certain  cir- 
cumstances, too,  the  influence  of  ima- 
gination predominates,  and  restrains  the 
exertions  of  reason.  Many  false  opi- 
nions have  extended  their  influence 
through  a  very  wide  circle  and  main- 
tained it  long.  On  every  such  occasion 
as  the  present,  therefore,  it  becomes  us 
to  enquire  not  so  much  how  generally 
any  opinion  has  been  received,  or  how 
long  it  has  prevailed,  as  from  what 
cause  it  has  origmated,  and  on  what 
evidence  it  rests.  When  we  contem- 
plate the  frame  of  Nature,  we  behold  a 
grand  and  beautiful  simplicity  prevail- 
ing through  the  whole :  notwithstanding 
its  immense  extent,  and  though  it  con- 
tains such  numberless  diversities  of  be- 
ing, yet  the  simplest  machine  constnict- 
ed  by  human  art  does  not  display  great- 
er simplicity,  or  an  happier  connection 
of  parts.  We  may,  therefore,  infer  by 
analogy,  from  what  is  observable  of  the 
order  of  Nature  in  general  to  the  pre- 
sent case,  that  to  permit  evil  spirits  to 
intermeddle  with  the  concerns  of  hu- 
man life,  would  be  to  break  through 
that  order  which  the  Deity  appears  to 
have  established  through  his  works ;  it 
would  be  to  introduce  a  degree  of  con- 
fusion unwoi'thy  of  the  wisdom  of  Di- 
vine Providence. 

II.  Dde.moniacs,ar^uments  for  the  ex- 
istence  of  In  opposition  to  these  argu- 
ments, the  following  are  urged  by  the 
Dxmonianists.  In  the  days  of  our  Sa- 
viour, it  would  appear  that  dxmoniacal 
possession  was  very  frequent  among 
the  Jews  and  the  neighbouring  nations. 
Many  were  the  evil  spirits  whom  Jesus 
is  related  in  the  Gospels  to  have  ejected 
from  patients  that  were  brought  unto 
him  as  possessed  and  tormented  by  those 
malevolent  dxmons.  His  apostles  too, 
and  the  first  Christians,  who  were  most 
active  and  successful  in  the  propagation 
of  Christianity,  appear  to  have  often  ex- 
erted the  miraculous  powers  with  which 
they  were  endowed  on  similar  occasions. 
The  dxmons  disj^layed  a  degree  of 
knowledge  and  malevolence  which  suf- 
ficiently distinguished  them  from  human 
beings:  and  the  language  in  which  the 
dxmoniacs  are  mentioned,  and  the  ac- 
tions and  sentiments  ascribed  to  them  in 
the  New  Testament,  show  that  our  Sa- 
viour and  his  apostles  did  not  consider 
1  the  idea  of  dxmoniacal  possession  as 


D^M 


135 


DAM 


being  merely  a  vulgar  error  concerning 
the  origin  or  a  disease  or  diseases  pro 
duced  by  natural  causes.  The  more  en- 
lightened cannot  always  avoid  the  use 
of  metaphorical  modes  of  expression  ; 
which  tliough  fovinded  upon  error,  yet 
have  been  so  established  in  language  by 
the  influence  of  custom,  that  they  cannot 
be  suddenly  dismissed.  But  in  descrip- 
tions of  characters,  in  the  narration  of 
facts,  and  in  the  laying  down  of  systems 
of  doctnne,  we  require  different  rules  to 
be  observed.  Should  any  person,  in 
compliance  with  popular  opinions,  talk 
in  serious  language  of  the  existence, 
dispositions,  declarations,  and  actions  of 
a  race  of  beings  whom  he  knew  to  be 
absolutely  fabulous,  we  surely  could  not 
praise  him  foi*  integrity :  we  must  sup- 
pose him  to  be  either  exulting  in  irony 
over  the  weak  credvdity  of  those  around 
him,  or  taking  advantage  of  their  weak- 
ness, with  the  dishonesty  and  selfish 
views  of  an  impostor.  And  if  he  himself 
should  pretend  to  any  connection  with 
tliis  imaginary  system  of  beings ;  and 
should  claim,  in  consequence  of  his  con- 
nection with  them,  paiticular  honours 
from  his  contemporaries ;  Avhatever 
might  be  the  dignity  of  his  character  in 
all  other  respects,  nobody  could  hesitate 
to  brand  him  as  an  impostor.  In  this 
light  must  we  regard  the  conduct  of  our 
Saviour  and  his  apostles,  if  the  idea  of 
demoniacal  possession  were  to  be  con- 
sidered merely  as  a  vulgar  erroj-.  They 
talked  and  acted  as  if  they  believed  that 
evil  spirits  had  actually  entered  into 
those  who  were  brought  to  them  as 
possessed  with  devils,  and  as  if  those 
spirits  had  been  actually  expelled  by 
their  authority  out  of  the  unhappy  per- 
sons whom  they  had  possessed.  1  hey 
demanded,  too,  to  have  their  professions 
and  declarations  believed,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  performing  such  mighty 
works,  and  having  thus  trmmphed  over 
the  powers  of  hell.  The  reality  of 
daemoniacal  possession  stands  upon  the 
same  evidence  with  the  Gospel  system 
in  general.  Nor  is  there  any  thing  un- 
reasonable in  this  doctri)ie.  It  does  not 
appear  to  contradict  those  ideas  which 
the  general  appearances  of  Nature  and 
the  series  of  events  suggest,  concerning 
the  benevolence  and  wisdom  of  the 
Deity,  by  which  he  regulates  the  affairs 
of  the  universe.  We  often  fancy  our- 
selves able  to  comprehend  things  to 
which  our  understanding  is  wholly  in- 
adequate; we  persuade  ourselves,  at 
times,  that  the  whole  extent  of  the 
works  of  the  Deity  must  be  well  known 
to  us,  and  that  his'  designs  must  always 
be  such  as  we  can  fathom.    We  are 


then  ready,  whenever  any  difficulty 
arises  to  us  in  cons.dering  the  conduct 
of  Providence,  to  model  things  accord- 
ing to  our  own  ideas ;  to  deny  that  the 
Deity  can  possibly  be  the  autlior  of 
things  wliich  we  cannot  reconcile ;  and 
to  assert,  that  he  must  act  on  eveiy  oc- 
casion in  a  manner  consistent  with  our 
narrow  views.  This  is  the  pride  of  rea- 
son ;  and  it  seems  to  have  suggested  the 
strongest  objections  that  have  been  at 
any  time  urged  against  the  reality  of 
dxmoniacal  possession.  But  the  Deity 
may  surely  connect  one  order  of  his 
creatures  with  another.  We  perceive 
mutual  relations  and  a  beautiful  connec- 
tion to  prevail  through  all  that  part  of 
Nature  which  falls  within  the  sphere  of 
our  observation.  The  inferior  animals 
are  connected  with  mankind,  and  sub- 
jected to  their  authority,  not  only  in  in- 
stances in  which  it  is  exerted  for  their 
ad\^antage,  but  even  where  it  is  tyran- 
nically abused  to  their  destruction. 
Among  the  evils  to  which  mankind  have 
been  subjected,  why  might  not  their  be- 
ing liable  to  dxmoniacal  possession  be 
one  ?  Wliile  the  Supreme  "Being  retains 
the  sovereignty  of  the  universe,  he  may 
employ  whatever  agents  he  thinks  pro- 
per in  the  execution  of  his  purposes ; 
he  may  either  commission  an  angel,  or 
let  loose  a  devil;  as  well  as  bend  the 
human  will,  or  commurticate  any  parti- 
cular impulse  to  matter.  All  that  reve- 
lation makes  known,  all  that  human 
reason  can  conjecture,  concerning  the 
existence  of  various  orders  of  spiritual 
beings,  good  and  bad,  is  perfectly  con- 
sistent with,  and  even  favourable  to,  the 
doctrine  of  dxmoniacal  possession.  It 
is  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  in 
such  language,  and  such  narratives  are 
related  concerning  it,  that  the  Gospels 
cannot  be  well  regarded  in  any  other 
light  than  as  pieces  of  imposture,  and 
Jesus  Christ  must  be  considered  as  a 
man  who  took  advantage  of  the  weak- 
ness and  ignorance  of  his  contempora- 
ries, if  this  doctrine  be  nothing  but  a 
vulgar  error ;  it  teaches  nothing  incon- 
sistent with  the  general  conduct  of  Pro- 
vidence ;  in  short,  it  is  not  the  caution  of 
philosophy,  but  the  pride  of  reason  that 
suggests  objections  against  this  doctrine. 
See  the  essays  of  Yoim^,  Farmer,  lior- 
thington,  Dr.Lardner^iacknight,  Fell, 
Burgh,  iiT'c.  on  Deemoniacs ;  Seed's 
Posthumous  Sermons,  ser.  vi.  and  arti- 
cle DEMONIAC  in  Enc.  Brit. 

DAMNATION,  condemnation.  This 
word  is  used  to  denote  the  final  loss  of 
the  soul ;  but  it  is  not  always  to  be  un- 
derstood in  this  sense  in  the  sacred 
Scripture.    Thus  it  is  said  in  Rom.  xiii 


DAR 


136 


DAV 


2.  "They  that  resist  shall  receive  to 
themsehcs  damnation,"  i.  e.  condemna- 
tion, "from  the  rulers,  who  are  not  a 
teiTor  to  good  works^  but  to  the  evil." 
Again,  in  1  Cor.  xi.  29.  "  He  tliat  eat- 
eth  and  drinketh  unworthily,  eateth  and 
drinketh  damnation  to  himself;"  i.  e. 
condemnation ;  exposes  himself  to  se- 
vere temporal  judgments  from  God,  and 
to  the  judgment  and  censure  of  the  wise 
and  good.  Again,  Rom.  xiv.  23.  "  He 
that  doubteth  is  damned  if  he  eat ;"  i.  e. 
is  condemned  both  by  his  own  con- 
science, and  the  word  of  God,  because 
he  is  far  from  being  satisfied  that  he  is 
right  in  so  doing. 

DANCERS,  a  sect  which  spi'ung  up 
about  ISrS  in  Flanders,  and  places 
about.  It  was  their  custom  all  of  a  sud- 
den to  fall  a  dancing,  and,  holding  each 
other's  hands,  to  continue  thereat,  till, 
being  suffocated  with  the  extraordinaiy 
violence,  they  fell  down  breathless  to- 
gether. Durmg  these  intervals  of  vehe- 
ment agitation  they  pretended  to  be  fa-  j 
vourcd  with  wonderful  visions.  Like 
the  Whippers,  they  roved  from  place  j 
to  place,  begging  their  victuals,  holding  i 
their  secret  assemblies,  and  treating  the  ' 
priesthood  and  woi-ship  of  the  church 
with  the  utmost  contempt.  Thus  we 
find,  as  Dr.  Haweis  obsen'cs,  that  the 
French  Convulsionists  and  the  \^'^elch 
Jumpers  have  had  predecessors  of  the 
same  stamp.  There  is  nothing  new  un- 
der the  sun.  Haweis^  and  Mosheiin's 
Ch.  Hist.  Cent.  14. 

DARKNESS,  the  absence,  privation, 
or  want  of  natural  light.  In  bcripture 
language  it  also  signifies  sin,  John  iii.  19. 
trouble.  Is.  viii.  22.  obscurity,  privacy. 
Malt.  X.  27.  forgetfulness,  contempt, 
Ecc.  vi.  4. 

Darkness,  says  Moses,  was  upon  the 
face  of  the  deep,  Gen.  i.  2.  that  is  to  say 
the  chaos  was  plunged  in  thick  dark- 
ness, because  hitherto  the  light  was  not 
created.  Moses,  at  the  command  of 
God,  brought  darkness  upon  Egypt,  as 
a  plague  to  the  inhabitants  of  it.  The 
Septuagint,  our  translation  of  the  Bible, 
and  indeed  most  others,  in  explaining 
Moses's  account  of  this  darkness,  ren- 
der it  "  a  darkness  which  may  be  felt ;" 
and  the  Vulgate  has  it,  "palpable  dark- 
ness;" that  is,  a  darkness  consisting 
of  black  vapours  and  exhalations,  so 
condensed  that  they  might  be  perceived 
by  the  organs  of  feeling  or  seeing  ;  but 
some  commentators  think  that  this  is 
carrying  the  sense  too  far,  since,  in  such 
a  medium  as  this,  mankind  could  not 
live  an  hour,  much  less  for  the  space  of 
three  days,  as  the  Egyptians  are  said  to 
have  done,  during  the  time  tliis  dark- 


ness lasted ;  and,  therefore,  they  in^a- . 
gine  that  instead  of  a  darkness  that  may 
be  felt,  tiie  Hebrew  phrase  may  signify 
a  darkniisis  wlierein  men  went  groping 
and  feeling  about  for  eveiy  thing  they 
wanted.  Let  tliis,  however,  be  as  it  may, 
it  was  an  awful  judgment  on  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  and  we  may  naturally  conclude 
that  it  must  have  also  spi-ead  darkness 
and  distress  over  their  minds  as  well  as 
their  persons.  The  tradition  of  the  Jews 
is,  that  in  this  darkness  they  were  terri- 
fied by  the  apparitions  of  evil  spirits,  or 
rather  by  dreadful  sounds  and  murmurs 
which  they  made.  What  made  it  still 
woi-se,  was  the  length  of  time  it  con- 
tinued; three  days,  or  as  bishop  Hall 
expresses  it,  six  nights  in  one. 

During  the.  last  three  hours  that  our 
Saviour  hung  upon  the  cross,  a  darkness 
covered  the  face  of.  the  earth,  to  the 
gi'eat  terror  and  amazement  of  the 
people  present  at  his  execution.  This 
extraordinary  altercation  in  the  face  of 
nature,  says  D)-.  Macknight,  in  liis  Har- 
mony of  the  Gospels,  was  peculiarly 
proper,  whilst  the.  Sun  of  Righteousness 
was  withdrawing  his  beams  from  the 
land  of  Israel,  and  from  the  world  ;  not 
only  because  it  v/as  a  miraculous  testi- 
mony borne  by  God  himself  to  his  inno- 
cence, but  also  because  it  was  a  fit  em- 
blem of  his  departure  and  its  effects,  at 
least  till  his  light  shone  out  anew  with 
additional  splendour  in  the  ministry  of 
his  apostles.  The  darkness  which  now 
covered  Judea,  and  the  neighbouring 
countries,  beginning  about  noon,  and 
continuing  till  Jesus  expired,  was  not 
the  effect  of  an  ordinary  eclipse  of  the 
sun,  for  that  can  never  happen  but  at 
the  new  moon,  whereas  now  it  was  full 
moon ;  not  to  mention  that  the  total 
darkness  occasioned  by  eclipses  of  the 
sun  never  continues  above  twelve  or 
fifteen  minutes;  wherefore  it  must  have 
been  produced  by  the  divine  power,  in 
a  manner  we  are  ntit  able  to  explain. 
Accordingly  Luke  (chap,  xxiii.  44,  45.) 
after  relating  that  thei'e  was  darkness 
over  all  the  earth,  adds,  "  and  the  sun 
was  darkened;"  which  perhaps  may 
imply  that  the  darkness  of  the  sim  did 
not  occasion,  but  proceeded  from,  the 
darkness  that  \s'as  over  all  the  land. 
Farther,  the  Christian  writers,  in  their 
most  ancient  apologies  to  the  heathens, 
affirm  that  as  it  was  full  moon  at  the 
passover  when  Christ  was  cinicified,  no 
such  eclipse  could  happen  by  the  cotirse 
of  nature.  They  observe,  also,  that  it 
was  taken  notice  of  as  a  prodigy  by  the 
heathens  tiuMisclvcs. 

DA\TDlSTS,the  adherents  of  David 
George,  a  native  of  Delft,  who.  in  l5?/r>. 


DEA 


137 


DEA 


began  to  preach  a  new  doctrine,  pub- 
lishing himself  to  be  the  true  Messiah  ; 
and  that  he  was  sent  of  Ciod  to  fill  hea- 
ven, which  was  quite  empty  for  want 
of  people  to  deserve  it.  -  He  is  likewise 
said  to  have  denied  the  existence  of  an- 
gels good  and  evil,  and  to  have  disbe- 
lieved the  doctrine  of  a  future  judgment. 
He  rejected  nian-iage  with  the  Adam- 
ites; held  with  Manes,  that  the  soul  was 
not  defiled  by  sin  ;  and  laughed  at  the 
self-denial  so  much  recommended  by 
Jesus  Christ.  Such  were  his  principal 
erroi's.  He  made  his  escape  from  Delft, 
and  retired  first  to  Friesland,  and  then 
to  Basil,  whei'e  he  changed  his  name, 
assuming  that  of  John  Bruck,  and  died 
in  1556.  He  left  some  disciples  behind 
him,  to  whom  he  promised  that  he  would 
rise  again  at  the  end  of  three  years. 
Nor  was  he  altogether  a  false  prophet 
herein  ;  for  the  magistrates  of  that  city 
being  informed,  at  the  three  years'  end, 
of  what  he  had  taught,  ordered  him  to 
be  dug  up  and  burnt,  together  with  his 
writings,  by  the  common  hangman. 

DEACON,  Aiaxovoj,  a  servant,  a  mi- 
nister. 

1.  In  ecclesiastical  polity,  a  deacon  is 
one  of  the  lowest  of  the  three  orders  of 
the  clergy.  He  is  rather  a  novitiate,  or 
in  a  state  of  probation  for  one  year,  af- 
ter which  he  is  admitted  into  full  orders, 
or  ordained  a  priest. 

2.  In  the  New  Testament  the  word  is 
used  for  any  one  that  ministers  in  the 
sei^ace  of  God :  bishops  and  presbyters 
are  also  styled  deacons  ;  but  more  par- 
ticularly and  generally  it  is  understood 
of  the  lowest  order  of  ministering  ser- 
vants in  the  church,  1  Cor.  iii.  5.  Col.  i. 
23,  25.  Phil.  i.  1.  1  Tim.  iii. 

The  office  of  deacons  originally  was  to 
serve  tables,  the  Lord's  table,  the  mi- 
nister's table,  and  the  poor's  table.  They 
took  care  of  the  secular  aflfairs  of  the 
church,  received  and  disbursed  monies, 
kept  the  church's  accounts,  and  pro- 
vided every  thing  necessary  for  its  tem- 
poral good.  Thus,  while  the  bishop  at- 
tended to  the  souls,  the  deacons  attended 
to  the  bodies  of  the  people  :  the  pastor 
to  the  spiritual,  and  the  deacons  the 
temporal  interests  of  the  church,  Acts  vi. 

DEACONESS,  a  female  deacon.  It 
is  generally  allowed,  that  in  the  primi- 
tive church  there  were  deaconesses,  i.  e. 
pious  women,  whose  particular  business 
n  was  to  assist  in  the  entertainment  and 
care  of  the  itinerant  preachei-s,  visit  the 
sick  and  imprisoned,  instruct  female 
catechumens,  and  assist  at  their  bap- 
tism ;  then  move  particularly  necessaiy, 
from  the  peculiar  customs  of  those  coun- 
tries, the  persecuted  state  of  the  church. 


and  the  speedier  spreading  of  the  Go.s  • 
pel.  Such  a  one  it  is  reasonable  to  think 
Phebe  was,  Rom.  xvi.  1.  who  is  ex- 
pressly called  Jiait:vov,  a  deaconess  or 
stated  servant,  as  Dr.  Doddridge  renders 
it.  They  were  usually  widows,  and,  to 
prevent  scandal,  generally  in  years,  1 
rim.  v.  9.  See  also  Sjianheiin.  Hist. 
Christ.  Seciil.  1.  p.  554.  The  apostolic 
constitutions,  as  they  are  called,  mention 
the  ordination  of  a  deaconess,  and  the 
form  of  prayer  used  on  that  occasion, 
(lib.  viii.  ch.  19,  20.)  Pliny  also,  in  his 
celebrated  epistle  to  Trajan  (xcvii.)  is 
thought  to  refer  to  them,  when,  speak- 
ing of  two  female  Christians  whom  he 
put  to  the  torture,  he  says,  quae  ministrx 
dicebantur,  i.  e.  who  were  called  dea- 
conesses.— But  as  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians seem  to  be  led  to  this  practice 
from  the  peculiarity  of  their  circum- 
stances, and  the  Scripture  is  entirely  si- 
lent as  to  any  appointment  to  this  sup- 
posed office,  or  any  niles  about  it,  it  is 
very  justly  laid  aside,  at  least  as  an  office. 

DEAN,  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary, 
next  under  the  bishop  in  cathedral 
churches,  and  head  ot  the  chapter. 
The  Latin  word  is  decanus,  derived 
from  the  Greek  A^a,  ten,  because  the 
dean  presides  over  at  least  ten  canons, 
or  prebendaries.  A  dean  and  chapter 
are  the  bishop's  council,  to  assist  him  in 
the  affiiirs  of  religion. 

DEATH  is  generally  defined  to  be 
the  separation  of  the  soul,  from  the  body. 
It  is  styled,  in  Scripture  language,  a  de- 
parture out  of  this  world  to  another,  2 
Tim.  iy.  7.  a  dissolving  of  the  earthly 
house  of  this  tabernacle,  2  Cor.  v.  1.  a 
going  the  way  of  all  the  earth.  Josh,  xxiii. 
14.  a  returning  to  the  dust,  Eccl.  xii.  7. 
a  sleep,  John  xi.  11.  Death  may  be 
considered  as  the  effect  of  sin,  Rom.  v. 
12,  yet,  as  our  existence  is  from  God, 
no  man  has  a  right  to  take  away  his 
own  life,  or  the  lite  of  another.  Gen.  ix. 
6.  Satan  is  said  to  have  the  fionuer  of 
death,  Heb.  ii.  14.;  not  that  he  can  at 
his  pleasure  inflict  death  on  mankind, 
but  as  he  was  the  instrument  of  first 
bringing  death  into  the  world,  John  viii. 
44  ;  and  as  he  may  be  the  executioner 
of  God's  wrath  on  impenitent  sinners, 
when  God  permits  him.  Death  is  but 
once,  Heb.  ix.  27.  certain.  Job  xiv.  1, 
2.  Jioiverful  and  terrific,  called  the  king 
of  terrors.  Job  xviii.  14.  uncertain  as  to 
the  time,  Prov.  xxviii.  1.  universal.  Gen. 
y.  necessary,  that  God's  justice  may  be 
displayed,  and  his  mercy  manifested: 
desirable  to  the  righteous,  Luke  ii.  28. 
— 30.  The  fear  oj  death  is  a  source  of 
uneasiness  to  the  generality,  and  to  a 
guilty  conscience  it  may  indeed  be  tev^ 


DEA 


13S 


DEA 


rible  ;  but  to  a  good  man  it  slioukl  be 
obviated  by  the  consideration  that  death 
is  the  termination  of  every  trouble  ;  that 
it  puts  him  beyond  the  reacli  of  sin  and 
temptation :  that  God  has  promised  to 
be  with  the  righteous,  e\  en  to  the  end, 
Hcb.  xiii.  5.  that  Jesus  Christ  has  taken 
away  the  sting,  1  Cor.  xv.  54.  and  that 
it  ir-troduces  him  to  a  state  of  endless 
felicity,  2  Cor.  v.  8. 

Preparation  for  death.  This  does 
not  consist  in  bare  morality ;  iii  an  ex- 
ternid  reformation  from  gross  sins ;  in 
attention  to  a  round  of  duties  in  our  own 
strength  ;  in  acts  of  charity ;  in  a  zeal- 
ous profession ;  in  possessing  eminent 
gifts :  but  in  reconciliation  to  God  ;  re- 
pentance of  sin ;  faith  in  Christ ;  obe- 
dience to  his  word :  and  all  as  the  ef- 
fect of  regeneration  by  the  Spirit.  3 
John  iii.  6.  1  Cor.  xi.  3.  Tit.  iii.  5.  Jjates's 
four  last  Things ;  Ho/ikins,  Drelin- 
court,  Sherlock,  and  Fellonves,  on 
Death ;  B/i.Porteus's  Poem  on  Death; 
Grovels  admirable  Sermon  on  the  fiar 
of  Death;    JVatts's  World  to  Coine. 

S/iiritual  Death  is  that  awful  state  of 
ignorance,insensibility,  and  disobedience, 
wliich  mankind  are  in  by  nature,  and 
which  exclude  them  from  the  favour  and 
enjoyment  of  God,  Luke  i.  79.  See  Sin. 

P'l'others  of  Death,  a  denomination 
usually  given  to  the  reli^fious  of  the  or- 
der of  St.  Paul,  the  first  hermit.  They 
are  called  brothers  of  death,  on  account 
of  the  figure  of  a  death's  head  which  they 
were  always  to  have  with  them,  in  or- 
der to  keep  pei'petually  before  them  the 
thoughts  of  death.  Tlie  order  was  pro- 
bably suppressed  by  pope  Urban  \  III. 

Death  of  Christ.  Tlie  circumstances 
attendant  on  the  death  of  Christ  are  so 
well  known,  that  they  need  not  be  in- 
serted here.  x\s  the  subject,  however, 
of  all  others,  is  the  most  important  to 
the  Christian,  a  brief  abstract  of  what 
has  been  said  on  it,  from  a  sermon  al- 
lowedly one  of  the  best  in  the  English 
language,  shall  here  be  given.  "The 
hSur  of  Christ's  death,  says  Blair 
(vol.  i.  ser.  5.)  "was  the  most  critical, 
the  most  pregnant  with  great  events, 
since  hours  had  begun  to  be  numbered, 
since  time  had  bci!,un  to  run.  /;'  was 
the  hour  in  which  Christ  was  glorified 
by  his  sufferings.  Through  tlie  cloud 
of  his  humiliation  his  native  lustre  often 
broke  forth,  but  never  did  it  shine  so 
bright  as  now.  It  was  indeed  the  hour 
of  distress,  and  of  blood.  It  is  distress 
which  ennobles  every  t<;reat  character, 
and  distress  was  to  glorify  the  Son  of 
God.  He  was  now  to  teacli  all  man- 
kind, by  his  examj)le,  how  to  suficr,  ;uid 
how  to  die.  What  magnanimity  in  all  his 


words  and  actions  on  this  great  occa- 
sion !  No  upbraiding,  no  complaining 
expression  escaped  from  his  lips.  He 
betrayed  no  symptom  of  a  weak,  a 
discomposed,  or  impatient  mind.  With 
all  the  dignity  of  a  sovereign,  he  con- 
ferred pardon  on  a  penitent  fellow-suf- 
ferer :  with  a  greatness  of  mind  beyond 
example,  he  spent  his  last  moments  in 
apologies  and  prayers  for  those  who 
were  shedding  his  blood.  This  was  the 
hour  in  which  Christ  atoned  for  the  sins 
of  mankind,  and  accomfilished  our  eter~ 
nal  redemption.  It  was  the  hour  when 
that  gi-eat  sacrifice  was  ofFei'cd  up,  the 
efficacy  of  which  reaches  back  to  the 
first  transgression  of  man,  and  extends 
forward  to  the  end  of  time :  the  hour, 
when,  from  the  cross,  as  from  an  high 
altar,  the  blood  was  flowing  which  wash- 
ed away  the  guilt  of  the  nations.  In  this 
hour  the  long  series  of  pro/ihecies,  vi- 
sions, types,  and  figures  nvere  accom- 
plished. This  was  tlie  centre  in  which 
they  all  met.  You  behold  the  law  and 
the  propliets  standing,  if  we  may  speak 
•so,  at  the  foot  of  tlie  cross,  and  doing 
homage.  You  behold  Moses  and  Aaron 
bearing  the  ark  of  the  covenant ;  David 
and  Elijali  presenting.the  oracle  of  tes- 
timony. You  behold  all  the  priests  and 
sacrifices,  all  the  rites  and  ordinances, 
all  the  types  and  symbols  assembled  to- 
gether to  receive  their  consummation. 
Tiiis  was  the  hour  of  the  abolition  of 
the  law,  and  the  introduction  of  the  Gos- 
pel; the  hour  of  terminating  the  old  and 
beginning  the  ?iew  dispensation. — It  is 
finished.  When  he  uttered  these  words 
he  changed  the  state  of  the  universe. 
This  was  the  ever-memorable  point  of 
time  which  separated  the  old  and  the 
new  world  from  each  other.  On  one 
side  of  the  point  of  separation  you  be- 
hold the  law,  with  its  priests,  its  sacri- 
fices, and  its  rites,  retiring  from  sight. 
On  the  other  side  you  beliold  the  Gos- 
pel, witli  its  simple  and  venerable  in- 
stitutions, coming  forward  into  view. 
Significantly  was  the  veil  of  the  temple 
rent  in  twain ;  for  the  glory  then  de- 
parted from  between  the  cheitibims. 
The  legal  high  priest  delivered  up  his 
Ui'im  and  Thumniim,  his  breast-T)late, 
his  robes,  and  his  incense  ;  and  Christ 
stood  forth  as  tlic  great  high  priest  of 
all  succeeding  generations.  Altars  on. 
which  the  fire  Iiad  blazed  for  ages  were 
now  to  smoke  no  more.  Now  it  was 
also  tliat  he  threw  down  the  wall  of 
jiartition  which  had  so  long  divided  the 
Cientile  from  the  Jew ;  and  gathered 
into  one  all  the  faithful,  out  of  every 
kinch-ed  and  people.  This  was  the  hour 
of  Christ's  triu?nph  over  all  the  powers 


DEC 


139 


DEC 


of  darkness ;  the  hour  m  which  he 
overthrew  dominions  and  thrones,  led 
captivity  captive,  and  gave  gifts  unto 
men ;  then  it  was  that  tlie  foundation  of 
every  pagan  temple  shook  ;  the  statue 
of  every  false  god  tottered  on  its  base  ; 
the  priest  fled  from  his  falling  shrine, 
and  the  heathen  oracles  became  dumb 
for  ever  I — This  nvas  the  hourwheji  our 
Lord  erected  that  spiritual  kinffdom 
which  is.nex'cr  to  end.  His  enemies 
imagined  that  in  this  hour  they  had  suc- 
cessfully accomplished  their  plan  for  his 
destniction ;  but  how  little  did  they 
know  that  the  Almighty  was  at  that 
moment  setting  him  as  a  king  on  the 
hill  of  Sion  !  How  little  did  they  know 
that  their  badges  of  mock  royalty  were 
at  that  moment  converted  uito  the  sig- 
nals of  absolute  dominion,  and  the  in- 
stniments  of  irresistible  power  I  The 
veed  which  they  put  into  his  hands  be- 
came a  rod  of  iron,  with  which  he  was 
to  break  in  pieces  his  enemies  ;  a  scep- 
tre with  which  he  was  to  iiile  the  uni- 
verse in  righteousness.  The  ci'oss, 
which  they  thought  was  to  stigmatize 
him  with  infamy,  became  the  ensign  of 
his  renoAvn.  Instead  of  being  the  re- 
proach of  his  followers,  it  was  to  be 
their  boast,  and  their  gloiy.  The  cross 
was  to  shine  on  palaces  and  churches 
throuf  hcut  the  earth.  It  was  to  be  as- 
sumed as  the  distinction  of  the  rhcst 
powerful  monarchs,  and  to  wave  in  the 
banner  of  victorious  armies,  when  the 
memoiy  of  Herod  and  Pilate  should  be 
accvirsed ;  when  Jei'usalem  sliould  be 
reduced  to  ashes,  and  the  Jews  be  va- 
gabonds over  all  the  world."  See 
Atonement;  Pearson  and  Barrow 
on  the  Creed ;  Owen's  Death  of  Death 
in  the  Death  of  Christ;  Charnock's 
Works,  vol.  ii.  on  the  jVecessiti/,  Volun- 
tariness, (Jfc.  of  the  Death  of  Christ. 

DECALOGUE,  the  ten  command- 
ments given  by  God  to  Moses. 

The  ten  commandments  were  en- 
graved by  God  on  t\vo  tables  of  stone. 
The  Jews,  by  way  of  eminence,  call  these 
commandments  the  ten  words,  from 
whence  they  had  afterwards  the  name 
of  dccalot^ue ;  but  they  joined  the  first 
and  second  into  one,  and  "di\ided  the  last 
into  two.  They  understand  that  against 
stealing  to  relate- to  the  stealing  of  men, 
or  kidnai)ping ;  alleging,  that  the  steal- 
ing one  another's  goods  or  property  is 
forbidden  in  the  last  commandment. 
The  church  of  Rome  has  struck  the  se- 
cond commandment  quite  out  of  the  de- 
calogue; and,  to  make  their  number 
complete,  has  split  the  tenth  into  two. 
The  reason  is  obvious. 

DECEIT    cor.sists    in    passing    any- 


thing upon  a  person  for  what  it  is  not,  as 
wher.  falsehood  is  made  to  pass  fortruth 
See  Hypocrisy. 

DECEPTION,  SELF.  See  Self- 
Deception. 

DECLAMATION,  a  speech  made 
in  public  in  the  tone  and  maimer  of  an 
oration,  uniting  the  expression  of  action 
to  the  propriety  of  pronunciation,  in  or- 
der to  give  the  sentiment  its  full  im- 
pression on  the  mind.  It  is  used  also  in 
a  derogatory  sense  ;  as  when  it  is  said, 
such  a  speech  was  mere  declamation,  it 
implies  that  it  was  deficient  in  point  of 
reasoning,  or  had  more  sotmd  than  sense. 

Declamation  of  the  Pulpit. 
"  The  dignity  and  sanctity  of  the  place, 
and  the  impoitance  of  the  subject,  re- 
quire the  preacher  to  exert  the  utmost 
powers  of  his  voice,  to  produce  a  pro- 
nunciation that  is  perfectly  distinct  and 
harmonious,  and  that  he  observe  a  de- 
portment and  action  which  is  expressive 
and  graceful.  The  preacher  should  not 
roar  like  a  common  crier,  and  rend  the 
ear  with  a  voice  like  thunder  ;  for  such 
kuid  of  detlamatiftn  is  not  only  without 
meariing  and  without  persuasion,  but 
highly  incongruous  with  the  meek  and 
gentle  spirit  of  the  Gospel.  He  should 
likewise  take  particular  care  to  avoid 
a  monotony  ;  his  voice  should  rise  fi'om 
the  beginning,  as  it  were,  by  degrees, 
and  its  greatest  strength  should  be  ex- 
ertedin  the  application.  Each  inflexion 
of  the  voice  should  be  adapted  to  the 
phrase  and  to  the  meaning  ot  the  words ; 
and  each  remarkable  expression  should 
have  its  peculiar  inflexion.  The  dog- 
matic requires  a  plain  uniform  tone  of 
voice  only,  and  the  menaces  of  God's 
word  demand  a  greater  force  than  its 
promises  and  rewards;  but  the  latter 
should  not  be  pronounced  in  the  soft 
tone  of  a  flute,  nor  the  former  with  the 
loud  sound  of  a  trumpet.  The  voice 
should  still  retain  its  natural  tone  in  all 
its  various  inflexions.  Happy  is  that 
preacher  who  has  a  voice  that  is  at  once 
strong,  fl.sxible,  and  harmonious.  An 
air  of  complacency  and  benevolence,  as 
well  as  devotion,  should  be  constantly 
visible  in  the  countenance  of  the  preach- 
er ;  but  every  appearance  of  affectation 
must  be  carefully  avoided  ;  for  notliing 
is  so  disgustful  to  an  audience  as  even 
the  semblance  of  dissimulation.  Eyes 
constantly  rolling,  turned  towards  hea- 
ven, and  streaming  with  tears,  rather 
denote  a  hypocrite  than  a  man  possessed 
of  the  real  spirit  of  religion,  and  who 
feels  the  true  import  of  what  he 
preaches.  An  air  of  affected  devotion 
mfallibly  destroys  the  efficacy  of  all 
that  the  preacher  can  say,  however  just 


DEC 


140 


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aiid  important  it  may  be.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  must  avoid  every  appearance 
of  mirth  or  raillery,  or  of  that  cold  un- 
feeling manner  which  is  so  apt  to  freeze 
the  lieart  of  his  hearers.  The  body 
should  in  general  be  erect,  and  in  a  na- 
tural and  easy  attitude.  The  perpetual 
mo^'ement  or  contortion  of  the  body  has 
a  ridiculous  effect  in  the  pulpit,  and 
makes  the  figure  of  a  preacher  and  a 
harlequin  too  similar ;  on  the  other 
hand,  he  ought  not  to  remain  constantly 
upright  and  motionless  like  a  speaking 
statue.  The  motions  of  the  hands  give  a 
strong  expression  to  a  discourse ;  but 
they  should  be  decent,  grave,  noble, 
and  expressive.  The  preacher  who  is 
incessantly  in  action,  who  is  perpetually 
clasping  his  hands,  or  who  menaces  with 
a  clenched  fist,  or  counts  his  arguments 
on  his  fingers,  will  only  excite  mirth 
among  his  auditory.  In  a  word,  decla- 
mation is  an  art  that  the  sacred  orator 
should  study  with  assiduity.  The  desig-n 
of  a  sermon  is  to  convince,  to  affect,  and 
to  persuade.  1  he  voice,  the  counte- 
nance, and  the  action,  Avhich  are  to  pro- 
duce the  triple  effect,  are  therefore  ob- 
jects to  which  the  preacher  should  par- 
ticu!ai"ly  applv  liimself."  See  Sermon. 
DECREES  OF  GOD  are  his  settled 
purposes,  whereby  he  foreordains  what- 
soever comes  to  pass,  Dan.  iv.  24.  Acts 
XV.  18.  Eph.  i.  11.  This  doctrine  is  the 
subject  of  one  of  the  most  perplexing 
controversies  that  has  occurred  among 
mankind ;  it  is  not,  hoAvever,  as  some 
think,  a  novel  doctrine.  The  opinion, 
that  whatever  occurs  in  tlie  world  at 
large,  or  in  the  lot  of  private  individuals, 
is  the  result  of  a  pi'evious  and  unaltera- 
ble arrangement  by  that  Supreme  Po\yer 
which  presides  over  Nature,  has  always 
been  held  by  many  of  the  ATilgar,  and 
has  been  believed  by  speculative  men. 
'I'he  ancient  stoics,  Zeno  and  Chrysip- 
pus,  whom  the  Jewish  Essenes  seem  to 
have  followed,  asserted  the  existence 
of  a  Deity,  that,  acting  wisely  but  ne- 
cessarily, contrived  the  general  system 
of  tlie  world ;  from  which,  by  a  series 
of  causes,  whatever  is  now  done  in  it 
unavoidably  results.  Mahomet  intro- 
duced into  his  Koran  the  doctrine  of  ab- 
solute predestination  of  the  course  of 
human  affairs.  He  represented  life  and 
death,  prosperity  and  adversity,  and 
every  event  that  befalls  a  man  in  this 
world,  as  the  result  of  a  previous  deter- 
mination of  the  one  (iod  who  rules  over 
all.  Augustine  and  the  whole  of  the 
earliest  reformers,  but  especially  Cal- 
vin, favoured  this  doctrine.  It  was  ge- 
nerally asserted,  and  publicly  owned, 
in  most  of  the  confessions  of  faith  of  the 


1  reformed  churches,  and  particularly  in 
the  church  of  England  ;  and  to  this,  we 
may  add,  that  it  was  maintained  by  a 
great  number  of  divines  in  the  last  two 
centuries. 

As  to  the  nature  of  these  decrees,  it 
must  be  observed  that  they  are  not  the 
result  of  deliberation,  oi'  the  Almighty's 
debating  matters  within  himself,  rea- 
soning in  his  own  mind  about  the  expe- 
diency or  inexpediency  of  things,  as 
creatures  do ;  nor  are  they  merely  ideas 
of  things  future,  but  settled  determina- 
tions founded  on  his  sovei-eign  will  and 
pleasure,  Isa.  xl.  14.  They  are  to  be 
considered  as  eternal:  this  is  evident; 
for  if  God  be  eternal,  consequently  his 
purposes  must  be  of  equal  duration  with 
himself:  to  suppose  othei'wise,  would 
be  to  suppose  that  there  was  a  time 
when  he  was  undetermined  and  muta- 
ble ;  whereas  no  new  determinations  or 
after  thoughts  can  arise  in  his  mind. 
Job  xxiii.  13,  14. — 2.  They  are  free, 
without  any  compulsion,  and  not  ex- 
cited by  any  motive  out  of  himself,  Rom. 
ix.  15.-^3.  They  ai-e  i??/?;»Ye/r/ ■w/se',  dis- 
playing his  glory,  and  promoting  the 
general  good,  Rom.  xi.  33. — 4.  They 
are  immutable,  for  this  is  the  result  of 
his  being  infinitely  perfect ;  for  if  there 
were  the  least  change  in  God's  vender- 
standing,  it  would  be  an  instance  of  im- 
perfection, Mai.  iii.  6. — 5.  They  are 
extensive  or  universal,  relating  to  all 
creatures  and  things  in  heaven,  earth, 
and  heD,  Eph.  i.  11.  Prov.  xvu  4. — 6. 
They  are  secret,  or  at  least  cannot  be 
known  till  he  be  pleased  to  discover 
them.  It  is  therefore  presumption  for 
any  to  attempt  to  enter  into  or  judge  of 
his  secret  pui'pose,  or  to  decide  upon 
what  he  has  not  i-evealed,  Deut.  xxix. 
29.  Nor  is  an  unknown  or  su/i/iosed  de- 
cree at  any  time  to  be  the  rule  of  our 
conduct.  His  revealed  will  alone  must 
be  considered  as  the  rule  by  which  we 
are  to  judge  of  the  event  of  things,  as 
well  as  of  our  conduct  at  lai'ge,  Rom. 
xi.  34. — 7.  Lastly,  they  are  effectual; 
for  as  he  is  infinitelv  wise  to  plan,  so  he 
is  infinitely  powerful  to  perform  :  his 
counsel  shall  stand,  and  he  ivill  do  all 
his  file asure,  Isa.  xlvi.  10. 

This  doctrine  should  teach  us,  1.  Ad- 
miration.  "  He  is  the  rock,  his  work  is 
perfect,  for  all  his  ways  are  judgment ; 
a  God  of  truth,  and  "without  iniquity ; 
just  and  right  is  he,"  Deut.  xxxii.  4. 
— 2.  l-^everence.  "Who  would  not  fear 
thee,  O  King  of  nations  .••  for  to  thee 
doth  it  appertain,"  Jer.  x.  7. — 3.  Hu- 
mility.  "O  the  depth  of  the  riches,  both 
of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God ! 
— how  unsearchable  are  his  judgments, 


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DEI 


and  liis  wavs  past  finding  out !"  Roin. 
xi.  33. — 4.  'Sii!unmio?7.  "  i-'or  he  doeth 
accorciins  to  /;/.<?  will  in  the  armies  of 
heaven,  and  among  the  inhabitants  of 
the  earth  ;  and  ncne  can  stay  his  \v41\d, 
or  say  unto  him,  What  do'est  thou  ?" 
Dan.  iv.  33. — 5.  Desire  for  heaven. 
"What  I  do,  thou  knowest  not  now; 
but  thou  shalt  know  hereafter,"  John 
xiii.  7.  See  Necessity,  Predestina- 
tion. 

Decrees  of  Councils  are  the  laws 
made  by  them  to  regulate  the  doctrine 
and  policy  of  the  Church.  Thus  the  acts 
of  tiie  Christian  council  at  Jerusalem 
are  called.  Acts  xvi.  4. 

DECRETAL,  a  letter  of  a  pope,  de- 
termining some  point  of  question  in  the 
ecclesiastical  law.  The  decretals  com- 
pose the  second  part  of  the  canon  law. 
The  first  genuine  one,  acknowledged  by 
all  the  learned  as  such,  is  a  letter  of 
Pope  Siricius,  written  m  the  year  385, 
to  Himerus,  bishop  of  Tai-ragona,  in 
Spain,  concerning  some  disorders  which 
had  crept  into  the  churches  of  Spain. 
Gratian  jjublished  a  collection  of  decre- 
tals, containing  all  the  ordinances  made 
by  the  popes  till  the  year  lloO.  Gregory 
IX.  in  1227,  following  the  example  of 
Theodosius  and  Justinian,  formed  a  con- 
stitution of  his  own,  collecting  into  one 
body  all  the  decisions  and  all  the  causes 
•which  served  to  advance  the  papal 
power;  which  collection  of  decretals 
was  called  the  Pentateuch,  because  it 
contained  five  books. 

DEDICATION,  a  religious  cere- 
mon)',  whereby  any  person  or  thing  is 
solemnly  consecrated,  or  set  apart  to 
the  service  of  God  and  the  purposes  of 
religion. 

The  use  of  dedications  is  very  ancient, 
both  among  the  worshippers  of  the  ti-ue 
God,  and  among  the  heathens.  In  the 
Scripture  we  meet  with  dedications  of 
the  tabernacle,  altars,  8cc.  Under 
Christianity  dedication  is  only  applied 
to  a  church,  and  is  properly  the  conse- 
cration thereof.    See  Consecration. 

DEFENCE.    See  Self-defence. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH, 
{Fidei  Defensor,)  a  peculiar  title  be- 
longing to  the  king  of  England  ;  as  Ca- 
tholicus  to  the  king  of  Spain,  and  C/iris- 
rianisshnjis  to  the  king  of  France. 
These  titles  were  given  by  the  popes  of 
Rome.  That  of  Fidei  Defensor  was  first 
conferred  by  Leo  X.  on  king  Henry 
VIII.  for  writing  against  Martin  Lu- 
ther; and  the  bull  for  it  bears  date 
qtiinto  idiis,  October  1521.  It  was  af- 
terwards confirmed  by  Clement  VII. 
But  the  pope,  on  Henry's  suppressing 
the  houses  of  religion,  at'the  time  of  the 


reformation,  not  only  deprived  him  of 
his  title,  but  deposed  him  from  his  crown 
also ;  though,  in  the  35th  year  of  his 
reign,  his  title,  £cc.  was  confirmed  by 
parliament,  and  has  continued  to  be  used 
by  all  his  successors.  Chamberlayne 
says,  the  title  belonged  to  the  king*;  of 
England  before  thattime,  and  for  proof 
hereof  appeals  to  several  charters  grant- 
ed to  the  University  of  Oxford :  so  that 
pope  Leo's  bull  was  only  a  renovation  of 
an  ancient  right. 

DEGRADATION,  Ecclesiastical,  is 
the  deprivation  of  a  priest  of  his  dignity. 
We  have  an  instance  of  it  in  the  eighth 
century  at  Constantinople,  in  the  person 
of  the  patriarch  Constantine,  who  was 
made  to  go  out  of  the  church  backwards, 
stripped  of  his  pallium,  and  anathema- 
tized. In  our  own  country,  Cranmei' 
was  degraded  by  order  of  the  bloody 
queen  Mary.  They  dressed  him  in 
episcopal  robes,  made  only  of  canvas ; 
put  the  mitre  on  his  head,  and  the  pas- 
toral staff  in  his  hand,  and  in  this  attire 
showed  him  to  the  people,  and  then 
stripped  him  piece  by  piece. 

DEISTS,  a  class  of  people  whose 
distinguishing  character  it  is,  not  to 
profess  any  particular  form  or  system 
of  religion ;  but  only  to  acknowledge 
the  existence  of  a  God,  and  to  follow 
the  light  and  law  of  Nature,  rejecting 
revelation  and  opposing  Christianity. 
The  name  of  deists  seems  to  have  been 
first  assumed,  as  the  denomination  of  a 
party,  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, by  some  gentlemen  in  France  and 
Italy,  who  were  desirous  of  thus  dis- 
guising their  opposition  to  Christianity 
by  a  more  honourable  appellation  than 
that  of  atheists.  Viret,  an  eminent  re- 
former, mentions  certain  persons  in  his 
epistle  dedicatory,  prefixed  to  the  se- 
cond volume  of  his  Instruction  Chre- 
tienne,  published  in  1653,  who  called 
themselves  by  a  new  name,  that  of 
deists.  These,  he  tells  us,  professed  to 
believe  in  God,  but  shewed  no  regard 
to  Jesus  Christ,  and  considered  the  doc- 
trine of  the  apostles  and  evangelists  as 
fables  and  dreams.  He  adds,  that  they 
laughed  at  all  religion,  though  they  out- 
wardly conformed  to  the  religion  of 
those  with  whom  they  lived,  or  whom 
they  wished  to  please,  or  feared  to  of- 
fend. Some,  he  observed,  professed  to 
believe  the  immortality  of  the  soul ; 
others  denied  both  this  doctrine  and  that 
of  providence.  Many  of  them  were  con- 
sidered as  persons  of  acute  and  subtUe 
genius,  and  took  pains  m  disseminating 
their  notions.  The  deists  hold,  that, 
considering  the  multiplicity  of  religions, 
the  numerous  pretences  to  revelation. 


DEI 


142 


DEI 


and  the  precarious  arguments  generally 
advanced  in  proof  thereof,  the  best  and 
surest  wa\'  is  to  return  to  the  simplicity 
of  naturej  and  the  belief  of  one  God ; 
■ivhich  is  the  only  tinith  agreed  to  by  all 
nations.  They  complain,  that  the  free- 
dom of  thinking  and  reasoning  is  op- 
pressed under  the  yoke  of  religion,  and 
that  the  minds  of  men  are  tyrannized 
over,  by  the  necessity  imposed  on  them 
of  believing  inconceivable  mysteries ; 
and  contend  that  nothing  should  be  re- 
quired to  be  assented  to  or  believed  but 
what  their  reason  clearly  conceives. 
The  distinguishing  chai-acter  of  modern 
deists  is,  that  they  discai'd  all  pretences 
to  revelation  as  the  effects  of  imposture 
or  enthusiasm.  They  profess  a  regard 
for  natural  religion,  though  they  are  far 
from  being  agi'eed  in  their  notions  con- 
cerning it. 

The)^  are  classed  by  some  of  their  own 
writers  iiito  mortal  and  immortal  de- 
ists ;  the  latter  acknowledging  a  future 
state  ;  and  the  former  denying  it,  or  re- 
presenting it  as  very  uncertain.  Dr. 
Clarke  distinguishes  four  sorts  of  deists. 
1.  Those  who  pretend  to  believe  the 
existence  of  an  eternal,  infinite,  inde- 
pendent, intelligent  Being,  who  made 
the  world,  without  conceraing  himself 
in  the  government  of  it. — 2.  Those  who 
believe  the  being  and  natural  provi- 
dence of  God,  but  deny  the  difference 
of  actions  as  morally  good  or  evil,  re- 
sohing  it  into  the  arbitrary  constitution 
of  human  laws ;  and  therefore  they  sup- 
pose that  God  takes  no  notice  of  them. 
v\'ith  respect  to  both  these  classes,  he 
observes  that  their  opinions  can  con- 
sistently terminate  in  nothing  but  down- 
right atheism. — 3.  Those  who,  having 
right  apprehensions  concerning  the  na- 
ture, attributes,  and  all-governing  pro- 
vidence of  God,  seem  also  to  have  some 
notion  of  his  moral  perfections ;  though 
they  consider  them  as  transcendent,  and 
such  in  nature  and  degree,  that  we  can 
form  no  true  judgment,  nor  argue  with 
any  certainty  concerning  them :  but  they 
deny  the  immortality  of  human  souls; 
alleging  that  men  perish  at  death,  and 
that  the  present  life  is  the  whole  of  hu- 
man existence. — 4.  Those  who  believe 
the  existence,  perfections,  and  provi- 
dence of  God,  the  obligations  of  natural 
religion,  and  a  state  of  future  retribu- 
tion, on  the  evidence  of  the  light  of  Na- 
txire,  without  a  divine  revelation  ;  such 
as  these,  he  says,  are  the  only  ti-ue  de- 
ists: but  their  principles,  he  apprehends, 
should  lead  them  to  embi"ace  Chris- 
tianity ;  and  therefore  he  concludes  that 
there  is  now  no  consistent  scheme  of 
deism  in  the  world.    The  first  deistical 


writer  of  any  note  that  appeared  in  this 
country  was  Herbert,  baron  of  Cher- 
bury.  He  lived  and  wrote  in  the  se- 
venteenth century.  His  book  De  Veri- 
tatt  was  first  puhiibhed  at  Paris  in  1624. 
This,  together  with  his  book  De  Causis 
Errorum,  and  his  treatise  De  Reli^'ionc 
Laid,  were  afterwards  published  in'L.on- 
don.  His  celebrated  work  De  Religione 
GeyttUimn  was  published  at  Amsterdam 
in  1663  in  4to.,  and  in  1700  in  Svo. ;  and 
an  English  translation  of  it  was  publish- 
ed at  London  in  1705.  As  he  was  one 
of  the  first  that  formed  deism  Mito  a 
system,  and  asserted  the  sufficiency, 
universality,  and  absolute  perfection  of 
natural  religion,  with  a  view  to  discard  all 
extraordinary  revelation  as  useless  and 
needless,  we  shall  subjoin  the  fi%'e  fun- 
damental articles  of  this  universal  reli- 
gion. They  are  these :  1.  There  is  one 
supreme  God. — 2.  Tiiat  he  is  chiefly  to 
be  worshipped. — 3.  That  piety  and  \'\y- 
tue  are  the  principal  part  of  his  wor- 
ship.— 4.  That  we  must  repent  of  our 
sins  ;  and  if  we  do  so,  God  will  pardon 
them. — 5.  That  there  are  rewards  for 
good  men  and  punishments  for  bad  men, 
both  here  and  hereafter.  A  number  of 
advocates  have  appeared  in  the  same 
cause  ;  and  however  they  may  have 
differed  among  themselves,  they  have 
been  agreed  in  their  attempts  of  invali- 
dating the  evidence  and  authority  of  di- 
vine revelation.  We  might  mention 
Hobbes,  Blount,  Toland,  Collins,  Wool- 
ston,  Tindall,  Morgan,  Chubl),  lord  Bo- 
lingbroke,  Hume,  Gibbon,  Paine,  and 
some  add  lord  Shaftesbui-y  to  the  num- 
ber. Among  foreig-ners,  Voltaire,  Rous- 
seau, Condorcet,  and  many  other  cele- 
brated French  authors,  have  rendered 
themselves  conspicuous  by  their  deisti- 
cal writings.  "But,"  as  one  observes, 
"the  friends  of  Christianity  have  no 
reason  to  regret  the  free  and  unreserved 
discussion  which  their  religion  has  un- 
dergone. Objections  have  been  stated 
and  urged  in  their  full  force,  and  as 
fuUv  answered ;  arguments  and  raillery 
have  been  repelled:  and  the  controversy 
between  Christians  and  deists  has  called 
forth  a  great  number  of  excellent  Avriters, 
who  have  illustrated  both  the  doctnnes 
and  e\'idcnccs  of  Christianity  in  a  man- 
ner that  will  ever  reficct  honour  on  their 
names,  and  be  of  lasting  service  to  the 
cause  of  genuine  i-eligion,  and  the  best 
interests  of  mankind."  See  articles 
Christianity,  iNFinELiTV,  Inspira- 
tion, and  Scripture,  in  this  work. 
Leland's  Vievj  of  Dcifitical  ll'riters ; 
Sermo72S  at  Boxjle's  Lecture  ;  Halybur- 
ton's  Mitural  Religion  irisufficietit ; 
Leslie's  Short  Method  ivith  the  Deists  i 


DEL 


143 


DEL 


Bishop  Watsoii's  Apology  Jot  the  Bible  ; 
Fuller's  Gos/iel  of  Christ  itf  oivn  Wit- 
ness ;  Hishc/i  Porteus's  Charge  to  the 
Clergy,  for  1794  ;  and  his  sunvnary  of 
the  Evi(lences  of  Christianity. 

DEITY  OF  CHRIST.  See  Jesus 
Chkist. 

DELUGE,  the  ^ood  which  over- 
flowed and  destroyed  the  earth.  This 
flood  makes  oiie  oi  the  most  considera- 
ble epochas  in  chronolog)'.  Its  history 
is  given  by  Moses,  Gen.  vi.  and  vii. 
Its  time  is  fixed  by  the  best  chronolos^ers 
to  the  year  from  the  creation  1656, 
answering  to  the  year  before  Christ 
2293.  From  this  flood,  the  state  of  the 
world  is  divided  into  diluvian  andaw^e- 
dil  avian. 

Men  who  have  not  paid  that  regard 
to  sacred  history  as  it  dcsen^es,  liave 
cavilled  at  the  account  given  of  an  uni- 
versal deluge.  Their  objections  princi- 
pally turn  upon  three  points :  1.  The 
Avant  of  anv  direct  history  of  that  event 
by  the  profane  writers  of  antiquity. — 2. 
The  apparent  impossibility  of  account- 
ing for  the  quantity  of  water  necessary 
to  ovei-flow  the  whole  earth  to  such  a 
depth  as  it  is  said  to  have  been. — And, 
3.  There  appearing  no  necessity  for  an 
universal  deluge,  as  tKe  same  end  might 
have  been  accomplished  by  a  partial ! 
one.  I 

To  the  above  arguments  we  oppose  I 
the  plain  declarations  of  Scripture.  Gocl^j 
declared  to  Noah  that  he  was  resolved  ! 
to  desti'oy  every  thing  that  had  l)T-eath  | 
under  heaven,  or  had  life  on  the  earth, 
by  a  flood  of  waters ;  such  was  the  j 
threatening,  such  was  the  execution. 
The  waters,  Moses  assures  us,  covered 
the  whole  earth,  buried  all  the  moun- 
tains ;  every  thing  perished  therein  that 
had  life,  excepting  Noah  and  those  with 
him  in  the  ark.  Can  an  universal  de- 
luge be  more  clearly  expressed  ?  If  the 
deluge  had  only  been  partial,  there  had 
been  no  necessity  to  spend  an  hundred 
years  in  the  building  of  an  ark,  and 
shutting  up  all  sorts  of  animals  therein, 
in  oi'der  to  re-stock  the  world:  they 
had  been  easily  and  reudilv  brought 
from  those  pai-ts  of  the  world  not  over- 
flowed into  those  that  were  ;  at  least, 
all  the  birds  never  would  ha-^e  been  de- 
stroyed, as  Moses  says  they  were,  so 
long  as  they  had  wings  to  bear  them  to 
those  parts  where  the  flood  did  not 
reach.  If  the  waters  had  only  ovei-- 
flowed  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Tigris,  thev  could  not  be 
fifteen  culiits  above  the  highest  moun- 
tains ;  there  was  no  rising  that  height 
but  they  must  spread  theniselves,  bv  the 
laws  of  gi-avity,  o\er  the  rest  of  the 


earth ;  unless  perhaps  they  had  been 
retained  there  by  a  miracle ;  in  that 
case,  Moses,  no  doubt,  would  ha\e  re- 
lated the  miracle,  as  he  did  that  of  the 
waters  of  the  Red  Sea,  &c.  It  may  also 
be  observed,  that  in  regiojis  far  remote 
from  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  viz. 
Italy,  France,  Switzerland,  CTcrniany, 
England,  &c.  there  are  frequently  found 
in  places  many  scores  of  leagues  from 
the  sea,  and  even  in  the  tc^ps  of  high 
mountains,  whole  trees  sunk  deep  under 
ground,  as  also  teeth  and  bones  of  ani- 
mals, fishes  entire,  sea-shells,  ears  of 
com,  Sec.  petrified ;  which  the  best 
naturalists  are  agreed  could  never  have 
come  there  but  by  the  deluge.  That 
the  Greeks  and  western  nations  had 
some  knowledge  of  the  flood,  has  never 
been  denied ;  and  the  Mussulmen,  Chi- 
nese, and  Americans,  have  traditions 
of  the  deluge.  The  ingenious  Mr. 
Bryant,  in  his  Mythology,  has  pretty 
clearly  proved  that  the  deluge,  so  far 
from  being  unknown  to  the  heathen 
world  at  large,  is  in  reality  conspicuous 
throughout  every  one  of  their  acts  of 
religious  woi'ship.  In  India,  also.  Sir 
William  Jones  has  discovered,  that  in 
the  oldest  mythological  books  of  that 
country,  there  is  such  an  account  of  the 
deluge,  as  corresponds  sufficiently  with 
that  of  Moses. 

Various  have  been  the  conjectures  of 
learned  men  as  to  the  natural  causes  of 
the  deluge.  Some  have  supposed  that 
a  quantity  of  water  was  created  on  pur- 
pose, and  at  a  pi-oper  time  annihilated 
by  Divine  power.  Dr.  Burnet  supposes 
the  primitive  earth  to  have  been  no 
more  than  a  crust  investing  the  water 
contained  in  the  ocean  ;  and  in  the  cen- 
tral abyss  which  he  and  others  sujjpose 
to  exist  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  at 
the  time  of  the  flood,  this  outward  crust 
broke  in  a  thousand  pieces,  and  sunk 
doAvn  among  the  water,  which  thus 
spouted  up  in  vast  cataracts,  and  over- 
flowed the  whole  surface.  Others,  sup- 
posing a  sufficient  fund  of  water  in  the 
sea  or  abyss,  thmk  that  the  shifting  of 
the  earth's  centre  of  gravity  drew  after 
it  the  water  out  of  the  channel,  and 
overwhelmed  the  several  parts  of  the 
earth  successively.  Others  ascribe  it  to 
the  shock  of  a  comet,  and  IWr.  King  sup- 

Eoses  it  to  arise  from  subterraneous  fii'es 
ursting  forth  v/ith  great  violence  under 
the  sea.  Biit  are  not  most,  if  not  all 
these  hypotheses  quite  arbitrary,  and 
without  foundation  from  the  words  of 
Moses  ?  It  is,  perhaps,  in  vain  to  attempt 
accounting  for  this  extent  by  natural 
causes,  it  being  altogether  miraculous 
and  supernatural,  as  a  punishment  t(j 


DES 


144 


DES 


wen  for  the  corruption  then  in  the 
world.  Let  us  be  satisfied  with  the 
sources  which  Moses  gives  us,  namely, 
the  fountains  of  the  great  deep  broken 
up,  and  tlie  windows  of  heaven  opened ; 
that  is,  the  waters  iiished  out  from  the 
hidden  abyss  of  the  bowels  of  the  earth, 
and  the  clouds  pourec  down  their  rain 
incessantly.  Let  it  suffice  us  to  know, 
that  all  the  elements  are  under  God's 
power ;  that  he  can  do  with  them  as  he 
pleases,  and  fi'equently  in  ways  we  are 
ignorant  of,  in  order  to  accomplish  his 
owr  pui^joses'. 

The  principal  writers  en  this  subject 
have  been  IVoodyard,  Cockburn,  Bry- 
ant, Burnet,  Whiston,  Siillingjieet,  King, 
Calcott  and  Tytler. 

DEPRAVll'Y,  corruption,  a  change 
from  perfection  to  imperfection.  See 
Fall,  Sin. 

DEPRECATORY,  a  term  applied  to 
the  manner  of  performing  some  cere- 
monies in  the  form  of  prayer.  The  form 
of  absolution  in  the  Greek  church  is  de- 
precative, thus  expressed — JMay  God 
absolve  you;  whereas  in  the  Latin 
church  it  is  declarative — I  absolve  you. 

DESCENT  of  Christ  into  Hell.  "See 
Hell. 

DESERTION,  a  term  made  use  of 
to  denote  an  unhappy  state  of  mind,  oc- 
casioned by  the  sensible  influences  of 
the  divine  favour  being  withdraAvn. 
Some  of  the  best  men  in  all  ages  have 
suffered  a  temporary  suspension  of  di- 
vine enjoyments,  Jot)  xxix.  2.  Ps.  li.  Is. 
xhx.  14. 'Lam.  iii.  1.  Is.  i.  10.  The 
causes  of  this  must  not  be  attributed  to 
the  Almighty,  since  he  is  always  the 
same,  but  must  arise  from  oursehes. 
Neglect  of  duty,  improper  views  of  Pro- 
vidence, self-confidence,  a  worldly  spi- 
rit, lifkewarmness  of  mind,  inattention 
to  the  means  of  grace,  or  open  trans- 
gression, may  be  considered  as  leading 
to  this  state.  As  all  things,  however, 
are  under  the  divine  control,  so  even 
desertion,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  express- 
<;d  in  Scripture,  "  the  hidings  of  God's 
face,"  may  be  useful  to  excite  humility, 
exercise  faith  and  patience,  detach  us 
from  the  world,  prompt  to  more  vigorous 
action,  bring  us  to  look  more  to  God  as 
the  fountain  of  happiness,  conform  us  to 
his  word,  and  increase  our  desires  for 
that  state  of  blessedness  which  is  to 
come.  HeTvey's  Ther.  and  .Asp.  dial, 
xix.;  Watts's  Medit.  on  Job,  xxiii.  3.; 
Lambert's  Ser.  vol.  i.  ser.  16.;  jFluvel's 
Works,  vol.  i.  p.  167.  folio. 

DESIRE  is  an  eagerness  to  obtain  or 
enjoy  an  object  which  we  suppose  to  be 
good.  Those  desires,  says  Dr.  Watts, 
that  arise  without  any  express  ideas  of 


the  goodness  or  agi-eeableness  of  their 
object  to  the  mind  beforehand,  such  as 
hunger,  thirst,  8vc. ;  are  called  ap/ietrtes. 
Those  which  arise  from  our  perception 
or  opinion  of  an  object  as  good  or  agree- 
able, are  most  properly  called  passions. 
Sometimes  both  these  are  united.  If 
our  desire  to  do  oi^  receive  good  be  not 
violent,  it  is  called  a  simple  inclination 
OT  propensity.  When  it  rises  high,  it  is 
termed  lohging:  when  our  desires  set 
our  active  powers  at  work  to  obtain  the 
veiy  same' good,  or  the  same  sort  of 
good,  which  another  dt^sires,  it  is  called 
ernnlation.  Desire  of  pleasures  of  sense, 
is  called  sensuality;  of  honour,  is  called 
ambition;  of  riches,  covetousness.  The 
objects  of  a  good  man's  desires  are,  that 
God  ma}-  bo  glorified,  his  sins  forgiven 
and  subdued,  his  affections  enlivened 
and  placed  on  God  as  the  supreme  ob- 
ject of  love,  his  afflictions  sanctified, 
and  his  life  dcAoted  to  the  service  of 
God,  Prov.  xi.  23.  Ps.  cv.  19. 

DESPAIR,  the  loss  of  hope;  that 
state  of  mind  in  which  a  person  loses 
his  confidence  in  the  divine  mercy. 

Some  of  the  best  antidotes  against  de- 
spair, says  one,  may  be  taken  from  the 
consideration,  1.  Of  the  ^ature  of  God, 
his  goodness,  mercy, -Sec. — 2.  The  tes- 
timony of  Ciod :  he  hath  said,  he  de- 
sire th  not  the  death  of  the  sinner. — 3. 
From  the  works  of  God:  he  hath  given 
his  Son  to  die. — 4.  From  his  promises, 
Heb.  xiii.  5. — 5.  From  his  .  command : 
he  hath  commanded  us  to  confide  hi  his 
mercy. — 6.  From  his  expostulations, 
&c.  Baxter  on  Religious  Melancholy ; 
Claude's  Essays,  p.  388,  Robinson's 
edit.;  Gisbor?ie's  Sermon  on  Religious 
Despovdenci/. 

DESTRUCTIONISTS,  those  who 
believe  that  the  final  punishment  threat- 
ened in  the  Gospel  to  the  wicked  and 
impenitent  coiisists  not  in  an  eternal 
preservation  in  misery  and  torment,  but. 
m  a  total  extinction  of  being,  and  that 
the  sentence  of  annihilation  shall  be  ex- 
ecuted with  more  or  less  torment,  pre- 
ceding or  attending  the  final  period,  in 
proportion  to  the  .gi'cater  or  less  guilt 
of  tne  criminal. 

The  name  assumed  by  this  denomi- 
nation, like  those  of  many  others,  takes 
for  granted  the  question  in  dispute,  viz. 
that  the  Scripture  word  destruction 
means  annihilation :  in  strict  propriety 
of  speech,  thev  should  be  called  Anni- 
hilationists.  'Fhe  doctrine  is  largely 
maintained  in  the  sermons  of  Mr.  Sa- 
muel Bourn,  of  Birmingham ;  it  was  held 
also  by  Mr. J. N.Scott;  Mr.  John  Taylor, 
of  Norwich ;  Mr.  Marsom ;  and  many 
others. 


DES 


145 


DES 


In  defence  of  the  system,  Mr.  Bourn 
argues  as  follows:  There  arc  nian)  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  in  which  the  ultimate 
punishment  to  which  wicked  men  shall 
be  adjudged  is  defined,  in  the  most  pre- 
cise and  intelligible  terms,  to  be  an  ever- 
lasting destruction  from  the  power  of 
God,  which  is  equally  able  to  destroy 
as  to  preserve.  So  when  our  Saviour  is 
fortifj'ing  the  minds  of  his  disciples 
against  the  power  of  men,  by  an  awe  of 
the  far  greater  power  of  God,  ancUihe 
punishment  of  his  justice,  he  express- 
eth  himself  thus:'  Fear  not  them  tliat 
kill  the  body,  and  after  that  have  no 
more  that  they  can  do  ;  fear  him  ivho  is 
able  to  destroy  both  soul  and  body  in 
hell.  Here  he  plainly  proposes  the  de- 
sti-uction  of  the  soul  (not  its  endless  pain 
and  misery)  as  the  ultimate  object  of 
the  divine  displeasure,  and  the  greatest 
object  of  our  fear.  And  when  he  sajs, 
These  shall  go  avjay  into  everlasting 
punishment,  but  the  righteous  into  life 
eternal,  it  appears  evident  that  by  that 
eternal  punishment  which  is  set  in  oppo- 
sition to  eternal  life,  is  not  meant  any 
kind  of  life,  however  miserable,  but  the 
same  which  the  apostle  expresses  by 
everlasting  destruction  from  the  pre- 
sence and  power  of  the  Lord.  The  very 
term,  death,  is  most  frequently  made 
use  of  to  signify  the  end  of  wicked  men 
in  another  world,  or  the  final  effect  of 
divine  justice  in  their  punishment.  The 
wages  of  sin  (saith  the  apostle)  is  death; 
but  eternal  life  is  the  gift  of  God, 
through  Christ  Jesus  our  Lord.  See 
also  Rom.  viii.  6. 

To  imagine  that  by  the  term  death  is 
meant  an  eternal  life,  though  in  a  con- 
dition of  extreme  misery,  seems,  ac- 
coixling  to  him,  to  be  confounding  all 
propriety  and  meaning  of  words.  Death, 
when  applied  to  the  end  of  wricked  men 
m  a  future  state,  he  says  properly  de- 
notes a  total  extinction  of  life  and  being. 
It  may  contribute,  he  adds,  to  fix  this 
meaning,  if  we  observe  that  the  state  to 
■which  temporal  death  reduces  men  is 
usually  termed  by  our  Saviour  and  his 
apostles,  slee-fi;  because  from  this  death 
the  soul  shall  be  raised  tohfe  again:  but 
from  the  other,  which  is  fiilly  and  pro- 
perly death,  and  of  which  the  former  is 
but  an  image  or  shadow,  there  is  no  re- 
coveiy ;  it  is  an  eternal  death,  an  ever- 
lasting destruction  from  the  presence  of 
the  Lord,  and  the  glory  of  his  power. 

He  next  proceeds  to  the  figures  by 
which  the  eternal  punishment  of  wicked 
men  is  described,  and  finds  them  per- 
fectly agreeing  to  establish  the  same 
doctrine.  One  figure  or  comparison, 
often  used,  is  that  of  combustible  mate- 


I  rials  thrown  into  a  fire,  which  will  con- 
j  sequently  be  entirely  consumed,  if  the 
[j  fire  be  not  quenched.     Depart  from  me, 
Ij  ye  cursed,  into  everlasting  Jire,  preha- 
\\  red  for  the  devil  and  his  angels.     The 
!'  meaning  is,  a  total,  irrevocable  destruc- 
tion: for,  us  the  tree  that  bringeth  not 
•forth  good  fruit  is  hewn  down  and  cast 
into  the  Jire,  and  is  destroyed ;  as  the 
I  useless  chaff,  when  separated  from  the 
good  grain,  is  set  on  fire,  and,  if  the  fire 
be  not  quenched,   is  consumed ;  so,  he 
thinks,  it  plainly  appears,  that  the  image 
of  unquenchable  or  everlasting  fire  is  not 
intended  to  signify  the  degree  or  dura- 
tion of  torment,  but  the   absolute  cer- 
tainty of  destruction,  beyond  all  possi- 
bility of  recovery.     So  the  cities  of  So- 
dom and  Gomorrah  are  said  to  have 
suffered  the  vengeance   of  an   eternal 
Jire;  that  is,  they  w^ere  so  effectually 
consumed,  or  destroyed,  that  they  could 
never  be  rebuilt ;  the  phrase,  eternal 
Jire,  signifying  the  ii-revocable  destruc- 
tion o^  those  cities,  not  the  degree  or 
duration  of  the  misery  of  the  inhabitants 
who  perished. 

The  images  of  the  worm  that  dieth 
not,  andthe  Jre  that  is  not  quenched, 
used  in  Mark  ix.  43,  are  set  in  opposi- 
tion to  entering  into  life,  and  intended  to 
denote  a  period  of  life  and  existence. 

Our  Saviour  expressly  assigns  differ- 
ent degrees  of  future  misery,  in  propor- 
tion to  men's  respective  degrees  of  guilt, 
Luke  xii.  47,  48.  But  if  all  wicked  men 
shall  suffer  torments  without  end,  how 
can  any  of  them  be  said  to  suffer  but  a 
few  stripes  ?  All  degrees  and  distinc- 
tions of  punishment  seem  swallowed 
up  in  the  notion  of  never-ending  or  in- 
finite misery. 

Finally,  death  and  eternal  destruc- 
tion, or  annihilation,  is  properly  styled 
in  the  New  Testament  an  everlasting 
punishment,  as  it  is  irrev(3cable  and  un- 
alterable for  ever ;  and  it  is  most  strictlj' 
and  literally  styled,  an  ex'erlasting  de- 
struction fro  m  the  presence  of  the  Lord, 
and  from  the  glory  of  his  power. 

Dr.  Edwards,  in  his  ansAver  to  Dr. 
Chauncey,  on  the  salvation  of  all  men, 
says  that  this  scheme  was  provisionally 
retained  by  Dr.  C. :  i.  e.  in  case  the 
scheme  of  universal  salvation  should  fail 
him :  and  therefore  Dr.  E.,  in  his  ex- 
am.ination  of  that  work,  appropriates 
a  chapter  to  the  consideration  of  it. 
Among  other  reasonings  against  it  are 
the  following: 

1.  The  different  degrees  of  punish- 
ment which  the  wicked  will  suffer  ac- 
cording to  their  works,  proves  that  it 
does  not  consist  in  annihilation,  which 
admits  of  no  degrees. 
1' 


DES 


146 


DET 


2.  If  it  be  said  Hiat  the  punishment  of 
the  wicked,  though  it  will  end  in  anni- 
hilation, yet  shall  be  preceded  by  tor- 
ment, and  that  this  will  be  of  different 
degrees  according  to  the  degrees  of  sin  ; 
it  may  be  I'eplied,  this  is  making  it  to  be 
compounded  partly  of  torment,  and 
partly  of  annihilation.  The  latter  also 
appears  to  be  but  a  small  part  of  future 

Sunishment,  for  that  alone  will  be  in- 
icted  on  the  least  sinner,  and  on  ac- 
count of  the  least  sin ;  and  that  all  punish- 
ment which  will  be  inflicted  on  any  per- 
son above  that  which  is  due  to  the  least 
sin,  is  to  consist  in  torment.  Nay,  if  we 
can  form  any  idea  in  the  present  state 
of  what  would  be  dreadful  or  desirable 
in  another,  instead  of  its  being  any  pun- 
ishment to  be  annihilated  after  a  long 
series  of  torment,  it  must  be  a  deliver- 
ance, to  which  the  sinner  would  look 
forward  with  anxious  desire.  And  is  it 
credible  that  this  was  the  termination 
of  torment  that  our  Lord  held  up  to  his 
disciples  as  an  object  of  dread  ?  Can 
this  be  the  destruction  of  body  and  soul 
in  hell  i*  Is  it  credible  that  everlasting 
destruction  from  the  presence  of  the 
Lord,  and  from  the  glory  of  his  power, 
should  constitute  only  a  part,  and  a 
small  part,  of  future  punishment;  and 
such  too,  as,  after  a  series  of  torment, 
must,  next  to  being  made  happy,  be  the 
most  acceptable  thing  that  could  befall 
them  ?  Can  this  be  the  object  threatened 
by  such  language,  as  recompensing  tri- 
bulalion,  and  taking  vengeance  in  fla- 
ming fire?  2  Thes.  i.  Is  it  possible  that 
God  should  threaten  them  with  putting 
an  end  to  their  miseries  ?  Moreover,  this 
destruction  is  not  described  as  the  con- 
clusion of  a  succession  of  torments,  but 
as  taking  place  immediately  after  the 
last  judgment.  When  Christ  shall  come 
to  be  glorified  in  his  saints,  then  shall 
the  wicked  be  destroyed. 

3.  Everlasting  destructifxn  from  the 
preseyice  of  the  Lord,  andfrofn  the  glory 
of  his  fiovjer,  cannot  mean  annihilation, 
for  that  would  he  no  exertion  of  divine 
power,  but  merely  the  suspension  of 
it :  for  let  the  upholding  power  of  God 
be  withheld  for  one  moment,  and  the 
whole  creation  would  sink  into  no- 
thing. 

4.  The  punishment  of  wicked  men 
will  be  the  same  as  that  of  wicked  an- 
gels. Matt.  XXV.  41.  Depart  ye  cursed, 
into  cvrrlasiing  fire,  prefiared  for  the 
devil  and  his  angels.  But  the  punish- 
ment of  wicked  angels  consists  not  in 
annihilation,  but  torment.  Such  is  their 
present  punishment  in  a  degree,  and 
such  in  a  greater  degree  will  be  their 
punishment  hereafter.  They  are  "cast 


down  to  hell;"  they  "believe  and  trem- 
ble;" they  are  reserved  in  chains  under 
darkness,  to  the  judgment  of  the  great 
day  ;  they  cried,  saying,  "  What  have 
we  to  do  with  thee  ?  Art  thou  come  to 
torment  us  before  our  time  ?"  Could  the 
devils  but  persuade  themselves  they 
should  be  annihilated,  they  would  believe 
and  be  at  ease  rather  than  tremble. 

5.  The  Scriptures  explain  their  own 
meaning  in  the  use  of  such  terms  as 
demth,  destruction,  &c.  The  second 
deMh  is  expressly  said  to  consist  in  being 
cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  and  brimstone, 
and  as  hax'ing  a  part  in  that  lake.  Rev. 
XX.  14.  xxi.  8  :  which  does  not  des^ibe 
annihilation,  nor  can  it  be  made  to  con- 
sist with  it.  The  phrase  cut  him  asun- 
der. Matt.  xxiv.  51.  is  as  strong  as  those 
t)f  death,  or  destruction;  yet  that  is 
made  to  consist  of  having  their  portion- 
ivith  hufiocrites,  whei-e  shall  be  weeping 
and  gnashing  of  teeth. 

6.  The  happiiicss  of  the  righteous  does 
not  consist  in  eternal  being,  but  in  eter- 
m.\  well-being;  and  as  the  punishment 
of  the  wicked  stands  every  where  op- 
posed to  it,  it  must  consist  not  in  the  loss 
of  being,  hut  of  well-being,  and  in  suffer- 
ingthe  contrary. 

The  great  Dr.  Watts  may  be  consi- 
dered, in  some  measure,  a  destruction- 
ist ;  since  it  was  his  opinion  that  the 
children  of  ungodly  parents  who  die  in 
infancy  are  annihilated.  See  Annihi- 
lation, Hell;  Bourn's  Sermons ;  Dr. 
Edwards  on  the  Salvation  of  all  Men 
strictly  examined;  Adams's  View  of 
Religions. 

DETRACTION,  in  the  native  im- 
portance of  the  word,  signifif^s  the  with- 
drawing or  taking  off  from  a  thing;  and 
as  it  is  ajiplied  to  the  reputation,  it  de- 
notes the  impairing  or  lessening  a  man 
in  point  of  fame,  rendering  him  less  va- 
lued and  esteemed  by  others.^  Dr.  Bar- 
row observes  (Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  19,) 
that  it  differs  from  slander,  which  in- 
volves an  imputation  of  falsehood  ;  from 
reviling,  which  includes  bitter  and  foul 
language;  and  fnMii  censuring,\vh\ch.  is 
of  a  more  general  pur]-)ort,  extending  in- 
differently to  all  kinds  of  persons,  quali- 
ties, and  actions ;  but  detraction  espe-  : 
cially  respects  worthy  persons,  gopd 
qualities,  and  laudable  actions,  the  re- 

fiutation  of  which  it  aimcth  to  destroy 
t  is  a  faidt  opposed  to  candour. 
Notliing  can  be  more  incongnions  with 
the  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  the  example  of 
Christ,  tlie  command  of  God,  and  the 
]o\e  of  mankind,  than  a  spirit  oi  detrac- 
tion ;  and  yet  there  are  many  who 
never  seem' happy  but  when  they  arc 
cmnlnvcd  in  this  work  :  thev  feed  and 


DEV 


147 


DEU 


live  upon  the  supposed  infirmities  of 
others ;  they  allow  excellence  to  none ; 
they  depreciate  every  thing  that  is 
praise-worthy;  iuid,  possessed  oi  no  good 
themselves,  they  think  all  others  are 
like  them.  "  O I  my  soul,  come  thou  not 
into  their  secret;  unto  their  assembly, 
mine  honour  be  not  thou  united." 

DEVIL,  Aiaf  jA,oj,  calumniator,  or  slan- 
derer ;  a  fallen  angel,  especially  the  chief 
of  them.  He  is  called  Abaddon  in  He- 
brew, ApoUyon  \n  Greek,  that  is,  de- 
stroyer.— Angel  of  tlie  bottomless  pit. 
Rev.  ix.  11. — Prince  of  the  world,  John 
xii.  31. — Prince  of  darkness,  Eph.  vi.  12. 
— A  roaruig  lion,  and  an  adversai-y,  1 
Pet.  V.  8. — A  sinner  from  the  beginning, 

1  John  iii.  8.— Beelzebub,  Matt.  xii.  24.— 
Accuser,  Rev.  xii.  10. — Belial,  2  Cor.  vi. 
15. — Deceiver,  Rev.  xx.  10. — Dragon, 
Rev.  xii.  3. — Liar,  John  viii.  44. — Levia- 
than, Is.  xxvii.  1. — Lucifer,  Is.  xiv.  12. — 
Murderer,  John  viii.  44. — ^Serpent,  Is. 
xxvii.  1.— -Satan,  Job  ii.  6. — Tormentor, 
Matt,  xviii.  34. — The  god  of  this  world, 

2  Cor.  iv.  4.     See  Satan. 
DEVOTEE,  in  the  primary  sense  of 

the  word,  means  a  person  wholly  given 
up  to  acts  of  piety  and  devotion  ;  but  it 
is  usually  understood,  in  a  1)ad  sense,  to 
denote  a  bigot,  or  superstitious  person. 

DEVOTION,  a  religious  and  fervent 
exercise  of  some  public  act  of  religion, 
or  a  temper  and  disposition  of  the  mind 
rightly  affected  with  such  exercises.  It 
is  also  taken  for  certain  religious  prac- 
tices which  a  person  makes  it  a  rule  to 
discharge  regidarly.  "Wherever  the 
vital  and  unadulterated  spirit  of  Chris- 
tian devotion  prevails,  its  UTimediate  ob- 
jects will  be  to  adore  the  perfections  of 
God  ;  to  entertain  with  reference  and 
complacence  the  various  intimations  of 
his  pleasure,  especially  those  contained 
in  holy  writ ;  to  acknowledge  cur  abso- 
lute dependence  on  and  infinite  obliga- 
tions to  him  ;  to  confess  and  lament  the 
disorders  of  our  nature,  and  the  trans- 
gressions of  our  lives ;  to  implore  his 
grace  and  mercy  through  Jesus  Christ ; 
to  intercede  for  our  brethren  of  man- 
kind ;  to  pray  for  the  projiagation  and 
establishment  of  trutli,  rigiiteousness, 
and  peace,  on  earth  ;  in  fine,  to  long  for 
a^  more  entire  confonnity  to  the  will  of 
God,  and  to  breathe  after  the  everlast- 
ing enjoyment  of  his  friendship.  The 
effects  of  such  a  spirit  habitually  che- 
rished, and  feelingly  expressed  before 
him  must  surelv  be  important  and  hap- 
py. Among  these  may  be  reckoned  a 
profound  humility  in  the  sight  of  God, 
a  high  veneration  for  liis  presence  and 
attributes,  an  ardent  zeal  for  his  wor- 
ship and  honour,  a  constant  imitation  of 


our  Saviour's  divine  example,  a  diffusive 
charity  for  men  of  all  denominations,  a 
generous  and  unwearied  self-denial,  a 
total  resignation  to  Providence,  an  in- 
creasing esteem  for  the  Gospel,  with 
clearer  and  firmer  hopes  of  that  immor- 
tal life  which  it  has  brought  to  light." 

DEUTEROCANO>tlCAL,  in  the 
school  theology,  an  appellation  given  to 
certain  books  of  holy  Scripture,  whicli 
were  added  to  the  canon  alter  the  rest, 
eitlier  by  reason  they  were  not  wrote 
till  after  the  compilation  of  the  canon, 
or  by  reason  of  some  dispute  as  to  their 
canonicity.  The  word  is  Greek,  being 
compounded  of  btun^os,  second;  and 
xav.vix.^s,  canonical. 

The  Jews,  it  is  certain,  acknowledged 
several  books  in  their  canon,  which  were 
put  there  later  than  the  rest.  They  say 
that  under  Esdras,  a  great  assembly  of 
tlieir  doctors,  which  they  call,  by  way 
of  eminence,the  §'?Ta?  synagogue,  m:ide 
the  collection  of  the  sacred  books  which 
we  now  have  in  the  Hebrew  Old  Tes- 
tament ;  and  they  agree  that  they  put 
books  tlierein  which  had  not  been  so  be- 
fore the  Bal)ylonish  captivity;  such  as 
those  of  Daniel,  Ezekiel,  Haggai,  £cc. 
and  those  of  Esdras  and  Nehemiah. 
And  the  Romish  church  has  since  added 
others  to  the  canon,  that  were  not,  and 
could  not  be,  in  the  canon  of  the  Jews, 
by  reason  some  of  thern  were  not  com- 
posed till  after :  such  as  the  book  of  Ec- 
clesiasticus,  with  several  of  the  apociy- 
phal  books,  as  the  Maccabees,  Wisdom, 
&c.  Others  were  added  still  later,  by 
reason  their  canonicity  had  not  been  yet 
examined;  and  till  such  examen  and 
judgment  they  might  be  set  aside  at 
pleasure.  But  since  that  church  has 
pronounced  as  to  the  canonicity  of  those 
books,  there  is  no  more  room  now  for 
her  members  to  doubt  of  them,  than 
there  was  for  the  Jews  to  doubt  of  those 
of  tlie  canon  of  Esdras.  AiiJ  the  deu- 
terocanonical  books  are  with  them  a^ 
canonical  as  the  proto-cauonical ;  the 
only  difference  between  them  consisting 
in  this,  that  the  canonicity  of  the  one 
was  not  generally  known,  examined,  and 
settled,  as  soon  as  that  of  the  others. 
Tlie  deuterocannnical  books  in  the 
modern  canon  are,  the  book  of  Estlier, 
either  the  whole,  or  at  least  the  seven 
last  chapters  thereof;  the  epistle  to  the 
Hebrews;  that  of  James,  and  that  of 
Jude ;  the  second  of  St.  Peter,  tlie  se- 
cond and  third  of  St.  John,  and  the  Re- 
velation. I'he  deutei-oc;aionical  parts  of 
books  are,  the  hymn  of  the  three  chil- 
dren ;  the  prayer  of  Azariah  ;  the  hlri- 
tories  of  Susanna.h,  of  Bel  and  the  Dra- 
gon ;  the  last  chapter  (;f  St.  Mark  ;  \.\\v 


DIE 


148 


DIF 


bloody  sweat;  and  the  appearance  of 
the  angel  related  in  St.  Luke,  chap, 
jcxii.  and  the  history  of  the  adulterous 
woman  in  St.  John,  chap.  viii.  See 
Canon. 

DIET,  an  assembly  of  the  states  of 
Germany.  We  shall  only  take  notice, 
in  this  place  of  the  more  reinarkable 
of  those  which  ha-ve  been  held  on  the 
affairs  of  religion.  1.  The  diet  of  Augs- 
burgh,  in  the  year  1530,  was  assembled 
to  re-unite  the  princes  of  the  empire,  in 
relation  to  some  religious  matters.  The 
emperor  himself  presided  in  this  assem- 
bly with  the  greatest  magnificence  ima- 
ginable. The  elector  of  Saxony,  follow- 
ed by  several  princes,  presented  the 
confession  of  faith,  called  the  confession 
of  x\ugsburgh.  The  emperor  ended  the 
diet  with  a  decree,  that  no  alteration 
should  be  made  in  the  doctrines  and  ce- 
remonies of  the  Romish  church  till  the 
council  should  order  it  otherwise. — 2. 
The  diet  of  Augsburgh,  in  1547,  was 
held  on  account  of  the  electors  being 
divided  concerning  the  decisions  of  the 
council  of  Trent.  The  emperor  de- 
manded that  the  management  of  that 
affair  should  be  referred  to  him  ;  and  it 
was  resolved,  that  every  one  should  con-' 
form  to  the  decisions  of  the  council. — 
3.  The  diet  of  Augsburgh,  in  1548,  was 
assembled  to  examine  some  memorials 
relating  to  the  confession  of  faith  ;  but, 
the  commissioners  not  agreeing  toge- 
ther, the  emperor  named  three  divines, 
who  drew  the  design  of  this  famous  in- 
terim, so  well  known  in  Germany  and 
elsewhere.  See  Interim. — 4.  The  diet 
of  Augsburgh,  in  1550.  In  this  assem- 
bly, the  emperor  complained  that  the 
interim  was  not  observed,  and  demanded 
that  all  should  submit  to  the  council, 
which  they  were  going  to  I'enew  at 
Trent ;  which  submission  was  resolved 
upon  bv  a  plurality  of  votes. — 5.  The 
diet  of  Nuremberg,  in  1523.  Here  pope 
.\drian  Vlth's  nuncio  demanded  the 
execution  of  Leo  Xth's  bull,  and  Charles 
Vth's  edict  against  Luther.  But  the  as- 
sembly drew  up  a  list  of  grievances, 
v/hich  were  reduced  to  an  hundred  ar-  I 
tides,  some  whereof  aimed  at  the  de-  | 
struction  of  the  pope's  authority,  and 
the  discipline  of  the  Romish  church ; 
however,  tnev  consented  tliat  the  Lu- 1 
thcrans  should  be  commanded  not  to 
write  against  the  Roman  Catholics. — 
6.  The  diet  of  Nuremberg,  in  1524.  In 
this  assembly,  the  Lvitherans  having  the 
advantage,  it  was  decreed  that  the  pope 
should  call  a  council  in  Germany ;  but 
that,  in  the  mean  time,  an  assembly 
should  be  held  at  Spire,  to  determine 
what  was  to  be  believed  and  practised ; 


but  Charles  V.  prohibited  the  holding 
I  this  assembly. — 7.  The  diet  of  Ratisbon, 
;  in  1541,  was  held  for  re-uniting  the  Pro- 
;  testants  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  The 
emperor  named  three  Roman  Catholics 
and  three  ■  Protestant  divines,  to  agree 
upon  articles.  The  Roman  Catholics 
were,  Julius  Phlug,  John  Gropper,  and 
John  Eckius;  the  Protestants  were, 
Philip  Melancthon,  Martin  Bucer,  and 
John  Pistorius;  but,  after  a  whole 
month's  consultation,  they  could  agree 
upon  no  more  than  five  or  six  articles ; 
which  the  emperor  consented  the  Pro- 
testants should  retain,  forbidding  them 
to  solicit  any  body  to  change  the  ancient 
religion. — 8.  The  diet  of  Ratisbon,  in 
1546,  decreed  that  the  council  of  Trent 
was  to  be  followed,  which  was  opposed 
by  the  Protestant  deputies ;  and  this 
caused  a  war  against  them. — 9.  The  diet 
of  Ratisbon,  in  1557,  demanded  a  con- 
ference between  some  famous  doctors 
of  both  parties ;  which  conference  Avas 
held  at  Worms,  in  September,  between 
twelve  Roman  Catholic  and  twelve  Lu- 
thei'an  divines  ;  but  was  soon  dissolved 
by  the  Lutherans  being  divided  among 
themselves. — 10.  The  diet  of  Spire,  in 
1526.  In  this  assembly  (wherein  presi- 
ded the  archduke  Ferdinand)  the  duke 
of  Saxony,  and  the  landgrave  of  Hesse, 
demanded  the  free  exercise  of  the  Lu- 
theran religion :  upon  which  it  was  de- 
creed, that  the  emperor  should  be  de- 
sired to  call  a  general,  or  national,  coun- 
cil in  Germany  within  a  year,  and  that, 
in  the  mean  time,  every  one  should  have 
liberty  of  conscience. — 11.  The  diet  of 
Spire,  in  1529,  decreed,  that  in  the 
countries  which  had  embraced  the  new 
religion,  it  should  be  lawful  to  continue 
in  it  till  the  next  council ;  but  that  no 
Roman  Catholic  should  be  allowed  to 
turn  Lutheran.  Against  this  decree  six 
Lutheran  princes,  viz.  the  elector  of 
Saxony,  the  marquis  of  Brandenburg, 
the  two  dukes  of  Lunenburg,  the  land- 
grave of  Hesse,  and  the  prince  of  An- 
halt,  with  the  deputies  of  fourteen  im- 
perial toAvns,  protested  in  writing;  from 
which  solemn  protestation  came  the  fa- 
mous name  of  Protestants,  which  the 
Lutherans  presentlj^  after  took. — 12. 
The  diet  of  Worms,  in  1521.  In  this  as- 
sembly, Luther,  being  charged  by  the 
pope's  nuncio  with  heresy,  and  refusing 
to  recant,  the  emperor,  by  his  edict  of 
May  26,  before  all  the  princes  of  Ger- 
manv.  publicly  outlawed  him. 

DIFFIDENCE,  distrust,  want  of  con- 
fidence in  ourselves.  Diffidence,  says 
Dr.  Johnson,  mav  check  resolution  and 
obstruct  performance,  but  compensates 
its  embarrassment  by  more  important 


DIR 


149 


DIS 


-advantages;  it  conciliates  the  proud, 
and  softens  the  severe ;  averts  envy 
from  excellence,  and  censure  from  mis- 
carriage. 

.  DIGGERS,  a  denomination  which 
spiTing  up  in  Germany,  in  the  fifteenth 
century ;  so  called  because  they  dug 
their  assemblies  under  ground  in  caves 
and  forests.  They  derided  the  church, 
its  ministers  and  sacraments. 

DILIGENCE,  Christian,  is  constan- 
cy in  the  performance  of  all  those  du- 
ties enjoined  us  in  God's  sacred  word. 
It  includes  activity  and  vigour — watch- 
fulness against  intruding  objects — firm- 
ness and  resolution — patience  and  per- 
severance. The  shortness  of  our  time  ; 
the  importance  of  our  work  ;  the  plea- 
sure which  arises  from  discharging  du- 
tv ;  the  uncertainty  of  the  time  of  our 
dissolution ;  the  consciousness  we  do  not 
labour  in  Aain  ;  together  with  tlie  exam- 
ple of  Christ  and  all  good  men,  should 
excite  us  to  the  most  unwearied  dili- 
gence in  the  cause  of  God,  of  ti-uth,  and 
our  ovm  souls. 

DLMIS30RY  LETTER,  a  letter  gi- 
ven by  a  bishop  to  a  candidate  for  holy 
orders,  having  a  title  in  his  diocese,  di- 
rected to  some  other  bishop,  and  giving 
leave  for  the  bearer  to  be  ordained  by 
him. 

DIOCESE,  the  circuit  of  every  bi- 
shop's jurisdiction.  It  is  formed  from 
the  Greek  cioix^.rts,  government. 

DIRECTORY,  a  kind  of  regulation 
for  the  performance  of  religious  wor- 
ship, drawn  up  by  the  assembly  of  di- 
vines in  England,  at  the  instance  of  the 
parliamtnt,  in  1644.  It  was  designed  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  Liturg}',  or  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,  the  use  of  which 
they  had  abolished.  It  consisted  of  some 
general  heads,  which  were  to  be  mana- 
ged and  filled  up  at  discretion ;  for  it 
prescribed  no  form  of  prayer,  or  cir- 
cumstances of  external  worship,  nor 
obliged  the  people  to  any  responses,  ex- 
cepting Amen.  The  substance  of  it  is 
as  follows: — It  forbids  all  salutations 
and  civil  ceremony  in  the  churches  ; — 
the  reading  the  scriptures  in  the  con- 
gi-egation  is  declared  to  be  part  of  the 
pastoral  office  ; — all  the  canonical  books 
of  the  old  and  New  Testament  (but  not 
of  the  Apocrypha)  are  to  be  publicly 
read  in  the  vulgar  tongue  :  how  large  a 
portion  is  to  be  read  at  once,  is  left  to 
the  minister,  who  has  likewise  the  li- 
berty of  expounding,  when  he  judges  it 
nccessan-.  It  prescribes  heads  for  the 
prayer  before  sermon ;  it  delivers  rules 
for  preaching  the  word ;  the  introduc- 
tion to  the  text  must  be  short  and  clear, 
drawn  from  the  woi-ds  or  context,  or 


some  parallel  place  of  Scripture.    In 
dividing  the  text,  the  minister  is  to  re- 
gard the  order  of  the  matter  more  than 
that  of  the  words :  he  is  not  to  burden 
the   memory  of  his  audience  with   too 
i  many  divisions,  nur  perplex  their  un- 
j  derstanding  with   logical   phrases   and 
1  terms  of  arts  :  he  is  not  to  start  unne- 
I  cessary  objections  ;  and  he  is  to  be  very 
sparing  in  citations  from  ecclesiastical 
or  other  human  writers,  ancient  or  mo- 
dern, &c.    The  Directoiy  recommends 
the  use  of  the  Lord's  Praver,  as  the  most 
pei-fect  model   of  devotion ;   it   forbids 
private  or  lay  persons  to  administer  bap- 
tism, and  enjoins  it  to  be  performed  in 
j  the  face  of  the  congregation;  it  orders 
!  the  communion-table  at  the  Lord^s  sup- 
I  per  to  be  so  placed,  that  the  communi- 
cants may  sit  about  it.     It  also  orders, 
{ that  the  sabbath  be  kept  with  the  great- 
!  est  strictness,  both  publicly  and  private- 
i  ly  ;  that  marriage  be  solemnized  by  a 
i  lawful  minister  of  the  word,  who  is  to 
I  give  counsel  to,  and  pray  for  the  par- 
j  ties ;  that  the  sick  be  visited  by  the  mi- 
1  nister  under  wliose  charge  they  are ;  the 
!  dead  to  be  buried  without  any  prayers 
i  or  religious  ceremonies ;  that  daj'S  of 
fasting  are  to  be  observed  when  the 
judgments  of  God  are  abroad,  or  when 
some  important  blessings  are  desired  ; 
that  days  of  thanksgiving  for  mercies 
received  be  also  observed;  and,  lastly, 
that   singing  of  Psalms  together  in  the 
congregation  is  the  duty  of  Christians. 
In  an  appendix  to  this  Directory  it  is 
ordered,  that  all  festivals,  vulgarl)-  call- 
ed holy  days,  are  to  be  abolished;  that 
no  day  is  to  be  kept  but  the  Lord's  day; 
and  that  as  no  place  is  capable  of  aiiy 
holiness  under  pretence  of  consecration, 
so  neither  is  it  subject  to  pollution  by 
any    superstition   formerly  used ;    and 
therefore   it  is  held  requisite,  that  the 
places    of   public   worship    now    used 
should  still  be  continued  and  employed. 
Should  the  reader  be  desirous  ot  peru- 
sing this   Directory  at   large,  he  may 
I  find  it  at  the  end  of  J^'eale's  History  of 
the  Puritans. 

DISCIPLE,  a  scholar  or  one  who  at- 
tends the  lectures,  and  professes  the  te- 
nets of  another.  A  disciple  of  Christ  is 
one  who  believes  his  doctrines,  imbibes 
his  spirit,  and  follows  his  example.  See 
Christian. 

DISCIPLINE,  Church,  consists  in 
putting  church  laws  in  execution,  and 
inflicting  the  penalties    enjoined.    See 

j     DISCIPLINE,  Book  of,  in  the  histo- 
ry of  the  church  of  Scotland,  is  a  com- 
j  mon  order  di-awn  up  by  the  assembly  of 
!  ministers  in  1650,  for  the  refonnation 


DIS 


150 


DIS 


and  uniformity  to  be  obse''ved  in  the  dis- 
cipline and  policy  of  the  Church.  In  this 
book  the  go\'ernment  of  the  church  by 
prelates  is  set  aside ;  kirk  sessions  are 
established;  the  supei'stitious  observa- 
tion of  fast  days  and  saint  days  is  con- 
demned, and  other  regulations  for  the 
government  of  the  church  are  deter- 
mined. This  book  was  approved  by 
the  privy  council,  and  is  caued  the  first 
book  of  discipline. 

DISCONTENT,  uneasiness  at  our 
present  state.* 

Man  never  a]}pears  in  a  worse  light 
than  when  he  gives  way  to  this  disposi- 
tion. It  is  at  once  the  strongest  proof  of 
his  pride,  ignorance,  luibelief,  and  re- 
bellion against  God.  Let  such  remem- 
ber, that  discontent  is  a  reflection  on 
God's  government ;  that  it  cannot  alter 
the  state  of  things,  or  make  them  bet- 
ter ;  that  it  is  the  source  of  the  greatest 
misery  ;  that  it  is  an  absolute  violation 
of  God's  law,  Heb.  xiii.  5 ;  and  that  God 
has  often  punished  it  with  the  most  sig- 
nal judgments,  Numb.  xi.  Ps.  evil.  See 
Contentim'f.nt. 

DISCRETION,  prudent  behaviour, 
arising  from  a  knowledge  of  and  acting 
agreeable  to  the  difference  of  things. 
"Tliere  are,"  says  Addison,  No.  225, 
Spect.  "  many  more  shining  qualities  in 
the  mind  of  man,  but  there  is  none  so 
useful  as  discretion :  it  is  this,  indeed, 
which  gives-  a  value  to  all  the  rest ; 
which  sets  them  at  woi-k  in  their  pro- 
per times  and  places,  and  turns  them  to 
the  advantage  of  the  person  who  is  pos- 
sessed of  them.  Without  it,  learning  is 
pedantry,  and  wit-  impertinence  ;  virtue 
itself  looks  like  weakness :  the  best  parts 
only  qualify  a  man  to  be  more  sprightly 
in  errors,  and  active  to  his  own  preju- 
dice. 

"Discretion  is  a  very  different  thing 
from  cunning:  cunning  is  only  an  ac- 
complishment of  little,  mean,  ungene- 
rous minds.  Discretion  points  out  the 
noblest  ends  to  us,  and  pursues  the  most 
proper  and  laudable  methods  of  attain- 
mg  them ;  cunning  has  only  private  sel- 
fish aims,  and  sticks  at  nothing  which 
may  make  them  succeed.  Discretion 
has  large  and  extended  views,  and,  like 
a  well  formed  eye,  commands  a  whole 
horizon;  cunning  is  a  kind  of  short- 
sightedness that  discovers  the  minutest 
objects  wliich  are  near  at  hand,  but  not 
al)le  to  discern  things  at  a  distance.  Dis- 
cretion, the  more  it  is  discovered,  gives 
a  greater  authority  to  the  person  who 
possesses  it ;  cunning,  when  it  is  once 
detected,  loses  its  force,  and  makes  a 
man  incapable  of  bringing  al)out  even 
those  events  which  he  might  have  done, 


had  he  passed  only  for  a  plain  man. 
Discretion  is  the  perfection,  of  reason, 
and  a  guide  to  us  in  all  the  duties  of  life  ; 
cunning  is  a  kind  of  instinct,  that  only 
looks  out  jifter  our  immediate  interest 
and  welfare.  Discretion  is  only  found  in 
men  of  strong  sense  and  good  under- 
standings ;  cunning  is  often  to  be  met 
with  in  brutes  themselves,  and  in  per- 
sons who  are  but  the  fewest  removes 
from  them.  In  short,  cunning  is  only  the 
mimic  of  discretion,  and  may  pass  upon 
weak  men,  in  the  same  manner  as  viva- 
city is  often  mistaken  for  wit,  and  gra- 
vity for  wisdom."    See  Prudence. 

Disdain,  contempt,  as  unworthy  of 
one's  choice.  It  is  distinguished  from 
haughtiness  thus :  Haughtiness  is  foun- 
ded on  the  high  opinion  we  have  of  our- 
selves ;  disdain  on  the  low  opinion  we 
have  of  otlie-rs. 

DISINTERESTED  LOVE.  Sec 
Self-love. 

DISPENSATION,  the  act  of  deal- 
ing out  any  thing.  The  two  different 
methods  ot  revealing  the  truths  of  the 
Gospel  before  and  after  Christ's  death 
are  called  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
Dispensation.  The  dealing  of  God  with 
his  creatures  in  his  providence  is  called 
a  dispensation.  The  state  of  supernatu- 
ral or  rex'ealed  theologv  may  also  be  di- 
vided into  six  dispensations.  ].  From 
the  fall  of  Adam  to  the  flood. — 2.  From 
Noah  to  the  giving  the  law. — 3.  From 
that  time  to  the  time  of  Ua\  id  and  the 
prophets. — 4.  From  Da\  id  to  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity. — 5.  The  period  fron\ 
that,  to  the  time  of  Christ,  finishes  the 
Old  Testament  dispensation. — 6.  From 
Christ  to  the  end  of  time,  the  Gospel 
dispensation.  The  superiority  of  the  last 
dispensation,  as  Dr.  Watts  observes,  ap- 

f)ears,  if  we  consider  that  it  contains  the 
aircst  and  fullest  representation  of  the 
moral  law  ;  and  which  is  more  particu- 
larly explained  here  than  in  any  of  the 
former  dispensations. — 2.  In  this  dispen- 
sation the  Gospel  or  covenant  of  grace 
is  revealed  more  perfectly  and  plainly 
than  ever  before ;  not  in  obscure  ex- 
pressions, in  types  and  carnal  meta- 
phors, but  in  its  own  proper  form  and 
language. — 3.  The  rites  and  ceremonies 
under  tliis  disjjensation  are  preferable  to 
those  in  former  times,  and  that  in  tliis 
resjiect:  they  are  fewer,  clearer,  and 
mucli  more  easv- — 4.  The  Son  of  Ciod, 
who  was  the  real  mediator  tlirougli  all 
former  dispensations,  has  condescended 
to  become  the  visi/df  mediator  of  this 
dispensation. — 5.  This  dispensation  is 
not  confined  to  one  family,  or  to  one  na- 
tion, or  to  a  few  ages  of  men,  but  it 
spreads  through  all  the  nations  of  tlie 


DIS 


151 


DIS 


earth,  and  reaches  to  the  end  of  time. —  j 
6.  The  encoumgemcnts  and  persuasive  | 
helps  which  Christianity  gives  us  to  ful- 
fil tne  duties  of  the  covenant,  are  much 
superior  to  those  which  were  enjoyed  ! 
under  anv  of  the  former  dispensations. ' 
JVarts's  tVorks,  vol.i.  ser.  47.  8vo.  Gill's  | 
Body  of  Div.  Inti-od.  Robi/iso?i's  Ser-  | 
movs,  p.  147.  Ricli^ley's  Div.  qu.  35.        \ 

DISPERSION' of  mankind  was  oc- ; 
casioned  l)y  the  c(mfusion  of  tongues  at 
the  overthrow  of  Babel,  Gen.  xi.  9.    As 
to  the  manner  of  the  dispersion  of  the  \ 
posterity  of  Noah  from  the  plain  of  Shi-  j 
nar,  it  was  undoubtedly  conducted  with  \ 
the  utmost  regularity  and  order.    The  ' 
sacred  historian  inf  irms  us,  that  they  \ 
were  divided  in  their  lands :  every  one, 
according  to  his  tongue,  according  to  his 
family,  and  according  to  his  nation.  Gen. 
X.  5,  20,  31.  The  ends  of  this  dispersion 
were  to  populate  the  earth,  to  prevent 
idolatry,  and  to  display  the  divine  wis- 
dom and  power.    See  Confusion  of 
Tongues. 

DISPOSITION,  that  temper  of  mind, 
which  any  person  possesses. 

In  every  man,  says  lord  Kaims,  there 
is  something  original  that  serves  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  others,  that  tends  to 
form  a  character,  and  to  make  him 
meek  or  fiery,  candid  or  deceitful,  reso- 
lute or  timorous,  cheerful  or  morose. 
This  original  bent,  termed  dis/iosition, 
must  be  distinguished  from  a. princi/ile : 
the  latter  signifying  a  law  of  human 
nature  makes  part  of  the  common  na- 
ture of  man  ;  the  former  makes  part  of 
the  nature  of  this  or  that  man. 

DISPUTATION,  Religious,  is  the 
agitation  of  any  religious  question,  in 
order  to  obtain  clear  and  adequate  ideas 
of  it.  The  propriety  of  religious  dispu- 
tation or  contro^■ersial  divinity  has  been 
a  matter  of  doubt  with  many.  Some  art- 
fully decry  it,  in  order  to  destroy  free 
inquiry.  Some  hate  it,  because  they  do 
not  lilce  to  be  contradicted.  Others  de- 
claim against  it,  to  sa\e  themselves  the 
disgrace  of  exposing  their  ignorance,  or 
the  labour  of  examining  and  defending 
their  own  theses.  There  are  others 
who  avoid  it,  not  because  they  are  con- 
vinced of  the  impropriety  of 'the  thing 
itself,  but  because  of  the  evil  temper 
with  which  it  is  generally  conducted. 

The  propriety  of  it,  however,  will  ap- 
pear, if  we  consider  that  eveiy  article 
of  religion  is  denied  by  some,  and  can- 
not well  be  believed  without  examina- 
tion, by  any.     Religion  empowers  us  to 
investigate,  debate,  and  controvert  each  j 
article,  in   order  to  ascertain  the  evi-  ' 
dence  of  its  truth.    The  divme  writings, " 
many  of  them,  are  controversial;  then 


book  of  Job,  and  Paul's  epistles,  espe- 
cially. The  ministry  of  our  Lord  was 
a  perjjetual  controversy,  and  the  apos- 
tles came  at  truth  by  much  disputuig, 
Acts  XV.  7.  xvii.  17.  xix.  8.  To  attend, 
howevei",  to  I'eligious  controversy  with 
advantage,  the  following  rules  should  be 
observed;  1.  The  question  should  be 
cleared  from  all  doubtful  terms  and 
needless  additions. — 2.  The  precise  point 
of  enquiry  should  be  fixed. — 3.  That  the 
object  aimed  at  be  truth,  and  not  the 
mere  love  of  victory.— 4.  Beware  of 
a  dogmatical  spirit,  and  a  supposition 
that  you  are  always  right. — 5.  Let  a 
strict  rein  be  kept  on  the  passions  when 
you  are  hard  pushed.  Vide  Robinson's 
Claude,  p.  245,  vol.  ii;  Watts  on  the 
Mind,  chap.  10. ;  Beattie  on  Truth,  347, 
&c. ;  Locke  on  the  Understanding,  chap. 
10.  vol.  iii. 

DISSENTERS,  those  who  separate 
from  the  established  church.  The  num- 
ber of  dissenters  in  this  kingdom  is  very 
consideraljle.  They  are  divided  into 
several  parties  ;  the  chief  of  which  are 
the  Presbyterians,  Independents,  Bap- 
tists, Quakers,  and  Methodists.  See 
those  articles,  as  also  Nonconformists 
and  Puritans. 

DISSIDENTS,  a  denomination  ap- 
plied in  Polaiyl  to  those  of  the  Luthe- 
ran, Calvinistic,  and  Gi-eek  profession. 
The  king  of  Poland  engages  by  the 
pacta  conx'cnta  to  tolerate  them  in  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion,  but  thev 
have  often  had  reason  to  complain  of 
the  violation  of  these  promises. 

DISSIMULATION,  the  act  of  dis- 
sembling. It  has  been  distinguished 
from  simulation  thus:  Simulation  is 
making  a  thing  appear  which  does  not 
exist;  dissimulation  is  keeping  that 
which  exists  from  appearing.  Moralists 
have  obse^■^'ed  that  all  dissimulation  is 
not  hypocrisy.  A  vicious  man,  who 
endeavours  to  throw  a  veil  over  his  bad 
conduct,  that  he  may  escape  the  notice 
of  men,  is  not  in  the  strictest  sense  of 
the  word  a  hj'pocrite,  since  a  man  is  no 
more  obliged  to  proclaim  his  secret 
vices  than  any  other  of  his  secrets.  The 
hypocrite  is  one  who  dissembles  for  a 
bad  end,  and  hides  the  snare  that  he 
may  be  more  sure  of  his  prey ;  and,  noi 
content  with  a  negative  virtue,  or  not 
appearing  the  ill  man  he  is,  makes  a 
show  of  positive  virtue,  and  appears  the 
man  he  is  not.    See  Hypocrisy. 

X)ISSOLUTION,  death,  or  the  se- 
paration of  the  body  and  soul.  The 
dissolution  of  the  world  is  an  awful 
event,  which  we  ha^e  reason  tobelie\"e, 
both  from  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
New,  will  certainly  take  place.     1.  It  h 


DIV 


152 


DIV 


not  an  incredible  thing,  since  nothing  of 
a  material  nature  is  formed  for  perpe- 
tual, duration. — 2.  It  will  doubtless  be 
under  the  direction  of  the  Supreme  Be- 
ing, as  its  creation  was. — 3.  The  soul  of 
man  will  remain  unhurt  amidst  this 
general  desolation. — 4.  It  will  be  an  in- 
troduction to  a  greater  and  nobler  sys- 
tem in  the  government  of  God,  2  Pet. 
iii.  13. — 5.  The  consideration  of  it  ought 
to  have  a  great  influence  on  us  while  in 
the  present  state,  2  Pet.  iii.  11,  12.    See 

CONFI.  AGRATION. 

DIVERSION,  something  that  un- 
bends the  mind,  by  turning  it  off  from 
care.  It  seems  to  be  something  lighter 
than  amusement,  and  less  forcible  than 
pleasure.  It  is  an  old  simile,  and  a  very 
just  one,  that  a  bow  kept  always  bent 
will  grow  feeble,  and  lose  its  force.  The 
alternate  succession  of  business  and  di- 
version preserve  the  body  and  soul  in 
the  happiest  temper.  Diversions  must, 
however,  be  lawful  and  good.  The 
play-house,  the  gaming-table,  the  mas- 
querade, and  midnight  assemblies,  must 
be  considered  as  inimical  to  the  mo- 
rals and  true  happiness  of  man.  The 
most  rational  diversions  are  conversa- 
tion, I'eading,  singing,  music,  riding,  &c. 
They  must  be  moderate  as  to  the  time 
spent  in  them,  and  expense  of  them; 
seasonable,  when  we  have  (as  Cicero 
observes)  dispatched  ovir  serious  and 
important  affairs.  See  Grove's  Peg-nla- 
tion  of  Diversions ;  IVatts's  Jmjirove- 
ment  of  the  Mind,  vol.  ii.  sec.  9.  Blair's 
Sermons,  vol.  ii.  p.  17.  Burc/er's  Ser- 
mon on  A/mese?ncnts ;  Friend's  Even- 
ing^yJmusenieyits. 

DIVINATION,  is  a  conjecture  or 
surmise  formed  concerning  some  future 
event  from  something  which  is  suppo- 
sed to  be  a  presage  of  it ;  but  between 
which  there  is  no  real  connection,  only 
what  the  imagination  of  the  diviner  is 
pleased  to  assign  in  order  to  deceive. 

Divination  of  all  kinds  being  the  off- 
spring of  credulity, nursed  bv  imposture, 
and  strengthene.d  by  superstition,  was 
necessarily  an  occult  science,  retained 
in  the  hands  of  the  priests  and  priest- 
esses, the  magi,  the  soothsayers,  the 
augurs,  the  visionaries,  the  priests  of  the 
oracles,  the  false  prophets,  and  other 
like  professors,  till  the  coming  of  Jesus 
Christ,  when  the  light  of  the  CJospel 
dissipated  much  of  this  darkness.  The 
vogue  for  these  pretended  sciences  and 
arts  is  nearly  past,  at  least  in  the  en- 
lightened parts  of  the  world.  Tliere 
are  nine  different  kinds  of  divination 
mentioned  in  Scripture.  These  are,  1. 
Those  whom  Moses  calls  Meonrn  of 
.Hnan,  a  cloud,  Dcut.  xviii.  10. — 2.  Those 


vvhom  the  prophet  calls,  in  the  same 
place,  J\[enacheseh,  which  the  Vulgate 
and  generality  of  intei-preters  render 
Augur. — 3.  Those  who  in  the  same 
place  are  called  Mecascheph,  which 
the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  translate 
"  a  man  given  to  ill  practices." — 4-, 
Those  whom  in  the  same  chapter,  ver. 
11.  he  calls  Hhober. — 5.  Those  who 
consult  the  spii'its,  called  Python. — 6. 
Witches,  or  magicians,  called  Judeoni. 
— 7.  JS'ecromancers,  who  consult  the 
dead. — 8.  Such  as  consult  staves,  Hosea, 
iv.  12.  called  by  some  Rhabdomancy. — 

9.  Hejiatoscofiy,  or  the  consideration  of 
the  liver. 

Different  kinds  of  divination  which 
have  passed  for  sciences,  we  have  had  : 

1.  Aeromancy,  divining  by  the  air.— 

2.  Astrology,  by  the  heavens. — 3.  Au- 
gury, by  the  flight  and  singing  of  birds. 
See. — 4.  Chiromancy  by  inspecting  the 
hand. — 6.  Gcomancy,  by  observing  of 
cracks  or  clefts  in  the  earth. — 6.  Ha- 
ruspicy,  by  inspecting  the  bowels  of  ani- 
mals.— 7.  Horoscopy,  a  branch  of  astro- 
logy, marking  the  position  of  the  heavens  • 
when  a  man  is  born. — 8.  Hydromancy, 
by  water. — 9.  Physiognomy,  by  the 
countenance.  (This,  however,  is  consi- 
dered by  some  as  of  a  difttrent  nature, 
and  worthy  of  being  rescued  from  the 
rubbish  of  superstition,  and  placed 
among  the  useful  sciences.  Lavater  has 
written  a  celebrated  treatise  on   it.)— 

10.  Pyromancy,  a  divination  made  by 
fire.  Thus  we  see  what  arts  have  been 
practised  to  deceive,  and  how  designing  ; 
men  have  made  use  of  all  the  four  ele- 
ments to  impose  upon  weak  minds. 

DIVINE,  something  relating  to  God. 
The  word  is  also  used  figuratively  for 
any  thing  that  is  excellent,  extrabrdi-  ' 
nary,  and  that  seems  to  go  bejond  th« 
power  of  nature  and  the  capacity  ofl 
man.  It  also  signifies  a  minister,  or  cleiS* 
gyman.    See  Minister. 

DIVINITY,  the  science  of  theology. 
See  Theology. 

DIVISIONS,  ECCLESIASTICAL. 
See  Schism. 

DIVORCE,  is  the  dissolution  of  mar- 
riage, or  separation  of  man  and  wife. 
Divorce  a  mensa  et  thoro,  1.  e.  fi-om  bed 
and  board, — iji  this  case  the  wife  has  a 
suitable  maintenance  allowed  her  out  of 
her  husband's  effects.  Divorce  a  vin- 
culo matrimonii,  i.  e.  from  the  bonds  of 
matrimony,  is  strictly  and  properly  di- 
vorce. This  h:\ppens  either  in  conse- 
quence of  criminality,  as  in  the  case  of 
adultery,  or  through  some  essential  im- 
pediment ;  as  consanguinity,  or  affinity 
within  the  degrees  forbidden,  pre-con- 
tract, impoteucy,  &c.  of  which  impcdi- 


11- ' 


DOC 


153 


DOM 


nients  the  canon  law  allows  no  less 
than  14.  In  these  cases  the  woman 
receives  again  only  what  she  brought. 
Sentences  which  release  the  parties  a 
vinculo  viutrimonii,  on  account  of  im- 
puberty,  tVigiditv,  consanguinity  within 
the  prohibited  degrees,  prior  niarriage, 
or  want  of  the  requisite  consent  of  pa- 
rents or  guardians,  are  not  properly 
dissolutions  of  the  mai-riage  contract, 
but  judicial  declarations  that  there  ne- 
ver was  any  marriage;  such  impedi- 
ment subsisting  at  the  time  as  rendered 
the  celebration  of  the  man-iage  rite  a 
mere  nullity.  And  the  rite  itself  con- 
tains an  exception  of  these  impedi- 
ments. 

The  law  of  Moses,  says  Dr.  Paley, 
for  reasons   of  local  expediency,  per- 
mitted the  Jewish  husband  to  put  away 
his  wife ;  but  whether  for  every  cause, 
or  for  what  cause,  appears  to  have  been 
controverted  amongst  the  inteipreters 
of  those  times.    Christ,  the  precepts  of 
whose  religion  were  calculated  for  more 
genei'al  use  and  observation,  revokes  liis 
permission   as   given   to   the  Jews  for 
their  hardness  ot  heart,  and  promulges 
a   law   which   was    thenceforward    to 
confine  divorces  to  the  single  cause  of 
adultery  in  the  wife.  Matt.  xix.  9.     In- 
ferior causes  may  justify  the  separation 
of  husband  and  wife,  although  they  will 
not  authorize  such  a  dissolution  of  the 
marriage  contract  as  would  leave  either 
at  liberty  to  marry  again ;  for  it  is  that 
libeity  m  which  the  danger  and  mis- 
chief of  divorces    principally    consist. 
The  law  of  this  countr\-,  in  conformity 
to  our  Saviour's  injunction,  confines  the 
dissolution  of  the  marriage  contract  to 
the  single  case  of  adultery  in  the  wife ; 
and  a  divorce  even  in  that  case  can  only 
be  brought  about  by  an  act  of  parlia- 
ment, founded  upon  a  previous  senti- 
ment in  the  spiritual  court,  and  a  ver- 
dict against  the  adulterer  at  common 
law ;  which  proceedings  taken  together, 
compose  as  complete  an  investigation 
of  the  complaint  as  a  cause  can  receive. 
See  Faiey's  Mor.  and  Pol.  Philosophy, 
p.  273  ;  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lect.  73. 
DOCET/E,  the  followers  of  Julius 
Cassianus,  one  of  the  Valentinian  sect, 
towards  the  close  of  the  second  cen- 
tury.   They  believed  and  taught  that 
the  actions  and  sufferings  of  Jesus  Christ 
were  not  in  reality,  but  only  in  appear- 

DOCTRINE,  the  principles  or  po- 
sitions of  any  sect  or  master.  As  the 
doctrines  of  the  Bible  are  the  first  prin- 
ciples and  the  foundation  of  religion, 
they  should  be  carefully  examined  and 
well  understood.    The  Scriptures  pre- 


sent us  with  a  copious  fund  of  evangelic 
truth,  which,  though  it  lias  not  the  form 
of  a  regular  system,  vet  its  parts  ai'e 
such,  that,  when  united,  make  the  most 
complete  body  of  doctrine  tliat  we  can 
possibly  have.  Every  Christian,  but 
divines  especially,  should  make  this 
their  study,  because  all  the  various  doc- 
trines should  be  insisted  on  in  public, 
and  explained  to  the  people.  It  is  not, 
however,  as  some  suppose,  to  fill  up 
every  part  of  a  muiistcr's  sermon,  but 
considered  as  the  basis  upon  wliicli  the 
practical  part  is  to  be  built.  Some  of 
the  divines  in  the  last  century  over- 
charged their  discourses  with  doctrine, 
especially  Dr.  Owen  and  Dr.  Goodwin. 
It  was  common  in  that  day  to  make 
thirty  or  forty  remarks  before  the  im- 
mediate consideration  of  the  text,  each 
of  which  was  just  introduced,  and  which, 
if  enlarged  on,  would  have  afforded 
matter  enough  for  a  whole  sermon.  A 
wise  preacher  will  join  doctrine  and 
practice  together. 

Doctrines,  though  abused  by  some, 
yet,  properly  considered,  will  influence 
the  heart  and  life.  Thus  the  idea  of 
God's  sovereignty  excites  submission; 
his  power  and  justice  promote  fear;  his 
holiness,  humility  and  purity ;  his  good- 
ness, a  ground  of  hope ;  his  love  excites 
joy ;  the  obscurity  of  his  providence 
requires  patience;  his  faithfulness, con- 
fidence, occ. 

DOMINICANS,  a  religious  order; 
in  some  places  called  Jacobins,  and  in 
others  Predicants,  or  preaching  friars. 
The  Dominicans  take  their  name  from 
their  founder,  Dominic  de  Guzman,  a 
Spaniard,  born  in  1170,  at  Calaroga,  in 
Old  Castile :  he  was  first  canon  and 
archdeacon  of  Ossuna;  and  afterwartls 
preached  with  great  zeal  and  vehe- 
mence against  the  Albigenses  in  Lan- 
guedoc,  where  he  laid  the  first  founda- 
tion of  his  order.  It  was  approved  of 
in  1215  by  Innocent  III.  and  confirmed 
in  1216,  by  a  bull  of  Honorius  III.  under 
the  title  of  St.  Augustin  ;  to  which  Do- 
minic added  several  austere  precepts 
and  observances,  obliging  the  brethren 
to  take  a  vow  of  absolute  poverty,  and 
also  the  title  of  preaching  friars,  be- 
cause public  instruction  was  the  main 
end  of  their  institution,  and  to  abandon 
entirely  all  their  revenues  and  posses- 
sions. The  first  convent  was  founded 
at  Thoulouse,  by  the  bishop  thereof  and 
Simon  de  Montfort.  Two  years  after- 
wards they  had  another  at  Paris,  near 
the  bishop  s  house ;  and  some  time  after, 
a  third  m  the  Rue  St.  Jaques,  (St, 
James's  street,)  whence  the  denomina- 
tion of  Jacobins.    Just  before  his  deathj 


DOM 


154 


DOM 


Dominic  sent  Gilbert  de  Fresney,  with 
twelve  of  the  brethren,  into  England, 
where  they  founded  their  first  monas- 
tery at  Oxford,  in  the  year  1221,  and 
soon  after  another  at  London.  In  the 
year  1276,  the  mayor  and  aldermen  of 
the  city  of  London  gave  tliem  two  whole 
streets,  by  the  river  Thames,  where 
they  erected  a  very  commodious  con- 
vent ;  whence  that  place  is  still  called 
BUickfriars,  from  the  name  by  which 
the  Dominicans  were  called  in  England. 
St.  Dominic  at  first  only  took  the  habit 
of  the  i-egular  canons ;  that  is,  a  black 
cassock  and  I'ochet :  but  this  he  quitted, 
in  1219,  for  that  which  they  have  ever 
since  worn,  which,  it  is  pretended,  was 
shown  by  the  Blessed  Vn-gin  herself  to 
the  beatified  Renaud  d'Orleans.  This 
order  has  been  diffused  throughout  the 
whole  known  world.  They  reckon 
three  popes  of  this  order,  above  sixty 
cai'dinals,  several  patriarchs,  a  hmi- 
drod  and  fifty  archbishops,  and  about 
eight  hundred  bishops,  besides  masters 
of  the  sacred  palace,  whose  office  has 
been  constantly  discharged  by  a  reli- 
gious of  this  order  ever  since  St.  Domi- 
nic, who  held  it  under  Honorius  IIL  in 
1218. 

Of  all  tlie  monastic  orders,  none  en- 
joyed a  higher  degree  of  power  and 
authority  than  the  Dominican  friars, 
whose  credit  was  great,  and  their  in- 
fluence universal.  But  the  measures 
they  used  in  order  to  maintain  and  ex- 
tend their  authority  were  so  perfidious 
and  cruel,  that  their  influence  began  to 
decline  towards  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  tragic  story  of 
Jetzer,  conducted  at  Bern,  in  1509,  for 
determhiing  an  uninteresting  dispute 
between  them  and  the  Franciscans,  re- 
lating to  the  immaculate  conception,  will 
reflect  indelil;le  infamy  on  this  ordei-. 
In  order  to  gi\  e  the  reader  a  view  of 
the  impious  frauds  which  have  some- 
times been  carried  on  in  the  church  of 
RoniLe,  we  shall  hei-e  insert  an  account 
of  this  stratagem. 

The  Franciscans  maintained  that  the 
Virgin  Mary  was  born  without  the 
blemish  of  original  sin;  the  Dominicans 
asserted  the  contraiy. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Franciscans,  in 
an  age  of  darkness  and  superstition, 
could  not  but  be  popular;  and  hence 
tlie  Dominicans  lost  ground  from  day  to 
day.  To  support  the  credit  of  their 
order,  they  resolved,  at  a  chai)ter  held 
at  Vimpsen,  in  the  year  1504,  to  have 
recourse  to  fictitious  visions  and  di-eams, 
in  which  tlie  ])eop!c  at  that  time  had 
an  easy  faith  ;  and  they  determined  to 
make  Bern  the  scene  of  their  opera- 


tions. A  person  named  Jetzer,  who 
was  extremely  simple,  and  much  in- 
clined to  austerities,  and  who  had  ta- 
ken their  habit  as  a  lay-brother,  was 
chosen  as  the  instrument  of  the  delu- 
sions they  were  contriving.  One  of  the 
four  Dominicans,  who  had  undertaken 
tlie  management  of  this  plot,  conveyed 
him.self  secretly  into  Jetzer's  cell,  and 
about  midnight  appeared  to  him  in  a 
horrid  figure,  surrounded  with  howling 
dogs,  and  seeming  to  lilow  fire  from  his 
nostrils,  by  the  means  of  a  box  of  com- 
bustibles which  he  held  near  his  mouth. 
In  this  frightful  form  he  approached 
Jetzer's  bed,  told  him  that  he  was  the 
ghost  of  a  Dominican,  who  had  been 
killed  at  Paris,  as  a  judginent  of  Hea- 
ven for  laying  aside  his  monastic  habit ; 
that  he  was  condemned  to  purgatory 
for  this  crime ;  adding,  at  the  same 
time,  that  by  his  means  he  might  be 
rescued  from  his  misery,  which  was  be- 
yond expression.  This  story,  accom- 
panied with  horrible  cries  and  hoWlings, 
frighted  poor  Jetzer  out  of  the  little  wits 
he  had,  and  engaged  him  to  promise 
to  do  all  that  was  in  his  pojver  to  de- 
liver the  Dominican  from  his  torment. 
Upon  this  the  impostor  told  him,  that 
nothing  but  the  most  extraordinary  mor- 
tifications, such  as  the  disri/iline  of  the 
whi/i,  pei-formed  during  eight  days  by 
the  whole  monastery,  and  Jetzer's  lying 
prostrate  in  the  form  of  one  cnicified 
111  the  chapel  during  mass,  could  con- 
tribute to  his  deliverance.  He  added, 
that  the  perfoiTnance  of  these  mortifica- 
tions would  draw  down  upon  Jetzer  the 
peculiar  protection  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin ;  and  concluded  by  saying,  that  he 
would  appear  to  him  again,  accompa- 
nied with  two  other  spirits.  Morning 
was  no  sooner  come,  than  Jetzer  gave 
an  account  of  this  apparition  to  the  rest 
of  the  convent,  who  all  unanimously 
advised  him  to  undergo  the  discipline 
that  was  enjoined  him,  and  every  one 
consented  to  bear  his  share  of  the  task 
imposed.  The  deluded  simi)leton  obey- 
ed, and  was  admired  as  a  saint  by  the 
multitudes  that  crowded  about  the  con- 
vent; while  the  four  friars  that  managed 
the  imposture  magnified,  in  the  most 
pompous  manner,  the  miracle  of  this 
apparition  in  their  sermons,  and  in  their 
discourses.  'l"he  night  after,  the  appa- 
rition was  I'enewed  with  the  addition  of 
two  impostors,  dressed  like  devils,  and 
Jetzer's  faith  was  augmented  by  hear- 
ing from  the  spectre  all  the  secrets  of 
his  life  and  thoughts,  which  the  impos- 
tors had  learned  from  his  confessor. 
In  this  and  some  subsequent  scenes  (the 
detail  of  -whose  enormities,  for  the  sake 


DOM 


155 


DOM 


of  brevity,  we  shall  here  omit)  the  im- 
postor talked  much  to  Jctzcr  of  the 
Dominican  order,  which   he    said  was 

Eecultarly  dear  to  the  Blessed  Virgin : 
e  added,  that  the  Viri^in  knew  herself 
to  be  conceived  in  origmal  sin ;  that  tl\e 
doctors  who  taught  the  contrary  were 
in  purgatory;  that  the  Blessed  Virgin 
abhorred  the  Franciscans  for  making 
her  equal  with  her  Son ;  and  that  the 
town  of  Bcni  would  be  destroyed  for 
harbouring  such  plagues  within  her 
walls.  In  one  of  these  apparitions  Jetzer 
imagined  that  the  voice  of  the  spectre 
resembled  that  of  the  prior  of  the  con- 
vent, and  he  was  not  mistaken ;  but,  not 
suspecting  a  fraud,  he  gave  little  atten- 
tion to  this.  The  prior  appeared  in 
various  forms,  sometimes  in  that  of  St. 
Barbara,  at  others  in  that  of  St.  Ber- 
nard :  at  length  he  assumed  that  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  and,  for  that  purpose, 
clothed  himself  in  the  liabits  that  were 
employed  to  adorn  the  statue  of  the 
Virgin  in  the  gi-eat  festr\rals.  The  little 
images,  that  on  these  days  are  set  on 
the  altars,  were  made  use  of  for  angels, 
which,  being  tied  to  a  cor<^l  that  passed 
through  a  pulley  over  Jetzer's  head, 
rose  up  and  down,  and  danced  about 
tlie  pretended  Virgin  to  increase  the 
delusion.  The  Virgin,  thus  equipped, 
addressed  a  long  discoui-se  to  Jetzer,  in 
which,  among  other  things,  she  told  him 
that  she  was  "conceived  in  original  sin, 
though  she  had  remained  but  a  short 
time  under  that  blemish.  She  gave  him, 
as  a  miraculous  proof  of  her  }>resence, 
a  host,  or  consecrated  wafer,  which 
turned  from  white  to  red  in  a  moment ; 
and  after  various  visits,  in  which  the 
greatest  enormities  were  transacted, 
the  Virgin-prior  told  Jetzer  that  she 
would  §ive  him  the  most  affecting  and 
undoubted  marks  of  her  Son's  love,  by 
imprinting  on  hiin  \\\{:Jive  ivounds  that 
piei'ced  Jesus  on  the  cross,  as  she  had 
done  before  to  St.  Lucia  and  St.  Catha- 
rine. Accordingly  she  took  his  hand  b\" 
force,  and  struck'  a  large  nail  through 
it,  which  threw  the  poor  dupe  into  the 
gi-eatest  torment.  The  next  night  this 
masculine  virgin  brought,  as  he  pre- 
tended, some  of  the  linen  in  which 
Christ  had  been  buried,  to  soften  the 
wound;  and  gave.  Jetzer  a  soporific 
draught,  which  had  in  it  the  blood  of  an 
unbaptized  child,  some  grain*  of  in- 
cense and  of  consecrated  salt,  some 
quicksilver,  the  hairs  of  the  eye-brows 
of  a  child  ;  all  which,  with  some  stupi-  I 
fying  and  poisonous  ingredients,  were 
mingled  together  by  the  prior  with  ! 
magic  ceremonies,  and  a  solemn  dedica-  | 
tion  of  himself  to  the  devil  in  hope  of  ) 


his  succour.  The  draught  threw  the 
poor  wretch  into  a  sort  oT  lethargy,  du- 
ring which  the  monks  imprinted  on  his 
body  the  other  four  wounds  of  Christ 
in  such  a  manner  that  he  felt  no  pain. 
When  he  awakened,  he  found,  to  his 
ur.speakable  joy,  those  impressions  oil 
his  body,  and  came  at  last  to  fancy  him- 
self a  representative  of  Christ  in  the 
various  parts  of  his  passion.  He  was, 
in  this  state,  exposed  to  the  admiring 
multitude  on  the  principal  altar  of  the 
convent,  to  the  great  mortification  of 
the  Franciscans.  The  Dominicans  gave 
him  some  other  draughts,  that  threw 
him  into  convulsions;  wliich  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  pipe  into  the  mouths  of  two 
images,  one  of  Mary,  and  another  of 
the  child  Jesus,  the  former  of  which  had 
tears  painted  upon  its  cheeks  in  a  lively 
manner.  The  little  Jesus  asked  his  mo- 
ther, by  means  of  this  voice  (which  was 
that  of  the  prior's,)  why  she  wept?  and 
she  answered,  that  her  tears  were  ow- 
ing to  the  impious  manner  in  which  the 
Franciscans  attributed  to  her  the  ho- 
nour that  was  due  to  him,  in  saying 
that  she  was  conceived  and  born  with- 
out sin. 

The  apparitions,  false  prodigies  and 
abominable  stratagems  of  these  Domi- 
nicans were  repeated  every  night ;  and 
the  matter  was  at  length  so  grossly 
over-acted,  that,  simple  as  Jetzer  was, 
he  at  last  discovered  it,  and  had  almost 
killed  the  prior,  who  appeared  to  him 
one  night  in  the  form  of  the  Virgin  with 
a  crown  on  her  head.  The  Dominicans 
fearing,  by  this  discovery,  to  lose  the 
fruits  of  their  imposture,  thought. the 
best  method  would  be  to  own  the  whole 
matter  to  Jetzer,  and  to  engage  him, 
by  the  most  seducing  promises  of  opu- 
lence and  glory,  to  cany  on  the  cheat. 
Jetzer  was  persuaded,  or  at  least  ap- 
peared to  be  so.  But  the  Dominicans 
suspecting  that  he  was  not  entirely 
gained  over,  resolved  to  poison  him^ 
but  his  constitution  was  so  vigorous, 
that,  thou.gh  they  gave  him  poison  five 
several  times,  he  was  not  destroyed  by 
it.  One  day  they  sent  him  a  loaf  pre- 
pared with  some  spices,  which,  growing 
green  in  a  day  or  two,  he  threw  a  piece 
of  it  to  a  wolf^'s  whelps  that  were  in  the 
monastery,  and  it  killed  them  immedi- 
ately. At  another  time  they  poisoned 
the  host,  or  conseci'ated  wafer ;  but,  as 
he  vomited  it  up  soon  after  he  had  swal- 
lowed it,  he  escaped  once  more.  In. 
short,  there  were  no  means  of  securing 
him,  which  the  mo.st  detestable  imp'et}' 
and  barbarity  could  invent,  that  they 
did  not  put  in  practice :  till  finding,  at 
last,  an  opportunity  of  getting  out  of  the 


DON 


156 


DOR 


convent,  he  threw  hinnself  into  the  hands 
of  the  magistrates,  to  whom  he  made  a 
full  discover}'  of  this  infernal  plot.  The 
affair  being  brought  to  Rome,  commis- 
saries were  sent  from  thence  to  exa- 
mine the  matter ;  and  the  whole  cheat 
"bein^  fully  pi'oved,  the  four  friars  were 
solemnly  degraded  from  their  priest- 
hood, and  were  burnt  alive  on  the  last 
day  of  May,  1509.  Jetzer  died  some 
time  after  at  Constance,  having  poisoned 
himself,  as  was  believed  by  some.  Had 
his  life  been  taken  away  before  he  had 
found  an  oppoi'tunity  of  making  the  dis- 
covery already  mentioned,  this  execra- 
ble and  horrid  plot,  which  in  many  of 
its  circumstances  was  conducted  with 
art,  would  have  been  handed  down  to 
posterity  as  a  stupendous  miracle. 

The  Dominicans  were  pei-petually 
employed  in  stigmatizing  with  the  name 
of  heresy  numbers  of  learned  and  pious 
men;  in  encroaching  upon  the  rights 
and  properties  of  others,  to  aug-ment 
their  possessions ;  and  in  laying  the 
most  iniquitous  snares  and  stratagems 
for  the  destraction  of  their  adversaries. 
They  were  the  principal  counsellors  by 
whose  instigation  and  advice  Leo  X. 
was  determined  to  the  public  condem- 
nation of  Luther.  The  papal  see  never 
had  more  active  and  useful  abettors 
than  this  order,  and  that  of  the  Jesuits. 

DOMINION  OF  GOD,  is  his  abso- 
hite  right  to,  and  authority  over,  all  his 
creatures,  to  do  with  them  as  he  pleases. 
It  is  distinguished  from  his  power  thus  : 
his  dominion  is  a  right  of  making  what 
he  pleases,  and  possessing  what  he 
makes,  and  of  disposing  what  he  doth 
possess;  whereas  his /20-7ye?-  is  an  ability 
to  make  what  he  hath  a  right  to  create, 
to  hold  what  he  doth  possess,  and  to 
execute  what  he  hath  purposed  or  re- 
solved. 

DONATISTS,  ancient  schismatics, 
in  Africa,  so  denominated  from  their 
leader,  Donatus.  They  had  their  ori- 
gin in  the  year  .311,  when,  in  the  room 
of  Mensurius,  who  died  in  that  year,  on 
his  return  toRome,Ca:cirum  was  elected 
bishop  of  Carthage,  and  consecrated, 
without  the  concurrence  of  the  Numi- 
dian  bishops,  by  those  of  Africa  alone, 
whom  the  people  refused  to  acknow- 
ledge, and  to  whom  they  opposed  Ma- 
i'orinus,  who  accordinglv  was  ordained 
IV  Donatus  bishop  of  Casx  Nigrx. 
They  were  condemned,  in  a  council 
.held  at  Rome,  two  years  after  their  se- 
paration ;  and  afterwards  in  another  at 
Aries,  the  vear  following;  and  again  at 
Milan,  befoi'e  Constantine  the  Great, 
in  .316,  who  deprived  them  of  their 
churches,  and  sent  their  seditious  bi- 


shops into  banishment,  and  pimished 
some  of  them  with  death.  Their  cause 
was  espoused  by  another  Donatus  call- 
ed the  Great,  the  principal  bishop  of 
that  sect,  who,  with  numbers  of  his  fol- 
lowers, was  exiled  by  order  of  Con- 
stans.  Many  of  them  were  punished 
with  great  severity. — See  Circumcel- 
LioNES.  However,  after  the  accession 
of  Julian  to  the  throne  in  362,  they  were 
permitted  to  return,  and  restored  to 
their  former  liberty.  Gratian  published 
several  edicts  against  them,  and  in  377 
deprived  them  of  their  churches,  and 
prohibited  all  their  assemblies.  But, 
notwithstanding  the  severities  they  suf- 
fered, it  appears  that  they  had  a  very 
considerable  number  of  chuixhes  to- 
wards the  close  of  this  century ;  but  at 
this  time  thej-  began  to  decline,  on  ac- 
count of  a  schism  among  themselves 
occasioned  by  the  election  of  two  bi- 
shops, in  the"  room  of  Parmenian,  the 
successor  of  Donatus:  one  party  elected 
Primian,  and  were  called  Primianists ; 
and  another  Maximian,  and  were  called 
Maxiinianists.  Their  decline  was  also 
precipitated  by  the  zealous  opposition 
of  St.  Augustine,  and  by  the  violent 
measures  which  were  pursued  against 
them  by  order  of  the  emperor  Honorius, 
at  the  solicita^tion  of  two  councils  held 
at  Carthage,  the  one  in  404,  and  the 
other  in  411.  Many  of  them  were  fined, 
their  bishops  were  banished,  and  some 
put  to  death.  This  sect  revived  and 
multiplied  under  the  protection  of  the 
Vandals,  who  invaded  Africa  in  427,  and 
took  possession  of  this  province :  but  it 
sunk  again  under  new  severities,  when 
their  empire  was  overtui'ned,  in  534. 
Nevertheless,  th.ey  remained  in  a  sepa- 
rate body  till  the  close  of  this  centuiy, 
when  Gregory,  the  Roman  porttifF,  used 
various  methods  for  suppressing  them : 
his  zeal  succeeded,  and  there  are  few 
traces  to  be  found  of  the  Donatists  after 
this  period.  They  were  distinguished  by 
other  appellations,  as  CircutncelliojieSy 
Mo7it.e7ises  or  Mountaineers,  Camfietes, 
Rufiites,  &c.  They  held  three  coun- 
cils, that  of  Cita  in  Numidia,  and  two  at 
Carthage. 

The  Donatists,  it  is  said,  held  that 
baptism  conferred  out  of  the  church, 
that  is,  out  of  their  sect,  was  null ;  and 
accordingly  they  rcbaptizcd  those  who 
joined  tfieir  party  from  other  churches ; 
tliey  also  re-ordained  their  ministers. 
Donatus  seems  likewise  to  have  embra- 
ced the  doctrine  of  the  Avians ;  though 
St.  Augustine  affirms  that  the  Donatists 
in  this  point  kept  clear  of  the  eri'ors  of 
theii-  leader. 

DORT,  Synod  of;  a  national  synod. 


I 


DOU 


157 


DRE 


summoned  by  axithority  of  the  siates- 
gencral,  the  provinces  of  Holland, 
Utrecht,  and  Overysscl  excepted,  and 
held  at  Dort,  1618.  The  most  eminent 
divines  of  the  United  Provinces,  and 
depnties  fron\  the  clmrches  of  England, 
Scotland,  Switzerland,  Bremen,  Hessia, 
and  the  Palatinate,  assembled  on  this 
occasion,  in  order  tP  decide  the  contro- 
versy between  the  Calvinists  and  Ar- 
minians.  The  synod  had  hardly  com- 
menced its  deliberations  before  a  dis- 
pute on  the  mode  of  proceeding,  drove 
the  Arminian  party  from  the  assembly. 
The  Arminians  insisted  upon  beginning 
with  a  refutation  of  the  Calvinistic  doc- 
trines, especially  that  of  reprobation ; 
whilst  the  synod  determined,  that,  as 
the  remonstrants  were  accused  of  de- 
parting from  the  reformed  faith,  they 
ought  first  to  justify  themselves  by 
scriptural  proof  of  their  own  opinions. 
All  means  to  persuade  the  Arminians 
to  submit  to  this  procedure  having  fail- 
ed, they  were  banished  the  synod,  for 
their  refiisal.  The  synod,  however, 
proceeded  in  their  examination  of  the 
Arminian  tenets,  condemned  their  opi- 
nions, and  excommunicated  their  per- 
sons: whether  justly  or  unjustly,  let 
the  reader  determine.  Surely  no  one 
can  be  an  advocate  for  the  persecution 
which  followed,  and  which  drove  these 
men  from  their  churches  and  country 
into  exile  and  poverty.  The  authoi-ity 
of  this  synod  was  far  from  being  uni- 
versally acknowledged,  either  in  Hol- 
land or  in  England.  The  provinces  of 
Friesland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Guelder- 
land,  and  Groningen,  could  not  be  per- 
suaded to  adopt  their  decisions;  and 
they  were  opposed  by  king  James  I. 
and  archbishop  Laud,  in  England. 

DOSITHEANS,  an  ancient  sect 
among  the  Samaritans,  in  the  first  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  jera;  so  called 
from  Dositheus,  who  endeavoured  to 
persuade  the  Samaritans  that  he  was 
the  Messiah  foretold  by  Moses.  He 
had  many  followers,  and  his  sect  was 
still  subsisting  at  Alexandria  in  the  time 
of  the  patriarch  Eulogius,  as  appears 
from  a  decree  of  that  patriarch  pub- 
lished by  Photius.  In  that  decree,  Eu- 
logius accuses  Dositheus  of  injuriously 
treating  the  ancient  patriarchs  and  pro- 
phets, and  attributing  to  himself  the 
spirit  of  prophecv.  He  makes  him  con- 
temporary with  Simon  Magus;  and  ac- 
cuses him  of  cormpting  the  Pentateuch, 
and  of  composing  several  books  directly 
contrary  to  the  law  of  God. 

DOUBTS  and  Fears,  are  terms  fre- 
quently used  to  denote  the  uncertainty 
of  mind  we  are  in  respecting  our  inte- 


rest in  the  divine  favoui*.  The  causes  of 
our  doubts  may  be  such  as  these :  pei-- 
sonal  declension  :  not  knowing  the  ex- 
act time,  place,  or  means  of  our  conver- 
sion ;  improper  views  of  the  charac- 
ter and  decrees  of  God ;  the  fluctuation 
of  religious  experience  as  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  God  m  prayer,  hearing,  Sec; 
the  depth  of  our  affliction ;  relapses  into 
sin  ;  the  fall  of  professors  ;  and  the  hi- 
dings of  God's  face.  While  some  are 
continually  harassed  with  doubts  and 
fears,  there  are  others  who  tell  us  they 
know  not  what  it  is  to  doubt :  yea,  who 
think  it  a  sin  to  doubt:  so  prone  are  men 
to  lam  to  extremes,  as  if  there  were  no 
medium  between  constant  full  assurance 
and  perpetual  doubt.  The  tnie  Chris- 
tian, perhaps,  steers  between  the  two. 
He  is  not  always  doubting,  nor  is  he 
always  living  in  the  full  exercise  of  faith. 
It  is  not  unlawful  at  certain  seasons  to 
doubt.  "  It  is  a  sin,"  says  one,  "  for  a 
believer  to  live  so  as  not  to  have  his 
evidences  clear ;  but  it  is  no  sin  for  him 
to  be  so  honest  and  impartial  as .  to 
doubt,  when  in  fact  his  evidences  are 
not  clear."  Let  the  humble  Christian, 
however,  beware  of  an  extreme.  Prayer, 
conversation  with  experienced  Chris- 
tians, reading  the  promises,  and  consi- 
deration of  the  divine  goodness,  will 
have  a  tendency  to  remove  unnecessary 
douljts. 

DOXOLOGY,  a  hymn  used  in  praise 
of  the  Almigiity,  distinguished  by  the 
titles  of  the  Greater  and  the  JLess.  Both 
the  doxologies  are  used  in  the  church 
of  England;  the  former  being  repeated 
after  every  psalm,  and  the  latter  used 
in  the  communion  service.  Doxology 
the  Greater,  or  the  angelic  hymn,  was 
of  great  note  in  the  ancient  church.  It 
began  with  the  words  the  angels  sung 
at  the  birth  of  Christ,  «  Glory  to  God,^ 
&c.  Doxology  the  Less,  was  anciently 
only  a  single  sentence  without  a  re- 
sponse, running  in  these  words :  "  Gloiy 
be  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and  to 
the  Holy  Ghost,  world  without  end, 
amen."  Part  of  the  latter  clause,  "  as 
it  was  in  the  beginning,  is  now,  and  ever 
shall  be,"  &c.  was  inserted  some  time 
after  the  first  composition. 

DRAGOONING,  one  of  the  me- 
thods used  by  papists  after  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  edict  of  Nantz,  under  Lewis 
XIV.,  for  converting  refractory  heretics, 
and  bringing  them  witliin  the  pale  of 
their  church.  If  the  reader's  feelings 
will  suffer  him  to  peruse  the  account  of 
these  barbarities,  he  will  find  it  under 
the  article  Persecution  in  this  work. 

DREAD,  is  a  degree  of  permanent 
fear,  an  habitual  and  painful  apprehen- 


DRU 


158 


DRU 


sion  of  some  tremendous  event.  It 
keeps  the  mind  in  a  perpetual  alarm, 
in  an  eager  watchfulness  of  every  cii'- 
cumstance  that  bears  any  relation  to  the 
evil  apprihended. 

DRUIDS,  the  priests  or  ministers  of 
religion  among  the  ancient  Gauls,  Bri- 
tons, and  Germans.  They  were  chosen 
out  of  the  best  families;  and  the  honours 
of  their  birth,  joined  with  those  of  their 
function,  procured  them  the  highest 
veneration  ainong  the  people.  They 
were  versed  in  astrology,  geometry, 
natural  philosophy,  politics,  and  geo- 
graphy ;  they  were  the  interpreters  of 
religion,  and  the  judges  of  all  affairs 
indifferently.  Whoever  refused  obedi- 
ence to  them  was  declared  impious  and 
accursed.  We  know  but  little  as  to 
their  peculiar  doctrines,  only  that  they 
believed  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and,  as  is  generally  also  supposed,  the 
transmigration  of  it  to  other  bodies  ; 
though  a  late  author  makes  it  appear 
highly  probable  they  did  not  believe 
this  last,  at  least  not  in  the  sense  of  the 
Pythagoreans.  The  chief  settlement  of 
the  Druids  in  Britain  was  in  the  isle  of 
Anglesey,  the  ancient  Mona,^  which 
they  might  choose  for  this  purpose,  as 
it  is  well  stored  with  precious  groves  of 
their  favourite  oak.  T.  hev  were  divided 
into  several  classes  or  branches,  such  as 
the  priests,  the  poets,  the  augurs,  the 
civil  judges,  and  instructors  of  youth. 
Strabo,  however,  does  not  coniprehend 
all  these  different  orders  under  the  deno- 
mination of  druids;  he  only  disting-uishes 
three  kinds;  bardi,  poets;  the  -uates, 
priests  and  naturalists  ;  and  the  druids, 
who,  besides  the  study  of  nature,  appli- 
ed themselves  likewise  to  morality. 

Their  garments  were  remarkably 
long;  and  when  employed  in  religious 
ceremonies,  they  likewise  wore  a  white 
surplice.  They  generally  carried  a 
wand  in  their  hands,  and  wore  a  kind  of 
ornament,  enchased  with  gold,  about 
their  necks,  called  the  druid's  egg. 
They  had  one  chief,  or  arch-druid,  in 
every  nation,  who  acted  as  high  priest, 
or  pojitifcx  maximus.  He  had  absolute 
authority  over  the  rest,  and  command- 
ed, decreed,  and  ])unislied  at  pleasure. 
They  worshipi)ed  the  Supreme  Being 
under  the  name  of  Esus  or  Hesiis,  and 
the  symbol  of  the  oak ;  and  had  no 
other  temi:)le  than  a  wood  or  a  grove, 
where  all  their  religious  rites  were  per- 
formed. Nor  was  any  person  permitted 
to  enter  that  sacred  recess  unless  he 
can-ied  with  him  a  chain  in  token  of  his 
absolute  dependence  on  the  Deity.  In- 
deed, theii-  whole  religion  orisrinally 
consisted  in  acknowledging  that  ttie  Su- 


preme Being,  who  made  his  abode  in 
these  sacred  groves,  governed  the  uni- 
verse ;  and,  that  every  creature  ought 
to  obey  his  laws,  and  pay  him  divine 
homage.  They  considered  the  oak  as 
the  emblem,  or  rather  the  peculiar  I'e- 
sidence  of  the  Almighty ;  and  accoi-d- 
ingly  chaplets  of  it  were  worn,  both  by 
the  diTiids  and  people,  in  their  religious 
ceremonies:  the  altars  were  strewed 
with  its  leaves,  and  encircled  with  its 
branches.  The  fruit  of  it,  especially 
the  misletoe,  was  thought  to  contain  a 
divine  virtue,  and  to  be  the  peculiar 
gift  of  Heaven.  It  was,  therefore, 
sought  for  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  moon 
with  the  greatest  earnestness  and  anxie- 
ty ;  and  when  found,  was  hailed  with 
sure  rapture  of  joy,  as  almost  exceeds 
imagination  to  conceive.  As  soon  as  the 
druids  were  informed  of  the  fortmiate 
tiiscovery,  they  prepared  every  thing 
ready  for  the  sacrifice  under  the  oak, 
to  which  they  fastened  tAvo  white  bulls 
by  the  horns";  then  the  ai'ch-druid,  at- 
tended by  a  prodigious  number  of  peo- 
ple, ascended  the  tree,  dressed  in  white; 
and,  with  a  consecrated  golden  knife,  or 
piaming  hook,  cropped  the  misletoe, 
which  he  received  in  his  robe,  amidst 
the  vapturous  exclamations  of  the  peo- 
ple. Having  secured  this  sacred  plant, 
he  descended  the  tree ;  the  bulls  were 
sacrificed  ;  and  the  Deity  invoked  to 
bless  his  own  gift,  and  render  it  effica- 
cious in  those  distempers  in  which  it 
should  be  administei-ed. 

DRUNKENNESS,  intoxication  with 
strong  liquor.  It  is  either  actual  or  ha- 
bitual ;  just  as  it  is  one  thing  to  be  drunk, 
and  another  to  be  a  drunkard.  The  evil 
of  dnmkeimess  appears  in  the  following 
bad  effects:  1.  It  betrays  most  constitu- 
tions either  to  extravagance  of  anger, 
or  sins  of  lewdness. — 2.  It  disqualifies 
men  for  the  duties  of  their  station,  both 
by  the  temporaiy  disorder  of  their  fa- 
culties, aiid  at  length  by  a  constant  in- 
capacity and  stupefaction. — 3.  It  is  at- 
tended with  expense,  which  can-  often 
be  ill  spared. — i.  It  is  sure  to  occasion 
uneasiness  to  the  family  of  the  drunk- 
ard.— 5.  It  shortens  life. — 6.  It  is  a  most 
pernicious  awful  example  to  others. — 7, 
It  is  hardly  ever  cured. — 8.  It  is  a  vio- 
lation of  (iod's  word,  Prov.  xx.  1.  El^h- 
V.  IS.  Is.  V.  11.  Rom.  xiii.  13.  "The 
appetite  for  intoxicating  liquor  appears 
to  me,"  says  Paley,  "  to  be  almost  al- 
ways acquii-ed.  One  proof  of  which  is, 
that  it  is  apt  to  return  only  at  particular 
times  and  places ;  as  after  dinner,  in 
the  evening,  on  the  market-day,  in  such 
a  company,  at  such  a  tavern."  How 
careful,  then,  should  we  be,  lest  we 


DUN 


159 


DUN 


form  habits  of  this  kind,  or  choose  com- 
pany who  are  addicted  to  it ;  h(nv  cau- 
tious and  circumspect  should  we  act, 
that  we  be  not  found  guilty  of  a  sirj 
which  dfgi-ades  human  nature,  ban- 
ishes reason,  insults  God,  and  exposes 
us  to  the  greatest  evils  I  Paley's  Mor. 
Phil.  vol.  ii.  ch.  2.  Flavel's  Works,  vol. 
ii.  p.  349 ;  Buck's  Anecdotes,  vol.  i.  p. 
82,  5th  edition;  Lamont's  Ser.,  vol.  i. 
ser.  15,  16. 

DULCINISTS,  the  followers  of  Dul- 
cinus,  a  layman  of  Novara  in  Lombardy, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  taught  that  the  law  of  the 
Father,  which  had  continued  till  Moses, 
was  a  law  of  grace  and  wisdom  ;  but 
that  the  law  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which 
began  with  himself  in  1307,  was  a  law 
entirely  of  love,  which  would  last  to  the 
end  of  the  world. 

DUNKERS,  a  denomination  which 
took  its  rise  in  the  year  1724.  It  was 
founded  by  a  German,  who,  Aveary  of 
the  woild,  retired  to  an  agi-eeable  soli- 
tude within  fifty  miles  of  Philadelphia, 
for  the  more  free  exercise  of  religious 
contemplation.  Curiosity  atti-acted  fol- 
lowers, and  his  simple  and  engaging 
manners  made  them  proselytes.  They 
soon  settled  a  little  colonv,  called  Eu- 
phrate,  in  allusion  to  the  Hebrews,  who 
used  to  sing  psalms  on  the  borders  of 
the  rixer  Euphrates.  This  denomina- 
tion seem  to  have  obtained  their  name 
from  their  baptizing  their  new  converts 
by  plunging.  They  are  also  called 
Tumblers,  from  the  manner  in  which 
they  performed  baptism,  which  is  bv 

Eutting  the  person,  while  kneeling, 
ead  first  under  water,  so  as  to  resem- 
ble the  motion  of  the  body  in  the  action 
of  tumbling.  They  use  the  triune  im- 
mersion, with  laying  on  the  hands  and 
prayer,  even  when  the  person  baptized 
IS  in  the  water. 

Their  habit  seems  to  be  peculiar  to 
themselves,  consisting  of  a  long  tunic, 
or  coat,  reaching  down  to  their  heels, 
with  a  sash  or  girdle  round  the  waist, 
and  a  cap,  or  hood,  hanging  ft-om  the 
shoulders,  like  the  dress  of  the  Domi- 
nican friars.  The  men  do  not  shave 
the  head  or  beard.  The  men  and  wo- 
men have  separate  habitations  and  dis- 
tmct  governments.  For  these  pui-poses 
they  have  erected  two  large  wooden 
buildings,  one  of  which  i&  occupied  by 
the  brethren,  the  other  by  the  sisters 
of  the  society ;  and  in  each  of  them 
there  is  a  banqueting  room,  and  an 
apartment  for  public  worship  ;  for  the 
brethren  and  sisters  do  not  meet  toge- 
ther, e\en  at  their  de\-otions.  They  live 
chiefly  upon  roots  and  other  vegetables, 


the  rules  of  tlieir  society  not  allowing 
them  flesh,  except  on  particular  occa- 
sions, when  they  hold  what  they  call 
a  love-feast:  at  which  time  the  bre- 
thren and  sisters  d'me  together  in  a 
large  apartment,  and  eat  mutton;  but 
no  other  meat.  In  each  of  their  little 
cells  they  have  a  bench  fixed,  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  a  bed,  aiid  a  small  block 
of  wood  for  a  pillow.  The  Dunkers 
allow  of  no  intercourse  between  the 
brethren  and  sisters,  not  even  by  mar- 
riage. The  principal  tenets  of  the 
Dunkers  appear  to  be  these:  that  fu- 
ture happiness  is  only  to  be  attained  by 
penance  and  outward  mortification  iu 
this  life ;  and  th.at,  as  Jesus  Christ  by  his 
meritorious  sufferings,  became  the  Re- 
deemer of  mankind  in  genei-al,  so  each 
individual  of  the  human  race,  by  a  life 
of  abstinence  and  restraint,  may  work 
out  his  own  salvation.  Nay,  they  go  so 
far  as  to  admit  of  works  of  supereroga- 
tion, and  declare  that  a  man  may  do 
much  more  than  he  is  in  justice  or 
equity  obliged  to  do,  and  that  his  super- 
abundant works  may  therefore  be  ap- 
plied to  the  salvation  of  others.  This 
denomination  deny  the  eternity  of  fu- 
ture punishments,  and  believe  that  the 
dead  have  the  Gospel  preached  to  them 
by  our  SaAiour,  and  that  the  souls  of  the 
just  are  employed  to  preach  the  Gospel 
to  those  who  have  had  no  revelation  in 
this  life.  I'hey  suppose  the  Jewish  sab- 
bath, sal)batical  year,  and  year  of  jubi- 
lee, are  typical  of  certain  periods,  after 
the  general  judgment,  in  which  the 
souls  of  those  who  are  not  then  admit- 
ted into  happiness  arc  purified  from, 
their  corruption.  If  any  within  those 
smaller  periods  are  so  far  humbled  as 
to  acknowledge  the  perfections  of  God, 
and  to  own  Christ  as  their  only  Saviour, 
they  are  received  to  felicity ;  while 
those  who  continue  obstinate  are  re- 
served in  tomients  vmtil  the  gi'and  pe- 
riod tjqjified  by  the  jubilee  amves,  in 
which  all  shall  be  made  happy  in  the 
endless  fi-uition  of  the  Deity.  They  also 
deny  the  imputalion  of  Adam's  sin  to 
his  posterity.  They  disclaim  violence 
even  in  cases  of  self-defence,  and  sufffer 
themselves  to  be  defrauded  or  wronged 
rather  than  go  to  law. 

Their  church  government  and  disci- 
pline are  the  same  with  the  English 
Baptists,  except  that  every  brother  is 
allowed  to  speak  ua  the  congregation  ; 
and  their  best  speaker  is  usually  or- 
dained to  be  the  minister.  They  have 
deacons  and  deaconesses  from  among 
their  ancient  widows  and  exhorters, 
who  are  all  licensed  to  use  their  gifts 
statedly. 


EBI 


160 


ECO 


DUTY,  anv  action,  or  course  of  ac-  li  or  le^al  obligation.    The  various  moral, 
tions,  wiiich  flow  from  the  relations  we  \.  relative,  and  spiritual  duties,  are  consi- 
stand  in  to  God  or  man ;  that  which  a    dered  in  tlieir  places  in  this  work, 
man  is  bound  to  perform  by  any  natural  || 


E. 


EASTER,  the  day  on  which  the 
Christian  church  commemorates  our 
Saviour's  resurrection.  It  is  called  by 
the  Greeks  Pasga;  and  by  the  Latins 
Pascha,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  pas- 
sage, applied  to  the  Jewish  feast  at  the 
passover.  It  is  called  Easter  in  English, 
From  the  Saxon  goddess  Eostre,  whose 
festival  was  held  in  April.  The  Asiatic 
churches  kept  their  Easter  upon  the 
very  same  day  that  the  Jews  obser\'ed 
their  passover,  and  others  on  the  first 
Sunday  after  the  first  full  moon  in  the 
new  year.  This  controversv  was  de- 
termined in  the  council  of  Nice,  when 
it  was  ordained  that  Easter  should  be 
kept  upon  one  and  the  same  day,  which 
should  always  be  Sunday,  in  all  Chris- 
tian churches  in  the  world. 

EBIONITES,  ancient  heretics,  who 
rose  in  the  church  in  the  very  first  age 
thereof,  and  formed  themselves  into  a 
sect  in  the  second  century,  denying  the 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ.  Origen  takes 
them  to  have  been  so  called  from  the 
Hebrew  word  ebion,  which  in  that  lan- 
guage signifies  poor;  because,  says  he, 
they  were  poor  in  sense,  and  wanting 
understanding.  Eusebius,  with  a  view 
to  the  same  etymology,  is  of  opinion 
tliey  were  thus  called,  as  having  poor 
thoughts  of  Jesus  Christ,  taking  him  for 
no  more  than  a  mere  man.  It  is  more 
probable  the  Jews  gave  this  appellation 
to  the  Christians  in  general  cut  of  con- 
tempt ;  because,  in  the  first  times,  there 
were  few  but  poor  people  that  embra- 
ced the  Christian  religion.  The  Ebion- 
ites  were  little  else  than  a  branch  of  tlie 
Nazarenes  ;  only  that'they  altered  and 
corrupted,  in  many  things,  the  purity 
of  the  faith  held  among  the  first  adhe- 
rents to  Christianity.  For  this  reason, 
Origen  distinguishes  two  kinds  of  Ebion- 
ites  in  his  answer  to  CeLsus ;  the  one 
believed  that  Jesus  Christ  was  born  of 
a  virgin ;  and  the  other,  that  he  was 
born  after  the  manner  of  other  men. 
The  first  were  orthodox  in  every  thing, 
except  that  to  the  Christian  doctrine 
they  joined  the  ceremonies  of  the  Jewish  ; 
law,  with  the  Jews,  Samaritans,  and 
Nazarenes;  together  with  the  'tradi- 
tions of  the  Phai'isees.    Tliev  diflered 


from  the  Nazarenes,  however,  in  seve-r 
ral  things,  chief!}'  as  to  what  regards  the 
authority  of  the  sacred  writings;  for  the 
Nazarenes  received  all  for  Scripture 
contained  in  the  Jewish  canon;  whereas 
the  Ebionites  rejected  all  the  prophets, 
and  held  the  veiy  names  of  David,  Solo- 
mon, Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel,  in 
abhorrence.  They  also  rejected  all  St. 
Paul's  epistles,  whom  they  treated  with 
the  utmost  disrespect.  They  received 
nothing  of  the  Old  Testament  but  the 
Pentateuch.  They  agreed  with  the 
Nazarenes,  in  using  the  Hebrew  Gos- 
pel of  St.  Matthew,  otherwise  called 
the  Gospel  of  the  twelve  apostles ;  but 
they  cornipted  their  copy  in  abundance 
of  places ;  and  particularly  had  left  out 
the  genealogy  of  our  Saviour,  which 
was  preserved  entire  in  that  of  the  Na- 
zarenes, and  even  in  those  used  by  the 
Cerinthians.  Besides  the  Hebrew  Gos- 
pel of  St.  Matthew,  the  Ebionites  had 
adopted  several  other  books  under  the 
titles  of  St.  James,  John,  and  the  other 
apostles ;  they  also  made  use  of  the  tra- 
vels of  St.  Peter,  which  are  supposed  to 
have  been  written  by  St.  Clement ;  but 
had  altered  them  so,  that  there  was 
scarce  any  thing  of  tinith  left  in  them. 
They  even  made  that  saint  tell  a  num- 
ber of  falsehoods,  the  better  to  autho- 
rize their  own  practices. 

ECCLESIASTICAL,  an  appellation 
given  to  whatever  belongs  to  the  church; 
thus  we  say  ecclesiastical  polity,  juris- 
diction, history,  &c. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY,  a 
narration  of  the  transactions,  reAohi- 
tions,  and  events,  that  relate  to  the 
clfurch.  As  to  the  utility  of  church 
history.  Dr.  Jortin,  who  was  an  acute 
writer  on  this  subject,  shall  here  speak 
for  us:  he  observes,  1.  That  it  will 
show  us  the  amazing  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity through  the  Roman  empire, 
through  the  East  and  West;  although 
the  powers  of  the  world  cruelly  op- 
posed it.  2.  Connected  with  Jewish  and 
Pagan  history,  it  will  show  us  the  total 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  overthrow 
of  tlic  Jewish  church  and  state;  and  the 
continuance  of  that  unhappy  nation  for 
iroo  years,  though  dispersed  over  the 


ECL 


161 


ELC 


face  of  the  earth,  and  oppressed  at  dif- 
ferent times  by  Pajjans,  Christians,  and 
Mahometans.— 3.  It  shows  us  that  the 
increase  of  Christianity  produced  in  the 
countries  where  it  w-as  received,  the 
overthrow  and  extinction  of  paganism, 
which,  after  a  feeble  resistance,  perish- 
ed about  the  sixtli  century. — 4.  It  shows 
ushr.vv  Christianity  hath  been  continu- 
ed and  delivered  down  from  the  apos- 
tolical to  the  present  age. — 5.  It  shows 
us  the  various  opinions  which  prevailed 
at  different  limes  amongst  the  fathers 
and  other  Christians,  and  how  they  de- 
parted more  or  less  from  the  simplicity 
of  the  Gospel. — 6.  It  will  enable  us  to 
form  a  time  judgment  of  the  merit  of 
the  fathers,  and  of  the  use  which  is  to 
be  made  of  them. — 7.  It  will  show  us 
the  evil  of  imposing  unreasonable  terms 
of  communion,  and  requiring  Christians 
to  profess  doctrines  not  propounded  in 
Scriptural  words,  but  inferred  as  con-  I 
sequences  from  passages  of  Scripture, 
which  one  may  call  systems  of  consc- 
guevtial  divinity. — 8.  It  will  show  us 
the  origin  and  progress  of  popei-y;  and, 
lastly,  it  will  show  us, — 9.  The  origin 
and  progress  of  the  i;pformation.  See 
Z)r.  Jo7-'tin's  Charsfe  on  the  Une  and  Im- 
portance of  Ecclesiastical  History,  in 
his  Works,  vol.  vii.  ch.  2. 

For  ecclesiastical  historians.  See  Eu- 
sebius's  EccL  Hist,  with  Valesius's 
notes ;  Baronii  Annales  Eccl. ;  Spon- 
dani  Annales  Sacri ;  Parei  Univer- 
salis Hist.  Ecc. ;  iMmpe,  Diipin, 
Upanheim,  and  Alosheiw's  Eccl.  Hist.; 
E'liller's,  and  M''arne7-'s  Eccl.  Hist,  of 
Eng-lujid ;  ./ortin's  Retnarks  on  E.ccl. 
Hist  ;  Millar's  Propagation  of  Chris- 
tianity;  Gillies' s  Historical  Collections  ; 
Dr.  Erskine's  Sketches,  and  Robinson's 
Researches.  The  most  recent  are,  Dr. 
Campbell's,  Gregory's,  Milner's,  and 
Dr.  Haweis's ;  all  which  have  their 
excellencies.  See  also  Bogue  and  Ben- 
net's  Histoin/  of  the  Dissenters.  For 
the  History  of  the  church  under  the 
Old  Testament,  the  reader  may  consult 
Miller's  History  of  the  Church ;  Pri- 
deaux  and  S/iuclcford's  Connections; 
Dr.  Watts's  Scripture  History;  and 
Flenry's  History^  of  the  Israelites. 

ECLECTICS,  a  name  given  to  some 
ancient  philosophers,  who,  witliout  at- 
taching themselves  to  any  particular 
sect,  tbok  what  they  judged  good  and 
solid,  fi-om  each.  One  Potamon,  of 
Alexandria,  who  lived  under  Augustus 
and  Tiberius,  and  who,  weary  of  doubt- 
ing of  all  things,  with  the  Sceptics  and 
Pyrrhonians,  was  the  person  who  form- 
ed this  sect. 

ECLECTICS,  or  modern  Platonios, 


a  sect  which  aj'ose  in  the  Christian 
church  towards  the  close  of  the  second 
century.  They  proft.-ssed  to  make  truth 
the  only  object  of  their  enquiry,  and  to 
be  ready  to  adopt  from  all  the  different 
systems  and  sects  such  tenets  as  they 
thought  agreeable  to  it.  They  prefer- 
red Plato  to  the  other  philosophers,  and 
looked  upon  his  opinions  concerning 
God,  the  human  soul,  and  things  invi- 
sible, as  conformable  to  the  spirit  and 
genius  of  the  Christian  doctrine.  One 
of  the  principal  patrons  of  this  system 
was  Ammonius  Saccas,  who  at  this  time 
laid  the  foundation  of  that  sect,  aftei'- 
wards  distinguished  by  tlie  name  of  the 
.Yew  Platonics  in  the  Alexandrian 
school. 

ECSTACY,  or  Extacy,  a  transport 
of  the  mind,  which  suspends  the  fimc- 
tions  of  the  senses  by  the  intense  con- 
templation of  some  extraordinary  object. 

ECTHESIS,  a  confession  of  faith,  the 
form  of  an  edict  published  in  the  year 
639,  by  the  emperor  Hcraclius,  w^ith  a 
view  to  pacify  the  troubles  occasioned 
by  the  Eutychian  heresy  in  the  eastern 
chin^-h.  However,  the  same  prince  re- 
voked it,  on  being  informed  that  pope 
SeA  crinus  had  condemned  it,  as  favour-i 
ing  the  Monothelites ;  declaring,  at  the 
same  time,  that  Sergius,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  was  the  author  of  it.  See 

EUTYCHIANS. 

EDIFICATION  ;  this  word  signifies 
a  building  up.  Hence  we  call  a  build- 
ing an  edifice.  Applied  to  spiritual 
things,  it  signifies  the  improving,  adorn- 
ing, and  comforting  the  mind;  and  a 
Christian  may  be  said  to  be  edified  when 
he  is  encouraged  and  animated  in  the 
ways  and  works  of  the  Lord.  The 
means  to  promote  our  own  edification 
are,  prayer,  self-examination,  reading 
the  Scriptures,  hearing  the  Gospel,  me- 
ditation, attendance  on  all  appointed  or- 
dinances. To  edify  others  there  should 
be  love,  spiritual  conversation,  forbear- 
ance, faithfulness,  benevolent  exertions, 
and  uniformitv  of  conduct. 

EFFRONTES,  a  sect  of  heretics,  in 
1534,  who  scraped  their  forehead  with 
a  knife  till  it  bled,  and  then  poured  oil 
into  the  wound.  This  ceremony  served 
them  instead  of  baptism.  They  are 
likewise  said  to  have  denied  the  divinity 
of  the  Hc^ly  Spirit. 

EICET/E,  a  denomination  in  the  year 
680,  who  affirmed  that,  in  order  to  make 
prayer  acceptable  to  God  it  should  be 
performed  dancina:. 

EJACULATION,  a  short  prayer,  in 
which  the  mind  is  directed  to  God  on 
any  emergency.    See  Prayer. 

ELCESAITES,  anciejit  heretics,  wlio 
X 


ELD 


162 


EMU 


made  their  appearance  in  the  reign  of 
the  ennperor  Trajan,  and  took  their 
name  from  their  leader,  Elcesai.  They 
kept  a  mean  between  the  Jews,  Chris- 
tians, and  Pagans :  they  worshipped  but 
one  God,  observed  the  Jewish  sabbath, 
circumcision,  and  tlie  other  ceremonies 
of  the  law;  yet  they  rejected  the  Pen- 
tateuch and  the  prophets :  nor  had  they 
any  more  respect  for  the  writings  of  the 
apostles. 

ELDER  (rrj£o-fuT£§05,)  an  overseer, 
ruler,  leader. 

Elders,  or  seniors,  in  ancient  Jewish 
polity,  were  persons  the  most  consi- 
derable for  age,  experience,  and  wis- 
dom. Of  this  sort  were  the  70  men 
whom  Moses  associated  with  himself  in 
the  government;  such  likewise  after- 
wards were  those  who  held  the  first 
rank  in  the  synagogue  as  presidents. — 
Elders,  in  church  history,  were  origi- 
nally those  who  held  the  first  place  in 
the  assemblies  of  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians. The  word  presljyter  is  often  used 
in  the  New  Testament  in  this  significa- 
tion ;  hence  the  first  councils  of  Chris- 
tians were  called  Presbyteria,  or  coun- 
cils of  elders. — Elders  m  the  presbyte- 
I'ian  discipline,  are  officers,  who,  in  con- 
junction with  the  ministers  and  deacons, 
compose  tlie  kirk  sessions,  who  for- 
merly used  to  inspect  and  regulate  mat- 
ters of  religion  and  discipline;  but 
whose  principal  business  now  is  to  take 
care  of  the  poor's  funds.  They  are 
chosen  from  among  the  people,  and  are 
received  publiclv  with  some  degree  of 
ceremony.  In  Scotland  there  is  an  in- 
definite numbej'  of  elders  in  each  parish, 
generally  about  twelve.  See  Presby- 
terians. 

It  has  long  been  a  matter  of  dispute, 
whether  there  are  any  such  officers  as 
Imj-elders  mentioned  in  Scripture.  On 
the  one  side  it  is  observed,  that  these 
officei's  are  no  where  mentioned  as 
being  alone  or  single,  but  always  as  be- 
ing many  in  every  congregation.  They 
are  also  mentioned  separately  from  the 
brethren.  Their  office,  more  than  once, 
is  described  as  being  distinct  from  that 
of  preaching,  not  only  in  Rom.  xii.  where 
he  that  ruleth  is  expressly  distinguished 
from  him  tliat  exhorteth  or  teacheth, 
but  also  in  that  passage,  1  Tim.  v.  17. 
On  the  other  side  it  is  said,  that  from 
the  above-mentioned  passages,  nothing 
can  be  collected  with  certainty  to  es- 
tablish this  opinion;  neither  can  it  be 
inferred  fi'om  any  otlier  passage  tliat 
churches  should  be  furnished  with  such 
officers,  though  perhaps  prudence,  in 
some  circumstances,  may  make  them 
expedient.    "I  incline  to  think,"  says 


Dr.  Guise,  on  the  passage  1  Tim.  v.  17, 
"  that  the  apostle  nitcnds  only  fireach- 
iiig  elders,  when  he  directs  double  ho- 
nour to  be  paid  to  the  elders  that  rule 
well,  especially  those  who  labour  in 
the  word  and  doctrine;  and  that  the 
distinction  lies  not  in  the  order  of  offi- 
cers, but  in  the  degree  of  their  diligence, 
faithfulness,  and  eminence  in  laboi'iously 
fulfilling  their  ministerial  work ;  and  so 
the  emphasis  is  to  be  laid  on  the  word 
labour  in  the  word  and  doctrine,  which 
has  an  esfieciallu  annexed  to  it." 

ELECTION.  This  word  has  differ- 
ent meanings.  1.  It  signifies  God's 
taking  a  whole  nation,  community,  or 
body  of  men,  into  external  covenant 
with  himself,  by  giving  them  the  advan- 
tage of  revelation  as  the  rule  of  their 
belief  and  practice,  when  other  nations 
are  without  it,  Deut.  vii.  6. — 2.  A  tem- 
porary designation  of  some  person  or 
persons  to  the  filling  up  some  particular 
station  in  the  visible  church,  or  office  in 
civil  life,  John  vi.  70.  1  Saiii.  x.  24. — 3. 
Tliat  gracious  and  almighty  act  of  the 
Divine  Spirit,  whei-eby  God  actually 
and  visibly  separates  his  people  from 
the  world  by  e%ctual  calhng,  John  xv. 
19. — 4.  That  eternal,  sovereign,  uncon- 
ditional, particular,  and  immutable  act 
of  God,  whereby  he  selected  some  from 
among  all  mankind,  and  of  every  nation 
under  heaven,  to  be  redeemed  and 
everlastmgly  saved  by  Christ,  Eph.  i.  4. 
2  Thess.  ii.  13.  See  Decree,  and  Pre- 
destination. 

ELOQUENCE,  Pulpit.  "  The  chief 
characteristics  of  the  eloquence  suited 
to'  the  pulpit  are  these  two — gravity 
and  warmth.  The  serious  nature  of  the 
subjects  belonging  to  the  pulpit  requires 
gravity;  their  importance  to  mankind 
requires  warmth.  It  is  far  from  being 
either  easy  or  common  to  unite  these 
characters  of  eloquence.  The  grave, 
when  it  is  predominant,  is  apt  to  run 
into  a  dull,  uniform  solemnity.  The 
nvarm,  when  it  wants  gravity,  borders 
on  the  theatrical  and  light.  The  union 
of  the  two  must  be  studied  by  all  preach- 
ers, as  of  the  utmost  consequence,  both 
in  the  composition  of  tlieir  discourses,] 
and  in  their  manner  of  delivery.'  Gra- 
vity and  warmth  united,  form  that  cha- 
racter of  preaching,  whicli  the  French 
call  onction :  the  affecting,  penetrating, 
interesting  maiuier,floAving  from  a  strong 
sensibility  of  heart  in  the  preacher,  the 
importance  of  those  truths  which  he  de- 
livers, and  an  earnest  desire  that  they 
may  make  full  impression  on  the  hearts 
of  his  hearers."     See  Declamation, 

SeRjMONS. 

EMULATION,  a  generous  ardour 


ENE 


163 


ENT 


kindled  by  the  praiseworthy  examples 
of  others,  which  impels  us  to  imitate, 
to  rival,  and,  if  possible,  to  excel  them. 
This  passion  involves  in  it  esteem  of  the 
person  whose  attainments  or  ccuiduct 
we  emulate,  of  the  qualities  and  actions 
in  which  we  emulate  him,  and  a  desire 
of  resemblance,  together  with  a  joy 
springing  from  the  hope  of  success. 
The  word  comes  origiYially  from  the 
Greek  anixxa,  contest,  whence  the  La- 
tin. cT;«;//»4',  and  thence  our  emitlation. 
Plato  makes  emulation  the  daughter  of 
envy :  if  so,  tliere  is  a  great  cliffei-cnce 
between  the  mother  and  the  oftspring  ; 
the  one  being  a  virtue  and  the  other  a 
vice.  Emulation  admires  great  actions, 
and  strives  to  imitate  them ;  envy  re- 
fuses them  the  praises  that  are  their 
due  ;  emulation  is  generous,  and  only 
thinks  of  equalling  or  surpassing  a  ri- 
val ;  envy  is  low,  and  only  seeks  to 
lessen  him.  It  would,  therefore,  be  more 
proper  to  suppose  emulation  the  daugh- 
ter of  admiration ;  admiration  being  a 
principal  ingi-edient  ia  the  composition 
of  it. 

ENCRATITES,  a  sect  in  the  second 
century,  who  abstained  from  marriage, 
wine,  and  animals. 

ENDOWMENT,  ECCLESIASTI- 
CAL ;  a  terai  used  to  denote  the  set- 
tlement of  a  pension  upon  a  minister, 
or  the  building  of  a  church,  or  the  se- 
vering a  sufficient  portion  of  tithes  for 
a  vicar,  when  the  benefice  is  appro- 
priated. 

Among  the  Dissenters,  they  are  be- 
nefoctions  left  to  their  place  or  congre- 
gation, for  the  support  of  their  minis- 
ters. Where  the  congregation  is  poor 
or  small,  these  haye  been  found  benefi- 
cial ;  but  in  many  cases  they  have  been 
detrimental.  Too  often  has  it  tended  to 
relax  the  exertions  of  the  people ;  and 
■when  such  a  fund  has  fallen  into  the 
liands  of  an  unsuitable  minister,  it  has 
prevented  his  removal ;  when,  had  he 
derived  no  support  from  the  people, 
necessity  would  have  caused  him  to  de- 
part, and  make  i-oom  for  one  more 
worthy. 

ENERGICI,  a  denomination  in  the 
sixteenth  century ;  so  called  because 
they  held  that  the  eucharist  was  the 
energy  and  virtue  of  Jesus  Christ ;  not 
his  bodv,  nor  a  representation  thereof. 

ENERGLTMENS,  persons  supposed 
to  be  possessed  with  the  devil,  concern- 
ing whom  there  were  many  regulations 
among  the  primitive  Christians.  They 
■were  denied  baptism  and  the  eucharist'; 
at  least  this  was  the  practice  of  some 
churches ;  and  though  they  were  under 
the  care  of  exorcists,  yet  it  was  thought 


a  becoming  act  of  charity  to  let  them 
have  the  public  prayers  of  the  church, 
at  which  they  were  permitted  to  be 
present. 

ENTHUSIASM.  To  obtain  just  de- 
finitions of  words  wliich  are  promis- 
cuously used,  it  must  be  confessed,  is  no 
small  difficultj\  This  word,  it  seems, 
is  used  both  in  a  good  and  a  bad  sense. 
In  its  best  sense  it  signifies  a  divine  affla- 
tus or  inspiration.  It  is  also  taken  for 
that  noble  ardour  of  mind  which  leads 
us  to  imagine  any  thing  sublime,  grand, 
or  sui-prising.  In  its  worst  sense  it  sig- 
nifies any  impression  on  the  fancy,  or 
agitation  of  the  passions,  of  which  a 
man  can  give  no  rational  account.  It 
is  generally  applied  to  religious  cha- 
racters, and  is  said  to  be  derived  {am 
TMv  (V  9uo-iai£  noivonEvtov)  from  the  wild  ges- 
tures and  speeches  of  ancient  religion- 
ists, pretending  to  more  than  ordinary 
and  more  than  true  communications 
with  the  gods,  and  particularly  iv  Ouo-iau, 
in  the  act  or  at  the  time  of  sacrificing. 
In  this  sense,  then,  it  signifies  that  im- 
pulse of  the  mind  which  leads  a  man  to 
suppose  he  has  some  remarkable  inter- 
course with  the  Deity,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  is  nothing  more  than  the  effects 
of  a  heated  imagination,  or  a  sanguine 
constitution. 

That  the  Divine  Being  permits  his 
people  to  enjoy  fellowship  with  him, 
and  that  he  can  work  upon  the  minds  of 
his  creatures  when  and  how  he  pleases, 
cannot  be  denied.  But,  then,  what  is  the 
criterion  by  which  we  are  to  judge,  in 
order  to  distinguish  it  from  enthusiasm  ? 
It  is  necessary  there  should  be  some 
rule,  for  without  it  the  greatest  extra- 
vagancies would  be  committed,  the  most 
notorious  impostoi's  countenanced,  and 
the  most  enormous  evils  ensue.  Now 
this  criterion  is  the  word  of  God ;  from 
which  we  learn,  that  we  are  to  expect 
no  new  revelations,  no  extraordinary 
gifts,  as  in  the  apostles'  time ;  that  what- 
ever opinions,  feelings,  views,  or  im- 
pressions we  may  have,  if  they  are  in- 
consistent with  i-eason,  if  they  do  not 
tend  to  humble  us,  if  they  do  not  in- 
fluence our  temper,  regulate  our  lives, 
and  make  us  just,  pious,  honest,  and 
uniform,  they  cannot  come  from  God, 
but  are  evidently  the  effusions  of  an  en- 
thusiastic brain.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  mind  be  enlightened,  if  the  will 
which  was  perverse  be  renovated,  de- 
tached from  evil,  and  inclined  to  good ; 
if  the  powers  be  roused  to  exertion  for 
the  promotion  of  the  divine  glory,  and 
the  good  of  men  ;  if  the  natural  cor- 
iiiptions  of  the  heart  be  suppressed ;  if 
peace  and  joy  arise  from  a  view  of  the 


EON 


164 


EPI 


goodness  of  God,  attended  with  a  spi- 
ritual frame  of  mind,  a  heart  devoted  to 
God,  and  a  holy,  useful  life :  however 
this  may  be  branded  with  the  name  of 
enthusiasm,  it  certainly  is  from  God, 
because  bare  human  eifoits,  unassisted 
by  him,  could  never  produce  such  ef- 
fects as  these.  Theol.  Misc.  vol.  ii.  p. 
43. ;  Locke  on  Underst.  vol.  ii.  ch.  19. ; 
S/iect.  No.  201.  vol.  iii. ;  Itesley's  Ser. 
on  Enthusiasm  ;  3Irs.  H.  Morels  Hints 
tovjards  forming  the  Character  of  a 
young  P.rincess,  vol.  ii.  p.  246. 

ENVY,  a  sensation  or  vmeasiness  and 
dis(juiet,  arising  from  the  advantages 
which  others  are  supposed  to  possess 
above  us,  accompanied  with  malignity 
towards  those  who  possess  them.  "This," 
says  a  good  writer,  "  is  universally  ad- 
mitted to  be  one  of  the  blackest  passions 
in  the  human  heart.  No  one,  indeed,  is 
to  be  condemned  for  defending  his  rights, 
and  showing  displeasure  against  a  ma- 
licious enemy ;  but  to  conceive  Ul  will 
at  one  who  has  attacked  none  of  our 
rights,  nor  done  us  any  injuiy,  solely 
because  he  is  more  prosperous  than  we 
ai'e,  is  a  disposition  altogether  unnatui-al. 
Hence  the  character  of  an  envious  man 
is  universally  odious.  All  disclaim  it ; 
and  they  who  feel  themselves  under  the 
influence  of  this  passion,  carefully  con- 
ceal it.  The  chief  grounds  of  envy  may 
be  reduced  to  three  :  accomplishments 
of  mind ;  advantages  of  birth,  rank,  and 
fortune ;  and  superior  success  in  worldly 
pursuits.  To  subdue  this  odious  dispo- 
sition, let  us  consider  its  sinful  and  cri- 
minal nature  ;  the  m.ischiefs  it  occasions 
to  the  world ;  the  unhappiness  it  pro- 
duces to  him  who  possesses  it ;  the  evil 
causes  that  nourish  it,  such  as  pride  and 
indolence :  let  us,  moreover,  bring  of- 
ten into  view  those  religious  considera- 
tions which  regard  us  as  Christians: 
how  unworthy  we  are  in  the  sight  of 
God;  how  much  the  blessings  we  en- 
joy are  above  what  we  deserve.  Let 
us  learn  reverence  and  submission  to 
that  divine  government  which  has  ap- 
pointed to  e\"ery  one  such  a  condition  as 
IS  fittest  for  him  to  possess ;  let  us  con- 
sider how  opposite  the  Christian  spirit 
is  to  envy  ;  above  all,  let  us  offer  up  our 
pravers  to  the  Almighty,  that  he  would 
jiurify  our  hearts  from  a  passion  which 
is  so  base  and  so  criminal." 

EONL\NS,  the  followers  of  Eon,  a 
wUd  fanatic,  of  the  province  of  Brc- 
tagne,  in  the  twelfth  century :  he  con- 
cluded, from  the  resemblance  between. 
eum,  in  the  form  for  exorcising  malig- 
nant s])irits,  viz.  "  i)cr  eum  qui  venturus 
est  judicarc  vivos  et  mortuos,"  and  his 
own  name  Eon,  thv.t  he  was  the  son  of 


God,  and  ordained  to  judge  the  quick 
and  dead.  Eon  was,  howdver,  solemnly 
condemned  by  the  council  at  Rheims, 
in  1148,  and  ended  his  days  in  a  prison. 
He  left  behind  him  a  number  of  toUow- 
ers,  whom  persecution  and  death,  so 
weakly  and  cruelly  employed,  could 
not  persuade  to  abandon  his  cause,  or  to 
renounce  an  absurdity,  which,  says  Mo- 
sheim,  one  would  think,  r~'dd  never 
have  gained  credit  but  in  such  a  place 
as  Bedlam. 

EOQUINIANS,  a  denomination  in 
the  sixteenth  century ;  so  called  from 
one  Eoquinus,  their  master,  who  taught 
that  Christ  did  not  die  for  the  wicked, 
but  for  the  faithful  only. 

EPICUREANS,  the  disciples  of  Epi- 
curus, who  flourished  about  A.  M.  3700. 
This  sect  maintained  that  the  woi-ld  was 
formed  not  by  God,  nor  with  any  de- 
sign, but  by  the  fortuitous  concourse  of 
atoms.  They  denied  that  God  governs 
the  world,  or  in  the  least  condescends 
to  interfere  with  creatures  below :  they 
denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and 
the  existence  of  angels ;  they  maintained 
that  happiness  consisted  in  pleasure ; 
but  some  of  them  placed  this  pleasure 
in  the  tranquillity  and  joy  of  the  mind 
arising  from  the  practice  of  moral  vir- 
'ue,  and  which  is  thought  by  some  to 
have  been  the  true  principle  of  Epicu- 
rus ;  othere  understood  him  in  the  gross 
sense,  and  placed  all  their  happiness  in 
corporeal  pleasure.  \\^hen  Paul  was  at 
Athens,  he  had  conferences  with  the 
Epicurean  philosophers.  Acts  xvii.  18. 
The  word  E/iicurean  is  used,  at  present, 
for  an  indolent,  effeminate,  and  volup- 
tuous person,  who  only  consults  his  pri- 
vate and  particular  pleasure.  bee 
Academics. 

EPIPHANY,  a  Christian  festival, 
otherwise  called  the  manifestation  of 
Christ  to  the  Gentiles,  observed  on  the 
6th  of  January,  in  honour  of  the  appear- 
ance of  our  Saviour  to  the  three  magi, 
or  wise  men,  who  came  to  adore  and 
bring  him  presents. 

EPISCOPACY,  that  form  of  church 
government  in  which  diocesan  bishops 
are  established  as  distinct  from  and  su- 
perior to  priests  or  presbyters. 

The  controversy  respecting  episco- 
pacy commenced'  soon  after  the  re- 
formation ;  and  has  been  agitated  with 
great  warmth,  between  the  Episcopa- 
lians on  tlie  one  side,  and  the  Presbyte- 
rians and  Independents  on  the  other. 
Among  the  Protestant  churches  abroad, 
those  which  were  reformed  by  Luther 
and  his  associates  are  in  genei-al  cfiisco- 
pal;  whilst  such  as  follow  the  doctrines 
of   Calvin,    have    for    the    most    part 


EPI 


165 


EPI 


:hro\vn  off  the  order  of  bishops  as  onellcers,  called  evangelists,  who  were  as- 
of  the  corruptions  of  popery.  In  Eng-  I  sistants  to  the  apostles ;  for  there  is 
land,  however,  the  controversy  has  Ij  gi-eat  reason  to  belie\  e  the  first  epistle 
been  considered  as  of  greater  inipor-  |i  to  Timothy  was  written  prior  to  those 
tancc  than  on  the  continent.  It  has  Ij  from  Rome  in  the  time  of  Paul's  im- 
beci\  strenuously  maintained  by  one  ■!  prisonment,  as  some  thmk  the  second 
partv,  that  the  e/iisco/ial  order  is  essen-    was  also.    To  which  we  may  add,  that 


tial  to  the  constitution  of  the  church  ;  ] 
and  bv  others,  that  it  is  a  pernicious  en-  \ 
croachment  on  the  rights  of  men,  for ! 
which  there  is  no  authority  in  Scrip-  ■ 
ture.  We  will  just  briefly  state  their  i 
argnments.  | 

I.  Efiiscofiacy,    arguments    for.     1. ; 
Some  argue  that  the  nature  of  the  office  j 
which  the  apostles  bore  was  such,  that 
the  edification  of  the  church  would  re-  , 
tjuire  they  should  have  some  successors 
in    those   ministrations   which   are   not '. 
common  to  Gospel  ministers. — 2.  That ; 
Timothy  and  Titus  were  bishops    of: 
Ephesus  and  Crete,  whose  business  it 
was  to  exercise  such  extraordinary  acts 
of  jurisdiction  as  are  now  claimed  by 
diocesan  bishops,  1  Tim.  i.  3.    Tim.  iii. 
19,  22.    2  Tim.  ii.  2.    Tit.  i.  5,  &c.   Tit. 
iii.  10. — 3.  Some  have  argued  from  the 
mention  of  angels,  i.  e.  as  they  under- 
stand it,  of    diocesan    bishops,   in  the 
seven  churches  of  Asia,  particularly  the 
angel  of  Ephesus,  though  there  were 
many  ministers  employed  in  it  long  be- 
fore the  date  of  that  epistle,  Acts  xx. 
17,  18. — 4.    It  is  urged  that  some  of  the 
churches  which  were  foi-med  in  large 
cities  during  the  lives  of  the  apostles, 
and  especially  that  at  Jerusalem,  con- 
sisted of  such  vast  numbers  as  could  not 
possibly  assemble  at  one  place. — 5.  That 
m  the  writers  who  succeeded  the  inspi- 
red penmen,  there  is  a  multiplied  and 
concuiTing  evidence  to  pro\e  the  apos- 
tolic institution  of  episcopacy. 

II.  Ejiiscofiacy,  arguments  against. 
1.  To  the  above  it  is  answered,  that,  as 
the  office  of  the  apostles  was  such  as  to 
require  extraordinary'  and  miraculous 
endowments  for  the  discharge  of  many 

Earts  of  it ;  it  is  impossible  that  they  can 
ave  any  successors  in  those  services 
who  are  not  empowered  for  the  execu- 
tion of  them  as  the  apostles  themselves 
were ;  and  it  is  mabitained,  that  so  far 
as  ordination,  confirmation,  and  excom- 
munication, ma\  be  performed  without 
miraculous    gifts,    there   is  nothing  in 


it  seems  probable,  at  least,  that  they 
had  \ery  extraordinaiy  gifts  to  furnish 
them  for  their  superior  offices,  1  Tim. 
iv.  14.    Eph.  iv.  11.   2  Tim.  iv.  5.     And 
though  Timothy  was  with  Paul  when 
he  took  his  leave  of  the  eldere  of  Ephe- 
sus (Acts  XX.)  the  apostle  gives  not 
the   least    hint    of   any  extraordinary 
power  with  which  he  was  invested,  nor 
:  says  one  word  to  engage  their  obedience 
]  to  him  ;    which  is  a  very  strong  pi'e- 
i  sumption  that  no  such  relation  did  sub- 
I  sist,  or  was  to  take  place. 

3.  As  'to  the  angels  of  the  seven 
I  churches  in  Asia,  it  is  certain  that,  for 
[  anv  thing  which  appears  in  our  Lord's 
I  epistles  to  them  (Kev.  ii.  and  iii.)  they 
;  might  be  no  more  than  the  pastors  of 
j  single  congi'egations  with  their  proper 
assistants. 

]     4.  To  the  fourth  argument  it  is  an- 
I  swered,  1.  That  the  word  nuiiaifs  may 
j  only  signify  great  numbers,  and  may  no't 
j  be  intended  to  express  that  there  were 
I  several  times  ten  thousand,  in  an  exact 
p  and  literal  sense:  compare  Luke,  ch. 
1;  xii.  ver.  1.  (Greek.) — 2.  That  no  suffi- 
il  cient  proof  is  brought  from  Scnpturc  of 
j|  there  being  such  numbers  of  people  in 
i  any  particular  place  as  this  supposes ; 
i  for  the  myriads  of  believing  Jews  spoken 
■  of  in  the  preceding  text,  as  well  as  the 
numbers  mentioned,  Acts  ii.  41.    Acts 
iv.  4,  might  ver>-  probably  be  those  who 
were  gathered  together  at  those  great 
feasts  from  distant  places,  of  which  few 
might  have  their  stated  residence  in  that 
city.    See  Acts,  ch.  viii.  ver.  1. — 3.    If 
the  number  were  so  great  as  the  objec- 
tion supposes,  there  might  be,  for  any 
thing  which  appears  in  Scripture,  seve- 
ral bishofis  in  the  same  city,  as  there 
are  among  those  who  do  not  allots  of 
diocesan  episcopacy,  several  co-ordinate 
pastors,     overseers,    or    bishops :     and 
though  Eusebius  does  indeed  pretend  to 
give  us  a  catalogue  of  the  bishops  of  Je- 
rusalem, it  is  to  be  remembered  how 
the  Christians  had  been  dispersed  from 


them  but  what  seems  to  suit  the  pasto-  i  thence  for  a  considerable  time,  at  ajid 
ral  office  in  general.  j  after  the  Roman  war,  and  removed  into 

2.  That  Timothy  and  Titus  had  not  i  other  parts,  which  must  necessarily  veiy 
a  stated  residence  in  these  churches,  much  increase  the  uncertainty  which 
but  only  \nsited  them  for  a  time,  2  Tim.  Eusebius  himself  owns  there  was,  as  to 
iv.  9,  13.  Tit.  iii.  12.  It  also  appears,  \  the  succession  of  bishops  in  most  of  the 
from  other  places  in  which  the  joumevs  fi  ancient  sees. 

of  Timothy  and  Titus  are  mentioned,  |i     5.  As  to  the  ancient  writers,  it  is  ob- 
tbat  they  were  a  kind  of  itinerant  offi- 1!  seiTed,  that  though  Clemens  Romanus 


EPI 


166 


EPI 


recommends  to  the  Corinthians  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Jewish  church,  where  the 
high  priest,  ordinaiy  priest,  and  Le- 
vkes  knew  and  observed  their  respec- 
tive offices,  yet  he  never  mentions  pres- 
byters and  bishops  as  distinct,  nor  refers 
the  contending  Corinthians  to  any  one 
ecclesiastical  head  as  the  centi'e  of  unity, 
which  he  would  probably  have  done  If 
there  had  been  any  diocesan  bishops 
among  them ;  nay,  he  seems  evidently 
to  speak  of  presbyters  as  exercising  the 
episcopal  ouice.  See  sec.  xxxix.  ot  his 
epistle. — 2.  As  for  Irenajus,  it  does  not 
appear  that  he  made  any  distinction  be- 
tween bishops  and  presljyters.  He  does 
indeed  mention  the  succession  of  bishops 
from  the  apostles,  which  is  reconcileable 
with  the  supposition  of  their  being  pa- 
rochial, nor  altogether  irreconcileable 
with  the  supposition  of  joint  pastoi's  in 
those  churches. — 3.  It  is  allowed  that 
Ignatius  in  many  places  distinguishes 
between  bishops  and  presbyters,  and  re- 
quires obedience  to  bishops  from  the 
whole  church,  but  as  he  often  supposes 
each  of  the  churches  to  which  he  wrote 
to  meet  in  one  place,  and  represents 
them  as  breaking  one  loaf,  and  sur- 
rounding one  altar,  and  charges  the  bi- 
shop to  know  all  his  flock  by  name,  it 
is  most  evident  that  he  must  speak  of  a 
pai'ochial  and  not  a  diocesan  bishop. — 4. 
rolycarp  exhorts  the  Christians  at  Phi- 
lippi  to  be  subject  to  the  presbyters  and 
deacons,  but  says  not  one  woi*d  about 
any  bishop. — 5.  Justin  Martyr  speaks  of 
the  /ireside77t,  but  then  he  represents 
him  as  being  present  at  every  admi- 
nistration of  the  eucharist,  which  he  also 
mentions  as  always  making  a  part  of 
their  public  worship  ;  so  that  the  bishop 
here  must  have  only  been  the  pastor  of 
one  congregation. — 6.  TertuUian  speaks 
of  approved  elders;  but  there  is  nothing 
said  of  them  that  proves  a  diocesan, 
since  all  he  says  might  be  applied  to  a 
parochial  bishop. — 7.  Though  Clemens 
Ale^xandrinus  speaks  of  bishops,  priests, 
aitS,'* deacons,  yet  it  cannot  be  inferred 
from  hence  that  the  bishops  of  whom  he 
speaks  were  any  tiling  more  than  paro- 
i.hial. — 8.  Origen  speaks  distinctly  of 
bishops  and  presbyters,  but  unites  them 
both,  as  it  seems,  under  the  common 
name  of  priests,  saying  nothing  of  the 
power  of  bishops  as  extending  beyond 
one  congregation,  and  rather  insinuates 
the  contrary',  when  he  speaks  of  of- 
fenders as  brought  before  the  whole 
church  to  be  judged  by  it. — 9.  The  apos- 
tolic constitutions  frequently  distinguish 
between  bishops  and  presbyters;  but 
these  constitutions  cannot  be  depended 
on,  as  they  are  supposed  to  be  a  forgery 


of  the  fourth  century. — 10.  It  is  allowed 
that  in  succeeding  ages,  the  difference 
between  bishops  and  presbyters  came 
to  be  more  and  more  magnified,  and 
various  churches  came  under  the  care 
of  the  same  bishop :  nevertheless,  Jerom 
does  expressly  speak  of  bishops  and 
presbyters  as  of  the  same  order;  and 
Gregory  Nazianzen  speaks  of  the  great 
and  affecting  distinction  made  between 
ministers  in  prerogative  of  place,  and 
other  tyrannical  privileges  (as  he  calls 
them,)  as  a  lamentable  and  destructive 
thing. 

III.  JS/iiscofiacy,  how  introduced. — 
It  is  easy  to  apprehend  how  episcopacy, 
as  it  was  in  the  primitive  church,  with 
those  alterations  which  it  afterwards 
received,  might  be  gradually  intro- 
duced. The  apostles  seem  to  have 
taught  chiefly  in  large  cities ;  they  set- 
tled ministers  there,  who,  preaching  in 
country  villages,  or  smaller  towns,  in- 
creased the  number  of  converts:  it 
would  have  been  most  reasonable  that 
those  new  converts,  which  lay  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  large  towns, 
should,  when  they  grew  numerous, 
have  formed  themselves  into  distinct 
churches,  under  the  care  of  their  pro- 
per pastors  or  bishops,  independently 
of  any  of  their  neighbours  ;  but  the  re- 
verence which  would  naturally  be  paid 
to  men  who  had  conversed  with  the 
apostles,  and  perhaps  some  desire  of  in- 
fluence and  dominion,  from  which  the 
hearts  of  very  good  men  might  not  be 
entirely  free,  and  which  eaily  began  to 
work,  (John  iii.  9.  2  Thess.  ii.  7,)  might 
easily  lay  a  foundation  for  such  a  subor- 
dination in  the  ministers  of  new  erected 
churches  to  those  which  were  more 
ancient ;  and  much  more  easily  might 
the  superiority  of  a  pastor  to  his  assis- 
tant firesbyters  increase,  till  it  at  length 
came  to  that  great  difference  which  we 
own  was  early  made,  and  probably  soon 
carried  to  an  excess.  And  if  there  were 
that  degree  of  degeneracy  in  the  church, 
and  defection  from  the  purity  and  vi- 
gour of  religion,  wliich  the  learned 
Vitringa  supposes  to  have  happened! 
between  the  time  of  Nero  and  i  rajan,  j 
it  would  be  less  surprising  that  those  i 
evil  principles,  which  occasioned  epis- 
copal, and  at  length  the  papal  usurpa- 
tion, should  before  that  time  exert  some 
considerable  influence. 

IV.  Efiiscofiacy,  reduced,  filan  of. 
Archbishop  Usher  projected  a  plan  for 
the  reduction  of  episcopacy,  by  which 
he  wouJd  have  moderated  it  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  have  brought  it  very  near 
the  Presbyterian  government  of  the 
Scotch  church;  the  weekly  parochial 


EQU 


167 


ES^S 


vestry  answering  to  their  church  ses- 
sion ;  the  monthly  synod  to  be  held  by 
the  Chortfiiscofii  answering  to  their 
presbyteries ;  the  diocesan  synod  to  their 
provincial,  and  the  national  to  their  ge- 
neral, assembly.  The  meeting  of  the  dean 
and  chapter,  practised  in  the  church  of 
England,  is  but  a  faint  shadow  of  the 
second,  the  ecclesiastical  court  of  the 
third,  and  the  convocation  of  the  fourth. 
Bint(ha7n's  Origines  EcclesiasticEe;  Stil- 
linf^Jleefs  Origines  Sacra  ;  Boyse  and 
Howe  on  Efiis. ;  Benson's  Disserta- 
tion concerning-  the  first  Set.  of  the 
Christian  Church;  King's  Const,  of  the 
Church ;  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lect. 
196 ;  Clarkson  and  Dr.  Maurice  on 
Mpiscopacy  ;  Rnc.  Brit. 

EPISCOPALIAN,  one  who  prefers 
the  episcopal  government  and  discipline 
to  all  others.    See  last  article. 

EPISTLES  OF  BARNABAS.  See 
Barnabas. 

EQUANIMITY  is  an  even,  uniform 
state  of  mind,  amidst  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  time  and  changes  of  circumstances 
to  which  we  are  subject  in  the  present 
state.  One  of  this  disposition  is  not  de- 
jected when  under  ad\'ersity,  nor  elated 
when  in  the  height  of  prosperity :  he  is 
equally  affable  to  others,  and  contented 
in  himself.  The  excellency  of  this  dis- 
position is  beyond  all  praise.  It  may  be 
considered  as.  the  grand  remedy  for  all 
the  diseases  and  miseries  of  life,  and  the 
only  way  by  which  we  can  preserve  the 
dignity  of  our  characters  as  men  and  as 
Christians. 

EQUITY  is  that  exact  rule  of  righ- 
teousness or  justice,  which  is  to  be  ob- 
served between  man  and  man.  Our 
Lord  beautifully  and  comprehensively 
expresses  it  in  these  words :  "All  things 
whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should 
do  unto  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them,  for 
this  is  the  law  and  the  prophets,"  Matt. 
vii.  12.  This  golden  rule,  says  Dr. 
Watts,  has  many  excellent  properties 
in  it.  1.  It  is  a  i*ule  that  is  easy  to  oe  un- 
derstood, and  as  easy  to  be  applied  by 
the  meanest  and  weakest  understand- 
ing, Isa.  XXXV.  8. — 2.  It  is  a  very  short 
rule,  and  easy  to  be  remembered :  the 
•weakest  memory  can  retain  it :  and  the 
meanest  of  mankind  may  carry  this 
about  with  them,  and  have  it  ready 
upon  all  occasions. — 3.  This  excelleu't 
precept  carries  greater  evidence  to  the 
conscience,  and  a  stronger  degree  of 
conviction  in  it,  than  any  other  iiile  of 
moral  virtue. — 4.  It  is  particularly  fitted 
for  practice,  because  it  includes  in  it  a 
pojvei-ful  moti^'e  to  stir  us  up  to  do  what 
It  enjoins.— 5.  It  is  such  a  rule  as,  if 
well  applied,  will  almost  always  secure 


our  neighbour  from  injur}',  and  secure 
us  from  guUt  if  we  should  chance  to 
hurt  him. — 6.  It  is  a  rule  as  much  fitted 
to  aAvaken  us  to  sincere  repentance, 
upon  the  transgression  of  it,  as  it  is  to 
du'ect  us  to  our  present  duty. — 7.  It  is 
a  most  extensive  rule,  Avith  regard  to 
all  the  stations,  ranks,  and  characters 
of  mankind,  for  it  is  perfectly  suited  to 
them  all. — 8.  It  is  a  most  comprehen- 
sive rule  with  regard  to  all  the  actions 
and  duties  that  concern  our  neighbours. 
It  teaches  us  to  regulate  our  temper 
and  behaviour,  and  promote  tendemes«, 
benevolence,  gentleness,  &c. — 9.  It  is 
also  a  nile  of  the  highest  pi-udence  with 
regard  to  ourselves,  and  promotes  our 
own  interest  in  the  best  manner. — 10. 
This  rule  is  fitted  to  make  the  whole 
world  as  happy  as  the  present  state  of 
things  will  admit.  See  Watts' s  Sermons, 
ser.  33.  v.  i. ;  JEvan's  Ser.  ser.  28 ;  Mor- 
ning Exercises  at  Cripjilegate,  ser.  10. 

EQUIVOCATION,  the  using  a  term 
or  expi'ession  that  has  a  double  mean^ 
ing.  Equivocations  are  said  to  be  ex- 
pedients to  save  telling  the  truth,  and 
yet  without  telling  a  falsity;  but  if  an 
intention  to  deceive  constitute  the  es- 
sence of  a  lie,  which  in  general  it  does, 
I  cannot  conceive  how  it  can  be  done 
without  incurring  guilt,  as  it  is  certainly 
an  intention  to  deceive. 

ERASTIANS,  so  called  from  Eras- 
tus,  a  German  divine  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. The  pastoral  office,  according  to 
him,  was  only  persuasive,  like  a  pro- 
fessor of  science  over  his  students,  with- 
out any  power  of  the  keys  annexed. 
The  Lord's  supper  and  other  ordinan- 
ces of  the  Gospel  were  to  be  free  and 
open  to  all.  The  minister  might  dissuade 
the  vicious  and  unqualified  from  the 
communion  ;  but  might  not  refuse  it,  or 
inflict  any  kind  of  censure  ;  the  punish- 
ment of  all  offences,  either  of  a  civil  or 
religious  nature,  being  referred  to  the 
civil  magistrate. 

ERROR,  a  mistake  of  our  judgment, 
giving  assent  to  that  which  is  not  true. 
Mr.  Locke  reduces  the  causes  of  eiTor 
to  four.  1.  Want  of  proofs. — 2.  Want  of 
ability  to  use  them. — 3.  Want  of  will  to 
use  them. — 4.  Wrong  measures  of  pro- 
bability. In  a  moral  and  scriptural  sense 
it  signifies  sin.    See  Sin. 

ESSENES,  a  very  ancient  sect,  that 
was  spread  abroad  through  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  the  neighbouring  countries. 
They  maintained  tliat  religion  consisted 
wholly  in  contemplation  and  sileiifc. 
Some  of  them  passed  their  Uacs  in  a 
state  of  celibacy ;  others  embraced  the 
state  of  matrimony,  which  they  consi- 
dei-ed  as  lawful,  when  entered  into  with 


EST 


168 


EST 


tl\e  sole  design  of  propagating  the  spe- 
cies, and  not  to  satisfy  the  demand  of 
lust.  Some  of  them  held  the  possibility 
of  appeasing  the  Deity  by  sacrifices, 
though  different  from  that  of  the  Jews ; 
and  others  maintained  that  no  offering 
was  acceptable  to  God  but  that  of  a 
serene  and  composed  mind,  addicted 
to  the  contemplation  of  divine  things. 
They  looked  upon  the  law  of  Moses  as 
an  allegorical  system  of  spiritual  and 
mysterious  truths ;  and  renounced,  in 
its  explication,  all  regard  to  the  out- 
wai'd  letter. 

ESTABLISHMENTS,  Religious. 
By  a  religious  establishment  is  generally 
understood  such  an  intimate  connection 
between  religion  and  civil  government 
as  is  supposed  to  secure  the  best  inte- 
rests and  great  end  of  both.  This  arti- 
cle, like  many  others,  has  afforded  mat- 
ter of  considerable  dispute.  In  order 
that  the  reader  may  judge  for  himself, 
we  shall  take  a  view  of  both  sides  of  the 
question. 

The  partisans  for  religious  establish- 
ments observe,  that  they  have  prevail- 
ed universally  in  every  age  and  nation. 
The  ancient  patriarchs  formed  no  ex- 
tensive or  permanent  associations  but 
such  as  arose  from  the  relationships  of  j 
nature.  Every  father  governed  his  own 
family,  and  their  offspring  submitted  to 
his  jurisdiction.  He  presided  in  their 
education  and  disciphne,  in  their  reli- 
gious worship,  and  in  their  general  go- 
vernment. His  knowledge  and  expe- 
rience handed  down  to  them  their  laws 
and  their  customs,  both  civil  and  reli- 
gious ;  and  his  authority  enforced  them. 
The  offices  of  prophet,  priest,  and  king, 
were  thus  united  in  the  same  patriarch. 
Gen.  xviii.  19.  Gen.  xvii.  and  xxi.  Gen. 
xiv.  18.  The  Jews  enjoyed  a  religious 
establishment  dictated  and  ordained  l)y 
God.  In  turning  our  attention  to  the 
heathen  nations  we  shall  find  the  same 
incorporation  of  religious  with  civil  go- 
vernment. Gen.  xlvii.  22.  2  Kings  xvii. 
27,  29.  Every  one  who  is  at  all  ac- 
quainted with  the  historv  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  knows  that  religion  was  altoge- 
ther blended  with  the  policy  of  the 
state.  The  Koran  may  be  considci'ed 
as  the  religions  creed  and  civil  code  of 
all  the  Mahometan  tribes.  Among  the 
Celtes,  or  the  original  inhabitants  of 
Europe,  the  druids  were  both  their 
priests  and  their  judges,  and  their  judg- 
ment was  final.  Among  the  Hindoos, 
tlApriests  and  sovereigns  ai-e  of  differ- 
ent tribes  or  casts,  but  the  priests  are 
superior  in  rank ;  and  in  China,  the 
emperor  is  sovereign  pontiff,  and  pre- 
sides in  all  public  acts  of  religion. 


Again  ;  it  is  said,  that,  although  there 
is  no  form  of  church  government  abso- 
lutely prescribed  in  the  New  Testament, 
yet  Irom  the  associating  law,  on  which 
the  Gospel  lays  so  much  stress,  by  the 
respect  for  civil  government  it  so"  ear- 
nestly enjoins,  and  by  the  practice  which 
followed,  and  finally  prevailed.  Chris- 
tians cannot  be  said  to  disapprove,  but 
to  favour  religious  establishments. 

Religious  establishments,  also,  it  is 
observed,  are  founded  in  the  nature  of 
man,  and  interwoven  with  all  the  con- 
stituent principles  of  human  society :  the 
knowledge  and  profession  of  Christian- 
ity cannot  be  upheld  without  a  clergy  ; 
a  clergy  cannot  be  suppoited  without  a 
legal  provision ;  and  a  legal  provision 
for  the  clergy  cannot  be  constituted 
without  the  preference  of  one  sect  of 
Christians  to  the  rest.  An  established 
church  is  most  likely  to  maintain  cleri- 
cal respectability  and  usefulness,  by 
holding  out  a  suitable  encouragement 
to  young  men  to  devote  themselves 
early  to  the  service  of  the  church ;  and 
likewise  enables  them  to  obtain  such 
knowledge  as  shall  qualify  them  for  the 
important  work. 

They  who  reason  on  the  contrary  side 
observe,  that  the  patriarchs  sustaining 
civil  as  well  as  religious  offices,  is  no 
proof  at  all  that  religion  was  incorpo- 
rated with  the  civil  government,  in  the 
sense  above  referred  to ;  nor  is  there 
the  least  hint  of  it  in  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures. That  the  case  of  the  Jews  can 
never  be  considered  in  point,  as  they 
were  under  a  theocracy,  and  a  ceremo- 
nial dispensation  that  was  to  pass  awa}% 
and  consequently  not  designed  to  be  a 
model  for  Christian  nations.  That  what- 
ever was  the  practice  of  heathens  in 
this  respect,  this  forms  no  argument  in 
favour  of  that  system  which  is  the  very 
opposite  to  paganism.  The  church  of 
Christ  is  of  a  spiritual  nature,  and  ought 
not,  yea  cannot,  in  fact,  be  incorporated 
with  the  state  without  sustaining  mate- 
rial injury.  In  the  three  first  and  pu- 
rest ages  of  Christianity,  the  church 
was  a  stranger  to  any  alliance  with  tem- 
poi-al  powers ;  and,  so  far  from  need  - 
mg  their  aid,  religion  never  flonrisheil 
so  much  as  while  they  were  combine 
to  suppress  it.  As  to  the  support  which 
Christianity,  when  united  to  civil  go- 
vernment yields  to  the  peace  and 
good  order  of  society,  it  is  observed, 
that  this  benefit  will  be  derived  from  it, 
at  least,  in  as  great  a  degree  without 
an  establishment  as  with  it.  Religion, 
if  it  have  any  power,  operates  on  *he 
conscimcc  of  men ;  and,  resting  solely 
oi>  the  belief  Qf  invisible  realities,  it  ran 


EST 


169 


ETE 


derive  no  weight  or  solemnity  from  hu- 
man sanctions.  Human  establishments, 
it  is  said,  have  been,  and  are,  productive 
of  the  greatest  evils ;  for  in  this  case  it 
is  requisite  to  give  the  preference  to 
some  particular  system ;  and  as  the 
magistrate  is  no  better  judge  of  religion 
than  others,  the  chances  are  as  great  of 
his  lending  his  sanction  to  the  false  as 
the  true.  The  thousands  that  have  been 
persecuted  and  suffered  in  consequence 
of  establishments,  will  always  form  an 
argument  against  them.  Under  estab- 
lishments also,  ii-  is  said,  cori-uption  can- 
not be  avoided.  Emokiment  must  be 
attached  to  the  national  church,  -v/hich 
may  be  a  strong  inducement  to  its  mi- 
nisters to  defend  it,  be  it  ever  so  remote 
from  the  ti-uth.  Thus,  also,  error  be- 
comes permanent ;  and  that  set  of  opi- 
nions which  happens  to  prevail  when 
the  establishment  is  formed,  continues, 
in  spite  of  superior  light  and  improve- 
ment, to  be  handed  down,  without  al- 
teration, from  age  to  age.  Hence  the 
disagreement  between  the  public  creed 
of  the  church  and  the  private  senti- 
ments of  its  ministers.  As  to  the  pro- 
vision made  for  the  clergy,  this  may  be 
done  without  an  establishment,  as  mat- 
ter of  fact  shows  in  hvindreds  of  in- 
stances. Dissenting  ministers,  or  those 
who  do  not  hold  in  establishments,  it  is 
obsei-\'ed  are  not  without  means  of  ob- 
taining knowledge ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
many  of  them  are  equal  to  their  bre- 
thren in  the  establishment  for  erudition 
and  sound  learning.  It  is  not  to  be  dis- 
sembled neither,  that  among  those  who, 
in  general,  cannot  agree  with  human 
establishments,  there  are  as  pious  and 
as  useful  members  of  society  as  others. 
Finally,  though  all  Christians  should  pay 
respect  to  civil  magistrates  as  such,  an5 
all  magistrates  ought  to  encourage  the 
church,  yet  no  civil  magistrates  have 
any  power  to  establish  any  particular 
form  of  religion,  binding  upon  the  con- 
sciences of  the  subject ;  nor  are  magis- 
trates even  represented  in  scripture  as 
officers  or  rulers  of  the  church.  Should 
the  reader  be  desirous  of  prosecuting 
this  subject  farther,  he  may  consult 
Warburton'a  jilliance  between  Church 
and  State ;  Christie's  Essay  on  Estab- 
tishments;  Faley's  Mor.  Phil.  v.  ii.  c. 
10 ;  Bishofi  Laiv's  Theory  of  Religion  ; 
Watts's  Civil  Power  in  'things  sacred, 
third  volume  of  his  works;  Hairs  Li- 
berty of  the  Press,  sec.  5;  Mrs.  H. 
Move's  Hints  on  forming  the  Character 
of  o  uoung  Princess,  vol.  ii.  p.  350 ;  but 
especially /?G.v^en  and  Graham's  iiieces 
on  the  subject ;  the  fomner  for,  and  the 
latter  against  establishments.  ; 


ESTEEM  is  that  high  and  exalted 
thought   of,   and  value  for    any   thing 
which  arises  from  a  sense  of  its  own  in- 
trinsic Avorth  and  excellency.  Esteem  is 
higher  than  simple  approbation,  which 
is  a  decision  of  the  judgment ;  it  is  the 
commencement  of  affection  :  it  is  a  de- 
gree of  love  for  others,  on  account  of 
their   pleasing   qualities,  though   they 
should   not   immediately  interest   our- 
selves ;  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from 
gratitude.  Our  esteem  of  God  manifests 
itself  in    never  mentioning    his    name 
without  reverence;  in  bowing  the  knee; 
i  in  prayer  and  praise  ;  in  all  the  s^ei'al 
I  forms  of  outward  devotion,  and  in  quick 
I  resentment  of  any  dishonour   done   to 
j  him.     Our  high  esteem  or  vefleration 
I  of  anv  man  appears*  in  an  humble,  re- 
I  spectful  behaviour  toward  him,  speak- 
I  ing  his  praises,  imitating  his  excellen- 
I  cies,  and  resenting  his  dishonour. 
j     ETERNITY,  with  respect  to  God, 
i  is  a  duration  without  beginning  or  end. 
j  As  it  is  the  attribute  of  human  nature, 
I  it  is  a  duration  that  has  a  beginning,  but 
I  will  never  have  an  end.    "It  is  a  dura- 
i  tion,"  says  a  lively  writer,  "  that   ex- 
I  eludes  all   number   and    computation : 
j  days,  and  months,  and  year^,  yea,  and 
I  ages,  are  lost  in  it,  like   drops  in  the 
i  ocean !  Millions  of  millions  of  years,  as 
I  many  years  As  there  ai'e  sands  on  the 
j  sea-shore,  or  particles  of  dust  in  the 
globe  of  the  earth,  and  those  multiplied 
;  to  the  highest  reach  of  number,  all  these 
i«re  nothing  to  eternity.    They  do  not 
'  bear  the  least  imaginable  proportion  to 
i  it ;   for  these  will  come  to  an   end,  as 
j  certainly  as  a  day ;  but  eternity  yvill 
never,  never,  never,  come  to  an  end ! 
It  is  a  line  without  end !  it  is  an  ocean 
without  a  shore !    Alas !   what  shall  I 
say    of  it!   it  is  an  infinite,  unknown 
something,  that  neither  human  thought 
can  grasp,  nor  human    language    de- 
scribe!"    Orton   on  Eternity;  Shower 
on    ditto:  Davis's   Sermons,  ser.  11  j 
I  Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  iii.  p.  370. 
I     ETERNITY  OF  GOD  is  the  per- 

getual  continuance  of  his  being,  without 
eginning,  end,  or  succession.  That  he 
I  is  without  begirviing,  says  Dr.  Gill,  may 
i  be  proved  from,  1.  His  necessary  seli- 
I  existence,  Exod.  iii.  14. — 2.  From  his 
j  attributes,  several  of  which  are  said  to 
I  be  eternal,  Rom.  i.  20.  Acts  xv.  18. 
i  Ps.  ciii.  17.  Jer.  xxxi.  3. — 3.  From  his 
I  purposes,  which  are  also  said  to  be  from 
i  eternity,  Isa.  xxv.  1.  Eph.  iii.  11.  Rom. 
i  ix.  11.  Eph.  i.  4. — 4.  From  the  covenant 
i  of  grace,  which  is  eternal,  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
j  5.  Mic.  V.  2. 

That  he  is  without  end,  may  be  prov- 
[  ed  from,  1.  His  spirituality  and  simpli- 


ETE 


170 


EUC 


city,  Rom.  i.  2S. — 2.  From  his  indepen- 
dency, Rom.  ix.  5. — 3.  From  his  immu- 
tability, 2  Pet.  i.  24, 25.  Mai.  iii.  6.  Fsal. 
iii.  26,'  27. — 4.  From  his  dominion  and 
goverr.ment,  said  never  to  end,  Jer.  x. 
10,  Psal.  X.  16.  Dan.  iv.  3. 

That  he  is  ivithout  succession,  or  any 
distinctions  of  time  succeeding  one  to 
another,  as  moments,  minutes,  &c.  may 
be  proved  from,  1.  His  existence  before 
such  were  in  being,  Isa.  xUii.  13. — 2. 
The  distinctions  and  differences  of  time 
are  together  ascribed  to  him,  and  not  as 
succeeding  one  another:  he  is  the  same 
yestei'day,  to-day,  and  for  ever,  Heb. 
xiii.  8.  'Rev.  i.  4. — 3.  If  his  duration 
■were  successive,  or  proceeded  hy  mo- 
ments, days,  and  years,  then  there  must 
hii\e  been  some  first-  moment,  day,  and 
year,  when  he  began  to  exist,  which  is 
incomptuible  with  the  idea  of  his  eter- 
nity; and,  besides,  one  day  would  be 
but  one  day  with  him,  and  not  a  thou- 
sand, contrary  to  the  express  language 
of  Scripture,  2  Pet.  iii.  8. — 4.  He  would 
not  be  immense,  immutable,  and  per- 
fect, if  this  were  the  case ;  for  he  would 
be  older  one  minute  than  he  was  before, 
which  cannot  be  said  of  him. — 5.  His 
knov/ledge  proves  him  without  succes- 
sive duration,  for  he  knows  all  things 
past,  present,  and  to  come :  "  he  sees 
the  present  without  a  medium,  the  past 
without  recollection,  and  the  future 
witliout  foresight.  To  him  all  truths 
are  but  one  idea,  all  places  are  but  one 
point,  and  all  times  but  one  moment." 
C'il's  Body  of  Divinity;  Paley's  J\Fat. 
T/ieol.  p.  480  ;  Charnock  on  the  Divine 
Perfections ;  Clarke  on  ditto;  IVatts's 
Ontoloe-y,  chap.  iv. 

ETERNITY  OF  THE  WORLD. 
It  was  the  opinion  of  Aristotle  and  others 
that  the  world  was  eternal.  But  that 
the  present  system  of  things  had  a  be- 
ginnmg,  seems  evident,  if  we  consider 
the  following  things.  1.  We  may  not 
only  conceive  of  many  possible  altera- 
tions which  might  be  made  m  the  form 
of  it, but  we  see  it  incessantly  changing; 
whereas  an  eternal  being,  forasmuch 
as  it  is  self-existent,  is  always  the  same. 
— 2.  We  have  no  credible  history  of 
transactions  more  remote  than  six  thou- 
sand years  from  the  present  time ;  for 
as  to  the  pretence  that  some  nations 
haA^e  made  to  histories  of  greater  anti- 
quity, as  the  Egyjitiajis,  Chaldea?is, 
Ph£7iicians,  Chi?iese,  &c.  they  are  evi- 
dently convicted  of  falsehood  in  the 
works  referred  to  at  the  bottom  of  this 
article. — 3.  We  can  trace  the  invention 
of  the  most  useful  arts  and  sciences; 
•which  had  probably  been  carried  far- 
ther,  and   uivented   sooner, ,  had   the 


world  been  eternal, — 4,  The  origin  of 
the  most  considerable  nations  of  the 
earth  may  be  traced,  i.  e.  the  time  when 
they  first  inhabited  the  countries  where 
they  now  dwell;  and  it  appears  that 
most  of  the  western  nations  came  from 
the  east. — 5.  If  the  world  be  eternal,  it 
is  hard  to  account  for  the  tradition  of 
its  beginning,  which  has  almost  every 
where  prevailed,  though  under  different 
forms,  among  both  polite  and  barbarous 
nations. — 6.  We  have  a  most  ancient 
and  credible  history  of  the  beginning  of 
the  world :  I  mean  the  lustory  of  Mo- 
ses, with  wliirh  no  book  in  the  Avorld, 
in  point  of  antiquity,  can  contend.  Stil- 
lingjleet's  Grig.  Sacrpe,  p.  15,  106 ; 
lVi?ider's  Hist,  of  K?iowledge,  vol.  ii. 
passim  ;  Pearson  on  the  Creed,  p.  58 ; 
Dodd7idge's  Lectures,  1.  24 ;  Tillotson's 
Sermons,  ser.  1 ;  Clarke  at  Boyle's  Lec- 
tures, p.  22, 23 ;  Dr.  Collyer's  Scnpture 
Pacts,  ser.  2. 

ETHICS,  the  doctrine  of  manners, 
or  the  science  of  moral  philosophy. 
The  word  is  formed  from  Ti6ot,  mores, 
"  manners,"  by  reason  the  scope  or  ob- 
ject thereof  is  to  form  the  manners. 
See  Morals. 

ETHNOPHRONES,  a  sect  of  here- 
tics in  the  seventh  centur}',  who  made  a 
profession  of  Christianity,  but  joined 
thereto  all  the  ceremonies  and  follies 
of  paganism,  as  judicial  astrology,  sorti- 
leges, auguries,  and  other  divinations. 

EVANGELIST,  one  who  publishes 
glad  tidings ;  a  messenger,  or  preacher 
of  good  news.  The  persons  denomi- 
nated evangelists  were  next  in  order  to 
the  apostles,  and  were  sent  by  them  not 
to  settle  in  any  particular  place,  but  to 
travel  among  the  infant  churches,  and 
ordain  oi'dinary  officers,  and  finish  what 
the  apostles  had  begun.  Of  this  kind 
were  Philip  the  deacon,  Mark,  Silas, 
&c.  Acts  xxi.  8.  The  title  of  evange- 
list is  more  particularly  given  to  the 
four  inspired  writers  of  our  Saviour's 
life. 

EVANGELICAL,  agreeable  to  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity.  The  term  is 
frequently  applied  to  those  Avho  do  not 
rely  upon  moral  duties  as  to  their  ac- 
ceptance with  God ;  but  are  influenced 
to  action  from  a  sense  of  the  lo\-e  of 
God,  and  depend  upon  the  merits  of 
Christ  for  their  everlasting  salvation. 

EUCHARIST,  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  supper.  The  word  properly  sig- 
nifies giving  thanks.  As  to  the  man- 
ner of  celebrating  the  eucharist  among 
the  ancient  Christians,  after  the  custo- 
mary oblations  were  made,  the  deacon 
brought  water  to  the  bishops  and  pres- 
byters standing  round  the  table  to  wash 


EUC 


171 


EVI 


their  hands ;  according  to  that  passage 
of  the  Ps;dmist,  "I  will  wash  my  hands 
in  innocency,  and  so  will  I  compass  thy 
altar,  O  Lord."  Then  the  deacon  cried 
out  aloud,  "Mutually  embrace  and  kiss 
each  other;"  which  being  done,  the 
•whole  congregation  prayed  for  the  uni- 
versal peace  and  %veltare  of  the  church, 
for  the  tranquillity  and  repose  of  the 
world,  for  the  prosperity  of  the  age,- 
for  wholesome  weather,  and  for  all 
ranks  and  degrees  of  men.  After  this 
followed  mutual  salutations  of  the  mi- 
nister and  people  ;  and  then  the  bishop 
or  presbyter,  having  sanctified  the  ele- 
ments by  a  solemn  benediction,  broke 
the  bread,  and  deliA'ercd  it  to  the  dea- 
con, who  distributed  it  to  the  communi- 
cants, and  after  that  the  cup.  The  sa- 
ci'amental  wine  was  usually  diluted  or 
mixed  with  water.  During  the  time  of 
administration  they  sang  hymns  and 
psalms;  and  having  concluded  with 
prayer  and  thanksgiving,  the  people 
ssaluted  each  other  with  a  kiss  of  peace, 
and  so  the  assembly  broke  up. 

EUCHITES,  or  E.iichit^,  a  sect  of 
•  ancient  heretics,  who  were  first  formed 
into  a.  religious  iDody  towards  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century,  though  their  doc- 
ti-uie  and  discipline  subsisted  in  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  other  eastern  countries,  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Christ:  they  were  thus 
called,  because  they  pi-ayed  without 
ceasing,  imagining  that  prayer  alone 
was  sufficient  to  save  them.  They  were 
a  sort  of  mystics,  who  imagined,  ac- 
cording to  the  oriental  notion,  that  two 
souls  resided  in  man,  the  one  good,  and 
,  the  other  evil ;  and  who  were  zealous 
in  expelling  the  evil  soul  or  demon, 
and  hastening  the  return  of  the  good 
Spirit  of  God,  by  contemplation,  prayer, 
and  singing  of  hymns.  They  also  em- 
braced opinions  nearly  resembling  the 
Manichean  doctrine,  and  which  they 
derived  from  the  tenets  of  the  oriental 
philosophy.  The  same  denomination 
was  used  m  the  twelfth  centuiy  to  de- 
note certain  fanatics  who  infested  the 
Greek  and  Eastern  churches,  and  who 
•were  charged  with  believing  a  double 
ti'inity,  rejecting  wedlock,  abstaining 
from  flesh,  treating  with  contempt  the 
sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
supper,  and  the  various  branches  of 
external  woi-ship,  and  placing  the  es- 
sence of  religion  solely  hi  external 
prayer;  and  maintaining  the  efficacy  of 
perpetual  supplications  to  the  Supreme 
Being  for  expelling  an  evil  bemg  or 
genius,  which  dwelt  in  the  breast  of 
eveiy  mortal.  This  sect  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by-  a  person  called  Luco- 
tietrus,  whose  chief  disciple  was  named 


Tychkus.  By  degi-ees  it  become  a  ge- 
neral and  invidious  appellation  for  per- 
sons of  eminent  piety  and  zeal  for  ge- 
nuine Christianity,  who  opposed  the  vi- 
cious practices  and  insolent  tyranny  of 
the  priesthood,  much  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  Latins  comprehended  all  the 
adversaries  of  tlie  Roman  pontiff  under 
the  general  terms  of  Albigenses  and 
Waldenses. 

EUDOXIANS,  a  sect  in  the  fourth 
century ;  so  called  from  their  leader 
Eudoxius,  patriarch  of  Antioch  and 
Constantinople,  agreat  defender  of  the 
Avian  docti'uie.  Tlie  Evidoxians  believ- 
ed that  the  Son  Avas  created  out  of  no- 
thing; that  lie  had  a  will  distinct  and 
different  from  that  of  the  Father,  &c. 
They  held  many  other  tenets  of  the 
Arians  and  Eunomians. 

EVIDENCE,  is  that  perception  of 
truth  which  arises  either  from  the  tes- 
timony of  the  senses,  or  from  an  induc- 
tion of  reason.  The  evidences  of  reve- 
lation are  divided  into  internal  and  ex- 
ternal. That  is  called  internal  evidence 
AVhich  is  drawn  from  the  consideration 
of  those  declarations  and  doctrines 
which  are  contained  in  it ;  and  that  is 
called  external,  which  arises  from  somiC 
other  circumstances  referring  to  it, 
such  as  predictions  concerning  it,  mira- 
cles wrought  by  those  who  teach  it,  its 
success  in  the  world,  &c.  See  Eviden- 
ces of  Christ,  art.  Christianity.  ## 

Moral  evidence  is  that  which,  though 
it  does  not  exclude  a  mere  abstract  pos- 
sibility of  things  being  otherwise,  yet 
shuts  out  every  reasonable  ground  of 
suspecting  that  they  are  so. 

Evidences  of  Grace  are  those  dispo- 
sitions and  acts  which  pro^'e  a  person  to 
be  in  a  converted  state ;  such  as  an  en- 
lightened understanding;  love  to  God 
and  his  people;  a  delight  in  God's 
word;  worship  and  dependence  on  him ; 
spirituality  of  mind ;  devotedness  of  life 
to  the  service  of  God,  8cc.  Seed's  Post. 
Ser.  ser.  2.  Ditton  on  the  Resun'ection  ; 
Bellamy  on  Eeligion,  p.  184.  Gam- 
bear's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Moral  Evidence,  1C3. 

EVIL  is  distinguished  into  natural 
and  moral.  Matural  evil  is  whatever 
destroys  or  any  way  distui'bs  the  per- 
fection of  natural  bemgs ;  such  as  blind- 
ness, diseases,  death,  &c.  Moral  evil  is 
the  disagreement  between  the  actions 
of  a  moral  agent,  and  the  rule  of  those 
actions,  whatever  it  is.  Applied  to  a 
choice,  or  acting  contrary  to  the  moral 
or  revealed  laws  of  the  Deity,  it  is 
termed  wickedness  or  sin.  Applied  to 
acting  contrary  to  the  mere  rule  of 
fitness,  a  fault.    See  article  Sin. 


IfiVI 


172 


EUN 


EVIL  SPEAKING,  the  using  lan- 
guage either  reproachful  or  untrue  re- 
specting others,  and  thereby  injurin^^ 
them.  It  is  an  express  command  of 
Scripture,  "To  speak  evil  of  no  man." 
Titus  iii.  2.  James  iv.  11.  By  which, 
howevei',  we  are  not  to  understand  that 
there  are  no  occasions  on  which  we  are 
at  liberty  to  speak  of  otliers  that  which 
may  be  considered  as  evil.  1.  Persons  in 
the  administration  of  justice  may  speak 
words  wliich  in  private  intercourse 
would  be  reproachful. — 2.  God's  miiiis- 
ters  may  inveigh  against  vice  with 
shai-pness  and  severity,  both  privately 
and  publicly,  Is.  Iviii.  1  Tit.  i.  13. — 3.  Pri- 
vate persons  may  i-eprove  others  when 
they  commit  sin.  Lev.  xix.  17. — 4.  Some 
vehemence  of  speech  may  be  used  in  de- 
fence of  truth,  and  impugning  errors  of 
bad  consequence,  Jude  3. — 5.  It  may  be 
necessary,  upon  some  emergent  occa- 
sions, with  some  heat  of  language,  to  ex- 
press disapprobation  of  notorious  wick- 
edness, Acts  viii.  23.  Yet  in  all  these  the 
gi'eatest  equity,  moderation,  and  can- 
dour, should  be  used;  and  we  should 
take  care,  1.  Never  to  speak  in  severe 
terms  without  reasonable  warrant  or  ap- 
parent just  cause ; — 2.  Nor  beyond  mea- 
sure y — 3.  Nor  out  of  bad  principles  or 
wrong  ends ;  for  ill  will,  contempt,  re- 
venge, envy,  to  compass  our  own  ends ; 
from  wantonness,  or  negligence,  but 
fi'dfclpure  charity  for  the  good  of  those 
to  whom  or  of  whom  we  speak. 

This  is  an  evil,  however,  which  great- 
ly abounds,  and  which  is  not  sufficiently 
watched  against ;  for  it  is  not  when  we 
openly  speak  evil  of  others  only  that  we 
are  guilty,  but  even  in  speaking  what  is 
true  we  are  in  danger  of  speaking  evil 
of  others.  There  is  sometimes  a  malig- 
nant pleasure  manifested;  a  studious 
recollection  of  every  thing  that  can  be 
brought  forward ;  a  delight  in  hearing 
any  thing  spoken  against  others ;  a  se- 
ci'et  rejoicing  in  knowing  that  another's 
fall  will  be  an  occasion  of  our  rise.  All 
this  is  base  to  an  extreme. 

The  impropriety  and  sinfulness  of 
evil  speaking  will  appear,  if  we  consi- 
der, 1.  That  it  is  entirely  opposite  to 
the  whole  tenor  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion.— 2.  Expressly  condemned  and 
prohibited  as  evil,  Ps.  Ixiv.  3.  James  iv. 
11. — 3.  No  practice  hath  moi'e  severe 
punishments  denounced  against  it,  1  Cor. 
V.  11.  1  Cor.  vi.  10. — 4.  It  is  an  evidence 
of  a  weak  and  distempered  mind. — 5.  It 
is  even  indicative  of  ill-breeding  and  bad 
manners. — 6.  It  is  the  abhorrence  of  all 
wise  and  good  men,  Ps.  xv.  3. — 7.  It  is 
exceedingly  injurious  to  society,  and  in- 
cousistent  with  the  relation  we  bear  to 


each  other  as  Christians,  James  iii.  6.— • 
8.  It  is  branded  with  the  epithet  of  folly, 
Prov.  xviii.  6, 7. — 9.  It  is  perverting  the 
design  of  speech. — 10.  It  is  opposite  to 
the  example  of  Christ,  whom  we  pro- 
fess to  follow.  See  Slander.  Barrow's 
Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  16.  Tillotso?i's  Ser. 
ser.  42.  Jack's  Ser.  on  Evil  Speaking. 
EULOGY,  eulogia,  a  term  made  use 
of  in  reference  to  the  consecrated  bread. 
When  the  Greeks  have  cut  a  loaf  or 
piece  of  bread  to  consecrate  it,  they 
fjreak  the  rest  uito  little  bits,  and  distri- 
bute it  among  the  persons  who  have  not 
yet  communicated,  or  send  it  to  persons 
that  are  absent :  and  these  pieces  of 
bread  aye  what  they  call  eulogies.  The 
word  is  Greek,  £u\o7io,  formed  of  iv,  bene, 
"  well,"  and  xtyu,  dico,  "  I  say,  speak ;" 
q.  d.  benedictuin,  "  blessed." 

The  Latin  church  has  had  something 
like  eulogies  for  a  great  many  ages;  and 
thence  arose  the  use  of  their  holy  bread. 
The  name  eulogy  was  likewise  given  to 
loaves  or  cakes  brought  to  church  by 
the  faithful  to  have  them  blessed.  Last- 
ly, the  use  of  the  term  passed  hence  to 
mere  presents  made  to  a  person  with- 
out any  benediction. 

EUNOMIANS,  a  sect  in  the  fourth 
century.  They  were  a  branch  of  Arians, 
and  took  their  name  from  Eunomius, 
bishop  of  Cyzicus.    Cave,  in  his  Histo- 
ria  Literaria,  vol.  i.  p.  223,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  their  faith.    "There 
is  one  God,  uncreated  and  without  be- 
ginning ;  who  has  nothing  existing  be- 
fore him,  for  nothing  can  exist  before 
what  is  uncreated;  nor  with  him,  for 
what  is  uncreated  must  be  one ;  nor  in 
him,  for  God  is  a  simple  and  uncom- 
pounded  being.    This  one  simple  and 
eternal  being  is  God,  the  creator  and 
ordainer  of.  all  things ;  first  indeed,  and 
principally  of  his  only  begotten  Son;  and 
then  through  him  of  all  other  things. 
For  God  begat,  created,  and  made  the 
Son  only  by  his  direct  operation  and 
power,  before    all    things,  and    every 
other  creature;    not  producing,  how- 
ever, any  being  like  himself,  or  impart- 
ing any  of  his  own  proper  substance  to 
the  Son  !  for  God  is  immortal,  uniform, 
indivisible;  and  therefore  cannot  com- 
municate any  part  of  his  own  proper 
substance  to  another.    He  alone  is  un- 
begotten ;  and  it  is  impossible  that  any 
other  being  should  be  formed  of  an  un- 
begotten  substance.    He  did  not  use  his 
own  substance  in  begetting  the  Son,  but 
his  will  only;  nor  did  he  beget  him  in 
the  likeness  of  his  substance,  but  ac- 
cording to  his  own  good  pleasure;  he 
then  created  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  first 
and  greatest  of  all  spirits,  by  his  own 


EUT 


173 


EXA 


power,  in  deed  and  operation  mediate- 
fy;  yet  by  tlie  immediate  power  and 
qjeration  of  the  Son.  After  the  Holy 
Spirit,  he  created  all  other  thinsrs,  in 
heaven  and  in  earth,  visible  and  invisi- 
ble, coiijoreal  and  incorporeal,  mediate- 
ly by  hmisclf,  by  the  power  ;uid  opera- 
tion of  the  Son,  &c."  The  reader  will 
evidently  see  how  near  these  tenets  are 
to  those  of  Arianism.    See  Arians. 

EUSEBIANS,  a  denomination  given 
to  the  Arians,  on  account  of  the  favour 
and  countenance  which  Eusebius, bishop 
of  Cssarea,  showed  and  pi'ocured  for 
them  at  their  first  rise. 

EUSTATHIANS,  a  name  given  to 
the  Catholics  of  Antioch,  in  the  fourth 
century,  on  occasion  of  their  refusing  to 
acknowledge  any  other  bishop  beside 
St.  Eustathius,  deposed  by  the  Arians. 
EUSTATHIANS, a  sect  in  the  fourth 
century,  so  denominated  from  their  foun- 
der, Eustathius,  a  monk  so  foolishly  fond 
of  his  own  profession,  that  he  condemn- 
ed all  other  conditions  of  life.  Whether 
this  Eustathius  were  the  same  with  the 
bishop  of  Sabastia,  and  chief  of  the  Se- 
mi-anans,  is  not  easy  to  determine.  He 
excluded  married  people  from  salva- 
tion ;  prohibited  his  followers  from  pi'ay- 
ing  in  their  houses,  and  obliged  them  to 
quit  all  they  had,  as  incompatible  with 
the  hopes  of  heaven.  He  drew  them  out 
of  the  other  assemblies  of  Christians,  to 
hold  secret  ones  with  him,  and  made 
them  wear  a  particular  habit:  he  ap- 
pointed them  to  fast  on  Sundays ;  and 
taught  them  that  the  ordinaiy  fasts  of 
the  church  were  needless  after  they  had 
attained  to  a  certain  degree  of  purity 
which  he  pretended  to.  He  showed 
great  hoiTor  for  chapels  built  in  honour 
of  martyrs,  and  the  assemblies  held 
therein.  He  was  condemned  at  the 
council  of  Gangra,  in  Paphlagonia,  held 
between  the  year  326  and  341. 

EUTUCHITES,  a  denomination  in 
the  third  century ;  so  called  ft'om  the 
Greek  eutuxeiv,  which  signifies  to  live 
without  pain,  or  in  pleasure.  Among 
other  sentiments,  thev  held  that  our 
souls  are  placed  in  our  bodies  only  to 
honour  the  angels  who  created  them ; 
and  that  we  ought  to  rejoice  equally  in 
all  e\'ents,  because  to  gi-ieve  would  be 
to  dishonour  the  angels,  their  creators. 

EUTYCHIANS,  ancient  heretics, 
who  denied  the  duplicity  of  natures  in 
Christ;  thus  denominated  from  Euty- 
ches,  the  archimandrite  or  abbot  of  a 
monastery,  at  Constantinople,  who  be- 
gan to  propagate  his  opinion  about  A.  D. 
448.  He  did  not,  however,  seem  quite 
steady  and  consistent  in  his  sentiments ; 
for  he  appeared  to  allow  of  two  natures,  I 


even  before  the  union,  which  was  ap- 
parently a  consequence  he  drew  from 
the  principles  of  the  Platonic  philoso- 
phy, which  supposes  a  prc-existence  of 
souls:  accordingly  he  believed  that  the 
soul  of  Jesus  Christ  had  been  united  to 
the  Divinity  before  the  incarnation  ;  but 
then  he  allowed  no  distinction  of  natures 
in  Jesus  Christ  since  his  incarnation. 
This  heresy  was  first  condemned  in  a 
synod  held  at  Constantinople,  by  Fla- 
vian, in  448  ;  approved  by  the  council 
of  Ephcsus,  called  conven'tus  Uuronum, 
in  449 ;  and  re-examined  and  fulminated 
in  the  general  council  of  Chalcedon,  in 
451.  The  Eutychians  were  divided  into 
several  branches,  as  the  Agnoetse,  Theo- 
doHians,  Sex>erians,  &c.  &;c.  &c.  Euty- 
chians was  also  the  name  of  a  sect,  half 
Arian  and  half  Eunomian,  which  arose 
at  Constantinople  in  the  fourth  centurv. 

EXALTATION  OF  CHRIST  con- 
sisted in  his  rising  again  from  the  dead 
on  the  third  day,  in  ascending  up  into 
heaven,  in  sitting  at  the  right  hand  of 
God  the  Father,  and  in  comirg  to  judge 
the  world  at  the  last  day.  See  articles 
Resurrection,  Ascension,  Inter- 
cession, and  Judgment-Day. 

EXAMINATION,  Self.  See  Self- 
Examination. 

EXAMPLE,  a  copy  or  pattern.  In  a 
moral  sense,  is  either  taken  for  a  type, 
instjfnce,  or  precedent  for  our  adnioni- 
tion,  that  we  may  be  cautioned  ailA$t  •>  r» 
the  faults  or  crimes  which  others  have 
cornmitted,  by  the  bad  consequences 
which  have  ensued  from  them  ;  or  ex- 
ample is  taken  for  a  pattern  for  our 
imitation,  or  a  model  for  us  to  copy 
after. 

That  good  exam-files  have  a  peculiar 
power  above  naked  precepts  to  dispose 
us  to  the  practice  of  virtue  and  holiness, 
may  appear  by  considering,  "  1.  That 
they  most  clearly  express  to  us  the  na- 
ture of  our  duties  in  their  subjects  and 
sensible  effects.  General  precepts  form 
abstract  ideas  of  virtue ;  but  in  exam- 
ples, virtues  are  most  visible  in  all  their 
circumstances. — 2.  Precepts  instruct  us 
in  what  things  are  our  duty,  but  exam- 
ples assure  us  that  they  are  possible.— 
3.  Examples,  by  secret  and  lively  incen- 
tive, urge  us  to  imitation.  We  are  touch- 
ed in  another  manner  by  tlie  visible 
practice  of  good  men,  which  reproaches 
our  defects,  and  obliges  us  to  the  same, 
zeal,  which  laws,  though  wise  and  good, 
will  not  effect." 

The  life  of  Jesus  Christ  forms  the 
most  beautiful  example  the  Christian 
can  imitate.  Unlike  all  others,  it  was 
absolutely  fierfect  and  uniform,  and  eve- 
ly  way  accommodated  to  our  present 


EXC 


174 


EXC 


state.  In  him  we  behold  all  light  Avith- 
out  a  shade,  all  beauty  Avithout  a  spot, 
all  the  purity  of  the  law,  and  the  excel- 
lency ot  the  Gospel.  Here  we  see  piety 
without  superstition,  and  morality  with- 
out ostentation;  humility  without  mean- 
ness, and  fortitude  without  temerity; 
patience  without  apathy,  and  compas- 
sion without  weakness ;  zeal  without 
rashness,  and  beneficence  without  pro- 
digality. The  obligation  we  are  under  to 
imitate  this  example  arises  fixjm  duty, 
relationship,  engagement,  interest,  and 
gratitude.    See  article  Jesus  Christ. 

Those  who  set  bad  exam/iles  should 
consider,  1.  That  they  are  the  ministers 
of  the  devil's  designs  to  destroy  souls. — 
2.  That  they  are  acting  in  direct  oppo- 
sition to  Christ,  who  came  to  save,  and 
not  to  destroy. — 3.  That  they  are  add- 
ing to  the  miseries  and  calamities  which 
are  already  in  the  world. — 4.  That  the 
effects  of  their  example  may  be  incal- 
culable on  society  to  the  eiid  of  time, 
and  perhaps  in  eternity ;  for  who  can 
tell  what  may  be  the  consequence  of 
one  sin,  on  a  family,  a  nation,  or  poster- 
ity?— 5.  They  are  acting  contrary  to  the 
divine  command,  and  thus  exposing 
themselves  to  final  min.  J\'TassiUo7i's 
Ser.  vol.  ii.  ser.  9.  Eng.  Trans.  Clarke's 
I^ookin^  Glass,  ch.  48.  Tillotson's  Ser. 
ser.  189,  190.  Barroiv's  Works,  vol.  iii. 
5ei\2  and  3.  FlavePs  Works,  vol.%,p. 
.^Mpfel    Mason's  Ser.  vol.  ii.  ser.  17. 

IEXARCH,  an  officer  in  the  Greek 
church,  whose  business  it  is  to  visit  the 
provinces  allotted  to  him,  in  order  to  in- 
form himself  of  the  lives  and  manners 
of  the  clergy ;  take  cognizance  of  eccle- 
siastical causes;  the  manner  of  cele- 
brating divine  servnlce ;  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacraments,  particularly  con- 
fession ;  the  observance  of  the  canons ; 
monastic  discipline ;  affairs  of  marria- 
ges, divorces,  ccc.  but  above  all,  to  take 
an  account  of  the  several  revenues 
which  the  patriarch  receives  from  se- 
veral churclies,  and  particularly  as  to 
what  regards  collecting  the  same.  The 
exarch,  after  having  enriched  himself 
in  his  post,  frequently  rises  to  the  patri- 
archate himself.  Exarch  is  also  used 
in  the  Eastern  church  antiquity,  for  a 
general  or  superior  over  several  monas- 
teries, the  same  that  we  call  archiman- 
drite ;  being  exempted  by  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  from  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  bislvnp. 

EXCISION,  the  cutting  off  a  person 
from  fellowship  with  the  community  to 
which  he  belongs,  by  way  of  punish- 
ment for  some  sin  committed.  The 
•Tews,  Selden  informs  us,  reckon  up 
thirty-six  crimes,  to  which  tlicy  pretend 


this  punishment  is  due.  The  rabbins 
reckon  three  kinds  of  excision ;  one, 
which  destroys  only  the  body ;  another, 
which  destroys  the  soul  only ;  and  a 
third  which  destroys  both  body  and  soul. 
The  first  kind  of  excision  they  pretend 
is  untimely  death  ;  the  second  is  an  ut- 
ter extinction  of  the  soul;  and  the  third 
a  compound  of  the  two  former :  thus 
making  the  soul  mortal  or  immortal, 
says  Selden,  according  to  the  degree  of 
misbehaviour  and  wickedness  of  the 
people.    See  next  article.    ' 

EXCOMMUNICATION,  a  penal- 
ty, or  censure,  whereby  persons  who 
are  guilty  of  any  notorious  crime  or  of- 
fence, are  separated  from  tlie  commu- 
nion of  the  church,  and  deprived  of  all 
spiritual  advantages. 

Excommunication  is  founded  upon  a 
natural  right  which  all  societies  have  of 
excluding  out  of  their  body  such  as  vio- 
late the  laws  thereof,  and  it  was  origi- 
nally instituted  for  preser\ing  the  puri- 
ty of  the  church ;  but  ambitious  eccle- 
siastics converted  it  by  degrees  into  an 
engine  for  promoting  their  own  power, 
and  inflicted  it  on  the  most  frivolous  oc- 
casions. 

In  the  ancient  church,  the  power  of 
excommunication  was  lodged  in  the 
hands  of  the  clergy,  who  distinguished 
it  into  the  greater  and  less.  The  less 
consisted  in  excluding  persons  from  the 
participation  of  the  eucharist,  and  the 
prayers  of  the  faithful ;  but  they  were 
not  expelled  the  church.  The  greater 
excommunication  consisted  in  absolute 
and  entire  seclusion  from  the  church, 
and  the  participation  of  all  its  rights: 
notice  of  which  was  given  by  circular 
letters  to  the  most  eminent  churches  all 
over  the  world,  that  they  might  all  con- 
firm this  act  of  discipline,  by  refusing  to 
admit  the  delinquent  to  their  commu- 
nion. The  consequences  were  very  ter- 
rible. The  person  so  excommunicated, 
was  avoided  in  all  civil  commerce  an3^ 
outward  conversation.  No  one  was  to 
receive  him  into  his  house,  nor  eat  at 
;  the  same  table  with  him ;  and,  when 
dead,  he  was  denied  the  solemn  rites  of 
burial. 

The  Jews  expelled  from  their  syna- 
gogue such  as  had  committed  any  griev- 
ous crime.  See  John  ix.  32.  John  xii.  42. 
John  xvi.  2.  and  Joseph.  Antiq.  Jud.  lib. 
9.  cap.  22.  and  lib.  16.  cap.  2.  Godwyn, 
in  his  Moses  and  Aaron,  distinguishes 
three  degrees  or  kinds  of  excommuni- 
cation among  the  Jews.  The  first  he 
finds  intimated  in  John  ix.  22.  the  second 
in  1  Cor.  v.  5.  and  the  third  in  1  Cor. 
xvi.  22. 

The  Romish  pontifical  takes  notice  of 


EXC 


175 


EXC 


three  kinds  of  excommunication.  1. 
The  minor,  incun-ed  by  those  who  have' 
any  correspondence  with  an  excommu- 
nicated person. — 2.  The  major,  which 
falls  upon  those  who  disobey  the  com- 
mands of  the  holy  see,  or  refuse  to  sub- 
mit to  cci-tnin  points  of  discipline ;  in 
consequence  of  which  they  are  exclu- 
ded from  the  church  militant  and  trium- 
phant, and  deli\ered  over  to  the  devil, 
and  his  angels. — 3.  Anathema,  which  is 
properly  that  pronounced  by  the  pope 
against  heretical  piinces  and  covmtries. 
In  former  ages,  these  papal  fulmina- 
tions  were  most  terrible  tilings ;  but 
latterly  they  were  formidable  to  none 
but  a  few  petty  states  of  Italy. 

Excommunication,  in  the  Greek 
church,  cuts  off  the  offender  from  all 
communion  with  the  three  hundred  and 
eighteen  fathers  of  the  first  council  of 
Nice,  and  with  the  saints;  consigns  him 
over  to  the  devil  and  the  traitor  Judas, 
and  condemns  his  body  to  remain  after 
death  as  hard  as  a  flint  or  piece  of  steel, 
unless  he  humble  himself,  and  make 
atonement  for  his  sins  by  a  sincere  re- 

Sentance.  The  form  abounds  with 
readful  imprecations  ;  and  the  Greeks 
assert,  that,  if  a  person  dies  excommu- 
nicated, the  devil  enters  into  the  lifeless 
coqise  ;  and,  therefore,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent it,  the  relations  of  the  deceased 
cut  his  body  in  pieces,  and  boil  them  in 
wine.  It  is  a  custom  with  the  patriarch 
of  Jeiaisalem  annuully  to  excommuni- 
cate the  pope  and  the  church  of  Rome ; 
on  which  occasion,  together  with  a  great 
deal  of  idle  ceremony,  he  drives  a  nail 
into  the  ground  with  a  hammer,  as  a 
mark  of  malediction. 

The  form  ot  excommunication  in  the 
church  of  England  anciently  ran  thus  : 
"  By  the  authority  of  God  the  Father 
Almighty,  the  Son',  and  Holy  Ghost,  and 
of  Mar>^  the  blessed  mother  of  God, 
we  excommunicate,  anathematize,  and 
sequester  from  the  holy  mother  church, 
&c."  The  causes  of  excommunication 
in  England  are,  contempt  of  the  bishops' 
court,  heresy,  neglect  of  public  worship 
and  the  sacraments,  incontinencv,  adul- 
tery, simony,  &C.  It  is  described  to  be 
twofold;  the  less  is  an  ecclesiastical 
censure,  excluding  the  party  from  the 
participation  of  the  sacrament;  the 
greater  proceeds  farther,  and  excludes 
him  not  only  from  these,  but  from  the 
company  of  all  christians;  but  if  the 
judge  ot  any  spiritual  court  excommu- 
nicates a  man  for  a  cause  of  which  he 
has  not  the  legal  cognizance,  the  party 
may  have  an  action  against  him  at  com- 
mon law,  and  he  is  also  liable  to  be  in- 
dicted at  the  suit  of  the  king. 


Excommnnication  in  the  church  of 
Scotland,  consists  only  in  an  exclusion 
of  openly  profane  and  immoral  persons 
from  baptism  and  the  Lord's  sujiper; 
but  is  seldom  publicly  denounced,  as, 
indeed,  such  persons  generally  exclude 
themselves  from  the  latter  ordinance  at 
least ;  but  it  is  attended  with  no  civil 
incapacity  whatever. 

Among  the  Independents  and  Bap- 
tists, the  persons  who  are  or  should  be 
excommunicated,  are  such  as  are  quar- 
relsome and  litigious,  Gal.  v.  12. ;  such 
as  desert  their  privileges,  withdraw 
themselves  from  the  ordinances  of  God, 
and  forsake  his  people,  Jude  19 ;  such 
as  are  irregular  and  immoral  in  their 
lives,  railcrs,  drunkards,  extortioners, 
fornicators,  and  covetous,  Eph.  v.  5. 
1  Cor.  v.  11.        ■^^ 

"  The  exclusion  of  a  person  from  any 
Christian  church  does  not  affect  his  tem- 
poral estate  and  civil  affairs;  it  does  not 
subject  him  to  fines  or  imprisonments ; 
it  interferes  not  with  the  business  of  a 
civil  magistrate  ;  it  makes  no  change  iu 
the  natural  and  civil  relations  between 
husbands  and  Vi'ives,  parents  and  chil- 
dren, masters  and  servants ;  neither 
does  it  deprive  a  man  of  the  liberty  of 
attending  public  worship  ;  it  removes 
him,  however,  from  the  communion  of 
the  church,  and  the  privileges  depen- 
dent on  it :  this  is  done  that  he  may  be 
ashamed  of  his  sin,  and  be  brought  to 
repentance ;  that  the  honour  of  Christ 
may  be  vindicated,  and  that  stumbling- 
blocks  may  be  removed  out  of  the  v/ay." 

Though  the  act  of  exclusion  be  not 
performed  exactly  in  the  same  manner 
in  every  church,  yet  (according  to  the 
congregational  plan)  the  power  of  ex- 
cision lies  in  the  church  it^lf.  The  of- 
ficers take  the  sense  of  the  members 
assembled  together ;  and  after  the  mat- 
ter has  been  properly  investigated,  and 
all  necessary  steps  taken  to  reclaim  the 
offender,  the  church  proceeds  to  the 
actual  exclusion  of  the  pei'son  from 
among  them,  by  signifying  their  judg- 
ment or  opinion  that  the  person  is  un- 
worthy of  a  place  in  God's  house.  In  the 
conclusion  of  this  article,  however,  we 
must  add,  that  too  gi-eat  caution  cannot 
be  observed  in  procedures  of  this  kind  ; 
eveiy  thing  should  be  done  with  tlie 
gi-eatest  meekness,  deliberation,  prayer, 
and  a  deep  sense  of  our  own  un  worthi- 
ness ;  with  a  compassion  for  the  offen- 
der, and  a  fixed  design  of  embracing 
every  opportunity  of  doing  him  good,  by 
reproving,  instructing,  and,  if  possible, 
restoring  him  to  the  enjoyment  of  the 
privileges  he  has  forfeited  by  his  con 
duct.    See  Chitrch. 


EXH 


176 


EXf 


EXCUSATI,  a  term  formerly  used 
to  denote  slaves,  who,  flying  to  any 
church  for  sanctuary,  were  excused 
and  pardoned  by  their  masters. 

EXHORTATION,  the  act  of  laying 
such  motives  before  a  person  as  may 
excite  him  to  the  performance  of  anj' 
duty.  It  differs  onh'  from  suasion  in  that 
thelatter  principally  endeavours  to  con- 
vince the  understanding,  and  the  former 
to  work  on  the  affections.  It  is  consi- 
dered as  a  great  branch  of  preaching, 
though  not  confined  to  that,  as  a  man 
may  exhort,  though  he  do  not  preach  ; 
though  a  man  can  hardly  be  said  to 
preach  if  he  do  not  exliort.  It  seems, 
however,  that  there  are  some,  who,  be- 
lieving the  inability  of  man  to  do  any 
thing  good,  cannot  reconcile  the  idea  of 
exhorting  men  to  duty,  being,  as  they 
suppose,  a  contradiction  to  address  men 
"who  have  no  power  to  act* of  them- 
selves. But  they  forget,  1.  That  the 
Great  Author  of  our  being  has  appoint- 
ed this  as  a  mean  for  inclining  the  will 
to  himself,  Is.  Iv.  6,  7.  Luke  xiv.  17,  23. 
— 2.  That  they  who  thus  address  do  not 
suppose  that  there  is  any  virtue  in  the 
exhortation  itself,  but  that  its  energy 
depends  on  God  alone,  1  Cor.  xv.  10.— 
3.  That  the  Scripture  enjoins  ministers 
to  exhort  men,  that  is,  to  rouse  them  to 
duty,  by  proposing  suitable  motives,  Is. 
Iviii.  1.  1  Tim.  vi.  2.  Heb.  iii.  13.  Rom. 
xii.8. — 4.  That  it  was  the  constant  prac- 
tice of  pro'phets,  apostles,  and  Christ 
himself.  Is.  i.  17.  Jer.  iv.  14.  Ez.  xxxvii. 
Luke  xiii.  3.  Luke  iii.  18.  Acts  xi.  23. 
"  The  express  words,"  says  a  good  di- 
vine, "of  scriptural  invitations,  exhor- 
tations, and  promises,  prove  more  effec- 
tual to  encoiyage  those  who  are  ready 
to  give  up  their  hopes,  than  all  the  con- 
solatory topics  that  can  possibly  be  sub- 
stituted in  their  place.  It  is,  therefore, 
much  to  be  lamented  that  pious  men, 
by  adhering  to  a  supposed  systematical 
exactness  of  expression,  should  clog 
their  addresses  to  sinners  with  excep- 
tions and  limitations,  which  the  Spirit 
of  God  did  not  see  good  to  insert.  Thev 
will  not  say  that  the  omission  was  ah 
oversight  in  the  inspired  writers;  or  ad- 
mit the  thought  for  a  moment,  that  they 
can  improve  on  their  plan :  why  then 
cannot  they  be  satisfied  to  '  speak  ac- 
cordhig  to  the  oracles  of  God,  without 
affecting  a  more  entire  consistency  .■* 
Great  mischief  has  thus  been  done  by 
very  different  descriptions  of  men,  who 
undesignedly  concur  in  giving  Satan  an 
occasion  of  suggesting  to  the  trembling 
enquirer  that  perhaps  he  may  peise- 
vere  in  asking,  seeking,  and  knock- 
big,  with  the  greatest  earnestness  and 


importunity,  and   yet  finally  be   cast 

away." 

EXISTENCE  OF  GOD.  The  me- 
thods usually  followed  in  proving  the  ex- 
istence of  God  are  two ;  the  first  called 
argumentum  a  priori,  which  beginning 
with  the  cause  descends  to  the  effect ; 
the  other  argumentum  a  fiosteriori, 
which,  from  a  consideration  of  the  effect, 
ascends  to  the  cause.  The  former  of 
these  hath  been  particularly  laboured 
by  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke ;  but  after  all  he 
has  said,  the  possibility  of  any  one's  be- 
ing convinced  by  it  hath  been  questioned. 
The  most  general  proofs  are  the  follow- 
ing: 1.  "All  nations.  Heathens,  Jews, 
Mahometans,  and  Christians,  harmo- 
niously consent  that  there  is  a  God  who 
created,  preserves,  and  governs  all 
things.  To  this  it  has  been  objected, 
that  there  have  been,  at  different  times 
and  places,  men  who  were  atheists,  and 
den'.ers  of  a  God.  But  these  have  been 
so  few,  and  by  their  opinions  have  shown 
that  they  rather  denied  the  particular 
providence  than  the  existence  of  God, 
that  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  an  ex- 
ception to  the  argument  stated.  And 
even  if  men  were  bold  enough  to  assert 
it,  it  would  not  be  an  absolute  proof  that 
they  really  believed  what  they  said, 
since  it  might  proceed  from  a  ivish  that 
there  was  no  God  to  whom  they  must 
be  accountable  for  their  sin,  rather  than 
a  belief  of  it,  Ps.  xiv.  1,  It  has  also  been 
objected,  that  whole  nat'ons  have  been 
found  in  Africa  and  America  who  have 
no  notion  of  a  Deity :  but  this  is  .vhat 
has  never  been  proved ;  on  the  confary, 
upon  accurate  inspection,  even  the  most 
stupid  Hottentots,  Sald'anians,  Gi-een- 
landers,  Kamtschatkans,  and  savage 
Americans,  are  found  to  have  some' 
idea  of  a  God. 

2.  "It  is  argued  from  the  law  and 
light  of  Nature,  or  from  the  general  im- 
pression of  Deity  on  the  mind  of  e\-ery 
man,  i.  e.  an  indistinct  idea  of  a  Being 
of  irjjinite  perfectio7i,  and  a  readiness  to 
acquiesce  in  the  truth  of  his  existence, 
whenever  they  understand  the  terms  in 
which  it  is  expressed.  \\'hence  could  ; 
this  proceed,  even  in  the  minds  of  such 
whose  affections  and  carnal  interests 
dispose  them  to  believe  the  contrary,  if 
there  were  no  impression  naturally  in 
their  hearts  ?  It  has  been  observed  by 
some  writers,  that  there  are  no  innate 
ideas  in  the  minds  of  men,  and  particu- 
larly concerning  God ;  but  this  is  not 
so  Asily  proved,  since  an  inspired  apos- 
tle assures  us  that  even  the  Gentiles, 
destitute  of  the  law  of  Moses,  have  the 
'work  of  the  law  written  in  their 
heaits,'  Rom.  ii.  15.; 


EXI 


177 


EXI 


3.  "The  works  of  creation  plainly 
demonstrate  the  existence  of  a  Ciod. 
I'he  innumerable  altei-ations  and  mani- 
fest dependence  every  where  observa- 
ble in  the  world,  prove  that  the  things 
which  exist  in  it  neither  are  nor  conld 
be  from  eternity.  It  is  self-evident  that 
they  never  could  form  themselves  out 
of  nothing,  or  in  any  of  their  respective 
forms ;  and  that  chance,  being  nothing 
but  the  want  of  design,  never  did  nor 
could  form  or  put  into  order  any  thing; 
far  less  such  a  marvellous  and  well  con- 
nected system  as  our  world  is.  Though 
we  should  absurdly  fancy  matter  to  be 
eternal,  yet  it  could  not  change  its  own 
form,  or  produce  life  or  reason.  More^ 
over,  when  we  consider  the  diversified 
and  wonderful  forms  of  creatures  in  the 
world,  and  how  exactly  those  forms  and 
stations  correspond  with  their  respec- 
tive ends  and  uses ;  when  we  consider 
the  marvellous  and-  exact  machinery, 
form,  and  motions  of  our  own  bodies ; 
and  especially  when  we  consider  the 
powers  of  our  soul,  its  desires  after  an 
mfinite  good,  and  its  close  union  with, 
and  incomprehensible  operations  on  our 
bodies,  we  are  obliged  to  admit  a  Crea- 
tor of  infinite  wisdom,  power,  and  good- 
ness. 

4.  "It  is  argued  from  the  support 
and  government  of  the  world.  Who 
can  consider  the  motions  of  the  heaven- 
ly himinaries,  exactly  calculated  for  the 
gi-eatest  advantage  to  our  eai-th,.  and 
its  inhabitants ;  the  exact  balancing  and 
regulating  of  the  meteors,  winds,  rain, 
snow,  hail,  vapour,  thunder,  and  the 
like  ;  the  regular  and  never-failing  re- 
turn of  summer  and  winter,  seed-time 
and  harvest  day  and  night ;  the  aston- 
ishing and  diversified  foiTnation  of  vege- 
tables ;  the  propagation  of  herbs,  almost 
every  where,  that  are  most  effectual  to 
heal  the  distempers  of  animal  bodies  in 
tliat  place ;  the  almost  infinite  diversi- 
fication of  animals  and  vegetables,  and 
their  pertinents,  that,  notwithstanding 
an  amazing  similarity,  not  any  two  are 
exactly  alik-e,  but  every  form,  member, 
or  even  feather  or  hair  of  animals,  and 
ever)^  pila  of  grass,  stalk  of  corn,  herb, 
leaf,  tree,  berry,  or  other  ft-uit,  hath 
something  peculiar  to  itself:  the  making 
of  animals  so  sagaciously  to  prepare 
their  lodgings,  defend  themselves,  pro- 
vide for  their  health,  produce  and  pro- 
tect, and  procure  food  for  their  young ; 
the  direction  of  fishes  and  fowls  to 
and  in  such  marvellous  and  long  pere- 
gi-inations  at  such  seasons,  and  to  such 
places,  as  best  correspond  with  their 
own  preservation  and  the  benefit  of 
mankind;  the  stationing  of  bmte  ani- 


mals by  sea  or  land,  at  less  or  greater 
distances  as  are  most  suited  to  the  safety, 
subsistence  or  comfort  of  mankind,  and 
preventing  the  increase  of  prolific  ani- 
mals, and  making  the  less  fruitful  ones, 
■•vhich  are  used,  exceedingly  to  abound ; 
the  so  diversifying  the  countenances, 
voices,  and  hand-writings  of  men,  as 
best  secures  and  promotes  their  social 
advantages;  the  holding  of  so  equal  a 
balance  between  males  and  females, 
while  the  number  of  males,  whose  lives 
are  peculiarly  endangered  in  war,  na\-i- 
gation,  &c.,  are  generally  greatest ;  the 
prolonging  of  men's  lives,  when  the 
world  needed  to  be  peopled,  and  now 
shortening  them  when  that  necessity 
hath  ceased  to  exist;  the  almost  imi- 
versal  provision  of  food,  raiment,  medi- 
cine, fuel,  &c.,  answerable  to  the  nature 
of  particular  places,  cold  or  hot,  moist 
or  dry  ;  the  management  of  human  af- 
fairs relative  to  .societies,  government, 
peace,  war,  trade,  &c.,  in  a  manner 
different  from  and  contrary  to  the  car- 
nal policy  of  those  concerned  ;  and  es- 
pecially the  strangely  similar  but  diver- 
sified erection,  preservation,  and  go- 
vernment of  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
churches:  who,  I  say,  can  consider  all 
these  things,  and  not  acknowledge  the 
existence  of  a  wise,  mei-ciful,  and  good 
God,  who  governs  the  world,  and  every 
thing  in  it  .'* 

5.  "  It  is  proved  from  the  miraculous 
events  which  have  happened  in  the 
world ;  such  as  the  overaowing  of  the 
earth  by  a  flood;  the  confusion  of 
languages ;  the  burning  of  Sodom  and 
the  cities  about  by  fire  from  heaven ; 
the  plagues  of  Egypt ;  the  dividing  of 
the  Ked  Sea ;  raining  manna  from  hea- 
ven, and  bringing  streams  of  water  from 
flinty  rocks ;  the  stopping  of  the  course 
of  the  sun,  &c.  &c. 

6.  "  His  existence  no  less  clearly  ap- 
pears fi'om  the  exact  fulfilment  of  so 
many  and  so  particularly  circumstan- 
tiated predictions,  published  long  before 
the  event  took  place.  It  is  impossible 
that  these  predictions,  which  w^ere  so 
exactly  fulfilled  in  their  respective  pe- 
riods, and  of  the  fulfilment  of  which 
there  are  at  present  thousands  of  de- 
monstrative and  sensible  documents  in 
the  world,  could  proceed  from  any  but 
an  all-seeing  and  infinitely  wise  God. 

7.  "The  existence  of  God  farther 
appears  from  the  fearful  punishments 
which  have  been  inflicted  upon  persons, 
and  especially  upon  nations,  when  their 
immoralities  became  excessive,  and  that 
by  very  unexpected  means  and  instru- 
ments; as  in  the  drowning  of  the  old 
world  ;  destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gqt 


EXO 


178 


EXP 


morrah ;  plaeues  of  Pharaoh  and  his 
sei'vants ;  ov  ^rchow  of  Sennacherib  and 
his  army ;  miseries  and  niin  of  the 
Canaanit'ps,  Jtws,  Syrians,  Assyrians, 
Chaldeai:.,  Persians,  jBgyptians,  Greeks, 
Romans,  Saracens,  Tartars,  and  others. 

8.  "Lastly,  the  existence  of  God 
may  be  ?rgued  from  the  terror  and 
dread  whicli  wound  the  consciences  of 
men,  when  ffuilty  of  crimes  which  other 
men  do  not  know,  or  are  not  able  to 
punish  or  restrain:  as  in  the  case  of 
Caligula,  Nero,  and  Domitian,  the  Ro- 
man emperors ;  and  tliis  while  thej^  ear- 
nestly labour  to  persuade  themselves  or 
others  that  there  is  no  God.  Hence 
their  beiuf^  ifraid  of  thunder,  or  to  be 
left  alone  ir.  the  dark.  See." 

As  to  the  7nodus  of  the  Divine  ex- 
istence, it  would  be  presumption  to  at- 
tempt to  explain.  That  he  exists,  is 
clear  from  the  foregoing  arguments ; 
but  the  manner  of  that  existence  is  not 
for  us  to  know.  Many  good  men  have 
littered  great  absurdities  in  endeavour- 
ing to  explain  it,  and  after  all  none  of 
them  have  succeeded.  The  wisest  of 
men  never  made  the  attempt.  Moses 
began  his  writings  by  supposing  the 
being  of  a  God ;  he  did  not  attempt  to 
exp  ain  it.  Although  many  of  the  in- 
spired writers  asserted  his  existence, 
and,  to  discountenance  idolatry,  pleaded 
for  li".s  perfections,  yet  no  one  of  them 
ever  pretended  to  explain  the  manner 
of  hi;:-,  being.  Our  duty  is  clear.  We 
are  not  commanded  nor  expected  to 
understand  it.  All  that  is  required  is 
this :  "  Ke  that  cometh  to  God  must  be- 
lieve that  he  is,  and  that  he  is  a  reward- 
er  of  them  that  diligently  seek  him." 
Heb.  :<'■.  6.  See  Giirs  Body  of  Div., 
b.  ;  ;  Charnock^s  Works,  vol.  i.;  Ridg- 
ley's  Div.,  ques.  2 ;  Brown's  System  of 
Dtv.;  Pierre's  Studies  of  A'ature ; 
Sturm's  Reflections;  S/iect.  de  la  jVat.; 
.  Sonnet's  Fhilosophical  Researches ; 
and  writers  enumerated  under  the  ar- 
ticle Atheism. 

EXORCISM,  the  expelling  of  devils 
from  persons  possessed,  by  means  of 
conjuration  and  prayers.  The  Jews 
made  great  pretences  to  this  power. 
Josephus  tells  several  wonderful  tales 
CI  the  ei'eat  success  of  several  exor- 
cists. One  Eleazer,  a  Jew,  cured  many 
dxmoniacs,  he  says,  by  means  of  a  root 
set  in  a  ring.  This  root,  with  the  ring, 
■was  held  under  the  patient's  nose,  and 
the  devil  was  forthwith  evacuated.  The 
most  part  of  conjurers  of  this  class  were 
impostors,  each  pretending  to  a  secret 
iiostnim  or  charm  which  was  an  over- 
match for  the  de\il.  Oiu-  Saviour  com- 
municated to  his  disciples  a  real  power 


over  dsemcms,  or  at  least  over  the  dis- 
eases suid  to  be  occasioned  by  daemons. 
See  DEMONIAC. 

ExorcisnT  makes  a  considerable  part 
of  the  supers- ition  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  the  ritual  of  which  forbids  the 
exorcising  any  person  without  the  bi- 
shop's leave.  The  ceremony  is  per- 
formed at  the  lower  end  of  the  church, 
towards  the  door.  The  exoi-cist  first 
signs  the  possessed  person  with  the  sign 
of  the  cross,  makes  him  kneel,  and 
sprinkles  him  with  holy  water.  Then 
follow  the  litanies,  psalms,  and  prayer  ; 
after  which  the  exorcist  asks  the  devil 
his  name,  and  adjures  him  by  the  mys- 
teries of  the  Christian  religion  not  to  af- 
flict the  person  anv  more  ;  then,  laying 
his  right  hand  on  the  demoniac's  head, 
he  repeats  the  form  of  exorcism,  which 
is  this:  "I  exorcise  thee,  imclean  spi- 
rit, in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ :  trem- 
ble, O  Satan,  thou  enemy  of  the  faith, 
thou  foe  of  mankind,  who  hast  brought 
death  into  the  world;  who  hast  de- 
prived men  of  life,  and  hast  rebelled 
against  justice ;  thou  seducer  of  man- 
kind, thou  root  of  all  evil,  thou  soiarce 
of  avarice,  discord,  and  envy."  The. 
Romanists  likewise  exorcise  houses  and 
other  places  supposed  to  be  haunted  by 
unclean  spirits ;  and  the  ceremony  is 
much  the  same  with  that  for  a  person 
possessed. 

EXORDIUM.    See  Sermon. 

EXPEDIENCY,  the  fitness  or  pro- 
priety of  a  man  to  the  attamment  of  an 
end.    See  Obligation. 

EXPERIEN  CE,  knowledge  acquired 
by  long  use  without  a  teacher.  It  con- 
sists in  the  ideas  of  things  we  have  seen 
or  read,  which  the  judgment  has  re- 
flected on,  to  form  for  itself  a  rule  or 
method. 

Christian  exfierience  is  that  religious 
knowledge  which  is  acquired  by  any 
exercises,  enjoyments,  or  sufferings, 
either  of  body  or  mind.  Nothing  is  more 
common  than  to  ridicule  and  despise 
what  is  called  religious  experience  as 
mere  enthusiasm.  But  if  religion  con- 
sist in  feeling,  we  would  ask,  how  it  can 
possibly  exist  without  experience  ?  We 
are  convinced  of,  and  admit  the  pro- 
priety of  the  term,  when  applied  to 
those"  branches  of  science  which  are  not 
founded  on  speculation  or  conjecture, 
but  on  -sensible  trial.  Why,  then,  should 
it  be  rejected  when  applied  to  religion  ? 
It  is  evident  that,  however  beautiful  re- 
ligion may  be  in  name,  its  excellency 
and  energy  are  only  truly  known  and 
displayed  as  exjiei-iencea.  A  system 
believed,  or  a  mind  merely  informed, 
will  produce   little   good,  except  the 


EXP 


179 


EXP 


heart  be  affected,  and  we  feel  its  influ- 
ence. To  experience,  then,  the  reli- 
gion of  Christ,  we  must  not  only  be  ac- 
quainted with  its  theory,  but  enjoy  its 
power;  subduing  our  corruptions,  ani- 
mating our  aficctions,  and  exciting  us  to 
duty. '  Hence  the  Scripture  calls  expe- 
rience tasting,  Ps.  xxxiv.  S.  feeling,  occ. 
1  Thes.  ii.  13,  &c.  That  our  expe- 
rience is  always  absolutely  pure  in  the 
E resent  state  caimot  l)e  expected .  "  The 
est  experience,"  says  a  good  writer, 
"  may  be  mixed  with  natural  aflPections 
and  passions,  impressions  on  the  ima- 
gination, self-righteousness,  or  spiritual 
pride;"  but  this  is  no  reason  that  all 
experience  is  to  be  rejected,  for  upon 
th^s  ground  nothing  coidd  be  received, 
since  nothing  is  alDsolutely  perfect.  It 
is,  however,  to  be  lamented,  that  Avhile 
the  best  of  men  have  a  mixture  in  their 
experience,  there  are  others  whose  ex- 
perience (so  called)  is  entirely  counter- 
feit. They  have  been  alarmed,  have 
changed  the  gi'ound  of  their  confidence, 
have  had  their  imaginations  heated  and 
delighted  by  impressions  and  visionary 
representations ;  thev  have  recollected 
the  pi'omises  of  the  Gospel,  as  if  spoken 
to  them  with  peculiar  appropriation,  to 
certify  them  that  their  sins  were  for- 
given'; and  having  seen  and  heard  such 
wonderful  things,  they  think  they  must 
doubt  no  more  of  their  adoption  into  the 
family  of  God.  They  have  also  fre- 
quently heard  all  expeiience  profanely 
ridiculed  as  enthusiasm ;  and  this  be- 
trays them  into  the  opposite  extreme, 
so  that  they  are  emboldened  to  despise 
every  caution  as  the  result  of  enmity  to 
internal  religion,  and  to  act  as  if  there 
were  no  delusive  or  counterfeit  expe- 
rience. But  the  event  too  plainly  shows 
their  awful  mistake,  and  that  they 
grounded  their  expectations  upon  the 
account  given  of  the  extraordinaiy  ope- 
rations ot  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  mind 
of  prophets,  rather  than  on  the  promises 
of  his  renewing  influences  in  the  hearts 
of  believers.  \\'hen,  therefore,  the}' 
lose  the  impressions  with  which  they 
once  were  elated,  thev  relapse  nearly 
into  their  old  course  of  life,  their  creed 
and  confidence  alone  excepted." 

Christian  experience  may  be  consi- 
dered as  genuine,  1.  \Vhen  it  accords 
■with  the  revelation  of  God's  mind  and 
will,  or  what  he  has  revealed  in  his 
word.  •  Any '  thing  contrary  to  this, 
however  pleasing,  cannot  be  sound,  or 
produced  by  divine  agency. — 2.  When 
Its  teodency  is  to  promote  humility  in 
us :  that  experience,  by  which  we  learn 
our  own  weakness,  and  subdues  pride, 
jnust  be  good. — 3.  When  it  teaches  us 


to  bear  with  others,  and  to  do  them 
good. — 4.  When  it  operates  so  as  to  ex- 
cite us  to  be  ardent  in  our  devotion,  and 
sincere  in  our  regard  to  God.  A  power- 
ful experience  oi  the  divine  favour  will 
lead  us  to  acknowledge  the  same,  and 
to  manifest  our  gratitude  botli  by  con- 
stant praise  and  genuine  piety. 

Christian  experience,  however,  may 
be  abused.  There  are  some  good  peo- 
ple who  certainly  have  felt  and  enjoyed 
the  power  of  religion,  and  yet  have  not 
alwa}'s  acted  with  prudence  as  to  their 
experience.  1.  Some  boast  of  their  ex- 
periences, or  talk  of  them  as  if  they 
were  very  extraordinaiy ;  whereas, 
were  they  acquainted  with  others,  they 
would  find  it  not  so.  That  a  man  may 
make  mention  of  his  experience,  is  no 
way  improper,  but  often  useful ;  but  to 
hear  persons  always  talking  of  them- 
selves, seems  to  indicate  a  spirit  of  pride, 
and  that  their  experience  cannot  be  very 
deep. — 2.  Another  abuse  of  experience 
is,  dependence  on  it.  We  ought  cer- 
tainly to  take  encouragement  from  past 
circumstances,  if  we  can ;  but  if  we  are 
so  dependent  on  past  experience  as  to 
preclude  present  exertions,  or  always 
expect  to  have  exactly  the  same  as- 
.eistance  in  every  state,  trial,  or  ordi- 
nance, we  shall  be  disappointed.  God 
has  wisely  ordered  it,  that  though  he 
never  will  leave  his  people,  yet  he  will 
suspend  or  bestow  comfort  in  his  own 
time  ;  for  this  very  reason,  that  we  may 
rely  on  bim,  and  not  on  the  circumstance 
or  ordinance. — 3.  It  is  an  abuse  of  ex- 
perience, when  introduced  at  improper 
times,  and  before  improper  persons.  It 
is  true,  we  ought  never  to  be  ashamed 
of  our  profession ;  but  to  be  always  talk- 
ing to  irreligious  people  respecting  ex- 
perience, which  they  know  nothing  of, 
IS,  as  our  Saviour  says,  casting  pearls 
before  swine.  Bujiyan's  Pilgrim's  Pro~ 
gress ;  Buck's  Treatise  on  Kxherience} 
Gornall's  C/i)'istia?i  Armour;  Dr.  Owe7t 
on  Psalm  cxxx. ;  Mdiuards  on  the  Af- 
fections, and  his  Thoughts  oji  the  Re- 
vival of  Religion  in  A''e=io  England ; 
Dorney's  Contemftlations. 

EXPERIENCE  MEETINGS,  are 
assemblies  of  religious  persons,  who 
meet  for  the  purpose  of  relating  their 
experience  to  each  other.  It  has  been 
doubted  by  some  whether  these  meetings 
are  of  any  great  utility ;  and  whether 
they  do  not  m  some  measure  force  peo- 
ple to  say  more  than  is  time,  and  puff 
up  those  with  pride  who  are  able  to 
communicate  their  ideas  with  facility; 
but  to  this  it  may  be  answered,  1.  That 
the  abuse  of  a  thing  is  no  proof  of  the 
evil  of  it. — 2.  That  the  most  caiinent 


FAI 


ISO 


FAI 


saints  of  old  did  not  neglect  this  practice, 
Ps.  Ixvi.  16.  Mai.  iii.  16.-3.  That  by  a 
■wise  and  prudent  relation  of  experience, 
the  Christian  is  led  to  see  that  others 
have  participated  of  the  same  joys  and 
sorrows  with  himself;  he  is  excited  to 
love  and  sen^e  God ;  and  animated  to 
perseverance  in  duty,  by  finding  that 
others,  of  like  passions  "with  himself, 
ai-e  zealous,  active,  and  diligent. — 4. 
That  the  Scriptures  seem  to  enjoin  the 
frequent  intercouree  of  Christians  for 
the  purpose  of  strengthening  each  other 
in  religious  services,  Heb.  x.  24,  25. 
Col.  iii.  16.  Matt,  xviii.  20.    See  Con- 

P" K  R  K NCF 

^.XPIATION,   a   religious    act,  by 


which  satisfaction  or  atonement  is  made 
for  some  crime,  the  guilt  removed,  and 
the  obligation  to  punishment  cancelled. 
Lev.  xvi.    See  Propitiation. 
EXPOSITIONS.    See  Commenta- 

EXTORTION,  the  act  or  practice  of 
gaining  or  acquiring  any  thing  by  force. 
Extortioners  are  included  in  the  list  of 
those  who  are  excluded  from  the  king- 
dom of  heaven,  1  Cor.  10.  6. 

EXTREME  UNCTION,  one  of  the 
sacraments  of  the  Romish  church,  the 
fifth  in  order,  administered  to  people 
dangerously  sick,  by  anointing  them 
with  holy  oU,  and  praying  over  them. 


F. 


FAITH  is  that  assent  which  we  give 
to  a  proposition  advanced  by  another, 
the  tinith  of  which  we  do  not  imme- 
diately pei'ceive  from  our  own  reason 
and  experience ;  or  it  is  a  judgment  or 
assent  of  the  mind,  the  motive  whereof 
is  not  any  intrinsic  evidence,  but  the 
authority  or  testimony  of  some  other 
who  reveals  or  relates  it.  The  Greek 
word  riio-Tij,  translated  faith,  comes 
from  the  verb  n£i9u,  to  persuade ;  tlie 
nature  of  faith  being  a  persuasion  and 
assent  of  the  mind,  arising  from  testi- 
mony or  evidence. 

1.  Divine  faith,  is  that  founded  on  the 
authority  of  God,  or  it  is  that  assent 
which  we  give  to  what  is  revealed  by 
God.  The  objects  of  this,  therefore, 
are  matters  of  revelation. 

2.  Human  faith,  is  that  whereby  we 
believe  what  is  told  us  by  men.  The 
objects  hereof  are  matters  of  human 
testimony  or  evidence. 

3.  Historical  faith,  is  that  whereby 
we  assent  to  the  truths  ot  revelation  as 
a  kind  of  certain  and  infallible  record, 
James  ii.  17,  or  to  any  fact  recorded  in 
history. 

4.  The  faith  of  miracles,  is  the  per- 
suasion a  person  has  of  his  being  able, 
by  the  di\nne  power,  to  effect  a  miracle 
on  another.  Matt.  xvii.  20.  1  Cor.  xiii.  2. 
or  another  on  himself,  Acts  xiv.  9.  This 
obtained  chiefly  in  the  time  of  Christ 
and  his  apostles. 

5.  A  temfiorary  faith,  is  an  assent  to 
evangelical  truths,  as  both  interesting 
and  desirable,  but  not  farther  tlian  they 
are  accompanied  with  temporal  advan- 
tages ;  and  which  is  lost  when  such  ad- 


vantages diminish  or  are  removed.  Matt, 
xi.  24.  Luke  viii.  13. 

6.  Faith  in  respect  to  futurity,  is  a 
moral  principle,  implying  such  a  con- 
viction of  the  reality  and  importance  of 
a  future  state,  as  is  sufficient  to  regu- 
late the  temper  and  conduct. 

7.  Faith  in  Christ,  or  saving  faith,  is 
that  principle  wrought  in  the  heart  by 
the  Divine  Spirit,  whereby  we  are  per- 
suaded  that  Christ  is  the  Messiah ;  and  ■■ 
possess  such  a  desire  and  expectation  of  "^ 
the  blessings  he  has  promised  in  his 
Gospel,  as  engages  the  mind  to  fix  its 
dependence  on  him,  and  subject  itself  to 

him  in  all  the  ways  of  holy  obedience, 
and  relying  solely  on  his  grace  for  ever- 
lasting life.  These  are  the  ideas  which  w 
are  generally  annexed  to  the  definition  ^ 
of  saving  faith ;  but,  accurately  speak- 
ing, faith  is  an  act  of  the  understanding, 
giving  credit  to  the  testimony  of  the 
Gospel ;  and  desire,  expectation,  confi- 
dence, 8cc.  are  rather  the  effects  of  it, 
than  faith  itself,  though  inseparably  con- 
nected with  it.  Much  has  been  said  as 
to  the  order  or  place  in  which   faith  I 

stands  in  the  Christian  system,  some  ' 

placing  it  befoie,  others  after  repent- 
ance. Perhaps  the  following  remarks 
on  the  subject  may  be  considered  as 
consistent  with  truih  and  Scripture:  1. 
Regeneration  is  the  work  of  God  en- 
lightening the  mind,  and  changing  the 
heart,  and  in  order  of  time  precedes 
faith. — 2.  Faith  is  the  consequence  of 
regeneration,  and  implies  the  percep- 
tion of  an  object.  It  discerns  the  evil  of 
sin,  the  holiness  of  God,  gives  credence 
to  the  testunony  of  God  in  his  word,  and 


FAl 


181 


FAL 


seems  to  precede  repentance,  since  we 
cannot  repent  of  that  of  which  we  have 
no  clear  perception,  or  no  concern 
about. — 3.  Repentance  is  an  after- 
thought, or  sorrowing  for  sin,  the  evU 
nature  of  which  faitli  perceives,  and 
which  immediately  follows  faith. — t. 
Conversion  is  a  turning  from  sin,  which 
faith  sees,  and  repentance  sorrows  for, 
and  seems  to  follow,  and  to  be  the  end 
of  all  the  rest. 

As  to  the  firofxtrties  or  adjuncts  of  I 
faith,  we  may  obsene,  1.  That  it  is  the 
first  and  principal  grace  :  it  stands  first 
\n  order,  and  takes  the  precedence  of 
other  graces,  Mark  xvi.  16.  Heb.  xi. 
6. — 2.  It  is  every  way  precious  and 
valuable,  1  Pet.  ii.  1. — 3.  It  is  called  in 
Scripture,  one  faith  ;  for  though  there 
arc  several  sorts  of  faith,  there  is  but 
one  special  or  saving  faith,  Eph.  iv.  5. 
— i.  It  is  also  denominated  common 
faith ;  common  to  all  the  regenerate. 
Tit.  i.  4. — 5.  It  is  tiiie,  real,  and  im- 
feigned.   Acts  viii.    37.  Rom.   x.    10. — 

6.  It  cannot  be  finally  lost  as  to  the 
grace  of  it,  Phil.  i.  6.  Luke  xxii.  32. — 

7.  It  is  progressive,  Lvike  xvii.  5.  2 
Thess.  i.  3. — 8.  It  appropriates  and 
Idealizes,  or,  as  the  apostle  says,  is  the 
substance  of  things  hoped  for,  and  the 
evidence  of  things  not  seen,  Hcb.  xi.  1. 

The  evidence  or  effects  of  faith,  are, 
1.  Love  to  Christ,  iPet.  L8.  Gal.  v.  6. 
— 2.  Confidence,  Eph.  iii.  12. — 3.  Jov, 
Rom.  V.  11.  Phil.  i.  25. — 4.  Prayer, 
Heb.  iv.  16. — 5.  Attention  to  his  ordi- 
nances, and  profit  by  them,  Heb.  iv.  2. 
— 6.  Zeal  in  the  promotion  of  his  gloi^-, 
1  Cor.  XV.  58.  Gal.  vi.  9.-— 7.  Holiness 
of  heart  and  life.  Matt.  vii.  20.  1  John 
ii.  3.  Acts  XV.  9.  James  ii.  18,  20,  22. 
See  articles  Assurance  and  Justifi- 
cation, in  this  work;  and  Polhill  on 
Precious  Faith;  Lambert''s  Sermons, 
ser.  13,  14,  &c. ;  Scott's  A'atta-e  and 
Warrant  of  Faith;  Ro?naine's  Life, 
Walk,  and  Triumfih  of  Faith  ;>  Rother- 
ham's  Ess.  on  Faith;  Dore's  Letters 
on  Faith ;  A.  Hall,  o?i  the  Faith  and 
I?ijtue/ice  of  the  Gospel;  Goodwiti's 
II  orks,  vol.  iv. 

FAITH,  ARTICLE  OF.  See  Ar- 
ticle. 

FAITH,  CONFESSION  OF.  See 
Confession. 

FAITH,  IMPLICIT.  See  Impli- 
cit Faith. 

FAITHFLT.NESS.     See    Fid  el  i- 

FAITHFULNESS  MINISTERI- 
AL.   See  Pastor. 

FAITHFULNESS  OF  GOD,  is  that 
perfection  of  his  nature  whereby  he  in- 
fallibly fiilfils  his  designs,  or  performs 


his  word.  It  appears,  says  Dr.  Gill,  ia 
the  perfoiTnancc  of  what  he  has  said 
with  respect  to  the  world  in  general, 
that  it  shall  not  be  destroyed  by  a  flood, 
as  it  once  was,  and  for  a  token  of  it,  has 
set  his  bow  in  the  clouds ;  that  the  or- 
dinances of  heaven  should  keep  their 
due  course,  which  they  have  done  for 
almost  6000  years  exactly  and  punctu- 
ally ;  that  all  his  creatures  should  be 
supported  and  provided  for,  and  the 
elements  all  made  subsenuent  to  that 
end,  which  we  find  do  so  accordmg  to 
his  sovereign  pleasure.  Gen.  ix.  Isa. 
liv.  9.  Ps.  clxv.  Deut.  xi.  14,  15.  3 
Pet.  iii. 

2.  It  appears  in  the  fulfilment  of  what 
he  has  said  with  respect  to  Christ. 
Whoever  will  take  the  pains  to  com- 
pare the  predictions  of  the  birth,  pover- 
ty, life,  sufiei'in^s,  death,  resuri-ection, 
and  ascension  ot  Chi'ist,  with  the  ac- 
complishment of  the  same,  will  find  a 
striking  demonstration  of  the  faithful- 
ness of  God. 

3.  It  appears  in  the  performance  of 
the  promises  which  he  has  made  to  his 
people.  Ia  respect  to  temporal  bless- 
ings, 1  Tim.  iv.  8.  Psal.  Ixxxiv.  11.  Is. 
xxxiii.  16. — 2.  To  spiritual,  1  Cor.  i.  9. 
In  supporting  then\  in  temptation, 
1  Cormth.  x.  13.  Encouraging  them 
under  persecution,  1  Pet.  iv.  1 2,  13. 
Isa.  xli.  10.  Sanctifying  afflictions,  Heb. 
xii.  4  to  12.  Directing  them  in  difficul- 
ties, 1  Thess.  V.  24.  Enabling  them  to 
persevere,  Jer.  xxxi.  40.  Bringing 
them  to  glory,  1  John  ii.  25. 

4.  It  appears  in  the  fulfilling  of  his 
threatenings.  The  curse  came  upon 
Adam  according  as  it  was  threatened. 
He  fulfilled  his  threatening  to  the  old 
world  in  destroying  it.  He  declared 
that  the  Israelites  should  be  subject  to 
his  awful  displeasure,  if  they  walked 
not  in  his  ways ;  it  was  accordingly  ful- 
filled, Deut.  xxviii.    See  Imjiutabili- 

TY. 

FALL  OF  MAN,  the  loss  of  .those 
perfections  and  that  happiness  which 
his  Maker  besiowed  on  hun  at  his  crea- 
tion, through  ti-ansgi'ession  of  a  positive 
command,  given  for  the  trial  of  man's 
obedience,  and  as  a  token  of  his  holding 
every  thing  of  God,  as  lord  paramount 
of  the  creation,  with  the  use  of  every 
thing  in  it,  exclusive  of  the  fniit  of  one 
tree.  This  positive  law  he  broke  by 
eating  the  forbidden  fniit ;  first  the  wo- 
man, then  the  man :  and  thus  the  con- 
dition or  law  of  the  covenant  being  bro- 
ken, the  covenant  itself  was  broken. 
The  woman  w-as  enticed  by  an  evU  ge- 
nius, under  the  semblance  of  a  seipent, 
as  appears  from  its  reasoning  the  wo- 


FAL 


182 


FAM 


man  into  the  transgression  of  the  law, 
of  which  a  binite  beast  is  incapable. 
Hence  the  evil  genius  is  called  a  mur- 
derer and  a  liar  from  the  beginning, 
John  viii.  44.  Rom.  v.  12,  the  old  ser- 
pent, Rev.  xii.  9.  xx.  2.  Moses  relates 
this  history,  from  what  appeared  ex- 
ternall)'  to  sense ;  both,  therefore,  are 
to  be  conjoined,  the  serpent  as  the  in- 
strument, and  the  devil  as  the  primary 
cause.  Man  suffered  himself  to  be  se- 
duced by  perverse  and  confused  notions 
of  good  and  evil,  prompted  by  a  desire 
of  a  greater  degi*ee  of  perfection,  and 
swayed  by  his  sensual  appetite,  in  con- 
tradiction to  his  reason.  Gen.  iii.  6.  And 
thus  it  appears  possible,  how,  notwith- 
standing the  divme  image  with  which 
man  is  adorned,  he  might  fall;  for, 
though  included  in  it  knowledge,  it  did 
not  exclude  from  it  confused  notions, 
which  are  those  arising  from  sense  and 
imagination,  especially  when  off  our 
guai'd  and  inattentive,  blindly  following 
the  present  impression.  From  this  one 
sin  arose  another,  and  then  another, 
from  the  connection  of  causes  and  ef- 
fects, till  this  repetition  brought  on  a 
habit  of  sin,  consequenth^  a  state  of 
moral  slavery;  called  by  divines  a  death 
in  sin,  a  spiritual  death,  a  defect  of  pow- 
er to  act  according  to  the  law,  and  from 
the  motive  of  the  divine  perfections,  as 
death  in  general  is  such  a  defect  of 
power  of  action ;  and  this  defect  or  ina- 
bility, with  all  its  consequences,  man 
entailed  on  his  posterity,  remaining  upon 
them,  till  oiie  greater  man  remove  this, 
and  reinstate  them  in  all  they  foi-feited 
in  Adam. 

In  the  fall  of  man  we  may  observe,  1. 
The  greatest  infidelity. — 2.  Prodigious 

{)ride. — 3.  Horrid  ingratitude. — 4.  Visi- 
)le  contempt  of  God's  majesty  and  jus- 
tice.— 5.  Unaccountable  folly. — 6.  A 
cruelty  to  himself  and  to  all  his  posteri- 
ty. Infidels,  however,  have  treated  the 
accovmt  of  the  fall  and  its  effects,  with 
contempt,  and  considered  the  whole  as 
absurd ;  but  their  objections  to  the  man- 
ner have  been  ably  ansMjered  by  a  va- 
riety of  authors;  and  as  to  the  effects, 
one  would  hardly  think  any  body  could 
deny.  For,  that  man  is  a  fallen  crea- 
ture, is  evident,  if  we  consider  his  mise- 
ry as  an  inhabitant  of  the  natural  world  ; 
the  disorders  of  the  globe  we  inhabit, 
and  the  dreadful  scourges  with  which  it 
is  visited ;  the  deplorable  and  shocking 
circumstances  of  our  birth;  the  painful 
and  dangerous  travail  of  women ;  our 
natural  uncleanliness,  helplessness,  igno- 
rance, and  nakedness ;  the  gross  dark- 
ness in  which  we  naturally  arc,  both 
with  respect  to  God  and  a  future  state ; 


the  general  rebellion  of  the  brate  crea- 
tion against  us ;  the  various  poisons  that 
lui'k  in  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mi- 
neral world,  ready  to  destroy  us :  the 
heavy  curse  of  toil  and  sweat  to  which, 
we  are  liable ;  the  innumerable  calami- 
ties of  life,  and  the  pangs  of  death. 
Again,  it  is  evident,  if  we  consider  him  m 
as  a  citizen  of  the  moral  woi-ld ;  his  ™ 
commission  of  sin ;  his  omission  of  duty ; 
the  triumph  of  sensual  appetites  over 
his  intellectual  faculties ;  the  cori-uption 
of  the  powers  that  constitute  a  good 
head,  the  understanding,  imagination, 
memory,  and  reason ;  the  depravity  of 
the  powei-s  which  form  a  good  heart, 
the  will,  conscience,  and  affections ;  his 
manifest  alienation  from  God ;  his  ama- 
zing disregard  even  of  his  nearest  re- 
latives ;  his  unaccountable  unconcern 
about  himself;  his  detestable  tempers; 
the  general  out-ljreaking  of  human  cor- 
ruption in  all  individuals ;  the  universal 
overflowing  of  it  in  all  nations.  Some  ' 
striking  proofs  of  this  depravity  may  be 
seen  in  the  general  propensity  of  man- 
kind to  vain,  irrational,  or  cruel  diver- 
sions ;  in  the  universality  of  the  most  ri- 
diculous, impious,  inhuman,  and  diaboli- 
cal sins ;  in  the  aggravating  circumstan- 
ces attending  the  displav  of  this  cor- 
I'uption  ;  in  the  many  ineffectual  endea- 
vours to  stem  its  torrent,  in  the  obstinate 
resistance  it  makes  to  divine  grace  in 
the  unconverted  ;  the  amazing  struggles  ^ 
of  good  men  with  it ;  the  testimony  of  'n 
the  heathens  concei-ning  it;  and  the  ,tK 
preposterous  conceit  which  the  uncon- 
verted have  of  their  own  goodness. 
Diet,  of  the  Bible;  Fletcher's  A/ifieal  to 
Matters  of  Fact ;  Beri-y  Street  Lec- 
tures, vol.  1.  180,  189  ;  South's  Ser7no?is, 
vol.  i.  124,  150 ;  Bates's  Harmony  of 
Div.  ^tt.  p.  98 ;  Boston's  Four-fold 
State,  part  i. 

FALSEHOOD,  untruth,  deceit.  See 
Lying. 

FALSE  CHRISTS.    See  Messiah. 

FAMILIARS  OF  THE  INQUISI- 
TION, persons  who  assist  in  appre- 
hending such  as  are  accused,  and  carry- 
ing them  to  prison.  They  are  assistants 
to  the  inquisitor,  and  called  familiars, 
because  they  belong  to  his  family.  In 
some  provinces  of  Italy  they  are  called 
cross  bearers;  and  in  others  the  scho- 
lars of  St.  Peter  the  martyr;  and  wear 
a  cross  before  them  on  the  outside  gar- 
ment. They  are  properlv  bailiffs  of  the 
inquisition :  and  the  vile  office  is  esteem- 
ed so  -honourable,  that  noblemen  in  the 
kingdom  of  Portugal  have  been  ambi- 
tious of  belonging  to  it.  Nor  is  this  sur- 
prising, when  it  is  considered  that  In- 
nocent III.  granted  ver}^  large  indulgen- 


FAS 


1S3 


FAS 


cies  and  privileges  to  these  familiai's; 
and  that  the  same  plenary  indulgence  is 
granted  by  the  pope  to  every  single  ex- 
ercise ot  this  onice,  as  was  granted  by 
the  Lateran  council  to  those  who  suc- 
coured tlic  Holy  Land.  When  several 
persons  are  to  be  taken  up  at  the  same 
time,  these  familiars  are  commanded  to 
order  matters  that  they  may  know  no- 
thing of  one  another's  l)eing  apprehend- 
ed ;  and  it  is  related,  that  a  lather  and 
his  three  sons  and  three  daughters,  who 
lived  together  in  the  same  house,  were 
carried  prisoners  to  the  inquisition 
without  knowing  any  thing  of  one 
another's  being  there  till  seven  yeai-s 
afterwards,  when  they  that  wci-e  alive 
were  released  by  an  act  of  faith.  See 
art.  Act  of  FAixH. 

FAMILY  PRAYER.    See  Prayer. 

FAMILY  OF  LOVE,  or  Familists. 
See  Love. 

FANATICS,  wild  enthusiasts,  vi- 
sionary persons,  who  pretend  to  revela- 
tion and  inspiration.  The  ancients  call- 
ed those  janatici  who  passed  their 
times  in  temples  {fayia  •)  and  being 
often  seized  with  a  kind  of^  enthusiasm, 
as  if  inspired  by  the  Divinity,  showed 
■wild  and  antic  gestures,  cutting  and 
slashing  their  anns  with  knives,  sha- 
king the  head,  &c.  Hence  the  word  was 
applied  among  us  to  tlie  Anabaptists, 
Quakers,  &c.  at  their  first  rise,  and  is 
now  an  epithet  given  to  modern  pi*o- 
phets,  enthusiasts,  &c. ;  and  we  believe 
unjustly  to  those  who  possess  a  consi- 
derable degree  of  zeal  and  fervency  of 
devotion. 

FARNOVIANS,  a  sect  of  Socinians, 
so  called  from  Stanislaus  Farnovius, 
who  separated  from  the  other  L^nita- 
rians  in  the  year  1568.  He  asserted 
that  Christ  had  been  engendered  or 
produced  out  of  nothing  by  the  Supreme 
Being,  before  the  creation  of  this  teiTes- 
trial  globe,  and  warned  his  disciples 
against  paying  religious  worship  to  the 
Divine  Spirit.  This  sect  did  not  last 
long ;  for  having  lost  their  chief,  who 
died  in  1615,  it  was  scattered,  and  re- 
duced to  nothing. 

FASTING,  abstinence  from  food, 
more  particularly  that  abstinence  which 
is  used  on  a  rehgious  account. 

The  Jews  had  eveiy  vear  a  stated  and 
solemn  fast  on  the  ioth  day  of  the 
month  77sr/,  which  generally  answered 
to  the  close  of  our  September.  This 
solemnity  was  a  day  of  strict  rest  and 
fasting  to  the  Israelites.  ISIany  of  them 
spent  the  day  before  in  prayer,  and 
such  like  penitential  exercises.  On  the 
day  itself,  at  least  in  later  times,  they 
made  a  tenfold  confession  of  theii-  siiis, 


and  were  careful  to  end  all  their  mutual 
broils.  See  Lev.  xvi.  Numb.  xxix.  7, 
12.  Lev.  xxiii.  23,  32.  Individuals  alsff 
fasted  on  any  extraordinary  distress. 
Thus  David  fasted  during  the  .sickness 
of  his  adulterous  child,  2  Sam.  xii.  21. 
Ahab,  when  he  was  threatened  with 
ruin,  1  Kings  xii.  27.  Daniel,  when  he 
understood  that  the  Jewish  captivity 
drew  to  an  end,  9th  and  10th  chapters 
of  Nehemiah,  Joshua,  &c. 

However  light  some  think  of  reli- 
gious fasting,  it  seems  it  has  been  prac- 
tised by  most  nations  from  the  remotest 
antiquity.  The  Egyptians,  Phoenicians, 
and  Assyrians,  had  their  fasts  as  well 
as  the  Jews.  Poi-phyry  affirms  that  the 
Egyptians,  before  their  stated  sacrifi- 
ces, always  fasted  a  great  many  days; 
sometimes  for  six  weeks.  The  Greeks 
observed  their  fasts  much  in  the  same 
manner.  At  Rome,  kings  and  empe- 
I'ors  fasted  themselves.  Numa  Pompi- 
lius,  Julius  Cxsar,  Augustus,  Vespasian, 
and  others,  we  are  told,  had  their  sta- 
ted fast  days ;  and  Julian  the  apostate 
was  so  exact  in  this  observation,  that 
he  outdid  the  priests  themselves.  The 
Pythagoreans  frequently  fasted  rigidly 
for  a  long  time  ;  and  Pythagoras,  their 
master,  continued  his  fast,  it  is  said,  for 
forty  days  together.  The  Brachmans, 
and  the  Chinese,  have  also  their  stated 
fasts. 

Every  one  knows  how  much  fasting- 
has  been  considered  as  an  important 
rite  in  the  church  of  Rome,  and  the  ex- 
tremes they  have  nin  into  in  this  re- 
spect. See  article  Abstinence.  The 
chui'ch  of  England  also  has  particular 
seasons  for  fasting,  especially  that  of 
Lent,  which  is  to  be  observed  as  a  time 
of  humiliation  before  Easter,  the  gene- 
ral festi\"al  of  our  Saviour's  resuri'ection. 
Fast  days  are  also  appointed  by  the 
legislature  upon  any  extraordinary  oc- 
casions of  calamity,  Avar,  &c.  See  art. 
Rogation,  Lent. 

Religious  fasting  consists,  1.  "In  ab- 
stinence from  every  animal  indulgence, 
and  from  food,  as  far  as  health  and  cir- 
cumstances wDl  admit. — 2.  In  the  hum- 
ble confession  of  our  sins  to  God,  with 
contrition  or  sorrow  for  them. — 3.  An 
earnest  deprecation  of  God's  displea- 
sure, and  humble  supplication  that  he 
would  a.vert  his  Judgments. — 4.  An  in- 
tercession witli  God  for  such  spiritual 
and  temporal  blessings  upon  ourselves 
and  others  which  are  needful."  It  doe^ 
not  appear  that  our  Saviour  instituted 
any  particular  fast,  but  left  it  optional. 
Any  state  of  calamity  and  sorrow,  hov>'- 
ever,  naturally  suggests  this.  The 
firojiriftu  of  it  may  appear,  1.   From 


FAT 


184 


FEA 


many  examples  vecorded  in  Scripture. 
— *2.  By  plain  and  undeniable  inferences 
from  Scviptm-e,  Matt.  vi.  16. — 3.  From 
divine  commands  given  on  some  occa- 
sions, though  there  are  no  commands 
which  prescribe  it  as  a  constant  duty. — 
4.  It  may  be  argued  from  its  utility. 
The  end  or  uses  of  it  are  these. — 1.  A 
natural  expi'ession  of  our  sorrow. — 2.  A 
Jielp  to  devotional  exercises. — 3.  Keep- 
ing the  body  in  subjection. — 4.  May  be 
rendered  subservient  to  charity.  How 
far  or  how  long  a  person  should  abstain 
from  food,  depends  on  circumstances. 
The  great  end  to  be  kept  in  view  is, 
humiliation  for,  and  abstinence  from 
sin.  "If,"  says  Marshall,  "abstinence 
divei't  our  minds,  by  reason  of  a  gnaw- 
ing appetite,  then  you  had  better  eat 
sparingly,  as  Daniel  in  his  greatest 
fast,"  Dan.  x.  2,  3.  They,  however, 
who  in  times  of  public  distress,  when 
the  judgments  of  God  are  in  the  earth, 
and  when  his  providence  seems  to  call 
for  humiliation,  will  not  relinquish  any 
of  their  sensual  enjoyments,  nor  deny 
themselves  in  the  least,  cannot  be  justi- 
fied ;  since  good  men  in  all  ages,  more 
or  less,  have  humbled  themselves  on 
such  occasions;  and  reason  as  well  as 
Scripture  evidently  prove  it  to  be  our 
duty.  Matt.  ix.  15.  1  Cor.  vii.  5.  Ben- 
netts Christ.  Orat.  vol.  ii.  p.  18,  25 ; 
Tillotson's  Sermons,  ser.  39  ;  Simpson^ s 
Essay  on  Feasting ;  Marshall  on  Sane. 
p.  273,  274. 

FATE  {fatian)  denotes  an  inevitable 
necessity  depending  upon  a  superior 
cause.  The  word  is  formed  a  fundo, 
"from  speaking,"  and  primarily  implies 
the  same  with  effatum,  viz.  a  word  or 
decree  pronounced  by  God,  or  a  fixed 
sentence  whereby  the  Deity  has  pre- 
scribed the  order  of  things,  and  allotted 
to  every  person  what  shall  befal  him. 
The  Greeks  called  it  finajixEvn,  as  it 
\vere  a  chain  or  necessary  series  of 
things  indissolubly  linked  together.  It 
is  also  used  to  express  a  certain  una- 
voidable designation  of  things,  by  which 
all  agents,  both  necessary  and  volun- 
tary, are  swayed  and  directed  to  their 
ends.  Fate  is  divided  into  physical  and 
divine.  1.  Physical  fate  is  an  order  and 
series  of  natural  causes,  appropriated 
to  their  effects;  as,  that  hre  warms; 
bodies  commimicate  motion  to  each 
other,  &c."  and  the  effects  of  it  are  all 
the  events  and  phenomena  of  nature. — 
2.  Divine  fate  is  what  is  ra')re  usually 
called  providence.  See  Pkovidi-nce, 
Neckssity. 
_  FATHERS,  a  term  applied  to  an- 
cient authni-s  who  have  preserved  in! 
their  writin<Ts  traditions  of  the  clmrch. 


Thus  St.  Chrj^sostom,  St.  Basil,  &c.  are 
called  Greek  fathers,  and  St.  Augustine 
and  St.  Ambrose,  Latin  fathers.  No 
author  who  wrote  later  than  the  twelfth 
century  is  dignified  with  the  title  of 
father. 

Some  suppose  that  the  study  of  the 
fathers  is  barren  and  unimproving ;  that 
though  there  are  some  excellent  things 
interspersed  in  their  writings,  j'ct  the 
instimction  to  be  derived  from  them 
will  hardly  repay  the  toil  of  breaking 
up  the  ground;  that  a  life-time  would 
hardly  suffice  to  read  them  with  care, 
and  digest  them  completely.  Others 
have  such  an  high  opinion  of  the  fathers, 
as  to  be  almost  afraid  of  interpreting 
Scripture  against  their  decision.  They 
suppose,  that  as  some  of  them  were 
companions,  disciples,  or  successively 
followers  of  the  apostles,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  they  must  have  been  well 
informed,  that  their  sentiments  must  be 
strongly  illustrative  of  the  doctrines -of 
the  New  Testament ;  and  that  as  con- 
troversies have  increased,  and  dogmas 
received  since  their  time,  they  must  be 
much  less  entangled  with  decisions 
merely  human  than  more  recent  com- 
mentators. Perhaps  it  is  best  to  steer 
between  these  two  opinions.  If  a  person 
have  ability,  inclination,  and  opportu- 
nity to  wade  through  them,  let  him : 
but  if  not,  referring  to  them  occasionally 
may  suffice.  One  caution,  however,  is 
necessary,  which  is  this;  that  though 
the  judgment  of  antiquity  in  some  dis- ■ 
putable  points  certainly  may  be  useful, 
yet  we  ought  never  to  put  them  on  the 
same  footing  as  the  Scriptures.  In 
many  cases  they  may  be  considered  as 
competent  witnesses ;  but  we  must  not 
confide  in  their  verdict  as  judges.  Jor- 
tiri's  Works,  vol.  vii.  chap.  2 ;  Kelt's 
Serm.  at  Brampton  Lee.  ser.  1 ;  War- 
burton's  Julian;  Simpson's  Strictures 
on  Religious  Opi7iions,  latter  end ; 
Daille's  Use  of  the  Fathers,  p.  167; 
Law's  Theory ;  Dr.  Clarke's  View  of 
the  Succession  of  Saci'ed  Literature, 
p.  312. 

FAULT,  a  slight  defect  or  crime 
which  subjects  a  person  to  blame,  but 
not  to  punishment ;  a  deviation  from,  or 
transgression  of  a  rule  in  some  trifling 
circumstance. 

FAVOUR  OF  GOD.   See  Grace. 

FEAR  is  that  uneasiness  of  mind 
which  arises  from  an  apprehension  of 
danger,  attended  with  a  desire  of  a\'oid- 
ing  it.  "  Fear,"  says  Dr.  Watts,  "  sliows 
itself  by  ])aleness  of  the  cheeks,  sinking 
of  the  spirits,  trembling  of  the  limbs, 
hurry  and  confusion  of  the  mind  and 
thoughts,  agonies  of  nature,  and  faint- 


FEA 


185 


FEE 


ing.  Many  a  person  has  died  with  fear. 
Sometimi  s  it  rouses  ;ill  nature  to  exert 
itself  in  speedy  flight,  or  other  methods 
to  avoid  the  approaching  evil :  sudden 
terror  has  performed  some  almost  in- 
credibles  of  this  kind." 

Fear  is  of  different  kinds:  1.  There 
is  an  idolatrrrus  and  sujierstitious  fear. 
■which  is  called  Sti(7icaiu;na.,  a  fear  of 


rification.  Feasts,  and  the  ceremonies 
thereof,  have  made  gi*eat  part  of  the 
religion  of  almost  all  nations  and  sects ; 
hence  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  Maho- 
metans, and  Christians,  have  not  been 
without  them. 

Feasts,  among  us,  are  either  immove- 
able or  moveable.  Immoveable  feasts 
are  those  constantlv  celebrated  on  the 


dxmons,  which  the  cit\  of  Athens  was  ,1  same  day  of  the  year.  The  principal  of 
greatly  addicted  to.  '"I  perceive,"  says  !l  these  are  Christmas-day,  Circumcision, 
the  apostle  Paul,  "that  in  all  things  ye  11  Epiphany,  Candlemas  or  Purification; 
are  too  superstitious,"  or  given  to  the  il  Lady-day,  or  the  annunciation,  called 
fear  and  worship  of  false  deities. — 2.  |{  also  the  incaraation  and  conception ; 
There  is  an  external  fear  of  God,  an  j  AH  Saints  and  All  Souls;  besides  the 
outward  show  and  profession  of  it,  |l  days  of  the  several  apostles,  as  St. 
which  is  taught  by  the  precepts  of  men :  ij  Thomas,  St.  Paul.  Moveable  feasts  are 
as  in  the  men  of  Samaria,  who  pre-  1:  those  which  a.re  not  confined  to  the 
tended  to  fear  the  Lord,  as  the  priest !;  same  day  of  the  year.  Of  these  the 
instructed  them,  and  yet  served  their  \  principal  is  Easter,  which  gives  law 
own  gods ;  and  such  an  external  fear  1'  to  all  the  rest,  all  of  them  following  and 
of  God,  Job's  friends  supposed  was  all !,  keeping  their  proper  distances  from  it. 
that  he  had,  and  that  even  he  had  cust  ;  Such  are  Palm  Sunday,  Good  Friday, 
that  off. — 3.  There  is  an  hypocritical ;;  Ash  Wednesday,  Sexagesima,  Ascen- 
fear,  when  men  make  a  profession  of  |'  sion-day,  Pentecost,  and  Trinity  Sim- 
religion  ;  but  only  sei'\'e  him  for  some  j,  day. 

sinister  end  and  selfish  view,  which  :j  Besides  these  feasts,  which  are  gene- 
Satan  insinuated  vv^as  Job's  case.  "Doth  \  ral,  and  enjoined  by  the  church,  there 
Job  fear  God  for  nought  V  Job  i.  9. —  n  are  others  local  and  occasional,  enjoined 
4.  There  is  a  servile  fear,  which  they  •■'■  by  the  magistrate,  or  voluntarily  set  on 
possess  who  serve  God  from  fear  of  j|  foot  by  the  people ;  such  are  the  days 
punishment,  and  not  from  love  to  him.  '1  of  thanksgiving  for  delivery  from  war, 
— 5.  There  is  ^filial  fear,  such  as  that  [plagues,  Sec. ;  such  also  are  the  vigils 
of  a  son  to  his  father.  Fear  is  sinful  \\  or  wakes  in  commemoration  of  the  de- 
when — 1.  It  proceeds  from  unbelief  or  dication  of  particular  churches, 
distnist  of  God  :  2.  When  it  ascribes  'j  The  prodigious  increase  of  feast-days 
more  to  the  creature  than  is  due  ;  or  h  in  the  Christian  church,  com.menced  to- 
when  we  fear  our  enemies  without  con-  ,'  wards  t1\e  close  of  the  fourth  centuiy, 
sidering  they  are  under  God  :  3.  When  ij  occasioned  by  the  "discovery  that  was 
we  fear  that  in  God  that  is  not  in  him,  j'  made  of  the  remains  of  martyrs,  and 
or  til  at  he  will  break  his  promise,  &c.  4.  |  other  holy  men,  for  the  commemoration 
When  our  fear  is  immoderate,  so  as  to  h  of  whom  thev  were  established.  These, 


distract  us  in  duty.    See  next  article. 
FEAR  OF  GOD,  is  that  holy  dispo- 


instead  of  being  set  apart  for  pious  ex- 
ercises, were  abused  in  indolence,  vo- 


sition  or  gracious  habit  formed  in  the  |'  luptuousness,  and  criminal  practices, 
soul  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  whereby  we  j  Many  of  them  were  instituted  on  a  pa- 
are  inclined  to  obey  all  God's  com-  j|  gan  model,  and  perverted  to  similar 
mandb ;  and  evidences  itself,  1.  By  a  !  purposes.  See  Holy  Day. 
dread  of  his  displeasure.— 2.  Desire'  of  |  FEAST  OF  ASSES.  This  was  afes- 
his  favour. — 3.  Regard  for  his  excel-  j  tival  in  the  Romish  church,  and  was 
lenci^s. — 4.  Submission  to  his  will. — 5.  j  celebrated  at  Beauvais.  They  chose  a 
Gratitude  for  his  benefits. — 6.  Sincerity  ;|  young  woman,  the  handsomest  in  the 
in  his  woi-ship. — 7.  Conscientious  obe-  ii  to\vn ;  m.ade  her  ride  on  an  ass  richly 
dience  to  his  commands,  Prov.  viii.  13.  ij  harnessed,  and  placed  in  her  arms  a 
Job  xxviii.  28.  Bates's  Works,  page  Ij  pretty  mfant.  In  this  state,  followed  by 
913 ;  Gill's  Body  of  Dixinity,  vol.  iii.  I;  the  bishop  and  clergy,  she  marched  in 
bock  i.  ]i  procession  from  the   cathedral   to   the 

FEAR  OF  DEATH.    See  Death,     church  of  St.  Stephen ;  entered  into  the 
FEARS.    See  Doubts.  santtuar}-,  placed  herself  near  the  altar, 

FEAST,  in  a  rehgious  sense  is  a  cere-    and  then' celebrated  mass ;  not  forgetting 
m^y  of  feasting  and  thanksgiving.  j  to  explain  the  fine  qualities  of  the  ani- 


The  principal  feasts  of  the  Jews  were 
the  feasts  of  trumpets,  of  expiation,  of 
tabernacles,  of  the   dedication,  of  the 


mal,  and  exhorting  him  to  make  a  de- 
vout genuflection,  with  a  variety  of 
other  fooleries. 


passover,  of  Pentecost,  ^d  that  of  pu-  jj     FEELINGS  RELIGIOUS,  are  thosf 

A  a 


FIF 


186 


FIR 


sensations  or  emotions  of  the  mind  pro- 
duced by  the  views  we  have  of  religion. 
While  some  enthusiasts  boast  of,  dqiend 
on,  and  talk  much  of  their  feelings,  there 
are  others  who  are  led  to  discard  the 
term,  and  almost  to  abandon  the  idea 
of  religious  feeling ;  but  it  is  evident, 
that  however  many  have  been  mis- 
guided and  deceived  by  their  feelings, 
yet  there  is  no  such  thing  as  religion 
without  this.  For  instance ;  religion 
consists  in  contrition,  repentance,  and 
devotion :  now,  what  is  contrition  but 
a  feeling  of  sorrow  for  sin  .''  what  is  re- 
pentance but  a  feeling  of  hatred  to  it, 
■with  a  relinquishing  or  it  ?  what  is  de- 
votion but  a  feeling  of  love  to  God  and 
his  ways  i*  W  ho  can  separate  the  idea 
of  feeling  from  any  of  these  acts .''  The 
fact  is  this ;  religious  feelings,  like  every 
thing  else,  have  been  abused ;  and 
men,  to  avoid  the  imputation  of  fanati- 
cism have  run  into  the  opposite  e\'ll  of 
lukewarmness,  and  been  content  with 
a  system  without  feeling  its  energy. 
See' Affection,  Enthusiasm,  Expe- 
rience. 

FELLOWSHIP,  joint  interest,  or 
the  having  one  common  stock.  The 
fellowship  of  the  saints  is  twofold :  1. 
With  God,  1  John  i.  3.  1  Cor.  i.  9. 
1  Cor.  xiii.  14. — 2.  With  one  another,  1 
John  i.  7. 

Fellrnvship  ivith  God,  consists  in 
knowledge  of  his  will.  Job  xxii.  21. 
John  xvii.  3.  Agreement,  Amos  iii.  2. 
Strength  of  affection,  Rom.  viii.  38,  39. 
Enjoyment  of  his  presence,  Ps.  iv.  6. 
Conformity  to  his  image,  1  John  ii.  6.  1 
John  i.  6. 

Felloivshi/i  of  the  saints,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  fellowship  of  duties,  Rom. 
xii.  6.  1  Cor.  xii.  1.  1  Thess.  v.  17,  18. 
James  v.  16.  Of  ordinances,  Heb.  x.  24. 
Acts  ii.  46.  Of  graces,  love,  joy,  6cc. 
Heb.  X.  24.  Mai.  iii.  16.  2  Cor.  viii.  4. 
Of  interest  spiritual,  and  sometimes 
temporal,  Rom.  xii.  4.  13.  Heb.  xiii.  16. 
Of  sufferings,  Rom.  xv.  1, 2.  Gal.  vi.  1,  2. 
Rom.  xii.  15.  Of  eternal  gloiy.  Rev.  vii. 
9.    See  Communion. 

FIDELITY,  faithfulness,  or  the  con- 
scientious discharge  of  those  duties  of  a 
religious,  personal,  and  relative  nature, 
which  we  are  bound  to  perform.  See  an 
excellent  sermon  on  the  subject  in  Dr. 
£7:sk-ine's  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  p.  304. 

FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN,  were 
a  set  of  enthusiasts,  in  the  time  of  Crom- 
well, who  expected  the  sudden  a])pear- 
ance  of  Christ  to  establish  on  earth  a 
new  monarchy  or  kingdom.  In  conse- 
quence of  tliis  illusion,  some  of  them 
aimed  at  the  subversion  of  all  human 
goveniment.    In    ancient    history    we 


read  of  four  great  monarchies,  the  As- 
syrian, Persian,  Grecian,  and  the  Ro- 
man ;  and  these  men,  believing  that 
this  new  spii'itual  kingdom  of  Christ 
was  to  be  the  fifth,  came  to  bear  the 
name  by  which  they  were  called.  Their 
leader  was  Thomas  Venner,  a  wine 
coopei',  who,  in  his  little  conventicle  in 
Coleman-street,  warmed  his  admirers 
with  passionate  expectations  of  a  fifth 
universal  monarchy,  under  the  personal 
reign  of  King  Jesus  upon  earth,  and  that 
the  saints  were  to  take  the  kingdom  to 
themselves.  To  introduce  this  ima- 
ginary kingdom,  they  marched  out  of 
their  meeting-house,  towards  St.  Paul's 
church-yard,  on  Sunday,  Jan.  6th,  1660, 
to  the  number  of  about  fifty  men,  well 
armed,  and  with  a  resolution  to  sul)vert 
the  present  government,  or  to  die  in 
the  attempt.  They  published  a  decla- 
ration of  the  design"  of  their  rising,  and 
placed  sentinels  at  proper  places.  The 
loi'd  mayor  sent  the  trained  bands  to 
disperse  them,  whom  they  quickly  rout- 
ed, but  in  the  evening  retu'ed  to  Cane 
Wood,  between  Highgate  and  Hamp- 
stead.  On  Wednesday  morning  they 
returned  and  dispersed  a  party  of  the 
king's  soldiers  in  Thread-needle-street. 
In  AVood-street  they  repelled  the  train- 
ed bands,  and  some  of  the  horse  guards; 
but  Venner  himself  was  knocked  down, 
and  some  of  his  company  slain ;  from 
hence  the  i-emainder  retreated  to  Crip- 
plegate,  and  took  possession  of  a  house, 
Avhich  they  threatened  to  defend  with 
a  desperate  resolution  ;  but  nobody  ap- 
pealing to  countenance  their  frenzy, 
they  surreridered  after  they  had  lost 
about  half  their  number.  \  enner,  and 
one  of  his  ofhcers,  were  hanged  before 
their  meeting  house  door  in  Coleman- 
street,  Jan.  19th ;  and  a  few  days  after 
nine  more  were  executed  in  divers  parts^ 
of  the  citv. 

FILIAL  PIETY,  is  the  affectionatt 
attachment  of  childi-en  to  their  parentSjl 
including  in  it  love,  re\crence,  obe- 
dience, and  relief.  Justly  has  it  been 
obser\ed,  that  these  great  duties  arc 
prompted  equally  by  nature  and  by  gra- 
titude, independent  of  the  injunctions  of 
religion ;  for  where  shall  we  find  the 
person  who  hath  received  from  any  one 
benefits  so  great,  or  so  many,  as  chil- 
dren from  their  parents  .■'  And  it  may 
be  ti-uly  said  that  if  per.sons  are  unduti- 
fid  to  their  parents,  they  seldom  prove 
good  to  any  other  relation.  See  article 
Children. 

FILIATION  OF  THE  SON  OF 
GOD.    See  Son  of  God. 

FIRE  PHILOSOPHERS.  See 
Theosophists. 


FOL 


187 


FOR 


FIRST  FRTJITS,  among  the  He- 
brews, were  obiiitions  of  part  of  the 
fruits  of  the  harvest,  offered  to  God  as 
an  acknowletlgnient  of  his  sovcreis^n 
dominion.  There  was  another  sort  of 
first  fi'uits  which  was  ])aid  to  God. 
When  bread  was  kneaded  in  a  family, 
a  i)ortion  of  it  was  set  apart,  and  gi^•en 
to  the  priest  or  Lcvite  who  dwelt  in  the 
place.  If  there  were  no  priest  or  Le- 
vitc  tliere,  it  was  cast  into  the  oven,  and 
consumed  bv  the  fire.  I'hese  offerings 
made  a  consideral)le  pait  of  the  reve- 
nues of  the  priesthood,' Lev.  xxiii.  Ex. 
xxii.  29.  Chron.  xxiii.  19.  Numb.  xv. 
19,  20. 

T\\Q_first  fruits  of  the  Synrit,a.ve  such 
communications  of'  his  grace  on  earth, 
as  fully  assure  us  of  the  full  enjoyment 
of  God  in  heaven,  Rom.  viii.  23.  Christ 
is  called  the  first  fruits  of  them  that 
slept;  for  as  the  first  fniits  were  ear- 
nests to  the  Jews  of  the  succeeding  har- 
vest, so  Christ  is  the  first  fruits  of  the 
resurrection,  or  the  earnest  of  a  future 
resurrection  ;  that  as  he  rose,  so  shall 
believers  also  rise  to  happiness  and  life. 
1  Cor.  XV.  20. 

First  fruits  are  mentioned  in  ancient 
writers  as  one  part  of  the  chuT'ch  re- 
vvnne. 

firxt  fruits,  in  the  church  of  England, 
are  the  pi'ofits  of  every  spiritual  bene- 
fice for  the  first  year,  according  to  the 
valuation  thereof  in  the  king's  book. 

FIVE  POINTS,  are  the  five  doc- 
trines controverted  between  the  Armi- 
nians  and  Calvinists.    See  Calvinists. 

FLACIANS,  the  followers  of  Mat- 
thias Flacius  lllyricus,  who  flourished 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  taught 
that  original  sin  is  the  very  substance 
of  human  nature;  and  that  the  fall  of 
man  was  an  event  which  extinguished 
in  the  human  mind  every  virtuous  ten- 
dency, every  noble  faculty,  and  left  no- 
thing ijehind  it  but  universal  darkness 
and  corruption. 

FLAGELLANTES.     See  Whip- 

PF.RS. 

FLATTERY,  a  servile  and  fawning 
behaviour,  attended  with  servile  com- 
pliances and  obsequiousness,  in  order  to 
gain  a  person's  favour. 

FLI^MINGIANS,  or  Flandrians, 
a  sect  of  rigid  Anabaptists,  who  ac- 
quired this  name  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, because  most  of  them  Avere  na- 
tives of  Flanders,  by  wav  of  distinction 
from  the  Waterlandians.'  See  WATf:R  - 

LANDIANS. 

FOLLY,  accoixling  to  Mr.  Locke, 
consists  in  the  drawing  .of  false  conclu- 
sions from  just  ])rinciples,  bv  which  it 
is  distinguished  from  madness,  which 


draws  just  conclusiofis  from  false  prin- 
ciples. But  this  seems  too  confined  a 
definition.  FoUy,  in  its  most  general 
acceptation,  denotes  a  weakness  of  in- 
tellect or  apprehension,  or  some  partial 
absurdity  in  sentiment  or  conduct  See 
Evil,  Sin. 

FOOL,  one  who  has  not  the  use  of 
reason  or  judgment.  In  Scripture,  wick- 
ed persons  are  often  called  f(X)ls,  nr  fool- 
ish, because  such  act  contrary  to  reason, 
tnist  to  theii-  own  hearts,  violate  the 
laws  of  God,  and  prefer  things  vile,  tri- 
fling, and  temporal,  to  such  as  arc  im- 
portant, divine,  and  eternal. 

FO(3LISH  SPEAKING,  such  kind 
of  conversation,  as  includes  folly,  and 
can  no  ways  be  profitable  -and  interest- 
ing, Eph.  V.  4.  racetiousness,  indeed,  is 
allowable,  when  it  ministers  to  harm- 
less divei'tisement,  and  delight  to  con- 
versation ;  when  it  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exposing  things  which  are  base 
and  vile ;  when  it  has  for  its  aim  the  I'c- 
formation  of  others;  when  used  by  way 
of  defence  under  unjur.t  reproach.  But 
all  such  kind  of  speaking  as  includes 
profane  jesting,  loose,  Avanton,  scurrilous, 
injurious,  unseasonable,  vain-glorious 
talk,  is  strictly  foi'bidden.  See  Barrow's 
excellent  Ser7non  on  this  subject  in  his 
Works,  vo!.  i.  ser.  14. 

FORBEARANCE,  is  the  act  of  pa- 
tiently enduring  provocation  or  offence. 
The  following  may  be  considered  as 
the  most  powerful  incentives  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  this  disposition  : — 1.  The  con- 
sideration that  we  ourselves  often  stand 
in  need  of  it  from  others.  Gal.  vi.  1 .— . 
2.  The  express  command  of  Scripture, 
Eph.  jv.  2.  Col.  iii.  13.— 3.  The  felicity 
of  this  disposition.  It  is  sure  to  bring 
happiness  at  last,  while  resentment 
only  increases  our  own  misery. — 4. 
That  it  is  one  of  the  strongest  eviden- 
ces we  can  give  of  the  reality  of  our  re- 
ligion, John  xiii.  35. — 5.  The  beautiful 
example  of  Christ,  Heb.  xii.  3.  1  Pet.  ii. 
21—23. 

FORBEARANCE  OF  GOD.  See 
Patience  of  God. 

FOREKNOWLEDGE  OF  GOD, 
is  his  foresight  or  knowledge  of  eveiy 
thing  that  is  to  come  to  pass.  Acts  ii. 
23.  This  foreknowledge,  says  Char- 
nock,  was  from  eternity.  Seeing  he 
knows  things  possible  in  his  power,  and 
things  future  in  his  will,  if  his  power 
and  resolves  were  from  eternity,  his 
knowledge  nujst  l)c  so  too  ;  or  else  we 
must  make  him  ignorant  of  his  own 
power,  and  igno\-ant  of  his  own  will 
from  eternitA',  and  consequently  not 
from  eternity  blessed  and  perfect.  His 
knowledge  6i  possible  things  must  run 


FOR 


ISS 


FOR 


parallel  with  his  will.  If  he  willed  from 
eternity,  he  knew  from  eternity  what 
he  willed ;  but  that  he  did  will  from 
eternity  we  must  gi'ant,  unless  we  would 
render'  him  changeable,  and  conceive 
him  to  be  mac!e  in  time  of  not  willing, 
■willing.  The  knowledge  God  hath  in 
time  was  always  one  and  the  same,  be- 
cause his  understanding  is  his  proper 
essence,  as  perfect  as  his  essence,  and 
of  an  immutable  nature. 

"To  deny  this  is,  (says  Saurin,)  to 
degrade  the"  Almighty;  for  what,  pray, 
is  a  God  who  created  beings,  and  who 
could  not  foresee  what  would  result 
from  their  existence?  A  God,  who 
formed  spirits  united  to  bodies  by  cer- 
tain laws,  and  who  did  not  know  how  to 
combine  these  law-s  so  as  to  foresee  the 
eflFects  they  would  produce  ?  A  God 
forced  to  suspend  his  judgment?  A 
God  who  eveiy  day  learns  something 
new-,  and  who  doth  not  know  to-day 
what  will  happen  to-morrow  ?  A  God 
who  cannot  tell  whether  peace  wiU  be 
concluded  or  war  continue  to  ravage 
the  world;  whether  religion  will  be  re- 
ceived in  a  certain  kingdom,  or  whether 
it  will  be  banished ;  whether  the  right 
heir  will  succeed  to  the  crown,  or  whe- 
ther the  crown  will  be  set  on  the  head 
of  an  usurper  ?  For  according  to  the 
difFei-^nt  determinations  of  the  wills  of 
men.  of  king,  or  people,  the  prince  will 
make  peace,  or  declai-e  war ;  religion 
will  be  banished  or  admitted;  the  ty- 
rant or  the  lawful  king  will  occup}-  the 
throne  :  for  if  God  cannot  foresee  how 
the  \olitions  of  men  will  be  determined, 
he  cannot  foresee  any  of  these  events. 
What  is  this  but  to  degrade  God  from 
his  Deity,  and  to  make  the  most  perfect 
of  all  intelligences  a  being  involved  in 
darkness  and  uncertainty  like  our- 
selves?"   See  Omniscience. 

FORGIVENESS,  the  pardon  of  any 
oflFence  committed  against  us.  This  is 
a  viitue  which  our  Lord  expressly  in- 
culcates, not  as  extending  to  our  friends 
only,  but  to  our  enemies.  "Ye  have 
heard,"  saith  he,  "Thou  shalt  love  thy 
neighbour,  and  hate  thine  enemy ;  but 
I  say  unto  you,  love  your  enemies,"  &c. 
"  This,"  says  ;m  ingenious  writer,  "  was 
a  lesson  so  new,  and  utterly  unknown, 
till  taught  by  his  doctrines  and  enforced 
by  his  example,  that  the  wisest  moral- 
ists of  the  wisest  nations  and  ages  re- 
presented the  desire  of  revenge  as  a 
mark  of  a  noljle  mind ;  but  how  much 
more  magnanimous,  how  much  more 
beneficial  to  mankind,  is  forgiveness ! 
It  is  more  magnanimous,  because  every 
generous  and  exalted  disposition  of  the 
human  mind  is  requisite  lo  the  practice 


'  of  it ;  'and  it  is  the  most  beneficial,  be- 
I  ca"use  it  puts  an  end  to  an  eternal  suc- 
I  cession  of    injuries    and    retaliations." 
f  Let  us,  theretore,  learn  to  chei  ish  this 
i  noble  disposition ;  let  the  bitterest  ene- 
■  my  we  have  be  softened  by  its  effects ; 
}  let  us  consider  also  how  friendly  it  is  to 
'  our  own  happiness,  and  how  much  it 
I  prevents   the    unhappiness    of    others. 
I  "  The  feuds  and  animosities,  in  families, 
i  and  between  neighbours,  which  disturb 
the  intercourse  of  human  life,  and  col- 
lectively compose  half  the  misery  of  it, 
ha^e  their  founda* on  in  the  want  of  a 
'  forgiving  temper,  and  can  never  cease 
but  by  the  exercise  of  this  virtue  on 
I  one  side,  or  on  both."    Paley's  Mor. 
Phil.  vol.   i.  p.  271 ;    Soame  Jenyns's 
I  Int.  E-vid.  p.  6r,  68  ;  Clarke's  Sermons, 
ji  ser.  2.  vol.  x ;  Tillotson's  Ser.  vol.  viii. 

i|  ^' FORGIVENESS  OF  SINS.  See 
|i  Pardon,  Mercy. 

j!  FORM.ALIST,  one  who  places  too 
I  much  dependence  on  outward  ceremo- 
,  nics  of  religion,  or  who  is  more  tena- 
I  cious  of  the  form  of  religion  than  the 
I  power  of  it. 

||  FORMS  OF  PRAYER.  See 
;  Prayer. 

ij     FORNICATION,  whoredom,  or  the 
';  act  of  incontincncy  between  single  per- 
I  sons ;  for  if  either  of  the  parties  be 
I  married,  it  is    adultery^     While    the 
I  Scriptures  give  no    sanction   to  those 
ji  austerities  which  have  been  imposed  on 
|l  men  under  the  idea  of  religion,  so  on 
j  the  other  hand,  they  give  no  liberty  for 
||  the  indulgence  of  any  propensity  that 
ij  would  either  militate  against  our  owti 
I  interest  or  that  of  others.     It  is  in  vain 
j  to  argue  the  innocency  of  fornication 
from  the  natural  passions  implanted  in 
us,  since   "marriage  is  honourable   in 
all,"  and  wisely  appointed  for  the  pre- 
\'ention    of    those    evils  which  would 
otherwise  ensue ;  and,  besides  the  exis- 
tence of  any  natural  propensity  in  us,  is 
no  proof  that  it  is  to  be  gi-atified  with- 
out any  restriction.    That  fornication  is 
both  unlawful  and  unreasonable,  may 
be  easily   inferred,  if  we  considei-,  1. 
That  our  Saviour  expressly  declares 
this  to  be  a  crime,  Mark  vii.  21 — 23. — 
2.   That    the   Scriptures   declare   that 
fornicators  cannot  inherit  the  kingdom 
;  of  God,  1  Cor.  vi.  9.  Ileb.  xii.  16.  Gal.  v. 
!  19 — 22. — 3.    Fornication  sinks    into    a 
mere  brutal  commerce,  a  gratification 
which  was  designed  to  be  the  cement  of 
a  sacred,  generous,  and  tender  friend- 
ship.— 4.  It  leaves  the  maintenance  and 
education  of  children,  as  to  the  father  at 
least,  utterly  unsecured. — 5.  It  strong- 
ly tempts  the  guilty  mother  to  guard 


FOR 


189 


FRA 


herself  from  infamy  by  methods  of  pro- 
curing iibortion,  which  not  only  destroys 
the  child,  but  often  the  mother. — 6.  It 
disqualifies  the  deluded  creatures  to  be 
either  good  wives,  oi-  mothers,  in  any 
future  marriage,  iiiinine;  that  modesty 
wli'.ch  is  the  guardian  ot  nuptial  happi- 
ness.— 7.  It  absolutely  disqualifies  a  man 
for  tlie  best  satisfactions ;  those  of  truth, 
virtue,  innocent  gratifications,  tender 
and  generous  friendship. — 8.  It  often 
perpetuates  a  disease  which  may  be  ac- 
counted one  of  tlie  sorest  maladies  of 
human  nature,  and  the  effects  of  which 
are  said  to  visit  the  constitution  of  even 
distant  generations. 

FORTITUDE  is  a  virtue  or  quality 
of  the  mind  generally  considered  the 
same  with  courage ;  though,  in  a  more 
acciu-ate  sense,  they  seem  to  be  distin- 
guishable. Courage  resists  danger,  for- 
titude supports  pam.  Courage  may  be 
a  virtue  or  vice,  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances ;  fortitude  is  always  a  vir- 
tue: we  speak  of  desperate  courage, 
but  not  of  desperate  fortitude.  A  con- 
tempt or  neglect  of  danger  may  be  call- 
ed courage ;  but  fortitude  is  the  virtue 
of  a  rational  and  considerate  mind,  and 
is  founded  in  a  sense  of  honour,  and  a 
regard  to  duty. 

Christian  fortitude  may  be  defined 
that  state  of  mind  which  arises  from 
truth  and  confidence  in  God ;  enables  us 
to  stand  collected  and  undisturbed  in  the 
time  of  difficulty  and  danger ;  and  is  at 
an  equal  distance  from  rashness  on  the 
one  hand,  and  pusillanimity  on  the  other. 
Fortitude  takes  different  names,  accord- 
ing as  it  acts  in  opposition  to  different 
evils ;  but  some  of  those  names  are  ap- 
plied with  considerable  latitude.  With 
respect  to  danger  in  general,  fortitude 
has  been  called  intrefiidity ;  with  re- 
spect to  the  dangers  of  Avar,  valour ; 
with  respect  to  pam  of  body,  or  distress 
of  mind,  patience ;  with  respect  to  la- 
bour, activity;  with  respect  to  injuiy, 
forbearance ;  with  respect  to  our  con- 
aition  in  general,  magrianimity . 

Christian  fortitude  is  necessary  to  vi- 
gilance, patience,  self-denial,  and  per- 
severance;  and  is  requisite  under  af- 
fliction, temptation,  persecution,  deser- 
tion, and  death.  Tlie  noble  cause  in 
which  the  Christian  is  engaged ;  the 
glorious  Master  whom  he  serves;  the 
provision  that  is  made  for  his  security  ; 
the  illustrious  examples  set  before  him ; 
the  approbation  of  a  good  conscience ; 
and  the  grand  prospect  he  has  in  view, 
are  all  powerful  motives  to  the  exercise 
of  this  grace.  Tlatts's  Ser.  ser.  31. 
Evans's  Ser.  ser.  19.  vol.  i.  Steele's 
Christian  Hero;  Mason's  Ser.  vol.  i. 
ser.  V. 


FORTUNE,  a  name  which,  among 
the  ancients,  seemed  to  have  denoted  a 
principle  of  fortuity,  whereby  things 
came  to  pass  without  being  necessitated 
thereto;  but  what  and  wlience  tliat 
principle  is,  they  do  not  seem  to  have 
ever  precisely  thought.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear that  the  antiquity  of  the  word  is 
\er^r  high.  It  is  acknowledged,  on  all 
hands,  that  Tvxn,  from  whence  the  Ro- 
mans took  their  fortuna,  was  a  term 
invented  long  after  the  times  of  Hesiod 
and  Homer,  in  whose  writings  it  no 
where  occurs.  The  philosophical  sense 
of  the  word  coincides  with  what  is  vul- 
garh'  called  chance.  It  is  difficult  to  as- 
certain what  it  denotes  in  the  minds  of 
those  who  now  use  the  word.  It  has 
been  justly  observed,  that  they  who 
would  substitute  the  name  of  provi- 
dence in  lieu  of  that  of  fortune,  cannot 
give  any  tolerable  sense  to  half  the 
phrases  wherein  the  word  occurs. 

FRAME.  This  word  is  used  to  de- 
note any  state  of  mind  a  man  may  be  in; 
and,  in  a  religious  sense,  is  often  con- 
nected with  the  word  feeling,  or  used 
synonymously  with  it.    See  Feeling. 

"  If  our  frames  are  comfortable," 
says  one,  "we  may  make  them  the  mat- 
ter of  our  praise,  but  not  of  our  pride ; 
we  may  make  them  our  pleasure,  but 
not  our  portion ;  we  may  make  them 
the  matter  of  our  encouragement,  but 
not  the  gi'ound  of  our  security.  Are  our 
frames  dark  and  uncomfortable  ?  they 
should  humble  us,  but  not  discourage 
us  ;  they  should  quicken  us,  but  not  ob  - 
struct  us  in  our  application  for  neces- 
sary and  suitabte  grace ;  they  should 
make  us  see  our  own  emptiness,  but  not 
make  us  suspect  the  fulness  of  Christ ; 
they  should  make  us  see  our  own  un- 
worthiness,  but  not  make  us  suspect  the 
willingness  of  Christ;  they  should  make 
us  see  our  own  weakness,  but  not  cause 
us  to  suspect  the  strength  of  Christ; 
they  should  make  us  suspect  our  own 
hearts,  but  not  the  firmness  and  freeness 
of  the  promises." 

FRANCISCANS,  a  religious  order 
founded  by  St.  Francis  in  the  year  1209. 
Francis  was  the  son  of  a  merchant  of 
Assisi,  in  the  province  of  Umbria,  who, 
having  led  a  dissolute  life,  was  reclaim- 
ed by  a  fit  of  sickness,  and  afterwards 
fell  into  an  extravagant  devotion  "that 
looked  less  like  religion  than  alienation 
of  mind.  Soon  after  this,  viz.  in  the  year 
1208,  hearing  the  passage  repeated  in 
which  Christ  addresses  his  apostles. 
Provide  neither  gold  nor  silver,  8cc. 
Matt.  X.  9,  10.  he  was  led  to  consider  a 
voluntary  and  absolute  jioverty  as  the 
essence  of  the  Gospel,  and  to  prescribe 


FRA 


190 


FRA 


tliis  poverty  as  a  sacred  rule  both  to 
himself  and  to  the  few  that  followed 
him.  This  new  society,  which  appeared 
to  Innocent  III.  extremely  adapted  to 
the  present  state  of  the  church,  and  pro- 
per to  restore  its  declining  credit,  was 
solemnly  approved  and  confirmed  by 
Honorius  IIL  in  1223,  and  had  made  a 
considei-able  progress  before  the  death 
of  its  founder  in  1226.  Francis,  through 
an  excessive  humility,  would  not  suffer 
the  monks  of  his  order  to  be  called /ra- 
tres,  i.  e.  brethren  or  friars ;  hntfrater- 
euli,  i.  e.  little  brethren,  or  friars  mi- 
nor, by  which  denomination  they  have 
been  generally  since  distinguished.  The 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans  were  zeal- 
ous and  active  friends  to  the  papal  hie- 
rarchy, and  in  return  wei'e  distinguished 
by  peculiar  privileges  and  honourable 
employments.  The  Franciscans,  in  par- 
ticular, were  invested  with  the  treasure 
of  ample  and  extensive  indulgences,  the 
distribution  of  which  was  committed  to 
them  by  the  popes  as  a  mean  of  subsis- 
tence, and  a  rich  indemnification  for 
their  voluntary  poverty.  In  consequence 
of  this  grant,  the  i-ule  of  the  founder, 
which  absolutely  pTOhibitcd  both  per- 
sonal and  collective  property,  so  that 
neither  the  individual  nor  the  commu- 
nity wei'e  to  possess  either  fund,  reve- 
nue, or  any  worldly  goods,  Avas  consi- 
dered as  too  strict  and  se\-ere,  and  dis- 
pensed with  soon  after  his  death.  In 
1231,  Gregory  IX.  published  an  inter- 
pretation of  this  rule,  mitigating  its  ri- 
gour ;  which  was  farther  confirmed  by 
Innocent  IV.  in  1245,  and  by  Alexander 
IV.  in  1247.  These  milder  operations 
were  zealouslj'  opposed  by  a  branch  of 
the  Franciscans,  called  the  spiritual ; 
and  their  complaints  were  regarded  by 
Nicholas  III.  who,  in  1279,  published  a 
famous  constitution,  confirming  the  rule 
of  St.  Francis,  and  containing  an  elabo- 
rate explication  of  the  maxims  he  re- 
commended, and  the  duties  he  prescri- 
bed. In  1287,  Matthew,  of  Aqua  Spar- 
ta, being  elected  general  of  the  order, 
discouraged  the  ancient  discipline  of  the 
Franciscans,  and  indulged  his  monks  in 
abandoning  even  the  appearance  of  po- 
verty; and  this  conduct  inflamed  tlie 
indignation  of  the  sijiritual  or  austere 
Franciscans ;  so  that,  from  the  year 
1290,  seditions  and  schisms  arose  in  an 
order  that  had  been  so  famous  for  its 
pretended  disinterestedness  and  humili- 
ty. Such  was  the  enthusiastic  frenzy  of 
the  Franciscans,  that  tliey  impiously 
maintained  that  the  founder  of  their  oi-- 
der  was  a  second  Christ,  in  all  respects 
similar  to  the  first,  and  that  their  insti- 
tution and  disciphne  were  the  true  Gos- 


pel of  Jesus.  Accordingly  Albizi,  a 
Franciscan,  of  Pisa,  published  a  book  in 
1383,  with  the  applause  of  his  order,  en- 
titled the  Book  of  the  Conformities  of 
St.  Fi-ancis  with  Jesus  Christ.  In  the 
beginning  of  this  century  the  whole 
Franciscan  order  was  divided  into  two 
parties ;  the  one  embracuig  the  severe 
discipline  and  absolute  poverty  of  St. 
Francis,  and  were  called  spirituals;  and 
the  other,  who  insisted  on  mitigating 
the  austere  injunctions  of  their  founder, 
were  denominated  brethren  of  the  com- 
munity. These  wore  long,  loose,  and 
good  habits,  with  large  hoods ;  the  for- 
mer were  clad  in  a  strait,  coarse,  and 
shoit  dress,  pretending  that  this  dress 
was  enjoined  by  St.  Francis,  and  that  no 
power  on  earth  had  a  right  to  alter  it. 
Neither  the  moderation  of  Clement  V. 
nor  the  violence  of  John  XXII.  could 
appease  the  tumult  occasioned  by  these 
two  parties ;  however,  their  rage  sub- 
sided from  the  year  1329.  In  1368  these 
two  parties  were  formed  into  two  large 
bodies,  comprehending  the  whole  Fran- 
ciscan order,  viz.  the  conventual  bre- 
thren, and  the  brethren  of  the  obser- 
vance, or  observation,  from  whom 
sprang  the  Capuchins  and  Recollects. 
The  general  opinion  is,  that  the  Fran- 
ciscans came  into  England  in  the  year 
1224,  and  had  their  first  house  at  Can- 
terbury, and  their  second  at  London; 
but  there  is  no  certain  account  of  tlieir 
being  here  till  king  Henry  VII.  built 
two  or  three  houses  for  them.  At  the 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  the  con- 
ventual Franciscans  had  about  fifty-five 
houses,  which  were  under  seven  custo- 
dies or  wardenships,  viz.  those  of  Lon- 
don, \^^orcestcl•,  \  ork,  Cambridge,  Bris- 
tol, Newcastle,  and  Oxford. 

FRATERNITY,  in  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic countries,  si^ifics  a  society  for 
the  improvement  ot  devotion.  Of  these 
there  are  sevei'al  sorts,  as,  1.  The  fra- 
temitj'  of  the  Rosary,  founded  by  St. 
Dominic.  It  is  divided  into  two  branches, 
called  the  co7nmon  rosary,  and  the /if  r- 
fietual  rosai~y;  the  former  of  whom  are 
obliged  to  confess  and  communicate 
every  first  Sunday  in  the  month,  and 
the  latter  to  repeat  the  rosary  continu- 
ally.— 2.  The  fraternity  of  the  Scapula- 
ry,  whom  it  is  pretended,  according  to 
the  Sabbatine  bull  of  pope  John  XXII. 
the  Blessed  Virgin  has  promised  to  de- 
liver out  of  hell  the  first  Sunday  after 
their  death. — 3.  The  fraternity  of  St. 
Francis's  girdle  are  clothed  with  a  sack 
of  a  grey  colour,  which  they  tie  with  a 
cord;  and  in  processions  walk  bare- 
footed, carrving  in  their  hands  a  wooden 
cross. — 4.  That  of  St.  Austin's  leather 


FRA 


191 


FRE 


girdle,  compreliends  a  great  many  de- 
votees. Italy,  Si)ain,  and  Portugal,  are 
the  countries  wlicre  are  seen  the  great- 
est number  of  these  fraternities,  some 
of  which  assume  the  name  of  arch-fra- 
tcrnUy.  Pope  Clement  VII.  instituted 
the  arch-fraternity  of  charity,  which 
distributes  bread  eveiy  Sunday  among 
the  poor,  and  gives  portions  to  forty 
poor  girls  on  the  feast  of  St.  Jerome, 
their  patron.  The  fraternity  of  death 
buries  such  dead  as  are  abandoned  by 
their  relations,  and  causes  masses  to  be 
celebrated  for  them. 

FR  ATRICELLI,  an  enthusiastic  sect 
of  Franciscans,  which  arose  in  Italy,  and 
particularly  in  the  marc^uisate  of  Anco- 
na,  about  tlie  year  1294.  The  word  is 
an  Italian  diminutive,  signifying  frater- 
culi,  or  "  little  brothers,"  and  was  here 
used  as  a  term  of  derision,  as  they  were 
most  of  them  apostate  monks,  whom 
the  Italians  call  fratelli  or  fratricelli. 
Foi-  this  reason,  the  term  fratriceUi,  as 
a  nick-name,  was  given  to  many  other 
sects,  as  the  Catharists,  the  Waldenses, 
8cc.  however  different  in  their  opinions 
and  their  conduct.  But  this  denomina- 
tion, applied  to  the  austere  part  of  the 
Franciscans,  was  considered  as  honour- 
able.   See  Franciscans. 

The  founders  of  this  sect  were  P. 
Maurato  and  P.  de  Fossombroni,  who, 
having  obtained  of  Pope  Celestin  V.  a 
permission  to  live  in  solitude  after  the 
manner  of  hermits,  and  to  observe  the 
rule  of  St.  Francis  in  all  its  rigour,  seve- 
ral idle  vagabond  monks  joined  them, 
who,  living  after  their  own  fanc'es,  and 
making  all  perfection  to  consist  in  po- 
verty, were  soon  condemned  by  pope 
Boniface  VIII.  and  his  successor,  and 
the  inquisitors  ordered  to  proceed 
against  them  as  heretics :  which  com- 
mission they  executed  with  their  usual 
barbarity.  Upon  this,  retiring  into  Si- 
cily, Peter  John  Oliva  de  Serignan  had 
no  sooner  published  his  comment  on  the 
Apocalypse,  than  they  adopted  his  te- 
nets. They  held  the  Romish  chui'ch  to 
be  Babylon,  and  proposed  to  establish 
another  far  more  perfect  one:  they 
maintained  that  the  i-ule  of  St.  Francis 
was  the  evangelical  rule  observed  by 
Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles.  Thev 
foretold  the  reformation  of  the  church, 
and  the  restoration  of  the  true  Gospel 
of  Christ,  by  the  genuine  followers  of 
St.  Francis ;  and  declared  their  assent 
to  almost  all  the  doctrines  which  were 
published  under  the  name  of  the  abbot 
Joachim,  in  the  "Introduction  to  the 
Everlasting  Gospel,"  a  book  published 
ip  1250,  and  explained  by  one  of  the 
spiritual  fria.-s,  whose  name  was  Ger- 


hard. Among  other  errors  inculcated  ia 
this  book,  it  is  pretended  that  St.  Fran- 
cis was  the  angel  mentioned  in  Rev.  xiv. 
6,  and  had  promu]gat(-d  to  the  world 
the  ti-ue  and  everlasting  Gospel ;  that 
the  Gospel  of  Christ  was  to  be  abroga- 
ted in  V2&0,  and  to  give  place  to  this 
new  and  everlasting  Gospel,  whiclv  was 
to  be  substituted  in  its  rof)m  ;  and  that 
the  ministers  of  this  great  reformation 
were  to  be  humble  and  barefooted 
friars,  destitute  of  all  worldly  employ- 
ments. Some  say,  they  even  elected  a 
pope  of  their  church  ;  at  least  they  ap- 
pointed a  general  with  supeiiors,  and 
built  monasteries,  &c.  Besides  the  opi- 
nions of  Oliva,  they  held  that  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  church  were  invalid,  be- 
cause those  who  administered  them  had 
no  longer  any  power  or  jurisdiction. 
They  were  condemned  again  by  pope 
John  XXIT.  in  consequence  of  whose 
cnielty  they  regarded  him  as  the  true 
antichrist ;  but  several  of  them,  return- 
ing into  Germany,  were  sheltered  by 
Lewis,  duke  of  Bavaria,  the  emperor. 

There  are  authentic  records,  from 
which  it  appears,  that  no  less  than  2000 
persons  were  burnt  by  the  inquisition, 
from  the  year  1318  to  the  tim.e  of  Inno- 
cent VI.  tor  their  inflexible  attachment 
to  the  order  of  St.  Francis.  The  severi- 
ties against  them  were  again  revived, 
towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  centu- 
ry, by  pope  Nicholas  V.  and  his  succes- 
sors. However,  all  the  persecutions 
which  this  sect  endured  were  not  suffi- 
cient to  extinguish  it;  for  it  subsisted 
until  the  times  of  the  refoi-mation  in 
Germany,  when  its  remaining  votaries 
adopted  the  cause  and  embraced  the 
doctrine  and  discipline  of  Luther. 

FRAUDS,  PIOUS.  See  Pious 
Frauds. 

FREE  AGENCY  is  the  power  of 
following  one's  inclination,  or  whatever 
the  soul  does,  with  the  full  bent  of  pre- 
ference and  desire.  Many  and  long  have 
been  the  disputes  on  this  subject ;  not 
that  man  has  been  denied  to  be  a  free 
agent;  but  the  dispute  has  been  in  what 
it  consists.  See  articles  Liberty  and 
Will.  A  distinction  is  made  by  wri- 
ters between  free  agency,  and  what  is 
called  the  Arminian  notion  of  free  will. 
The  one  consists  merely  in  the  power  of 
following  our  prevailing  inclination;  the 
other  in  a  supposed  jjower  of  acting 
contrary  to  it,  or  at  least  of  changing  it. 
The  one  predicates  freedom  of  the 
man;  the  other,  of  a  faculty  in  man; 
which  Mr.  Locke,  though  an  anti-ne- 
cessarian, explodes  as  an  absurdity. 
The  one  goes  merely  to  render  us  ac- 
countable beings ;  the  other  arrogantly 


FRE 


193 


FRE 


claims  a  part,  yea,  the  veiy  turaing 

{)oint  of  salvation.  According  to  the 
atter,  we  need  only  certain  helps  or 
assistances,  granted  to  men  in  com- 
mon, to  eiK.ble  us  to  choose  the  path 
of  life ;  but,  according  to  the  former, 
our  hearts  being  b\-  nature  wholly  de- 
praved, we  need  an  almighty  and  in- 
vincible Power  to  renew  them.  See 
Necf  ssity. 

FREE  THINKER,  an  appellation 
given  to  those  persons  who  deny  reve- 
lation or  the  Christian  reiigion.  One  of 
the  most  admirable  and  pointed  ad- 
dresses to  fi-ee  thinkers,  any  where  to 
be  met  with,  may  be  found  in  the  dedi- 
cation to  Warburton's  Divine  Legation 
of  Moses„  See  also  an  admirable  paper 
in  the  Guardian,  No.  70;  and  article 
Deists. 

FRENCH  CHURCH.  See  Church 
Gallican. 

FRENCH  PROPHETS.  They  first 
appeared  in  Dauphiny  and  Vivarais.  In 
the  year  168^,  five  or  six  hundred  Pro- 
testants of  both  sexes  gave  themselves 
out  to  be  prophets,  and  inspired  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  They  soon  became  so  nu- 
merous, that  there  were  many  thou- 
sands of  them  inspired.  They  were 
people  of  all  ages  and  sexes  without 
distinction,  though  the  gi'eatest  part  of 
them  were  boys  and  girls  from  six  or 
seven  to  twenty-five  years  of  age.  They 
had  strange  fits,  which  came  upon  them 
with  tremblings  and  fainthigs  as  in  a 
swoon,  which  made  them  stretch  out 
their  arms  and  legs,  and  stagger  several 
times  before  they  dropped  down.  They 
struck  themselves  with  their  hands, 
they  fell  on  their  backs,  shut  their  eyes, 
and  heaved  with  their  breasts.  They 
remained  a  while  in  trances,  and,  com- 
ing out  of  them  with  twitchings,  uttered 
all  which  came  in  their  mouths.  They 
said  they  saw  the  heavens  open,  the 
angels,  paradise,  and  hell.  Those  Avho 
were  just  on  the  point  of  receiving  the 
spirit  of  prophecy,  dropped  down  not 
only  in  the  assemblies,  crying  out  mercy, 
but  in  the  fields, and  in  tlieir  own  houses. 
The  least  of  their  assemblies  made  up 
four  orfive  hundred,  and  somex)f  them 
amounted  to  even  three  or  four  thou- 
sand persons.  When  the  prophets  had 
for  a  while  been  under  agitations  of 
body,  they  began  to  prophesy.  The  bur- 
den of  their  prophecies  was.  Amend 
your  lirves ;  rejient  ye:  the  end  of  all 
things  draws  nigh!  The  hills  rebound- 
ed with  their  loud  cries  for  mercy,  and 
imprecations  against  the  jiriests,  the 
cliurch,  tlie  pope,  and  against  tlie  anti- 
christian  dominion,  witli  predictions  of 
the  approaching  full  of  popery.    AH 


I]  they  said  at  these  times  was  heatid  and 
I  received  with  I'everence  and  awe. 
I  In  the  year  1706,  three  or  four  of  these 
ij  prophets  came  over  into  England,  and 
;{ brought  their  prophetic  spirit  along 
[:  %vith  them,  which  discovered  itself  in 
jl  the  same  ways  and  manners,  by  ecsta- 
i]  cies,  and  agitations,  and  inspirations  un- 
ij  der  them,  as  it  had  done  in  France;  and 
j'  they  propagated  the  like  spirit  to  others, 
ij  so  that  before  the  year  was  out  there 
i!  v/ere  two  or  three  hundred  of  these 
jl  prophets  in  and  about  London,  of  both 
['  sexes,  of  all  ages ;  men,  women,  and 
'i  children :  and  they  had  delivered  under 
jl  inspiration  four  or  five  hundred  pro- 
phetic waraings. 

The  great  thmgs  they  pretended  by 
their  spirit  was,  to  give  warning  of  the 
near  ajijiroach  of  the  kingdom  of  God, 
the  hapfiy  times  of  the  church,  the  mil- 
lennium state.  Their  message  was  (and 
they  were  to  proclaim  it  as  heralds  to 
the  Jews,  and  e\  eiT  nation  under  hea- 
ven, beginning  at  Tingland,)  tiiat  the 
grand  jubihe,  the  acceptable  year  of 
the  Lord,  the  accomplishment  of  those 
numerous  Scriutvires  concerning  the 
new  heaven  and  the  new  earth,  the 
kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  the  lyiarriage 
of  the  Ldmb,  the  first  resurrection,  or 
the  new  Jerusalem  descending  from, 
above,  were  now  even  at  the  door ;  that 
!  this  great  operation  was  to  be  wrought 
on  the  part  of  man  by  spiritual  arras 
only,  proceeding  fi'om'  the  mouths  of 
those  who  should  by  iiispiration,  or  the 
mighty  gift  of  the  Spirit,  be  sent  forth  ii\ 
great  numbers  to  labour  in  the  vine- 
yard ;  that  this  mission  of  his  servants 
should  be  witnessed  to  by  signs  and 
wonders  from  hea\'en,  Ijy  a  deluge  of 
judgments  on  the  wicked  imiversally 
throughout  the  world,  as  famine,  pesti- 
lence, earthquakes,  ike.  that  the  exter- 
minating angels  shall  root  out  the  tares, 
and  there  shall  remain  upon  e.irth  only 
good  corn;  and  the  works  of  men  being 
thrown  down,  there  shall  be  but  one 
Lord,  one  faith,  one  heart,  one  voice 
among  mankind.  They  declared  that 
all  tlie  great  things  they  spoke  of  would 
be  manifest  over  the  whole  earth  with- 
in the  term  of  three  years. 

'I'hese  prophets  also  pretended  to  the 
gift  of  languages,,  of  discerning  the  se- 
crets of  the  heart,  the  gift  of  ministra- 
tion of  tlie  same  spirit  to  others  by  the 
laying  on  of  the  hands,  and  the  gift  of 
healing.    To  prove  they  were  really  in- 
I  spired  by  the  Holv  Ghost,  they  alleged 
1  the  complete  joy  and  satisfaction  they 
j  expenenced,  the  spirit  of  prayer  which 
was  poured  forth  upon  them,  and  the 
j  answer  of  their  prayer  by  God. 


FRI 


193 


FUN 


FRIAR  (brother,)  a  term  common  to  ; 
the  monks  of  all  orders.  In  a  more  pe-  ! 
culiar  sense,  it  is  restrained  to  such  I 
monks  as  are  not  priests :  for  those  in  j 
orders  are  usually  dignified  with  the  j 
appellation  of  father.  \ 

FRIENDSHIP,  a  mutual  attachment , 
subsisting  between  two    pereons,    and ; 
arising    not  merely  from  the   general  | 
principle  of  benevolence,  from  emotions  • 
of  gratitude  for  favours  received,  from 
views  of  interest,  nor  from  instinctive 
affection  or  animal  passion ;  but  from  an 
opinion   entertained  by  each   of  them 
that   the   other  is  adorned  with  some 
amiable  or  respectable  qualities.    Vari- 
ous have  been  the  opinions  respecting 
friendship.    Some   have   asserted    that 
there  is  no  such  thing  in   the  world ;  j 
others  have  excluded  it  from  the  list  of 
Christian  virtues;  while  others,  believ- 
ing the  possibility  of  its  existence,  sup- 
pose that  it  is  very  rare.    To  the  two 
former  remarks   v/e   may   reply,  that 
there  is   every  reason  to  believe  that 
there  has  been,  and  is  such  a  thing  as  ! 
friendship.    The  Scriptures  present  us  \ 
both  with  examples  of,   and  precepts 
concerning    it.     David    and    Jonathan, 
Paul  and  Timothy,  our  Lord  and  La- 
zarus, as  well  as  John,  are  striking  in- 
stances of  friendship.    Solomon  exhorts 
us  in  language  so  energetic,  as  at  once 
shews  it  to  be  our  duty  to  cultivate  it. 
"  Thine   own  friend,  and  thy  father's 
friend,   forsake  not."    "Make  sure  of 
thy  friend,  for  faithful  are  the  wounds 
of  a  friend,"  &c.     The  genius  and  in- 
junctions of  the  Christian  religion  seem 
also  to  inculcate  this  virtue ;  for  it  not 
only  commands  universal  benevolence 
to  men,  but  pi-omotes  the  strongest  love 
and   friendship    between    those   whose 
minds  are  enlightened  by  divine  grace, 
and  who  behold  in  each  other  the  image 
of  their  Divine  Master.    As  friendship, 
however,  is  not  enjoyed  by  e\ery  one, 
and  as  the  want  of  it  rises  often  from 
ourselves,  we  shall  here  subjoin,  from 
an  eminent  writer,  a  few  remarks  by 
way  of  advice  respecting  it.      1.    We 
must  not  expect  perfection  in  anv  with 
whom  we  conti-act  fellowship. — 2.  We 
must  not  be  hurt  by  differences  of  opi- 
nion  arising    in    intercourse   with    our 
friends. — 3.  It  is  material  to  the  preser- 
vation of  friendship,  that  openness  of 
temper  and  obliging  manners  on  both 
hands  be  cultivated. — 4.  We  must  not 
feten  rashly  to  evil  reports  against  ou.r 
friends. — 5.'  We   must  not  desert  our 
friends  in  danger  or  distress.     Blair's 
Ser.  ser.  17.  vol.  iv.    Hfi.  Porteus's  Ser. 
vol.  i.  ser.  15.     IV.  MelmrAh's  Transla- 
tion of  Cicero's  JLeeliua,  in  a  JVote. 


FRIENDS,  Society  of.  See  Qua- 
kers. 

FRUGALITY,  is  the  keeping  due 
bounds  in  expenses ;  it  is  the  Jiappy 
mean  between  parsimony  on  the  one 
hand,  and  prodigality  on  the  other.  The 
example  of  Christ,'  John  vi.  12.  the  in- 
junctions of  God's  word,  Luke  xv.  1. 
Prov.  xviii.  9.  the  evil  effects  of  inatten- 
tion to  it,  Luke  xi.  1.  13.  the  pejice  and 
comfort  which  arise  from  it,  together 
with  the  good  which  it  enables  us  to  do 
to  others,  should  operate  as  motives  to 
excite  us  to  the  practice  of  it.  Wood's 
Ser.  on  Frugality,  1795  ;  Robinson's 
Mor.  Ex.  ex.  3.  Ridgley's  Body  of 
Div.  546,  3d  edition. 

FUNERAL  RITES,  ceremonies  ac- 
companying the  interment  or  burial  of 
any  person. 

The  first  people  who  seemed  to  have 
paid  any  attention  to  their  dead  were 
the  Egyptians.  They  took  great  care 
in  embalming  their  bodies,  and  building 
proper  repositories  for  them.  This 
gave  birth  to  those  Avonders  of  the 
world,  the  Eg}-ptian  pyramids.  On  the 
death  of  any  person  among  them,  the 
parents  and  iriends  put  on  mournful 
habits,  and  abstained  from  all  banquets 
and  entertainments.  This  mourning 
lasted  from  forty  to  seventy  days,  during 
which  time  they  embalmed  the  body. 
Before  the  'dead  were  allov>^ed  to  be  de- 
posited in  the  tomb,  they  underwent  a 
solemn  judgment.  If  any  one  stepped 
forth,  accused  them,  and  proved  tliat 
the  deceased  had  led  an  evil  life,  the 
judges  pronounced  sentence,  and  the 
body  was  precluded  from  burial.  Even 
their  sovereigns  underwent  this  judica- 
ture ;  and  Diodorus  Siculus  asserts,  that 
many  kings  had  been  deprived  of  the 
honours  of  burial,  and  that  the  terrors 
of  such  a  fate  had  a  salutaiy  influence 
on  the  virtue  of  their  kings. 

The  funeral  rites  among  the  Hebrews 
were  solemn  and  magnificent.  The  re- 
lations and  friends  rent  their  clothes; 
and  it  was  usual  to  bend  the  dead  per- 
son's thumb  into  the  hand,  and  fasten  it 
in  that  posture  \\ith  a  string,  because 
the  thumb  then  having  the  figure  >''f  the 
name  of  God,  they  thought  the  devil 
would  not  approach  it.  Thev  made  a 
funeral  oration  at  the  grave,  after  which 
they  prayed ;  then  turning  the  face  of 
the  deceased  towards  heaA  en,  they  said, 
"  Go  in  peace." 

The  Greeks  used  to  put  a  piece  of 
money  in  the  mouth  of  the  deceased, 
which  was  tliought  to  be  the  fare  over 
the  infernal  river :  they  abstained  from 
banquets ;  tore,  cut,  or  shaved  their 
hair ;  sometimes  throwing  themselve* 
Bb 


FUN 


194 


FUT 


on  the  ground,  and  rolling  in  the  dust ; 
beatine  their  breasts,  and  even  tearing 
their  flesh  with  their  nails. 

The  funeral  rites  among  the  Romans 
v/ere  very  numerous. — They  kept  the 
deceased  seven  days,  and  washed  him 
every  day  with  hot  water,  and  some- 
times with  oil,  if  possibly  he  might  be 
revived,  in  case  he  were  only  in  a  slum- 
ber; and  every  now  and  then  his  friends, 
meeting,  made  a  horrible  shout  with 
the  same  vicv  :  but  if  they  found  he  did 
not  revive,  he  was  dressed  and  embalm- 
ed with  a  performance  of  a  variety  of 
singular  ceremonies,  and  at  last  brought 
to  the  funeral  pile,  and  burnt :  alter 
which  his  ashes  were  gathered,  inclosed 
in  an  urn,  and  deposited  in  the  sepulchre 
or  tomb. 

The  ancient  Christians  testified  their 
abhorrence  of  the  pagan  custom  of  burn- 
ing their  dead,  and  always  deposited 
the  body  entire  in  the  ground ;  and  it 
was  usual  to  bestow  the  honour  of  em- 
balming upon  the  martyrs,  at  least,  if 
not  upon  ethers.  They  prepared  the 
body  for  burial  by  washing  it  with  wa- 
ter, and  dressing  it  in  a  funeral  attire. 
This  was  performed  by  near  relations, 
or  persons  of  such  dignity  as  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  deceased  required. 
Psalmody,  or  singing  of  psalms,  was  the 
great  ceremony  used  in  all  funeral  pro- 
cessions among  the  ancient  Christians. 

In  the  Romish  church,  when  a  person 
is  dead,  they  wash  the  body,  and  put  a 
crucifix  in  his  hand.  At  the  feet  stands 
a  vessel  of  holy  water,  and  a  sprinkler, 
that  they  who  come  in  may  sprhikle 
both  themselves  and  the  deceased.  In 
the  mean  time  some  priest  stands  by 
the  corpse,  and  prays  for  the  deceased 
till  it  is  laid  in  the  earth.  In  the  fune- 
ral procession  the  exorcist  walks  first, 
carrying  the  holy  water;  next  the  cross 
bearer ;  afterwards  the  rest  of  the  cler- 
gy ;  and,  last  of  all,  the  officiating  priest. 
They  all  sing  the  miserere,  and  some 
other  psalms ;  and  at  the  end  of  each 
psalm  a  requiem.  It  is  said,  that  the 
faces  of  deceased  laymen  must  be  turn- 
ed towards  the  altar  when  they  are 
placed  in  the  church,  and  those  of  the 
clei'gy  towards  the  people.  The  corpse 
is  placed  in  the  church,  surrounded  with 
lighted  tapers.  After  the  office  for  the 
dead,  mass  is  said ;  then  the  officiating 
priest  sp'-inkles  the  corpse  thrice  with 
holy  water,  and  as  often  throws  incense 
on  it.  The  Ijody  being  laid  in  the  grave, 
the  friends  and  the  relations  of  the  de- 
ceased sprinkle  the  grave  with  holy 
water. 

The  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  Greek 
church  are  much  the  same  with  those 


of  the  Latin.  It  needs  only  to  be  ob- 
served, that,  after  the  ftineral  service, 
they  kiss  the  cinicifix,  and  salute  the 
mouth  and  foi-ehead  of  the  deceased ; 
after  which,  each  of  the  company  eats 
a  bit  of  bread,  and  drinks  a  glass  of 
wine  in  the  church,  wishing  the  soul  a 
good  repose,  and  the  afflicted  family  all 
consolations.  Bingham's  Antiqu.  b.  ?. 
Enc.  Brit. ;  BuxtorPs  Syvag:  p.  502. 

FUTURE  STATE,  a  term  made 
use  of  in  relation  to  the  existence  of 
the  soul  after  death.  That  there  is  such 
a  state  of  existence,  we  have  every  rea- 
son to  believe  ;  "  for  if  we  suppose," 
says  a  good  writer,  "the  events  of  this 
life  to  have  no  reference  to  another,  the 
whole  state  of  man  becomes  not  only 
inexplicable,  but  contradictory  and  in- 
consistent. The  powei's  of  the  inferior 
animals  are  pertectly  suited  to  their 
station.  They  know  nothing  higher 
than  their  present  condition.  In  gratify- 
ing their  appetites,  they  fulfil  their  desti-. 
ny,  and  pass  away. — Man,  alone,  comes 
forth  to  act  a  part  which  carries  no 
meaning,  and  tends  to  no  end.  EndoAv- 
ed  with  capacities  which  extend  far  be- 
yond his  present  sphere,  fitted  by  his  ra- 
tional nature  for  running  the  race  of 
immortality,  he  is  stopped  short  in  the 
very  entrance  of  his  conrse.  He  squan- 
ders his  activity  on  pursuits  which  he 
discerns  to  be  vain.  He  languishes  for 
knowledge  which  is  placed  beyond  his 
reach.  He  thirsts  after  a  happiness 
which  he  is  doomed  never  to  enjoy.  He 
sees  and  laments  the  disasters  of  his 
state,  and  yet,  upon  this  supposition,  can 
find  nothing  to  remedy  them.  Has  the 
eternal  God  any  pleasure  in  sporting 
himself  wnth  such  a  scene  of  misery  and 
folly  as  this  life  (if  it  had  no  connection 
with  another)  must  exhibit  to  his  eye  .' 
Did  he  call  into  existence  this  magnifi- 
cent universe,  adorn  it  with  so  much 
beauty  and  splendour,  and  surround  it 
with  those  glorious  luminaries  which 
we  behold  in  the  heavens,  only  that 
some  generations  of  mortal  men  might 
arise  to  behold  these  wonders,  and  then 
disappear  for  ever  ?  How  unsuitable  in 
this  case  were  the  habitation  to  the 
wretched  inhabitant !  How  inconsistent 
the  commencement  of  his  being,  and 
the  mighty  preparation  of  his  powers 
and  faculties,  with  his  despicable  end ! 
How  contradictory,  in  fine,  were  every 
thing  which  concerns  the  state  of  maru 
to  the  wisdom  and  perfections  of  his 
Maker!" 

But  that  there  is  such  a  state  is  clear 
from  many  passages  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, John  v.  24.  Acts  vii.  9.  Rom. 
viii.  10,  11.    2  Cor.  v.  1,  2.    PhU.  i.  2! 


aAh 


195 


GAZ 


1  Thess.  iv.  14.  1  Thess.  v.  10.  Luke 
xvi.  22,  &c.  But,  though  these  texts 
prove  the  point,  yet  some  ha\e  doubted 
whether  tliere  be  any  where  in  the  Old 
Testament  any  reference  to  a  future 
state  at  all.  The  case,  it  is  said,  appears 
to  be  this :  the  Mosaic  covenant  contain- 
ed no  promises  dh'ectly  relating  to  a 
future  state  ;  probably,  as  Dr.  Warbur- 
ton  asserts,  and  argues  at  large,  because 
Moses  was  secure  of  an  equal  firovi- 
flence,  and  therefore  needed  not  subsi- 
diary sanctions  taken  from  a  future 
state,  without  the  belief  of  which  the 
doctrine  of  an  universal  providence  can- 
not ordinarily  be  vindicated,  nor  the 
general  sanctions  of  religion  secured. 
But,  in  opposition  to  this  sentiment,  as 
Doddridge  observes,  "  it  is  evident  that 
^ood  men,  even  before  Moses,  were 
animated  by  views  of  a  future  state, 
Heb.  xi.  13,"  16,  as  he  himself  plainly 
was,  24  to  26  verse ;  and  that  the  pro- 
mises of  heavenly  felicity  were  contain- 
ed even  in  the  covenant  made  with 
\braham,  which  the  Mosaic  could  not 
.'sannul.  Succeeding  providences  also 
onfirmed  the  natural  arguments  in  its 
favour,  as  every  remarkable  inteipcsi- 
tion  would  do  ;  and  when  general  pro- 
mises were  made  to  the  obedient,  and 
an  equal  providence  relating  to  the  na- 
tion established  on  national  conformity 
to  the  Mosaic  institution,  and  not  merely 
to  the  general  precepts  of  virtue ;  as 
such  an  equal  providence  would  neces- 
sarily involve  many  of  the  best  men  in 
national  rain,  at  a  time  when,  by  pre- 
serving their  integrity  in  the  midst  of 


general  apostasy,  their  virtue  was  most 
conspicuous  ;  such  good  men,  in  such  a 
state,  would  have  vast  additional  rea- 
sons for  expecting  future  rewards,  be- 
yond what  could  arise  from  principles 
common  to  the  rest  of  mankind ;  so  that 
we  cannot  wonder  that  we  find  in  the 
writings  of  the  prophets  many  strong 
expressions  of  such  an  expectation, 
particularly  Gen.  xlix.  18.  Ps.  xvi.  9  to 
11.  Ps.  xv'ii.  last  ver.  Ps.  Ixxiii.  17,  27. 
Eccl.  iii.  15,  16,  &c.  Eccl.  vii.  12,  15. 
Is.  iii.  10,  11.  Ezek.  xviii.  19,  21.  Job 
xix.  23,  37.  Dan.  xii.  2.  Is.  xxxv.  8. 
Is.  xxvi.  19.  The  same  thing  may  also 
be  infen'ed  from  the  particular  promises 
made  to  Daniel,  Dan.  xii.  13.  to  Zei-ub- 
babel,  Hag.  ii.  23.  and  to  Joshua,  the 
high  priest,  Zech.  iii.  7.  as  well  as  from 
those  historical  facts  recorded  in  the 
Old  Testament  of  the  murder  of  Abel, 
the  translation  of  Enoch  and  Elijah,  the 
death  of  Moses,  and  the  story  of  the 
witch  of  Endor,  and  from  what  is  said 
of  the  appearance  of  angels  to,  and  their 
converse  with  good  men."  See  articles 
Intermediate  State,  Resurrec- 
tion, and  Soul  ;  also  Doddridge's  Lec- 
tures, lect.  216;  Warburton's  Divine 
Legation  of  Moses,  vol.  ii.  p.  553 — 568  ; 
Dr.  jiddingtoii^s  Dissertations  oji  the 
Religious  Knowledge  of  the  ancient 
Jews  and  Patriarchs,  containing  an  en- 
quiry into  the  evidences  of  their  belief 
and  expectation  of  a  future  state ; 
Blair's  Sermons,  ser.  15,  vol.  i. ;  Robin- 
son's Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  132  ;  W.  Joties's 
Works,  vol.  vi.  ser.  12;  Logan's  Ser- 
mons, vol.  ii.  p.  413. 


G. 


GAIANITiE,  a  denomination  which '] 
derived  its  name  from  Gaian,  a  bishop  1 
of  Alexandria,  in  the  sixth  century,  who 
denied  that  Jesus  Christ,  after  the  hy-  i 
postatical  union,  was  subject  to  any  of  i 
the  infirmities  of  human  nature.  !! 

GALILEANS,  a  sect  of  the  Jews  ; 
which  arose  in  Judea  some  years  after  \ 
the  birth  of  our  Saviour.  Thev  sprang  , 
from  one  Judas,  a  native  of  Ga'ulam,  in  i 
upper  Galilee,  upon  the  occasion  of  Au-  \ 
gustus  appointing  the  people  to  be  mus-  ; 
tered,  which  they  looked  upon  as  an ;, 
instance  of  servitude  which  all  true  Is-  i 
raelites  ought  to  oppose.  They  pre- , 
tended  that  God  alone  should  be'owned 
as  master  and  lord,  and  in  other  re- ! 
spects  were  of  the  opinion  of  the  Phari-  ; 
sees;  but  as  they  judged  it  unlawful  to!; 


pray  for  infidel  princes,  they  separated 
themselves  from  the  rest  of  the  Jews, 
and  performed  their  sacrifices  apart. 
As  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles  were  of 
Galilee,  they  were  suspected  to  be  of 
the  sect  of  the  Galileans ;  and  it  was  on 
this  principle,  as  St.  Jerome  observes, 
that  the  Pharisees  laid  a  snare  for  him, 
asking,  ^Vhether  it  were  lawful  to  give 
tribute  to  Cxsar?  that  in  case  he  denied 
it,  they  might  have  an  occasion  of  ac- 
cusing him. 

GAZARES,  a  denomination  which 
appeared  about  1197  at  Gazare,  a  town 
oi  Dalmatia.  They  held  almost  the 
same  opinions  with  the  Albigenses  ;  but 
their  distinguishing  tenet  was,  that  no 
human  power  had  a  right  to  sentence 
men  to  death  for  any  crime  whatever. 


GE?f 


196 


GEN 


GEMARA.    See  Talmud. 

GENERAL  CALL.    See  Calling. 

GENERATION,  ETERNAL,  is  a 
term  used  as  descriptive  of  the  Father's 
communicating  the  Divine  Nature  to 
the  Son.  The  Father  is  said  by  some 
divines  to  have  produced  the  Word,  or 
Son,  from  all  eternity,  by  way  of  gene- 
ration ;  on  which  occasion  the  word 
generation  raises  a  peculiar  idea :  that 
procession  which  is  reaUy  affected  in 
the  way  of  understanding  is  called  gene- 
ration, because,  in  virtue  thereof,  the 
Word  becomes  like  to  Him  from  whom 
he  takes  the  original ;  or,  as  St.  Paul 
expresses  it,  the  figure  or  image  of  his 
substance  ;  i.  e.  of  his  being  and  nature. 
— And  hence  it  is,  they  say,  that  the 
second  person  is  called  the  Son ;  and 
that  in  such  a  way  and  manner  as  never 
any  other  was,  is,  or  can  be,  because 
of  his  ouTi  divine  nature,  he  being  the 
true,  proper,  and  natural  Son  of  God, 
begotten  by  him  before  all  worlds.  Thus, 
he  is  called  his  onvn  Son,  Rom.  viii.  3. 
his  onlif  begotten  Son,  John  iii.  16. 
Many  have  attempted  to  explain  the 
manner  of  this  generation  by  different 
similitudes ;  but  as  they  throw  little  or 
no  light  upon  the  subject,  we  shall  not 
trouble  the  reader  with  them.  Some, 
however,  suppose  that  the  term  Son  of 
God  refers  to  Christ  as  mediator ;  and 
that  his  Sonship  does  not  lie  in  his  di- 
vine or  human  nature,  separately  con- 
sidered, but  in  the  union  of  both  in  one 
person.  See  Luke  i.  35.  Matt.  iv.  3. 
John  i.  49.  Matt.  xvi.  16.  Acts  ix.  20, 22. 
Rom.  i.  4.  It  is  observed,  that  it  is  im- 
possible that  a  nature  properly  divine 
should  be  begotten,  since  begetting, 
whatever  idea  is  annexed  to  it,  must 
signify  some  kind  of  production,  deriva- 
tion, and  inferiority  ;  consequently,  that 
whatever  is  produced  must  have  a  be- 
ginning, and  whatever  had  a  beginning 
was  not  from  eternity,  as  Christ  is  said 
to  be,  Is.  ix.  6.  Col.  i.  16,  17.  That 
the  Sonship  of  Chri<^'.-  respects  him  as 
mediator  will  be  evident,  if  we  com- 
pare John  X.  30.  with  John  xiv.  28.  In 
the  former  it  is  said,  "I  and  my  Fa- 
ther are  one  ;"  in  the  latter,  "  My  Fa- 
ther is  greater  than  I."  These  decla- 
rations, however  opposite  thev  seem, 
equally  respect  him  as  he  is  the  Son ; 
but  if  his  Sonship  primarily  and  properly 
signifv  the  generation  of  his  di\  ine  na- 
ture, ^it  will  he  diihcult,  if  not  impossi- 
ble, according  to  that  scheme,  to  make 
them  harmonize.  Considered  as  a  dis- 
tinct ])ei"son  in  the  (iodhead,  without 
respect  to  his  office  as  mediator,  it  is 
impossible,  tl\at,  in  the  same  view,  he 
should  be  both  ei]ual  and  Inferior  to  his 


Father.  Again :  he  expressly  tells  us 
himself,  that  "  the  Son  can  do  nothing  of 
himself;  that  the  Father  showeth  him 
all  things  that  he  doth ;  and  that  he 
giveth  him  to  have  life  in  himself,'* 
John  v.  19,  20,  26.  which  expressions, 
if  applied  to  him  as  God,  not  as  media- 
tor, will  reduce  us  to  the  disagreeable 
necessity  of  subscriliing  either  to  the 
creed  of  Arius,  and  maintain  him  to  be 
God  of  an  inferior  nature,  and  thus  a 
plurality  of  Gods,  or  to  embrace  tlie 
doctrine  of  Socinus,  who  allows  him 
only  to  be  a  God  by  office.  But  if  this 
title  belong  to  him  as  mediator,  every 
difficulty  is  removed.  And,  lastly,  it  is 
observed,  that  though  Jesus  be  God, 
and  the  attributes  of  eternal  existence 
ascribed  to  him,  yet  the  two  attributes, 
eternal  and  son,  are  not  once  expressed 
in  the  same  text  as  referring  to  eternal 
generation.  See  article  Son  of  God  ; 
Given  071  the  Person  of  Christ ;  Pearson 
on  the  Creed  ;  Pidgley's  Body  of  Divi- 
nity, p.  73,  76.  3d  edition ;  GiWs  Ditto  ; 
p.  205,  vol.  i.  8vo.  edition  ;  Lambert's 
Sermons,  ser.  13.  text  John  xi.  35. ; 
Hodson's  Essay  on  the  Ktemal  Filia- 
tion of  the  Son  of  Gods  Watts's  Works, 
vol.  V.  p.  77. 

GENEROSITY,the  disposition  which 
prompts  us  to  bestow  favours  which  are 
not  the  purchase  of  any  particular  merit. 
It  is  different  from  humanity.  Huma- 
nity is  an  exquisite  feeling  we  possess 
in  relation  to  others,  so  as  to  grieve  for 
their  sufferings,  resent  their  injuries,  or 
to  rejoice  at  their  prosperity  ;  and  as  it 
arises  from  sympathy,  it  requires  no 
gi-eat  self-denial,  or  self-command ;  but 
generosity  is  that  by  which  we  are  led 
to  prefer  some  other  person  to  our- 
selves, and  to  sacrifice  any  interest  of 
our  own  to  the  interest  of  another. 

GENIUS,  a  good  or  evil  spirit  or  dae- 
mon, who  the  ancients  supposed  was 
set  over  each  person  to  direct  his  birth, 
accompany  him  in  his  life,  and  to  be  his 
guard. 

Genius  signifies  that  aptitude  which 
a  man  naturally  possesses  to  perform 
well  and  easily  that  which  others  can 
do  but  indifferently,  and  with  a  gi'eat 
deal  of  pain. 

GENTILE,  in  matters  of  religion,  a 
Pagan,  or  worshipper  of  false  gods. 
The  origin  of  this  word  is  deduced  from 
the  Jews,  who  called  all  those  who 
were  not  of  their  name  □"U  gojim,  i.  e. 
gentes,  which  in  the  Greek  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  rendered  to, 
fSvn,  in  which  sense  it  frequently  occurs 
in  the  New  Testament ;  as  in  Matt.  vi. 
32.  "  All  these  things  the  nations  or 
Geyitiles   seek."     Whence    the    Latin 


GEN 


197 


GIF 


church  also  used  gentes  in  the  same 
sense  as  our  Gentiles,  especially  in  tlie 
New  Testament.  But  the  woi'd  gentes 
soon  got  another  signification,  and  no 
longer  meant  all  such  as  were  not  Jews, 
but  those  only  who  Avere  neither  Jews 
nor  Christian's,  but  followed  the  super- 
stitions of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  &c. 
In  this  sense  it  continued  among  the 
Christian  writers,  till  their  manner  of 
speech,  together  with  their  religion, 
was  publicly,  and  by  authority,  received 
in  the  empire,  when  gentiles,  frrim  gen- 
tes, came  mto  use  ;  and  then  both  words 
had  two  significations ;  viz.  in  treatises 
or  laws  concerning  religion,  they  signi- 
fied Pagans,  neither  Jews  nor  Chris- 
tians ;  and  in  civil  affairs  they  are  used 
for  all  such  as  were  not  Romans.  See 
Heathen.    Paganism. 

GENTLENESS,  softness  or  mildness 
of  disposition  and  behaviour.    Little  as 
this  disposition  is  thought  of  by  many, 
we  find  it  considered  in  Scripture  as  a 
characteristic    of   the   true  Christian. 
"The   wisdom   that    is    from    above," 
saith  St.  James,  "  is  gentle,"  ch.  iii.  17. 
*'  This  gentleness,  uideed,  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from    passive    tameness   of 
spirit,  and  from  unlimited   compliance 
with  the  manners  of  others.    That  pas- 
sive tameness,  which  submits  without  a 
struggle  to  every  encroachment  of  the 
viok-nt  and  assuming,  forms  no  part  of 
Christian  duty ;   but,  on  the   contrary, 
is  destructive  of  general  happiness  and 
order.    That   unlimited   complaisance, 
which  on  eveiy  occasion  falls  in  v.ith 
the  opinions  and  manners  of  others,  is 
so  far  irom  being  a  virtue,  that  it  is  it- 
self a  vice,   and    the  parent  of  many 
vices.    It  overthrows  all  steadiness  of 
principle,  and  produces  that  sinful  con- 
formity with   the  world    which   taints 
the  whole  character.    In  the   present 
con-upted  state  of  human  manners,  al- 
ways to   assent  and  to  comply,  is  the 
very  worst  maxim  we  can  adopt.    True 
gentleness,  therefore,  is  to  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  the  mean  spirit  of 
cowards  and  the  fawning  assent  of  syco- 
phants.   It  renounces  no  just  right  from 
tear;    it   gives  up  no  important   truth 
from  flatteiy  :  it  is,  indeed,  not  only  con- 
sistent with  a  fii-m  mind,  but  it  neces- 
sarily rec^uires  a  manly  spirit  and  a  fix- 
ed  principle,   in   order  to  give  it  any 
real  \alue.    It  stands  opposed  to  harsh- 
ness  and    severity,  to  pi-ide  and  arro- 
gance, to  \iolcnce  and  oppression :  it  is 
properly   that    part   of  charity  which 
makes  us  unwilling  to  give  pain  to  any 
of  our  brethren.    Compassion  prompts 
us  to  relieve  their  wants ;  forbearance 
prevents  us  from  retaliating  their  inju- 


ries; meekness  restrains  our  angi-y 
passions;  candour  our  severe  judg- 
ments; but  gentleness  corrects  what- 
ever is  oflfensive  in  our  manner,  and,  by 
a  constant  train  of  humane  attentions, 
studies  to  alleviate  the  burden  of  com- 
mon miseiy." 

GENUFLECTION,  the  act  of  bow- 
ing or  bending  the  knee,  or  rather  of 
kneeling  down.  The  Jesuit  Rosweyd, 
in  his  Onomasticon,  shows  that  genu- 
flecticn,  or  kneeling,  has  been  a  very 
ancient  custom  in  the  church,  and  even 
under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation  ; 
and  that  this  practice  was  obsei-ved. 
throughout  all  the  year,  excepting  on 
Sundays,  and  during  the  time  from  Eas- 
ter to  Whitsuntide,  when  kneeling  was 
forbidden  by  the  council  of  Nice.  Others 
have  shown,  that  the  custom  of  not 
kneeling  on  Sundays  had  obtained  from 
the  time  of  the  apostles,  as  appears  from 
St.  Irenxus  and  TertuUian ;  and  the 
Ethiopic  church,  scinipulously  attached 
to  the  ancient  ceremonies,  still  retains 
that  of  not  kneeling  at  divine  service. 
The  Russians  esteem  it  an  indecent  pos- 
ture to  worship  God  on  the  knees.  The 
Jews  usually  prayed  standing.  Baronius 
is  of  opinion  that  genuflection  was  not 
established  in  the  year  of  Christ  58, 
from  that  passage  in  Acts  xx.  36,  where 
St.  Paul  is  expressly  mentioned  to  kneel 
down  at  prayer ;  but  Saurin  shows  that 
nothing  can  be  thence  concluded.'  The 
same  author  remarks,  also,  that  the 
primitive  Christians  carried  the  prac- 
tice of  genuflection  so  far,  that  some  of 
them  had  worn  cavities  in  the  floor 
where  they  prayed :  and  St.  Jerome  re- 
lates of  St.  James,  that  he  had  con- 
tracted a  hardness  on  his  knees  equal 
to  that  of  camels. 

GHOST,  HOLY.  See  Holy  Ghost. 

GIFT  OF  TONGUES,  an  ability 
given  to  the  apostles  of  readily  and  in- 
telligibly speaking  a  variety  of  languages 
which  they  had  never  leamt.  This  was 
a  most  glorious  and  impoitant  attesta- 
tion of  the  Gospel,  as  well  as  a  suitable, 
and  indeed,  in  their  circumstances,  a 
necessary  furniture  for  the  mission  for 
which  the  apostles  and  their  assistants 
were  designed.  Nor  is  there  any  rea- 
son, with  Dr.  Middleton,  to  understand 
it  as  merel}'  an  occasional  gift,  so  that 
a  person  might  speak  a  language  most 
fluently  one  hour,  and  be  entirely  igno- 
rant of  it  in  the  next ;  which  neither 
agrees  with  what  is  said  of  the  abuse  of 
it,  nor  would  have  been  sufficient  to  an- 
swer the  end  proposed.  See  Acts  ii. 
See  Gill  and  Henry  inLoc;  Jortins 
Remarks,  vol.  i.  p.  15 — 21 ;  JEssay  on  the 
Gift  of  Tongues;  Middletofi's  Miscel. 


GIL 


19S 


GNO 


TVorks,  vol.  ii.  p.  379 ;  Doddridge's 
Lect.  lee.  141. 

GILBERTINES,  a  religious  order ; 
thus  called  from  St.  Gilbert,  of  Sem- 
pringham,  in  the  county  of  Lincoln,  who 
founded  the  same  about  the  year  1148  ; 
the  monks  of  which  observed  the  rule 
of  St.  Augustine,  and  were  accounted 
caiTons,  and  the  nuns  that  of  St.  Bene- 
dict. The  founder  of  this  order  erected 
a  double  monastery,  or  rather  two  dif- 
ferent ones,  contiguous  to  each  other; 
the  one  for  men,  the  other  for  women, 
but  parted  by  a  very  high  wall.  St.  Gil- 
bert himself  founded  thirteen  monaste- 
ries of  this  order;  viz.  four  for  men  alone, 
and  nine  for  men  and  women  together, 
which  had  in  them  700  brethren,  and 
1500  sisters.  At  the  dissolution,  there 
were  about  twenty-five  houses  of  this 
order  in  England  and  \^'ales. 

GLASSITES.   See  Sandemanians. 

GLORY,  praise,  or  honour,  attnbuted 
to  God,  in  adoration  or  worship.  The 
state  of  felicity  prepared  for  the  righ- 
teous.   See  Heaven. 

The  glory  of  God  is  the  manifestation 
of  the  divine  perfections  m  creation, 
providence,  and  grace.  We  may  be  said 
to  gi\"e  glory  to  God  when  we  confess 
our  sins,  when  we  love  him  supremely, 
when  we  commit  oui'selves  to  him,  are 
zealous  in  his  service,  improve  our  ta- 
lents, walk  humbly,  thankfully,  and 
cheerftilly  before  him,  and  recommend, 
.  proclavm,  or  set  forth  his  excellencies, 
to  others.  Josh.  vii.  19.  Gal.  ii.  20.  John 
XV.  8.    Ps.  1.  2.3.     Mat.  v.  16. 

GNOSIMACHI,  a  name  which  dis- 
tinguished those  in  the  seventh  centuiy 
who  were  professed  enemies  to  the 
Gnosis ;  i.  e.  the  studied  knowledge  or 
science  of  Christianity,  which  they  rest- 
ed wholly  on  good  works  ;  calling  it  a 
useless  labour  to  seek  for  knowledge  in 
the  Scripture.  In  short,  they  contended 
for  the  practice  of  morality  in  all  sim- 
plicity, and  blamed  those  who  aimed  at 
improving  and  perfecting  it  by  a  deeper 
knowledge  and  insight  into  the  doctrines 
and  mysteries  of  religion.  The  Gnosi- 
niachi  were  the  very  Reverse  of  the 
Gnostics. 

GNOSTICS,  (from  Fvuittix-s,  know- 
ing,) ancient  heretics,  famous  from  the 
first  rise  of  Christianity,  principally  in 
the  east.  It  appears  from  several-  pas- 
sageg  of  Scripture,  particularl}'  1  John 
ii.'lS;  1  Tim.vi.  20;  Col.  ii.  8;  tliat 
many  persons  were  infected  with  tlic 
(inostic  heresy  in  the  first  century; 
'hough  the  sect  did  not  render  itself 
conspicuous,  either  for  numbers  or  re- 
putation, before  the  time  of  Adrian, 
when  some  writers  erroneouslv  date  its 


rise.  The  name  was  adopted  by  this 
sect,  on  the  presumption  that  they  were 
the  only  pjersons  who  had  the  tnie 
knowledge  of  Christianity.  Accordingly 
they  looked  on  all  other  Christians  as 
simple,  ignorant,  and  barbarous  persons, 
who  explained  and  interpreted  the  sa- 
cred writings  in  a  low,  literal,  and  vin- 
edifying  signification.  At  first,  the  Gnos- 
tics were  the  only  philosophers  and  w'its 
of  those  times,  who  formed  for  them- 
selves a  peculiar  system  of  theology, 
agi'eeable  to  the  philosophy  of  Pythago- 
ras and  Plato ;  to  which  they  accom- 
modated all  their  interpretations  of 
Scripture.  But  Gnostics  afterwards  be- 
came a  generical  name,  comprehending 
divers  sects  and  parties  of  heretics,  who 
rose  in  the  first  centuries;  and  who, 
though  they  differed  among  themselves 
as  to  circumstances,  yet  all  agreed  in 
some  common  principles.  They  cor- 
iiipted  the  doctrme  of  the  Gospel  by  a 
profane  mixture  of  the  tenets  ot  the  ori- 
ental philosophy,  concerning  the  origin 
of  evil  and  the  creation  of  the  world, 
with  its  divine  ti'uths.  Such  were  the 
Valentinians,  Simonians,  Carpocratians, 
Nichclaitans,  &c. 

Gnostics  sometimes  also  occurs  in  a 
good  sense,  in  the  ancient  ecclesiastical 
writei's,  particularly  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus,  who,  in  the  person  of  his  Gnos- 
tic, describes  the  characters  and  quali- 
ties of  a  perfect  Christian.  This  point 
he  labours  in  the  seventh  book  of  his 
Stromata,  where  he  shows  that  none 
but  the  Gnostic,  or  learned  person,  has 
any  tnie  religion.  He  affirms,  that, 
were  it  possible  for  the  knowledge-  of 
God  to  be  separated  from  eternal  salva- 
tion, the  Gnostic  would  make  no  scruple 
to  choose  the  knowledge;  and  that  if 
God  would  promise  him  impunity  in 
doing  of  any  thing  he  has  once  spoken 
against,  or  offer  him  heaven  on  those 
terms,  he  would  never  alter  a  whit  of 
his  measures.  In  this  sense  the  father 
uses  Gnostics,  in  opposition  to  the  here- 
tics of  the  same  name ;  affirming,  that 
the  true  Gnostic  is  grown  old  in  the 
study  of  the  holy  Scripture,  and  that  he 
preserves  the  orthodox  docti'ine  of  the 
apostles,  and  of  the  church ;  whereas 
the  false  Gnostic  abandons  all  the  apos- 
tolical traditions,  as  imagining  himself 
wiser  than  the  apostles. 

Cinostics  was  sometimes  also  more 
particularly  used  for  the  successors  of 
the  NichoJaitans  and  Carpocratians,  in 
the  second  century,  upon  their  laying 
aside  the  names  of  the  first  authors. 
Such  as  would  be  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  all  their  doctrines,  reveries,  and  vi- 
sions may  consult  St.  Ireneeus,  Tertid- 


I 


GNO 


199 


GOD 


fidn,  Clemens  Alexandrimis,  Origen, 
and  St.  Efiijihanius ;  particularly  the 
first  of  these  writers,  who  relates  their 
sentiments  at  lai-ge,  and  confutes  them. 
Indeed  he  dwells  more  on  the  Valen- 
tinians  than  any  other  sect  of  Gnostics  ; 
but  he  shows  the  general  principles 
"vvhereon  all  their  mistaken  opinions 
were  founded,  and  the  method  they  fol- 
lowed in  explaining  Scripture.  He  ac- 
cuses them  of  introducing  into  religion 
\  certain  vain  and  ridiculous  genealogies, 
'•^  i.  e.  a  kind  of  di\'ine  processions  or  ema- 
nations, which  had  no  other  foundation 
but  in  their  own  wild  imagination.  The 
Gnostics  confessed,  that  these  xons,  or 
emanations,  were  no  where  expressly 
delivered  in  the  sacred  writings ;  but 
insisted  that  Jesus  Christ  had  intimated 
them  in  parables  to  such  as  could  under- 
stand" them.  They  built  their  theolog)' 
not  only  on  the  Gospels  and  the  epistles 
of  St.  t*aul,  but  also  on  the  law  of  Mo- 
ses and  the  propliets.  These  last  were 
peculiarly  seniceable  to  tliem,  on  ac- 
count of  the  allegories  and  allusions 
with  which  they  abound,  which  are  ca- 
pable of  different  interpretations;  though 
their  doctrine  concerning  the  creation 
of  the  woi'ld  by  one  or  more  inferior 
behigs  of  an  evil  or  imperfect  nature, 
led  them  to  deny  tlie  divine  authority  of 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  which 
contradicted  this  idle  fiction,  and  filled 
them  with  an  abhorrence  of  Moses  and 
the  religion  he  taught ;  alleging,  that  he 
was  actuated  by  the  malignant  author  of 
this  world,  who  consulted  his  own  glory 
and  authority,  and  not  the  real  advan- 
tage of  men.  Their  persuasion  that  evil 
resided  in  matter,  as  its  centre  and 
source,  made  them  treat  the  body  with 
contempt,  discourage  marriage,  and  re- 
ject the  doctrine  oi"  the  resurrection  of 
the  body,  and  its  re-union  with  the  im- 
mortal spirit.  Their  notion,  that  ma- 
levolent genii  presided  in  natui'e,  and 
occasioned  diseases  and  calamities,  wars 
and  desolations,  induced  them  to  apply 
themselves  to  the  study  of  magic,  in 
order  to  weaken  the  powers,  or  suspend 
the  influence  of  these  malignant  agents. 
The  Gnostics  considered  Jesus  Christ 
as  the  Son  of  God,  and  inferior  to  the 
J'ather,  who  came  into  the  world  for 
the  rescue  and  happiness  of  miserable 
mortals,  oppressed  by  matter  and  evil 
beings;  but  they  rejected  our  Lord's 
humanity,  on  the  principle  that  every 
thing  corporeal  is  essentially  and  intrin- 
sically evil ;  and  therefore  the  greatest 
part  of  them  denied  the  reality  of  his 
sufferings.  They  set  a  great  value  on 
the  beginning  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John, 
where  they  fancied  they  saw  a  great 


deal  of  their  xons,  or  emanations,  under 
the  terms  the  word,  the  life,  the  light, 
&c.  They  divided  all  nature  into  three 
kinds  of  beings,  viz.  hylic,  or  material ; 
/isychic,  or  animal ;  and  pneumatic,  or 
spiritual.  On  the  like  principle  they 
also  distinguished  three  sorts  of  men  ; 
material,  animal,  and  spiritual.  The 
first,  who  were  material,  and  incapable 
of  knowledge,  inevital)ly  perished,  botli 
soul  and  body ;  the  third,  such  as  the 
Gnostics  themselves  pretended  to  be, 
I  were  all  certainly  saved ;  the  ps}chic, 
or  animal,  who  were  the  middle  betAveen 
the  other  two,  were  capable  either  of 
being  saved  or  damned,  according  to 
their  good  or  evil  actions.  With  regard 
to  their  moral  doctrines  and  conduct, 
they  w'ere  much  divided.  The  gi'eatest 
part  of  this  sect  adopted  veiy  austere 
rules  of  life,  recommended  rigorous  alj- 
stinence,  and  prescribed  severe  bodily 
mollifications,  with  a  view  of  purifying 
and  exalting  the  mind.  However,  some 
maintained  that  there  was  no  moral  dif- 
ference in  human  actions ;  and  thus  con- 
founding right  with  wrong,  they  gave  a 
loose  rein  to  all  the  passions,  and  assert- 
ed the  innocence  of  following  blindly  all 
their  motions,  and  of  living  by  their  tu- 
multuous dictates.  Tliey  supported 
their  opinions  and  practice  by  various 
authorities :  some  referred  to  fictitious 
and  apociyphal  writings  of  Adam,  Abra- 
ham, Zoroaster,  Christ,  and  his  apos- 
tles ;  others  boasted  that  they  had  de- 
duced their  sentiments  from  secret  doc- 
ti-ines  of  Christ,  concealed  from  tiie  vul- 
gar ;  others  affirmed  that  they  arrived 
at  superior  degrees  of  wisdom  by  an  in- 
nate vigour  of  mind;  and  others  asserted 
that  they  were  instructed  in  these  mys- 
terious parts  of  theolog^ical  science  bv 
Theudas,  a  disciple  of  bt.  Paul,  and  by 
Matthias,  one  of  the  friends  of  our  Lord. 
TJie  tenets  of  the  ancient  Gnostics  were 
revived  ui  Spain,  in  the  fourth  century, 
by  a  sect  called  the  Priscillianists.  At 
length  the  name  Gnostic,  which  origi- 
nally w^as  glorious,  became  infamous,  by 
the  idle  opinions  and  dissolute  lives  of 
the  persons  who  bore  it. 

GOD,  the  self-existent,  infinitely 
perfect,  and  infinitely  good  Being,  who 
created  and  preserves  all  thii'.gs  that 
have  existence.  As  the  Divine  Being 
possesses  a  nature  far  beyond  the  com- 
prehension of  any  of  his  creatures,  of 
course  that  nature  is  inexplicable.  "All 
our  knowledge  of  invisible  objects  is  ob- 
tained by  analogy ;  that  is,  by  the  re- 
semblance which  they  bear  to  visibk- 
objects ;  but  as  thei-e  is  in  nature  no  ex- 
act resemblance  of  the  nature  of  God, 
an  attempt  to  explain  the  diAine  natuTe 


GOD 


200 


GOO 


is  absurd  and  impracticable.  All  simi- 
litudes, therefore,  which  are  used  in  at- 
tempting to  explain  it  must  be  rejected." 
Yet,  though  we  cannot  fully  understand 
his  nature,  there  is  something  of  him  we 
may  know.  He  hath  been  pleased  to 
discover  his  perfections,  in  a  measure, 
by  the  works  of  creation  and  tlie  Scrip- 
tures of  truth ;  these,  therefore,  we 
ought  to  study,  in  order  that  we  may 
obtain  the  most  becoming  thoughts  of 
him.  For  an  account  of  the  various  at- 
tributes or  perfections  of  God,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  those  articles  in 
this  work. 

There  are  various  names  given  to  the 
Almighty  in  the  Scriptures,  though  pro- 
perly speaking,  he  can  have  no  name  ; 
for  as  he  is  incomprehensible,  he  is  not 
nominable  ;  and  being  but  one,  he  has 
no  need  of  a  name  to  distinguish  him  ; 
nevertheless,  as  names  are  given  him  in 
the  Scriptures,  to  assist  our  ideas  of  his 
greatness  and  perfection,  they  are  wor- 
thy of  our  consideration.  These  names 
are.  El,  which  denotes  him  the  strong 
and  powerful  God,  Gen.  xvii.  1.  Eloah, 
■which  represents  him  as  the  only  proper 
object  of  worship,  Psal.  xlv.  6,  7.  Shad- 
dai,  which  denotes  him  to  be  all-suffi- 
cient and  all-mighty,  Exod.  vi.  3. 
Hheeljon,  which  represents  his  incom- 
parable excellency,  absolute  supremacy 
over  all,  and  his  peculiar  I'esidence  in 
the  highest  heavens,  Psalm  1. 11.  Adoni, 
which  makes  him  the  great  connector, 
supporter,  lord,  and  judge,  of  all  crea- 
tures, Psal.  ex.  1.  Jah,  which  may  de- 
note his  self-existence,  and  giving  of  be- 
ing to  his  creatures,  or  his  infinite  come- 
liness, and  answerableness  to  himself, 
and  to  the  happiness  of  his  creatures, 
Exod.  XV.  2.  Jbhjch,  I  am,  or  /  ivill  be, 
denotes  his  self-existence,  absolute  in- 
dependency, immutable  eternity,  and 
all-sufficiency,  to  his  people,  Exod.  iii. 
14.  Jeho-vah,  which  denotes  his  self- 
existence,  absolute  independence,  un- 
successive  eternity,  and  his  effectual  and 
marvellous  giving  of  being  to  his  crea- 
tures, and  fulfilling  his  promises.  Gen. 
ii.  4,  8cc. 

In  tlie  New  Testament,  God  is  called 
Kuriofi,  or  Lord,  which  denotes  his 
self-existence,  and  his  establisjiment  of, 
and  authority  over  all  things;  and  Tlieos, 
which  represents  him  as  the  maker, 
pervader,  and  governing  observer  of 
the  univei'sc. 

GODFATHERS  AND  GODMO- 
THEKS,  persons  wiio,  at  the  baptism 
of  infants,  answer  for  their  fixture  con- 
duct, and  solemnly  promise  that  tliey 
will  renounce  the  devU  and  all  his 
v/orks,  and  follow  a  life   of  piety  and 


virtue ;  and  by  these  means  lay  them- 
selves under  an  indispensable  obligation 
to  instruct  them,  and  watch  over  their 
conduct. 

GODLINESS,  strictly  taken,  is  n'ght 
worship  or  devotion ;  but  in  general  it 
imports  the  whole  of  practical  religion, 
1  Tim.  iv.  8.  2  Pet.  i.  6.  It  is  difficult,  as 
Saui'in  observes,  to  include  an  adecjuate 
idea  of  it  in  what  is  called  a  definition. 
"  It  supposes  knowledge,  veneration, 
affection,  dependence,  submission,  gx-ati- 
tude,  and  obedience ;  or  it  may  be  re- 
duced to  these  four  ideas ;  knowledge 
in  the  mind,  by  which  it  is  disting-uished 
from  the  visions  of  the  superstitious ; 
rectitude  in  the  conscience,  that  distin- 
guishes it  from  hypocrisy  ;  sacrifice  in 
the  life,  or  renunciation  of  the  world,  by 
which  it  is  distinguished  from  the  un- 
meaning obedience  of  him  who  goes  as 
a  happy  constitution  leads  him ;  and, 
I  lastly,  zeal  in  the  heart,  which  differs 
from  the  languishing  emotions  of  the 
lukewarm."  The  advantages  of  this 
disposition,  are  honour,  peace,  safety, 
usefulness,  support  in  death,  and  pros- 
pect of  gloiy ;  or,  as  the  apostle  sums 
up  all  in  a  few  woi'ds,  "  It  is  profitable 
unto  all  things,  having  the  promise  of 
the  life  that  now  is,  and  of  that  which  is 
to  come,"  1  Tim.  iv.  8.  Saurin's  Serm. 
vol.  V.  ser.  3.  Eng.  trans. ;  Barroiv^s 
Works,  vol.  i.  p.  9 ;  Scott's  Christian 
Life :  Scougalls  Life  of  God  in  the  Soul 
of  Man. 

GOOD,  in  general,  is  whatever  in- 
creases pleasure,  or  diminishes  pain  in 
us ;  or,  which  amounts  to  the  same, 
whatever  is  able  to  procure  or  preserve 
to  us  the  possession  of  agreeable  sensa- 
tions, and  remove  those  of  an  opposite 
nature.  Moral  good  denotes  the  right 
conduct  of  the  several  senses  and  pas- 
sions, or  their  just  proportion  and  ac- 
commodation to  their  respective  objects 
and  relations. 

Physical  good  is  that  which  has  either 
generally,  or  for  any  particular  end,  such 
qualities  as  are  expected  or  desired. 

GOOD  FRIDAY,  a  fast  of  the  Chris- 
tian church,  in  memory  of  the  sufferings 
and  death  of  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  ob- 
sei-ved  on  the  Friday  in  Passion  Week, 
and  it  is  called,  by  way  of  eminence,, 
good ;  because  of  the  good  effects  of  our 
Savioin-'s  sufferings.  Among  the  Sax- 
ons it  was  called  Long  Friday  ;  but  for 
what  reason  does  not  api:)ear,  except  on 
account  of  the  long  fasting  and  long  of- 
fices then  used.    See  Hoi.y  Days. 

GOODNESS,  the  fitness  of  a  thing 
to  produce  any  particular  end.  Per- 
fection, kindness,  benevolence. 

GOODNESS  OF  CJOD,  relates  to 


GOS 


201 


GOV 


the  absolute  perfection  of  his  own  na- 
ture, and  his  kindness  manifested  to  his 
creatures.  Goodness,  says  Dr.  Gill,  is 
essential  to  God,  without  which  he 
would  not  be  God,  Exod.  xxxiii.  19. 
xxziv.  6,  7.  Goodness  belongs  only  to 
God,  he  is  solely  good,  Matt.  xix.  17 ; 
and  all  the  goodness  found  in  creatures 
are  only  emanations  of  the  di\  ine  good- 
ness. He  is  the  chief  good ;  the  sum 
and  substance  of  all  felicity,  Ps.  cxliv. 
12,  15.  Ixxiii.  25.  iv.  6,  7.  There  is  no- 
thing but  goodness  in  God,  and  nothing 
but  goodness  comes  from  him,  1  Jolm 
i.  5.  James  i.  13,  14.  He  is  infinitely 
good ;  finite  minds  cannot  comprehend 
his  goodness,  Rom.  xi.  35,  36.  He  is 
immutably  and  unchangeably  good, 
Zeph.  iii.  17.  The  goodness  of  God  is 
communicative  and  diffusive,  Ps.  c::ix. 
68.  xxxiii.  5.  With  respect  to  the  ob- 
jects of  it,  it  may  be  considered  as  ge- 
neral and  special.  His  general  good- 
ness is  seen  m  all  his  creatures ;  yea  in 
the  inanimate  creation,  the  sun,  the 
earth,  and  all  his  works  ;  and  in  the  go- 
vernment, support,  and  protection  of  the 
world  at  large,  Ps.  xxxvi.  6.  cxlv. 
His  special  goodness  relates  to  angels 
and  saints.  To  angels,  in  creating,  con- 
firming, and  making  them  what  they 
are.  To  saints,  in  election,  calling,  jus- 
tification, adoption,  sanctification,  per- 
severance, and  eternal  glorification. 
GiWs  Body  of  Drv.  v.  i.  p.  133.  8vo.  ed.; 


ter,  of  St.  Andrew,  of  St.  Barnabas,  the 
eternal  Gospel,  &c.  &c.  &c.:  but  they 
were  never  I'eceived  by  the  Christian 
church,  being  e\idently  fabulous  and 
trifling.    See  Christianity. 

GOSPEL  CALL.    See  Calling. 

(iOSPEL  A  LAW.  It  has  been 
disputed  whether  the  Gospel  consists 
merely  of  promises,  or  wh.ether  it  can 
in  any  sense  be  called  a  law.  The  an- 
swer plainly  depends  upon  adjusting 
the  meaning  of  the  words  Gospel  and 
Imu :  if  the  Gospel  be  ti^ken  for  the  de- 
claration God  has  made  to  men  by 
Christ,  concerning  the  manner  in  which 
he  will  treat  them,  and  the  conduct  he 
expects  from  them,  it  is  plain  that  this 
includes  commands,  and  even  threat- 
enings,  as  well  as  promises ;  but  to  de- 
fine the  Gospel  so,  as  only  to  express 
the  fa\ourable  part  of  that  declaration, 
is  indeed  taking  the  question  for  grant- 
ed, and  confining  the  word  to  a  sense 
much  less  extensive  tlian  it  often  has  in 
Scripture:  compare  Rom.  ii.  15.  2 
Thes.  i.  8.  1  Tim.  i.  10,  11. ;  and  it  is 
certain,  that,  if  the  Gospel  be  put  for 
all  the  parts  of  the  dispensation  taken 
in  connection  one  with  another,  it  may 
well  be  called,  on  the  whole,  a  good 
message.  In  like  manner  the  question, 
whether  the  Gospel  be  a  law  or  not,  is 
to  be  determined  bv  the  definition  of 
the  law  and  of  the  Gospel,  as  above.  If 
law  signifies,  as  it  generally  does,  the 


Charnock'n  Works,  v.  i.  p.  574 ;  Paley's    discoveiy   of  the    will   of   a   superior. 


A''at.  T/ieol.,ch.  26;  Sout/i's  admirable 
Sermon,  on  this  Subject,  vol.  viii.  ser. 
3. ;  Tillotson's  Serin.,  ser.  143 — 146 ; 
Ahernethii^s  Serm.,  vol.  i.  No.  2. 

GOSPEL,  the  revelation  of  the  grace 
of  God  to  fallen  man  through  a  media- 
tor. It  is  taken  also  for  the  history  of 
the  life,  actions,  death,  resurrection,  as- 
cension, and  doctrine  of  Jesus  Christ. 
The  word  is  Saxon,  and  of  the  same 
import  with  the  Latin  evangelium, 
which  signifies  glad  tidings  or  good 
news.  It  is  called  the  Gospel  of  his 
Grace,  because  it  flows  from  his  free 
love,  Acts  XX.  24.  The  Gospel  of  the 
kingdom,  as  it  treats  of  the  kingdoms  of 
grace  and  glory.  The  Gospel  of  Christ, 
because  he  is  the  author  and  subject  of 
it,  Rom.  i.  16.  The  Gospel  of  peace 
and  salvation,  as  it  promotes  our  pre- 
sent comfort,  and  leads  to  eteiTial  gloiy, 
Eph.  i.  13.  vi.  15:  The  glorious  Gospel, 
as  in  it  the  glorious  perfections  of  Jeho- 
vah are  displayed,  2  Cor.  iv.  4.  The 
everlasting  Gospel,  as  it  was  designed 
from  etemity,  is  permanent  in  time,  and 
the  effects  of  it  eternal,  Rev.  xiv.  6. 
There  are  about  thirtv  or  forty  apocry- 
phal Gospels ;  as  the  Gospel  of  St.  Pe- 


teaching  what  he  requires  of  those  un- 
der his  government,  with  the  intimation 
of  his  intention  of  dispensing  rewards 
and  punishments,  as  this  rule  of  their 
conduct  is  observed  or  neglected ;  in  this 
latitude  of  expression,  it  is  plain,  from 
the  proposition,  that  the  Gospel,  taken 
for  the  declaration  made  to  men  by 
Christ,  is  a  latv,  as  in  Scripture  it  is 
sometimes  called,  James  i.  25.  Rom.  iv. 
15.  Rom.  viii.  2.  But  if  law  be  taken, 
in  the  greatest  rigour  of  the  expression, 
for  sucli  a  discover)'  of  the  will  of  God, 
and  our  duty,  as  to  contain  in  it  no  inti- 
mation of  our  obtainuig  the  Divine  fa- 
vour otherwise  than  by  a  perfect  and 
universal  conformity  to  it,  in  that  sense 
the  Gospel  is  not  a  law.  See  Neono- 
jMIAns.  Witsius  on  Cov.  vol.  iii.  ch.  1. ; 
Doddridge's  Led.  lect.  172.;  IVatts's 
Orthodoxii  and  Churitv,  essav  2. 

GOVERNMENT  OF  GOD,  is  the 
disposal  of  his  creatures,  and  all  events 
relative  to  them,  according  to  his  infi- 
nite justice,  power,  and  wisdom.  His 
moral  goveiTiment  is  his  rendering  to 
everv  man  according  to  his  actions,  con- 
sidered as  good  or  evil.=See  Dominion 
and  Sovereignty, 
Cq 


GRA 


202 


GRA 


GRACE.  There  are  various  senses 
in  v/hich  this  word  is  used  in  Scripture  ; 
but  the  general  idea  of  it,  as  it  relates 
to  God,  is  his  free  favour  and  love.  As 
it  respects  men,  it  implies  the  happy 
state  cf  reconciliation  and  favour  with 
God  whei-ein  they  stand,  and  the  holy 
endowments,  qualities,  or  habits  of 
faith,  hope,  love,  &c.,  which  they  pos- 
sess. Divines  have  distinguished  grace 
into  common  or  general,  sfiecial  or  par- 
ticular. Common  grace,  if  it  may  be  so 
called,  is  what  all  men  have ;  as  the 
light  of  nature  and  reason,  convictions 
o^  conscience,  &c.,  Rom.  ii.  4.  1  Tim.  iv. 
10.  Special  grace  is  that  which  is  pe- 
culiar to  some  people  only ;  such  as 
electing,  redeeming,  justifying,  pardon- 
ing, adopting,  establishing,  and  sanctify- 
ing grace,  Rom.  viii.  30.  This  special 
grace  is  by  some  distinguished  into  im- 
puted and  inherent:  imputed  grace 
consists  in  the  holiness,  obedience,  and  \ 
righteousness  of  Christ,  imputed  to  us 
for  our  justification ;  inherent  gi'ace  is 
what  is  wrought  in  the  heart  by  the  Spi- 
rit of  God  in.  regeneration.  Grace  is 
also  said  to  be  irresistible,  efficacious, 
and  victorious;  not  but  that  there  are  in 
human  nature,  in  the  first  moments  of 
con^'iction,  some  struggles,  opposition, 
or  conflict ;  but  by  these  terms  vv^e  are 
to  understand,  that,  in  the  end,  victory 
declares  for  the  grace  of  the  Gospel. 
There  have  been  many  other  distinc- 
tions of  grace ;  but  as  they  are  of  too 
frivolous  a  natui'e,  and  are  now  obsolete, 
they  need  not  a  place  here.  Groivth  in 
grace  is  the  pi'ogress  we  make  in  the  di- 
vine life.  It  discovers  itself  by  an  in- 
crease of  spiritual  light  and  knowledge ; 
by  our  renouncing  self,  and  depending 
more  upon  Christ;  by  growing  more 
spiritual  in  duties ;  by  being  more  hum- 
ble, submissive,  and  thankful ;  by  rising 
su])erior  to  the  corruptions  of  our  nature, 
and  finding  the  power  of  sin  more  weak- 
ened in  us ;  by  being  less  attached  to  the 
world,  and  possessing  more  of  a  hea- 
venly disposition.  APLaurin's  Essays, 
essay  3.;  Gil/\^  Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  p. 
118.;  Doddridge's  JLecL,  part  viii.  prop. 
139.;  Pike  aiid  Hayward's  Cases  of 
Conscience ;  Saurin  on  1  Cor.  ix.  26, 
27.  vol.  iv. ;  Booth's  reign  of  Grace. 

GRACE  AT  MEALS,  a  short  pray 
er,  imploring  the  divine  blessing  on  our 
food,  and  expressive  of  gratitude  to  God 
for  supplying  our  necessities.  The  pro- 
priety of  this  act  is  evident  from  the 
di\  ine  command,  1  Thess.  v.  IcS.  1  Cor. 
X.  31.  1  Tim.  Iv.  5.  From  the  conduct 
of  Christ,  Mark  viii.  6,  7.  From  rea- 
son itself;  not  to  mention  that  it  is  a 
cuKtom  practised  by  most  nations,  and 


even  not  neglected  by  heathens  them* 
selves.  The  English,  however,  seem 
to  be  very  deficient  in  this  duty. 

As  to  the  7nanner\n  which  it  ought  to 
be  performed,  as  Dr.  Watts  observes, 
we  ought  to  have  a  due  regard  to  the 
occasion,  and  the  persons  present ;  the 
neglect  of  which  hath  been  attended 
with  indecencies  and  indiscretions.  Some 
have  used  themselves  to  mutter  a  few 
words  with  so  low  a  voice,  as  though  by 
some  secret  chami  they  were  to  conse- 
crate the  food  alone,  and  there  was  no 
need  of  the  rest  to  join  with  them  in  the 
petitions.  Others  have  broke  out  into 
so  violent  a  sound,  as  though  they  were 
bound  to  make  a  thousand  people  hear 
them.  Some  perform  this  part  of  wor- 
ship with  so  slight  and  familiar  an  air, 
as  though  they  had  no  sense  of  the  great 
God  to  whom  they  speak:  others  have 
put  on  an  unnatural  solemnity,  and 
changed  their  natural  voice  into  so  dif- 
ferent and  awkward  a  tone,  not  without 
some  distortions  of  countenance,  that 
have  tempted  strangers  to  ridicule. 

It  is  the  custom  of  some  to  hurry  over 
a  single  sentence  or  two,  and  they  have 
done,  before  half  the  company  are  pre- 
pared to  lift  up  a  thought  to  heaven. 
And  some  have  been  just  heard  to  be* 
speak  a  blessing  on  the  church  and.  the 
king,  but  seem  to  have  forgot  they  were 
asking  God  to  bless  their  food,  or  giving 
thanks  for  the  food  they  have  received. 
Others,  again,  make  a  long  prayer,  and, 
among  a  multitude  of  other  petitions,  do 
not  utter  one  that  relates  to  the  table 
before  them. 

The  general  niles  of  prudence,  toge- 
ther with  a  due  observation  of  the  cus- 
tom of  the  place  where  we  live,  would 
correct  all  tiiese  disorders,  and  teach  us 
that  a  few  sentences  suited  to  the  occa- 
sion, spoken  with  an  audible  and  proper 
voice,  are  sufficient  for  this  purpose,  es- 
pecially if  any  strangers  are  present 
TVatts's  Work's,  oct.  echt.  vol.  iv.  p.  160. 
Imw's  Serious  Call,  p.  60.  Seed's  Post. 
Ser.  p.  174. 

GRATITUDE,  is  that  pleasant  af- 
fection of  the  mind  which  arises  fi-om  a 
sense  of  favours  received,  and  by  which 
the  possessor  is  excited  to  make  all  the 
returns  of  love  and  service  in  his  power. 
"Gratitude,"  says  Mr.  Cogan  (in  his 
Treatise  on  the  Passions,)  "is  the 
powerful  re-action  of  a  well-disposed 
mind,  U])on  whom  benevolence  has  con- 
feiTcd  seme  important  good.  It  is  most- 
ly connected  with  an  impressive  sense 
of  the  amiable  disposition  of  the  person 
by  whom  the  benefit  is  conferred,  and  it 
immediately  produces  a  personid  affec- 
tion towards  him.  We  shall  not  wonder 


GRE 


203 


GRE 


at  the  peculiar  strength  and  energy  of  I 
this  affection,  when  we  consider  that  it 
is  compounded  of  love  pUiced  upon  the 

food  communicated,  affection   for    tlie 
onor,  and  joy  at  the  reception.    Tlius 
it  has  goodness  for  its  object,  and  the  ] 
most  pleasing,  perhaps  unexfiected,  ex-  j 
ertions  of  goodness  for   its   immediate  I 
cause.     Thankfulness  refers  to  veri^al 
expressions  of  gratitude."  See  Thank- 

FULNKSS. 

GRAVITY,  is  that  sei'iousness  of 
mind,  united  with  dignity  of  beliaviour, 
that  commands  veneration  and  respect. 
See  Dr.  IVatts's  admirable  Sermon  on 
Graviti/,  ser.  23.  vol.  i. 

GRF:.\TNESS  of  god,  is  the  in- 
finite glory  and  excellency  of  all  his 
perfections.  His  greatness  appears  by 
the  attributes  he  possesses,  Deut.  zxxii. 
3,  4.  the  works  he  hath  made,  Ps.  xix. 
1.  by  the  awful  and  benign  providences 
he  displays,  Ps.  xcvii.  I,  2.  the  great  ef- 
fects he  produces  by  his  word,  Cien.  i. 
the  constant  energy  he  manifests  in  the 
cxi'-.tence  and  support  of  all  his  crea- 
tures, Ps.  cxlv.  and  the  everlasting  pro- 
vision of  glory  made  for  his  people,  1 
Thes.  iv.  17.  This  greatness  is  of  him- 
self, and  not  derived,  Ps.  xxi.  13.  it  is 
infinite,  Ps.  cxlv.  3.  not  diminished  by 
exertion  but  will  ahvays  remain  the 
same,  Mai.  iii.  6.  The  considerations  of 
his  greatniss  sh^'uld  excite  veneration, 
Ps.  Ixxxix.  7.  adniiration,  Jer.  ix.  6,  7. 
humility.  Job  xlii.  5,  6.  dependence,  Is. 
xxvi.  4.  submission,  Job  i.  22.  obedience, 
Deut.  iv.  39,  40.  See  Attributes,  and 
books  under  that  article. 

GREEK  CHURCH,  comprehends  in 
its  bosom  a  considerable  part  of  Greece, 
the  Grecian  Isles,  W'allachia,  Molda- 
via, Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  Libva, 
Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  Syi-ia,  Cilicia, 
and  Palestine,  which  are  all  under  the. 
jurisdiction  of  the  patriarchs  of  Constan- 
tinople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jeru- 
salem. If  to  these  we  add  the  whole  of 
the  Russian  empire  in  Europe,  great 
part  of  Siberia  in  Asia,  Astracan,  Casan, 
and  Georgia,  it  will  be  evident  that  the 
Greek  church  has  a  wider  extent  of 
ten-itory  than  the  Latin,  with  all  the 
branches  which  have  sprung  from  it; 
and  that  it  is  with  great  impropriety 
that  the  church  of  Rome  is  called  by 
her  members  the  catholic  or  universal 
church.  That  in  these  widely  distant 
countries  the  professors  of  Christianity 
are  agreed  in  every  minute  article  of 
belief,  it  would  be  rash  to  assert ;  but 
there  is  certainly  such  an  agreement 
among  them,  with  respect  both  to  faith 
and  to  discipline,  that  they  mutually 
hold  communion  with  each  other,  and 


are,  in  fact,  but  one  church.  It  is  called 
the  Greek  church,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  Latin  or  Romish  church  ;  as  also 
the  EasteiTi,  in  distinction  from  the 
\^'esteni  church.  We  shciU  here  pre- 
sent the  reader  with  a  view  of  its  rise, 
tenets,  and  discipline. 

1.  Greek  church,  rise  and  separation 
of.  The  Greek  church  is  considered  as 
a  separation  from  the  Latin.  In  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  century,  the  con- 
t'  oversy  relating  to  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (which  had  been  started  in 
the  sixth  century)  became  a  point  of 
great  importance,  on  accoimt  of  the  jea- 
lousy and  ambition  which  at  that  time 
were  blended  with  it.  Photius,  the  pa- 
triarch of  JeiTisalem,  having  been  ad- 
vanced to  tliat  see  in  the  room  of  Igna- 
tius, whom  he  pr-cured  to  be  deposed, 
was  solemnly  excommunicated  by  pope 
Nicholas,  in  a  council  held  at  Rome, 
and  his  ordination  declared  null  and 
void.  The  Greek  Emperor  reser.ted 
this  conduct  of  the  pope,  who  defended 
himself  with  great  spirit  and  resolution. 
Photius,  in  his  tuiTi,  convened  what  he 
called  an  oecumenical  council,  m  which 
he  pronounced  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation and.  deposition  against  the  pope, 
and  got  it  subscribed  by  twenty-one 
bishops  and  others,  amounting  in  num- 
ber to  a  thousand.  This  occasioned  a 
wide  breach  betv^'een  the  sees  of  Rcme 
and  Constantino]i1e.  However,  the  death 
of  the  emperor  Michael,  and  the  depo- 
sition of  Photius,  subsequent  thereupon, 
seem  to  have  restored  peace ;  for  the 
emperor  Basil  held  a  council  at  Con- 
stantinople in  the  year  869,  in  which 
entire  satisfaction  was  given  to  Pope 
Adrian ;  but  the  schism  was  only  smo- 
thered and  suppressed  a  while.  The 
Greek  chnvrh  had  several  complaints 
against  the  Latin;  particularly  it  was 
thought  a  great  hardship  for  the  Greeks 
to  subscribe  to  the  definition  of  a  coun- 
cil according  to  the  Roman  form,  pre- 
scribed by  the  pope,  since  it  made  the 
church  of  Constantinople  dependent  on 
that  of  Rome,  and  .set  the  pope  abo^-e 
an  oecumenical  council ;  but,  abo^•e  all, 
the  pride  and  haughtiness  of  the  Roman 
court  gave  the  Greeks  a  great  distaste ; 
and  as  their  deportment  seemed  to  in- 
sult his  imperial  majesty,  it  entirely 
alienated  the  affections  of  the  emperor 
Basil.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  ele- 
venth century,  Michael  Cenalarius,  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  opposed  the 
Latins,  with  respect  to  their  making  use 
of  unleavened  bread  in  the  eucharist, 
their  observation  of  the  sabbath,  and 
fasting  on  Saturday,  charging  them  with 
living  in  communion  with  the  Jews.  To 


GRE 


204 


GRE 


this  pope  Leo  IX.  i-eplied ;  and,  in  his 
apology  for  the  Latins,  declaimed  very 
"vvarmly  against  the  false  doctrine  of  the 
Greeks,  and  interposed  at  the  same 
time,  the  authority  of  his  see.  He  like- 
wise, by  his  legates,  excommunicated 
the  patriarch  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Sophia,  which  gave  the  last  shock  to  the 
reconciliation  attempted  a  long  time  af- 
ter, but  to  no  purpose;  for  from  that 
time  the  hatred  of  the  Greeks  to  the 
Latins,  and  of  the  Latins  to  the  Greeks, 
became  insuperable,  insomuch  that  they 
have  continued  ever  since  separated 
from  each  other's  communion. 

n.  Greek  church,  tenets  of.  The  fol- 
lowing are  some  of  the  chief  tenets  held 
by  the  Greek  church : — They  disown 
the  authority  of  the  pope,  and  deny  that 
the  church  of  Rome  is  the  true  catholic 
church.  They  do  not  ba.ptize  their  chil- 
dren till  they  are  three,  four,  five,  six, 
ten,  nay,  sometimes  eighteen  years  of 
age :  baptism  is  performed  by  trine  im- 
mersion. They  insist  that  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  supper  ought  to  be 
administered  in  both  kinds,  and  they 
give  the  sacrament  to  children  imme- 
diately after  baptism.  They  grant  no 
mdulgences,  nor  do  they  lay  any  claim 
to  the  character  of  infallibility,  like  the 
church  of  Rome.  They  deny  that  thei'e 
is  any  such  place  as  purgatory ;  notwith- 
standing they  pray  for  the  dead,  that 
God  would  have  mercy  on  them  at  the 
general  judgment.  They  practise  the 
invocation  of  saints ;  though,  they  say, 
they  do  not  invoke  them  as  deities,  but 
as  intercessors  with  God.  They  ex- 
clude confirmation,  extreme  unction, 
and  matrimony,  out  of  the  seven  sacra- 
ments. They  deny  auricular  confession 
to  be  a  di\ane  jjrccept,  and  say  it  is  only 
a  positive  injunction  of  the  church. 
They  pay  no  religious  homage  to  the 
euchavist.  They  administer  the  com- 
munion in  both  kinds  to  the  laity,  both 
in  sickness  and  in  health,  though  they 
have  never  applied  themselves  to  their 
confessors;  because  they  are  persuaded 
that  a  lively  faith  is  all  which  is  requi- 
site for  the  worthy  receiving  of  the 
IjOrd's  supper.  They  maintain  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  proceeds  only  from  the  Fa- 
ther, and  not  from  the  Son.  Tliey  be- 
lieve in  predestination.  They  admit  of 
no  images  in  relief  or  embossed  work, 
but  use  paintings  and  sculptures  in  cop- 
per or  silver.  They  approve  of  the  mar- 
riage of  priests,  provided  they  enter  in- 
to that  state  before  their  admission  into 
holy  orders.  They  condemn  all  fourth 
marriages.  They  observe  a  number  of 
holy  dyys,  and  keep  four  fasts  in  the 
year  more   solemn  than  the  rest,  of 


which  the  fast  in  Lent,  before  Easter, 
is  the  chief.  They  believe  the  doctrine 
of  consubstantiation,  or  the  union  of  the 
body  of  Christ  with  the  sacrament  bread. 

in.  Greek  church,  state  and  discipline 
of.  Since  the  Greeks  became  subject  to 
the  Turkish  yoke,  they  have  sunk  into 
the  most  deplorable  ignorance,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  slavery  and  thraldom 
under  which  they  groan  ;  and  their  re- 
ligion is  now  greatly  corrupted.  It  is, 
indeed,  little  better  than  a  heap  of  ridi- 
culous ceremonies  and  absurdities.  The 
head  of  the  Greek  church  is  the  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  who  is  chosen 
by  the  neighbouring  archbishops  and 
metropolitans,  and  confirmed  by  the 
emperor  or  gi'and  vizier.  He  is  a  per- 
son of  great  dignity,  being  the  head  and 
director  of  the  Eastern  church.  The 
other  patriarchs  are  those  of  Jerusalem, 
Antioch,  and  Alexandria.  Mr.  Tourne- 
foit  tells  us,  that  the  patriarchates  are 
now  generally  set  to  sale,  and  bestbwed 
upon  those  who  are  the  highest  bidders. 
The  patriarchs,  metropolitans,  arch- 
bishops, and  bishops,  are  always  chosen 
from  among  the  caloyers,  or  Greek 
monks.  The  next  person  to  a  bishop, 
among  the  clergy,  is  an  archimandrite, 
who  is  the  director  of  one  or  more  con- 
vents, which  are  called  mandren ;  then 
comes  the  abbot,  the  arch-priest,  the 
priest,  the  deacon,  the  under-deacon, 
the  chanter,  and  the  lecturer.  The  se- 
cular clergy  are  subject  to  no  I'ules,  and 
never  rise  higher  than  high -priest.  The 
Greeks  have  few  nunneries,  but  a  great 
many  convents  of  monks,  who  are  all 
priests;  and  (students  excepted)  obli- 
ged to  follow  some  handicraft  employ- 
ment, and  lead  a  very  austere  life. 

The  Russians  adhere  to  the  doctrine 
and  ceremonies  of  the  Greek  church, 
though  they  are  now  independent  of  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople.  The  Rus- 
sian church,  indeed,  may  be  reckoned 
the  first,  as  to  extent  of  empire ;  yet 
there  is  very  little  of  the  power  of  vital 
religion  among  them.  The  Roskolniki, 
or,  as  tliey  now  call  tliemselves,  the 
Starovertzi,  were  a  sect  that  separated 
from  tlie  church  of  Russia,  about  1666  : 
they  affected  extraordinary  piety  and 
devotion,  a  veneration  for  the  letter  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  would  not  al- 
low a  priest  to  administer  baptism  who 
had  that  day  tasted  brandy.  They  har- 
boured many  follies  and  superstitions, 
and  have  been  greatly  persecuted ;  but, 
perhaps,  there  will  be  found  among 
tliem  "some  that  shall  be  counted  to 
the  Lord  for  a  generation."  Several  set- 
tlements of  German  Protestants  have 
been  established  in  the  Wolga.    The 


HAB 


205 


H^R 


Moravians  also  liavc  done  good  in  Livo- 
nia, and  the  adjacent  isles  in  the  Baltic 
under  the  Russian  goveninient.  See 
Mosheim,  Gregory,  and  Hawles's 
Church  History;  King\i  Rites  and 
Ceremonies  of  the  Greek  Church  in 
Russia;  The  Russian  Catechism;  Se- 
cret Mei7ioirs  of  the  Court  of  Peters- 
burgh ;  T'ookes  History  of  Russia; 
Ricaut's  State  of  the  Greek  Church; 
Enc.  Brit. 

GROWTH  IN  GRACE.  See 
Grace. 

GUARDIAN  ANGEL.  "Some," 
says  Dr.  Doddridge,  "have  thought, 
that  not  only  every  region  but  eveiy 
man  has  some  particular  angel  assigned 
him  as  a  guardian,  whose  business  it  is 
generally  to  watch  o\er  that  counti-v^  or 
person  ;  for  this  opinion  they  urge  Matt, 
xviii.  10.  Acts  xii.  15.  But  the  argument 
from  both  tliese  places  is  evidently  pre- 
carious ;  and  it  seems  difficult  to  recon- 
cile the  supposition  of  such  a  continued 


[1  attendance  with  what  is  Said  of  the  sta- 
;  ted  residence  of  these  angels  in  heaven, 
i  and  with  Heb.  i.  14,  where  all  the  an- 
;  gels  are  represented  as  ministering  to 
the  heirs  of  salvation :  though,  as  there 
i  is  great  reason  to  believe  the  number  of 
1,  heavenly  spirits  is  vastly  superior  to 
;  that  of  men  upon  earth,  it  is  not  impro- 
j  bable  that  they  may,  as  it  were,  relieve 
!  each  other,  and  in  their  turns  perfcmi 
I  these  condescending  sei'vices  to  those 
whom  the  Lord  of  Angels  has  been 
\  pleased  to  redeem  with  his  own  blood ; 
1  but  we  must  confess  that  our  knowledge 
i  of  the  laws  and  orders  of  those  celestial 
'  beings  is  very  limited,  and  consequently 
!  that  it  is  the  part  of  humility  to  avoid 
i  dogmatical  determinations  on  such  heads 
!as  these."  See  Angel;  and  Dod- 
j,  dridge^s  Lectures,  lect.  212. 
I  GUILT,  the  state  of  a  person  justly 
I  charged  with  a  crime ;  a  consciousness 
I  of  having  done  amiss.    See  Sin. 


H. 


HABIT,  a  power  and  ability  of  doing 
any  thing,  acquired  by  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  action.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  custom.  Custom  respects 
\.\\e  actio7i ;  habit  the  ac/'cir.  By  cws/om 
we  mean  a  frequent  reiteration  of  the 
same  act ;  and  by  habit  the  effect  that 
custom  has  on  the  mind  or  body.  "Man," 
as  one  obsen"es,  "  is  a  bundle  of  habits. 
There  are  habits  of  industry,  attention, 
vigilance,  advertency ;  of  a  prompt  obe- 
dience to  the  judgment  occumng,  or  of 
yielding  to  the  first  impulse  of  passion ; 
of  apprehending,  methodizing,  reason- 
ing ;  of  vanity,  melancholy,  fretfulness, 
suspicion,  covetousness,  &c.  In  a  word, 
there  is  not  a  quality  or  function,  either 
of  body  or  mind,  which  does  not  feel  the 
influence  of  this  gi'eat  law  of  animated 
nature."  To  cure  evil  habits,  we  should 
be  as  early  as  we  can  in  our  application, 
firincipiis  obsta ;  to  cross  and  mortify 
the  inclination  bv  a  ft-equent  and  obsti- 
nate pi-actice  of  the  contrarv  virtue.  To 
form  good  habits,  we  should  get  our 
minds  well  stored  with  knowled^*; 
sociate  with  the  wisest  and  best  m 
reflect  much  on  the  pleasure  good 
bits  are  productive  of;  and,  above 
suppUcate  the  Divine  Being  for  direc- 
tion and  assistance.  Kaims's  Elem.  of 
Crit.  ch.  xiv.  vol.  1 ;  Grove's  Mor.  Phil. 
vol.  i.  p.  143;  Palcy's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  i. 
p.  46;  Jortin  on  Had  Habits,  ser.  1.  vol. 


I  iii ;  Reid  on  the  ^Ictrve  Powers,  p.  117 ; 
Cogan  on  the  Passions,  p.  235. 
I  H/ERETICO  COMBURENDO,  a 
writ  which  anciently  lay  against  an  he- 
,  retic,  who,  having  once  been  convicted 
'  of  heresy  by  his  bishop,  and  having  ab- 
jui'ed  it,  afterwards  falling  into  it  again, 
or  into  some  other,  is  thereupon  com- 
mitted to  the  secular  power.  This  writ 
is  thought  by  some  to  be  as  ancient  as 
the  common  law  itself;  howexei',  the 
conviction  of  heresy  bj'  the  common  law 
was  not  in  any  petty  ecclesiastical  court, 
but  before  the  arclibishop  himself,  in  a 
provincial  synod,  and  the  delinquent  w^as 
delivered  up  to  the  king,  to  do  with 
him  as  he  pleased ;  so  that  the  crown 
had  a  control  over  the  spiritual  power: 
but  by  2  Henry  IV.  cap.  15.  the  dioce- 
san alone,  without  the  intervention  of  a 
s}Tiod,  might  convict  of  heretical  tenets; 
and  unless  the  convict  abjured  his  opi- 
nions, or  if  after  abjuration  he  relapsed, 
the  sheinflF  was  bound  ex  officio,  if  requi- 
red bv  the  bishop,  to  commit  the  unhap- 
y  victimto  the  flames,  without  waiting 
,t  of  the  crown.  This  writ 
force,  and  was  actually 
wo  Anabaptists,  in  the  se- 
abeth,  and  on  two  Arians 
of  James  I.  Sir  Edward 
opinion  that  this  writ  did 
not  lie  in  his  time ;  Ijut  it  is  now  formallf 
taken  away  by  statute  29  Car.  II.  cap.  9. 


HAP 


206 


HAT 


B\it  this  statute  does  not  extend  to  take 
away  or  abrida;e  the  jurisdiction  of  Pro- 
testant archbishops,  or  bishops,  or  any 
other  judges  of  any  ecclesiastical  courts, 
in  cases  of  atheism,  blasphemy,  heresy, 
or  schism ;  but  they  may  prove  and 
punish  the  same,  according  to  his  ma- 
jesty's ecclesiastical  laws,  by  excom- 
munication, deprivation,  degradation, 
and  other  ecclesiastical  censui-es,  not 
extending  to  death,  in  such  sort,  and  no 
other,  as  they  might  have  done  before 
the  making  of  this  act. 

HAGIOGRAPHIA,  a  name  given 
to  part  of  the  books  of  the  Scriptures, 
called  by  the  Jews  cetuvim.  See  article 
Bible,  sec.  1. 

HAMPTON-COURT  CONFER- 
ENCE, a  conference  appointed  by 
James  I.  at  Hamptoji-Court,  in  1603,  in 
order  to  settle  the  disputes  between  the 
church  and  the  Puritans.  Nine  bishops, 
and  as  many  dignitaries  of  the  church, 
appeared  on  one  side,  and  four  Puritan 
niinisters  on  the  other.  It  lasted  for 
three  days.  Neale  calls  it  a  mock  con- 
ference, because  all  things  were  pre- 
viously concluded  between  the  king  and 
the  bishops ;  and  the  Puritans  borne 
down  not  with  calm  reason  and  argu- 
ment, but  with  the  royal  authority,  the 
king  being  both  judge  and  party.  The 
proposals  and  remonstrances  of  the  Pu- 
ritans may  be  seen  in  JV'eale''s  History 
of  the  Puritmis,  chap.  i.  part.  ii. 

HAPPINESS,  absolutely  taken,  de- 
notes the  durable  possession  of  perfect 
,good,  without  any  mixture  of  evil  ;  or 
the  enjoyment  of  pure  pleasure  unalloy- 
ed with  pain,  or  a  state  'n  which  all  our 
wishes  are  satisfied ;  in  which  senses, 
happiness  is  only  known  by  name  on 
this  earth.  The  word  hafijiy,  when  ap- 
plied to  any  state  or  condition  of  human 
life,  will  admit  of  no  positive  definition, 
but  is  merely  a  i-clative  term ;  that  is, 
when  we  call  a  man  happy,  we  mean 
that  he  is  happier  than  some  others  with 
whom  we  compare  him ;  than  the  gene- 
rality of  others  ;  or  than  he  himself  was 
in  some  other  situation.  Moralists  justly 
observe,  that  happiness  does  not  consist 
in  the  pleasures  of  sense ;  as  eating, 
drinking,  music,  painting,  theatric  ex- 
hibitions, &c.  &c.  for  these  pleasures 
continue  but  a  little  while,  by  repetition 
lose  their  relish,  and  by  hi 
tion  often  bring  disa])poi 
does  happiness  consist  in 
from  labour,  care,  busines 
state  being  usually  attend 
pression  of  spirits,  imaginar  ^^^ 
and  the  whole  train  of  hypochoHfWacal 
affections.  Nor  is  it  to  be  found  in  great 
ness,  rank,  or  elevated  stations,  as  mat 


ter  of  fact  abundantly  testifies ;  but  hap- 
piness consists  in  the  enjoyment  of  the 
divine  favour,  a  good  conscience,  and 
uniform  conduct.  In  subordination  to 
these,  human  happiness  may  be  greatly 
promoted  by  the  exercise  of  the  social , 
affections ;  the  pursuit  of  some  engaging 
end  ;  the  prudent  constitution  of  the  ha- 
bits ;  and  the  enjoyment  of  our  health. 
Bolton  and  Lucas  on  Hapfiiness ; 
Henri/s  Pleasantness  of  a  Religious 
Life ;  Grove's  and  Paley's  Mor.  PhiL 
Barrow's  Scr.  ser.  1.  Yoimg's  Centaur, 
41  to  160;  Wollaston's  Religion  of 
ATiture,  sec.  2. 

HARMONY  OF  THE  GOSPELS, 
a  term  made  use  of  to  denote  the  con- 
currence or  agreement  of  the  writings 
of  the  four  Evangelists;  or  the  history 
of  the  four  Evangelists  digested  into  one 
continued  series.  By  this  means  each 
story  or  discourse  is  exhibited  with  all 
its  concuiTent  circumstances;  frequent 
repetitions  are  prevented,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  seeming  oppositions  reconciled. 
Among  some  of  the  most  valuable  har- 
monies, are  those  of  Cradock,  Le  Clerc,  ■ 
Doddridge,  Macknight,  A^ewcornbe,  and 
Totvnson's  able  Harinonij  on  the  con- 
cluding Part  of  the  Gospels;  Thomfi" 
son's  Diatessaron.  The  term  harmony 
is  also  used  in  reference  to  the  agree- 
ment which  the  Gospel  bears  to  natui-al 
religion,  the  Old  Testament,  the  histo- 
ry of  other  nations,  and  the  -woi'ks  of 
God  at  large. 

HASSIBEANS,  or  Assideans^ 
those  Jews  who  resorted  to  Mattathias, 
to  fight  for  the  laws  of  God  and  the 
liberties  of  their  country.  They  were 
men  of  great  valour  and  zeal,  having 
voluntarily  devoted  themselves  to  a 
more  strict  observation  of  the  law  than 
other  men.  For,  after  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
there  were  two  sorts  of  men  in  their 
church ;  those  who  contented  them- 
selves with  that  obedience  only  which 
was  pi-escribed  bv  the  law  of  Moses, 
and  who  were  called  Zadikin,  i.  e.  the 
righteous ;  and  those  who,  over  and 
above  the  laws,  superadded  the  consti- 
tutions and  traditions  of  the  elders,  and 
other  rigorous  observances;  these  lat- 
ter were  called  the  Chasidi?n,  i.  e.  the 
ious^    From   the    former  sprang   the 

maritans,  Sadducees,  and  Caraites : 

ni  the  latter,  the  Pharisees  and  the 

scnes ;  which  see. 

HATRED  is  the  aversion  of  the  will 
to  any  object  considered  by  us  as  evil, 
or  to  any  person  or  thing  we  suppose 
can  do  us  harm.  See  Antipathy,  rla- 
tred  is  ascribed  to  God,  but  is  not  to  be 
considered  as  a  passion  in  him  as  in 


HEA 


207 


HEA 


man ;  nor  can  he  hate  any  of  the  crea- 
tures he  has  m;i;le  as  his  creatures.  Yet 
he  is  said  to  hate  the  svicked,  Ps.  v.  5  ; 
and  indignation  and  wrath,  tribulation 
and  anguish,  will  be  upon  every  soul  of 
man  that  does  evil.  See  Wrath  of 
God. 

H  ATTEMISTS,  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
toiy,  the  name  of  a  modern  Dutch  sect, 
so  called  from  Pontian  Van  Hattem,  a 
minister  in  the  province  of  Zealand,  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  last  century,  who, 
being  addicted  to  the  sentiments  of  Spi- 
nosa,  was  on  that  account  degraded  from 
his  pastoral  office.  The  Verschorists 
and  Hattemists  resemble  each  other  in 
their  religious  systems,  though  they 
never  so  entireh'  agreed  as  to  form  one 
communion.  The  founders  of  these  sects 
deduced  from  the  doctrine  of  absolute 
decrees  a  system  of  fatal  and  uncontrol- 
lable necessity  ;  they  denied  the  diffei'- 
ence  between  moral  good  and  evil,  and 
the  corruption  of  human  nature ;  from 
■whence  they  farther  concluded,  that 
mankind  were  under  no  sort  of  obliga- 
tion to  connect  their  manners,  to  im- 
f)rove  their  minds,  or  to  obey  the  divine 
aws ;  that  the  whole  of  religion  consist- 
ed not  in  acting,  but  in  suffering ;  and 
that  all  the  j)recepts  of  Jesus  Christ  are 
reducible  to  this  one,  tliat  we  bear  ivith 
cheerfulness  and  patience  the  events 
that  hapfien  to  us  through  the  dh'ine 
•will,  and  make  it  our  constant  aiid  only 
study  to  jnaintain  a  jiervianent  tran- 
quillity of  mind.  Thus  far  they  agi-eed : 
out  the  Hattemists  further  affii-med, 
that  Christ  made  no  expiation  for  the 
sins  of  men  by  his  death  ;  but  had  only  ' 
suggested  to  us,  by  his  mediation,  that 
there  was  nothing  in  us  that  could  offend  i 
the  Deity :  this,  they  say,  was  Christ's  j 
manner  of  justifying  his  servants,  and  i 
presenting  them  blameless  before  the ' 
tribunal  of  God.  It  was  one  of  their  dis-  I 
tinguished  tenets,  that  God  does  not  | 
punish  men  for  their  sins,  but  brj  their  \ 
sins.  These  two  sects,  says  Mosheim, 
still  subsist,  though  they  no  longer  bear 
the  names  of  their  founders.  I 

HEARING  THE  WORD  OF  GOD, 
is  an  ordinance  of  divine  appointment,  I 
Rom.  X.  17.  Prov.  viii.  4,  5.  Mark  iv.  24.  j 
Public  reading  of  the  Scriptures  was  I 
a  part  of  synagogue  worship,  Acts  xiii.  ■ 
15.  Acts  XV.  21.  and  was  the  practice  of 
the  Christians  in  primitive  times.    UiJ| 
^er  the  former  dispensation  there  was  Iff 
public  hearing  of  the  law  at  stated  sea 
sons,  Deut.  xxxi.  10,  13.  Neh.  viii.  2,  3. '! 
It  seems,  therefore,  that  it  is  a  dutv  in-  ll 
cumbent  on  us  to  hear,  and,  if  sensible  ii 
of  our  ignorance,  we  shall  also  consider  ii 
it  our  privilege.    As  to  the  manner  o/.j 


hearing,  it  should  be  constantly,  Prov. 
viii.  34.  Jam.  i.  24,  25.  Attentivehi ,  Luke 
xxi.  38.  Acts  x.  33.  Luke  iv.'20,  22. 
With'  reT.'erence,  Ps.  Ixxxix.  7.  \Vith 
faith,  Heb  iv.  2.  With  an  endeavour  to 
retain  what  we  hear,  Heb.  ii.  1.  Ps.  cxix. 
11.  With  an  humble  docile  disfiosition , 
Luke  X.  42.  With  prayer,  Luke  xviii. 
The  advantages  of  hearing  are,  infor- 
ination,  2  Tim.  iii.  16.  Conviction,  1  Cor. 
xiv.  24,  25.  Acts  ii.  Conversion,  Ps.  xi.  7. 
Acts  iv.  4.  Confirmation,  Acts  xiv.  22. 
Acts  xvi.  5.  Consolation,  Phil.  i.  25.  Is. 
xl.  1,  2.  Is.  XXXV.  3,  4.  Sten7!et's  Para- 
ble of  the  Soiver;  Massilon's  Ser.  vol. 
ii.  p.  131.  Eng.  trans.  GiWa  Body  of 
Div.  vol.  iii.  p.  340.  oct.  ed. 

HEART  is  used  for  the  soul,  and  all 
the  powers  thereof;  as  the  understand- 
ing, conscience,  will,  affections,  and  me- 
moiy.  The  heart  of  man  is  naturally, 
constantly,  universally,  inexpressiblv, 
openly,  and  evidently  depraved,  and  in- 
clined to  evil,  Jer.  xvii.  9.  It  requires  a 
divme  power  to  renovate  it,  and  render 
it  susceptible  of  right  impressions,  Jer. 
xxiv.  7.  When  thus  renovated,  the  ef- 
fects will  be  seen  in  the  temper,  conver- 
sation, and  conduct  at  large.  See  Faith, 
Hope,  &c.  Harchiess  of  heart  is  that 
state  in  which  a  sinner  is  inclined  to, 
and  actually  goes  on  in  rebellion  against 
God.  This  state  evidences  itself  by  light 
views  of  the  evil  of  sin  ;  partial  acknow- 
ledgment and  confession  of  it;  frequent 
commission  of  it ;  pride  and  conceit  :irt- 
gratitude ;  unconcern  about  the  word 
and  ordinances  of  God ;  inattention  to 
divine  providences;  stifling  convictions 
of  conscience;  shunning  reproof;  pre- 
sumption, and  general  ignorance  of  di- 
vine things.  "VVe  must  distinguish,  how- 
ever, between  that  hardness  of  heart 
which  even  a  good  man  complains  of, 
a.nA\h3.toi?L  JTidicial  nature.  1.  Judi- 
cial hardness  is  very  seldom  perceived, 
and  never  lamented ;  a  broken  and  con- 
trite heart  is  the  least  thing  such  desire ; 
but  it  is  otherwise  with  belie^'ers,  for 
the  hardness  they  feel  is  alwavs  a  mat- 
ter of  grief  to  them,  Rom.  vii.  24. — 2.  Ju- 
dicial hardness  is  perpetual ;  or,  if  ever 
there  be  any  remorse  or  relenting,  it  is 
only  at  such  times  when  the  sinner  is 
under  some  outward  afflictions,  or  filled 
with  the  dread  of  the  wrath  of  God ; 
but  as  this  wears  off  or  abates,  his  stu- 
pidity returns  as  much  or  more  than 
ever,  Exnd.  ix.  27 ;  but  true  believers, 
whei^^^fcverse  dispensatioJis  trouble 
ther^^^Bten  distressed  because  their 
hearSBPPno  more  affected  in  holy  du- 
ties, or  inflamed  with  love  to  God,  Rom. 
vii.  15. — 3.  Judicial  hardness  is  attended 
with  a  total  neglect  of  duties,  especially 


HEA 


208 


HEA 


those  that  are  secret ;  but  that  hardness 
of  heart  which  a  believer  compUiins  of, 
though  it  occasions  his  going  uncomfor- 
tably in  duty,  yet  does  not  keep  him 
from  it,  Job  xxiii.  2,  3. — 4.  When  a  per- 
son is  judicially  hardened,  he  makes 
use  of  indirect  and  unwarrantable  me- 
thods to  maintain  that  false  peace  which 
he  thinks  himself  happy  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of;  but  a  believer,  when  complain- 
ing of  the  hardness  of  his  heart,  cannot 
be  satisfied  with  any  thing  short  of 
Christ,  Ps,  ci.  2. — 5.  Judicial  hardness 
generally  opposes  the  interest  of  truth 
and  godliness;  but  a  good  man  considers 
this  as  a  cause  nearest  his  heart ;  and 
although  he  have  to  lament  his  luke- 
warmness,  yet  he  constantly  desires  to 
promote  it,  Ps.  Ixxii.  19. 

Kee fling  the  heart,  is  a  duty  enjoined 
in  the  sacred  Scriptures.  It  consists, 
says  Mr.  Flavel,  in  the  diligent  and  con- 
stant use  and  improvement  of  all  holy 
means  and  duties  to  preserve  the  soul 
from  sin,  and  mtiintain  communion  with 
God ;  and  this,  he  properly  observes, 
supposes  a  previous  work  of  sanctifica- 
tion,  which  hath  set  the  heart  right  by 
giving   it   a  new  bent   and   inclination. 

1.  It  includes  frequent  observation  of 
the  frame  of  the  heart,  Ps.  Ixxvii.  6. — 

2.  Deep  humiliation  for  heart  evils  and 
disorders,  2  Chron.  xxxii.  26. — 3.  Ear- 
nest supplication  fm-  heart  purifying  and 
iTctifying  grace,  Ps.  xix.  12. — 4.  A  con- 
stant holy  jealousy  over  our  hearts, 
Prov.  xxvii.  14. — 5.  It  includes  the  real- 
izing of  God's  presence  with  us;  and  set- 
ting him  before  us,  Ps.  xvi.  8.  Gen.  xvii. 
1.  This  is,  1.  The  hardest  work  ;  heart 
work  is  hard  work,  indeed. — 2.  Constant 
work,  Exod.  xvii.  12. — 3.  The  most  im- 
portant work,  Prov.  xxiii.  26.  This  is  a 
duty  which  should  he  attended  to,  ifive 
consider  it  in  connection  with,  1,  The 
honour  of  God,  Is.  Ixvi.  3. — 2.  The  sin- 
cerity of  our  profession,  2  Kings  x.  31. 
Ezek.  xxxiii.  31,  32. — 3.  The  beauty  of 
our  conversation,  Prov.  xii.  26.  Ps.  xlv. 
1. — 4.  The  comfort  of  our  souls,  2  Cor. 
xiii.  5. — 5.  The  improvement  of  our 
graces,  Ps.  Ixiii.  5,  6. — 6.  The  stability 
of  our  souls  in  tlie  hour  of  temptation,  1 
Cor.  xvi.  13. — The  seasons  in  ivhich  we 
should  more  particularly  keep  our  hearts 
are,  1.  The  time  of  prosperitv.  Dent.  vi. 
10,  12.— 2.  Under  afflictions,  Heb.  vii.  5, 
6. — 3.  The  time  of  Sion's  troubles,  Ps. 
xlvi.  1,  4. — 4.  In  the  time  of 
threatened  dangers,  Ls.  x\ 
5.  Under  great  wants.  Phi 
6.*  In  the  time  of  duty,  Lev.  x 
der  injui-ies  received,  Rom.  xn 
— 8.  In  the  critical  hour  of  temptation, 
Matt.   xxvi.   41.— 9.    Under  dark    and 


doubting  seasons,  Heb.  xii.  8.  Is.  1.  10.— 
10.  In  time  of  opposition  and  suffering,  ■ 
1  Pet.  iv.  12,  13.-r-ll.  The  time  of  sick- 
ness and  death,  Jer.  xlix.  11.  The  means 
to  be  made  use  of  to  keep  our  hearts, 
are,  1.  Watchfulness,  Mark  xiii.  37. — 
2.  Examination,  Prov.  iv.  26. — 3.  Prayer, 
Luke  xviii.  1. — 4.  Reading  God's  word, 
John  V.  39. — 5.  Depende;;ce  on  divine 
grace,  Ps.  Ixxxvi.  11.  See  Flavel  on 
Keeping  the  Heart;  Jameison's  Ser- 
mons  on  the  Heart;  IVright  on  Self- 
possession  ;  Ridgley\'}  Div.  qu.  20. 

HEATHEN,  pagans  who  worship 
false  gods,  and  are  not  acquainted 
either  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Old 
Testament  or  the  Christian  dispensa- 
tion. For  many  ages  before  Christ,  the 
nations  at  large  were  destitute  of  the 
true  religion,  and  gave  themselves  up 
to  the  grossest  ignorance,  the  most  ab- 
surd idolatry,  and  the  greatest  crimes. 
Even  the  most  learned  men  among  the 
heathens  were  in  general  inconsistent, 
and  complied  with  or  promoted  the 
vain  customs  they  found  among  their 
countrymen.  It  was,  however,  divinely 
foretold,  that  in  Abraham's  seed  all 
nations  should  be  blessed ;  that  the  hea- 
then should  be  gathered  to  the  Saviour, 
and  become  his  people.  Gen.  xxii.  18. 
Gen.  xlix.  10.  Ps.  ii.  8.  Isa.  xiii.  6,  7. 
Ps.  Ixxii.  Isaiah  Ix.  In  order  that  these 
promises  might  be  accomplished,  vast 
numbers  of  the  Jews,  after  the  Chal- 
dean captivity,  were  left  scattered 
among  the  heathen.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment was  translated  into  Greek,  the 
most  common  language  of  the  heathen ; 
and  a  rumour  of  the  Saviour's  appear- 
ance in  the  flesh  was  spread  far  and  wide 
among  them.  When  Christ  came,  he 
preached  chiefly  in  Galilee,  where  there 
were  multitudes  of  Gentiles.  He  as- 
sured the  Greeks  that  vast  numbers  of 
the  heathen  should  be  brought  into  the 
church,  Matt.  iv.  23.  John  xii.  20,  24. 
For  1700  years  past  the  Jews  have  been 
generally  rejected,  and  the  church  of 
God  has  been  composed  of  the  Gen- 
tiles. Upwards  of  480  millions  (nearly 
half  the  globe,)  however,  are  supposed 
to  be  yet  m  pagan  darkness.  Consider- 
able attempts  have  been  made  of  late 
years  for  the  enlightening  of  the  hea- 
then ;  and  there  is  every  reason  to  be- 
lieve good  has  been  done.  From  the 
ti])ect  of  Scripture  prophecy,  we  are 
d  to  cx])ect  that  the  kingdoms  of  the 
heathen  at  large  shall  be  brought  to  the 
light  of  the  Gospel,  Matt.  xxiv.  14.  Isa. 
Ix.  Ps.  xxii.  28,  29.  Ps.  ii.  7,  8.  It  has 
lieen  much  disputed  whctlier  it  be  pos- 
sible that  the  heathen  .sh(xild  be  saved 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  Gospel : 


HEA 


209 


HEA 


some  have  absolutely  denied  it,  upon 
the  authority  of  those  texts  which  uni- 
versally lequire  faith  in  Christ ;  but  to 
this  it  IS  answei'ed,  that  those  texts  re- 
gard only  such  to  whom  the  Gospel 
conies,  and  are  capable  of  understand- 
ing the  contents  of  it.  The  truth,  says 
"Dr.  Doddridge,  seems  to  be  this;  that 
none  of  the  heathens  will  be  condemned 
for  not  Ijelieving  the  Gospel,  but  they 
ai"e  liable  to  condemnation  for  tlie 
breach  of  God's  natural  law :  neverthe- 
less, if  there  be  any  of  them  in  wliom 
there  is  a  prevailing  love  to  the  Divine 
Being,  there  seems  reason  to  believe 
that,  for  the  sake  of  Chnst,  though  to 
them  unknown,  they  may  be  accepted 
by  God ;  and  so  much  the  ratlier,  as 
the  ancient  Jews,  and  even  the  apos- 
tles, during  the  time  of  our  Saviour's 
abode  on  earth,  seem  to  have  had  but 
little  notion  of  those  doctrines,  whicli 
those  who  deny  the  salvability  of  the 
heathens  are  most  apt  to  imagine,  Rom. 
ii,  10—22.  Acts  x.  34,  35.  Matt.  viii. 
11,  12.  Mr.  Grove,  Dr.  Watts,  Sau- 
rin,  and  Mr.  Newton,  favour  the  same 
opinion ;  the  latter  of  whom  thus  ob- 
serves: "If  we  suppose  a  heathen 
brought  to  a  sense  oi  his  misery  ;  to  a 
conviction  that  he  caimot  be  happy 
without  the  favour  of  the  great  Lord  of 
the  world ;  to  a  feeling  of  guilt,  and 
desire  of  mercy,  and  that,  though  he 
has  no  explicit  knowledge  of  a  Saviour, 
he  directs  the  cry  of  his  heart  to  the 
unknown  Supreme,  to  have  meicy  upon 
him  ;  who  will  prove  th"t  such  views 
and  desires  can  arise  in  the  heart  of  a 
sinner,  without  the  energy  of  that  S])i- 
rit  which  Jesus  is  exalted  to  bestow  ? 
Who  will  take  upon  him  to  say,  that 
his  blood  has  not  sufficient  efficacy  to 
redeem  to  God  a  sinner  who  is  thus 
disposed,  though  he  have  never  heard 
of  his  name  ?  Or  who  has  a  warrant  to 
affirm,  that  the  supposition  I  have  made 
is  in  the  nature  of  things  impossible  to 
be  realized?"  jYeiuto?i's  Messiah;  Dr. 
Watts^s  Strength  atid  Weakness  of  Hu- 
man Reason,  p.  106;  Saiirin's  Sermo?is, 
vol.  ii.  p.  314  ;  Grove's  Mor.  Phil.  vol. 
i.  p.  128  ;  Turret  Loc.  vol.  i.  quxst.  4. 
§  1,  2,  17;  Doddridice's  Lectures,  lee. 
240,  vol.  ii.  8vo.  edit.  Bellamy's  Religion 
Delineated,  p.  105  ;  Ridiflet/'s  Body  of 
JDiv.  qu.  60 ;  Gale's  Court  'of  the  Gen- 
tiles; Considerati07is  on  the  Religious 
JVorship  of  the  Heathen;  Rev.  W. 
Jo?ies's  Works,  vol.  xii. 

HEAVEN  is  considered  as  a  place 
in  some  remote  part  of  infinite  space, 
in  which  the  omnipresent  Deity  is  said 
to  afford  a  nearer  and  more  immediate 
view  of  himself,  and  a  more  sensible 


manifestation  of  his  glory,  than  in  the 
other  parts  of  the  vmixerse. 

7'hat  there  is  a  state  of  future  happi- 
ness, both   x'eason   and  Scripture  indi- 
cate ;  a  general  notion    of    happiness 
after  death   has  obtained   among   the 
j  Aviser  sort  of  heathens,  who  have  only 
had  the  light  of  nature  to  guide  them. 
If  we  examine  the  human  mind,  it  is 
also  evident  that  there  is  a  natural  de- 
!  sire  after  htippiness  in  all  men ;   and, 
j  which  is  equiilly  evident,  is  not  attained 
in  this  life.    It  is  no  less  observable, 
i  that   in   the  ]:>resent  state  .there  is  an 
I  unequal  distribution  of   things,   which 
I  nftikcs  the  providences  of  God  very  in- 
tricate,  arid   which   cannot   be    solved 
without  supposing  it  future  state.    Re- 
velation, however,  puts   it  beyond  all 
doubt.    The  Divine   Being   hath   pro- 
mised it,  1  John  ii.  25.    1  John  v.   11. 
James  i.  12;  hath  given  us  some  intima- 
tion of  its  glory,  1  Pet.  iii.  4.  22.    Rev. 
iii.  4.  declares  Christ  hath  taken  pos- 
session of  it  for  us,  John  xiv.  2,  3.  and 
informs  us  of  some  already  there,  both 
as  to  their  bodies  and  souls.  Gen.  v.  24. 
2  Kings  ii. 

Heaven  is  to  be  considered  as  a  place 
as  ivell  as  a  state:  it  is  expressly  so 
termed  in  Scripture,  John  xiv.  2,  3 : 
and  the  existence  of  the  body  of  Christ, 
and  those  of  Enoch  and  Elijah,  is  a  fur- 
ther proof  of  it.  Yea,  if  it  be  not  a 
place,  where  can  these  bodies  be  ?  and 
where  will  the  bodies  of  the  saints  exist 
after  the  resuri'ection  ?  Where  this 
place  is,  however,  cannot  be  determined. 
Some  have  thought  it  to  be  bevond  the 
starry  firmament ;  and  some  of  the  an- 
cients imagined  that  their  dwelling 
would  be  in  the  sun.  Others  suppose 
tlie  air  to  be  the  seat  of  the  blessed. 
Others  think  that  the  saints  will  dwell 
upon  earth  when  it  shall  be  restored  to 
its  paradisaical  state ;  but  these  suppo- 
sitions are  more  curious  than  edifying, 
and  it  becomes  us  to  be  silent  where  di- 
vine revelation  is  so. 

Heaven,  hoivever,  ive  are  assured,  is 
a  place  of  inexpressible  felicity.  The 
names  given  to  it  are  proofs  of  this :  it 
is  called  paradise,  Luke  xxiii.  43. 
Light,  Rev.  xxi.  23.  ^1  building  and 
maiision  of  God,  2  Cor.  v.  1.  John  xiv. 
2.  A  citii,  Heb.  xi.  10,  16.  A  better 
counti~y,  Heb.  xi.  16.  An  inheritance. 
Acts  XX.  32.  A  kingdom.  Matt.  xxv. 
34.  A  crown,  2  Tim.  iv.  8.  Glory,  Ps. 
Ixxxiv.  11.  2  Cor.  iv.  17.  Peace,  rest, 
and  joy  of  the  Lord,  Is.  Ivii.  2.  Heb.  iv. 
9.  Matt.  xxv.  21,  23.  The  felicity 
of  heaven  will  consist  in  freedom  from 
all  evil,  both  of  soul  and  body,  Rev.  vii. 
17;  in  the  enjoyment  of  (Jod  as  the 
Dd 


HEA 


210 


HEA 


chief  good,  in  the  company  of  angels  and 
saints;  in  perfect  holiness,  and  exten- 
sive knowledge. 

It  has  been  dispiited  whether  there  are 
degrees  of  glory  in  heave?2.  Tlie  argu- 
ments ag.'.'inst  degrees  are,  tliat  all  the 
people  of  (Tod  are  loved  by  him  with 
the  same  love,  all  chosen  together  in 
Christ,  equally  interested  in  the  same 
covenant  of  grace,  equally  redeemed 
with  the  same  price,  and  all  pi-edesti- 
nated  to  the  same  adoption  of  children ; 
to  suppose  the  contrary,  it  is  said,  is  to 
eclipse  the  glory  of  divine  grace,  and 
carries  with  it  the  legal  idea  of  being 
rewarded  for  our  works.  On  the  otlfer 
side  it  is  obsei-ved,  that  if  the  above 
reasoning  would  4)rove  any  thing,  it 
would  prove  too  much,  viz.  that  we 
should  all  be  upon  an  equality  in  the 
present  world  as  well  as  that  which  is 
to  come ;  for  we  are  now  as  much  the 
objects  of  the  same  love,  purchased  by 
the  same  blood,  &c.  as  we  shall  be 
hereafter.  That  rewards  contain  no- 
thing inconsistent  Avith  the  doctrine  of 
gi-ace,  because  those  very  works  which 
it  pleaseth  God  to  honour  are  the  effects 
of  his  own  operation.  That  all  rewards 
to  a  guilty  creatm'e  have  respect  to  the 
meniation  of  Christ.  That  God's  gi'a- 
ciously  connecting  blessings  with  the 
obedience  of  his  people,  ser\'C3  to  show 
not  only  his  love  to  Clirist  and  to  tiiem, 
but  his  regard  to  rigliteousness.  That 
the  Scriptures  expressly  declare  for 
degrees,  Dan.  xii.  3.  Matt.  x.  41,  42. 
Matt.  xix.  28,  29.  Luke  xix.  16,  19. 
Rom.  ii.  6.  1  Cor.  iii.  8.  1  Cor.  xv.  41, 
42.     2  Cor.  v.  10.     Gal.  vi.  9. 

Another  question  has  sometimes  been 
proposed,  viz.  Whether  the  saints  shall 
Know  each  other  iii  lieaven? 

"  The  arguments,"  says  Dr.  Ridgley, 
"  which  are  generally  brought  in  de- 
fence of  it,  are  taken  from  those  in- 
stances recorded  in  Scripture,  in  which 
persons  who  have  never  seen  one  an- 
other before,  have  immediately  known 
each  other  in  this  world,  by  a  special 
immediate  divine  revelation  given  to 
them,  in  like  manner  as  Adam  knew 
that  Eve  was  taken  out  of  him ;  and 
thci-cfore  says,  This  is  Jionv  hone  of  my 
bone,  and  fle.sli  of  my  fiesh:  she  shall 
be  called  woman,  because  she  was  taken 
out  of  man.  Gen.  ii.  23.  He  was  cast 
into  a  dc'p  sleep,  when  God  took  out 
one  of  his  ribs,  and  so  firmed  the  wo- 
vum,  as  we  read  in  the  foiegoing  words ; 
yet  the  knowledge  hereof  was  comnm- 
nicated  to  him  by  (iod.  Moreover,  we 
read  that  Peter,  James,  and  John,  knew 
Moses  and  Elias,  Matt.  xvii.  as  appeai-s 
fi'om  Peter's  making  a  paiticular  men- 


tion of  them  :_  Let  us  make  three  tabeV' 
nacles  ;  one  for  thee,  one  for  Moses,  and 
one  for  Elias,  4th  ver^  though  he  had 
never  seen  them  before.  Again,  our 
Saviour,  in  the  parable,  represents  the 
rich  man,  as  seeing  jibrahaiti  afar  off, 
and  Lazarus  in  his  boso/n,  Luke  xvi. 
23,  and  speaks  of  him  as  addressing  his 
discourse  to  him.  From  such  like  ar- 
guments, some  conclude  that  it  may  be 
niferred  that  the  saints  shall  know  one 
another  in  heaven,  when  joined  together 
in  the  same  asseml^ly. 

"  Moreover,  some  think  that  this  may 
be  proved  from  the  apostle's  words,  in 
1  Thess.  ii.  19,  20.,  JVhat  is  our  hofie 
or  joy,  or  crown  of  rejoicing?  Are  ?iot 
even  ye  in  the  firesence.of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  at  his  coming?  for  ye  are 
our  glory  and  joy  ;  which  seems  to 
argue,  that  he  ajjprehended  their  hap- 
piness in  hea\  en  should  contribute,  or 
be  an  addition  to  his,  as  he  was  made 
an  instrument  to  bring  them  thither; 
e\  en  so,  b)'  a  pai'ity  of  reason,  every 
one  who  has  been  instrumental  in  the 
conversion  and  building  up  others  in 
their  holy  faith,  as  the  apostle  Paul  was 
with  respect  to  them,  tiiese  shall  tend 
to  enhance  their  praise,  and  give  them 
occasion  to  glorify  God  on  their  behalf. 
Therefore  it  follows  that  they  shall 
know  one  another ;  and  consequently 
they  who  ha\^e  walked  together  in  the 
ways  of  God,  and  have  been  liseful  to 
one  another  as  relations  and  intimate 
friends,  in  what  respects  more  espe- 
cially their  .spiritual  concerns,  these 
shall  bless  God  for  the  mutual  advan- 
tages which  they  have  received,  and 
consequently  shall  know  one  another. 
Again  ;  some  prove  this  from  that  ex- 
pression of  our  Saviour  in  Luke  xvi.  9. 
Make  to  yourseh<es  friends  of  the  mam- 
7non  of  7in righteousness,  that,  when  ye 
fail,  they  may  receive  you  into  everlast- 
ing habitations  ;  especially  if  by  these 
everlasting  habitations  be  meant  hea- 
ven, as  many  suppose  it  is ;  and  then  the 
meaning  is,  that  they  whom  you  liave 
relieved,  and  shown  kindness  to  in  this 
world,  shall  express  a  particular  joy 
upon  your  being  admitted  into  heaven  ; 
and  consequently  they  sliall  know  you, 
and  bless  God  for  j^ovir  having  been  so 
useful  and  beneficial  to  them. 

"  To  this  it  is  objected  that  if  the 
saints  shall  know  one  anotlier  in  heaven, 
they  shall  know  that  several  of  those 
who  were  their  intimate  friends  here  on 
earth,  whom  they  loved  with  very  gi-eat 
affection,  are  not  there  ;  and  this  will 
have  a  tendency  to  give  them  some  un- 
easiness, and  a  diminution  of  their  joy 
and  happiness. 


HE  A 


211 


HEA 


"To  this  it  may  be  replied,  that  if  it 
be  allowed  that  the  saints  shall  know 
that  some  whom  they  loved  on  earth 
are  not  in  heaven,  this  will  ^ive  them  no 
uneasiness :  since  that  aftection  which 
took  its  rise  principally  from  the  rela- 
tion which  we  stood  in  to  persons  on 
earth,  <n-  the  intimacy,  that  we  have 
contracted  with  them,  will  cease  in  an- 
other world,  or  rather  run  in  another 
channel,  and  be  excited  by  superior 
motives ;  namely,  their  relation  to 
Christ ;  that  perfect  holiness  which 
they  are  adorned  with ;  their  being 
joined  in  the  same  blessed  society,  and 
engaged  in  the  same  employment,  to- 
gether with  their  former  usefulness  one 
to  another  in  promoting  their  spiritual 
welfare,  as  made  sul)scrvient  to  the 
happiness  they  enjoy  there.  And  as 
-for  others,  who  are  excluded  from  their 
society,  they  will  think  themselves  obli- 
ged, out  of  a  due  regard  to  the  justice 
and  holiness  of  Qod  to  acquiesce  in  his 
righteous  judgments.  Thus,  the  inha- 
bitants of  heaven  are  represented  as 
adoring  the  divine  perfections,  when  the 
'■ials  of  God's  wrath  were  poured  out 
i)on  his  enemies,  and  saying,  Thou  art 
:^hteQiis,  O  Lord,  because  thou  hem 
idged  thus:  true  atid  righteous  are 
■.'/  jtidgments.  Rev.  xvi.  5,  7. 
"Another  question  has  Ijeen  some- 
times asked,  viz.  Whether  there  shall  be 
a  diversity  of  languages  in  heaven,  as 
-there  is  on  earth  f  This  we  cannot 
pretend  to  determine.  Some  think  that 
there  shall ;  and  that,  as  persons  of  all 
nations  s.nd  tongues  shall  make  up  that 
blessed  society,  so  they  shall  praise  God 
in  the  same  language  which  they  be- 
fore used  when  on  earth ;  and  that  this 
worship  may  be  performed  with  the 
gi-eatest  harmony,  and  to  mutual  edifi- 
cation, all  the  saints  shall,  by  the  imme- 
diate power  and  providence  of  God,  be 
able  to  understand  and  make  use  of 
every  one  of  those  different  languages, 
as  well  as  tlieir  own.  This  they  found 
on  the  apostle's  words,  in  which  he  says, 
That  at  the  name  of  Jesus  every  knee 
should  bow,  and  that  evcrxj  tongue 
should  confess  that  Jesiis  Christ  is 
Lord ;.\v\vich.  they  suppose  has  a  respect 
to  the  heavenly  state,  because  it  is  said 
to  be  done  both  by  those  that  are  in 
heaven,  and  those  that  are  on  earth, 
Phil.  ii.  10,  11.  But  though  the  apos- 
tle speaks  by  a  metonymy  of  different 
tongues,  that  is,  persons  who  speak 
different  languages  being  subject  to 
Christ,  he  probably  means  thereby  per- 
sons of  different  nations,  whether  they 
shall  praise  him  in  their  own  language 
in   heaven,    or    no.     Therefore    some 


coiijecture  that  the  diversity  of  langua- 
ges shall  then  cease,  inasmuch  as  it  took 
its  first  rise  from  (iod's  judicial  hand, 
when  he  confounded  the  speech  of  those 
who  presumptuously  attempted  to  build 
the  cit)'  and  tower  of  Babel ;  and  this 
has  been  ever  since  attended  with  many 
inconveniences.  Ai)d,  indeed,  the  apos- 
tle seems  expressljto  intimate  as  much, 
when  he  says,  speaking  concerning  the 
heavenly  state,  that  tongues  shall 
cease,  1  Cor.  xiii.  8,  that  is,  the  present 
variety  of  languages. — Moreover,  since 
the  gift  of  tongues  was  bestowed  on 
the  apostles  for  the  gathering  and 
building  up  the  church  in  the  first  ages 
thereof^  which  end,  when  it  was  an- 
swered, this  extraordinary  dispensation 
ceased  ;  in  like  manner  it  is  probable 
that  hereafter  the  diversity  oi  langua- 
ges shall  cease." 

"  I  am  sensible,"  says  Dr.  Ridgley, 
"there  are  some  who  object  to  this,  that 
the  saints  understanding  all  languages, 
will  be  an  addition  to  their  honour,  glo- 
ry, and  happiness.  But  to  this  it  may 
be  answered,  that  though  it  is,  indeed, 
an  accomplishment,  in  this  world,  for  a 
person  to  understand  several  languages, 
that  arises  from  the  subserviency  there- 
of to  those  valuable  ends  that  are  an- 
swered thereby ;  b\it  this  would  be  en- 
tirely removed,  if  the  diversity  of  lan- 
guages be  taken  away  in  heaven,  as 
some  suppose  it  will." 

"There  are  some,  who,  it  may  be, 
give  too  much  scope  to  a  vain  ciiriosity, 
when  they  pretend  to  enquire  what 
this  langiiage  shall  be,  or  determine,  as 
the  Jews  do,  and  with  them  some  of  the 
fathers,  that  it  shall  be  Hebrew,  since 
their  arguments  for  it  are  not  suffi- 
ciently conclusive,  which  are  principally 
these,  viz.  That  this  was  the  language 
with  which  God  inspired  man  at  first  in 
paradise,  and  that  which  the  saints  and 
patriarchs  spake,  and  the  church  gene- 
rally made  use  of  in  all  ages  till  our  Sa- 
viour's time  ;  and  that  it  was  this  lan- 
guage which  he  himself  spake  while 
here  on  earth ;  and  since  his  ascension 
into  heaven,  he  spake  to  Paul  in  the 
Hebrew  tongue,  Acts  xxvi.  14.  And 
when  the  inhabitants  of  heaven  are  de- 
scribed in  the  Revelations  as  praising 
God,  there  is  one  word  used  by  which 
their  praise  is  expressed,  nameh'.  Hal- 
lelujah, which  is  Hebrew;  the  meaning 
whereof  is,  Praise  ye  the  Lord.  But  all 
these  arguments  are  not  sufficiently  con- 
vincing, and  therefore  Ave  must  reckon 
it  no  more  than  a  conjecture." 

However  undecided  we  may  be  as  to 
this  and  some  other  circumstances,  this 
we  may  be  assured  of,  that  the  hafipi- 


HEL 


213 


HEL 


nns  of  heax'fu  will  be  eternal.  Whether 
it  will  be  progressive  or  not,  and  that 
the  saints  shall  always  be  increasing  in 
their  knowledge,  joy,  &c.  is  not  so  clear. 
Some  suppose  that  this  indicates  an  im- 

{lerfection  in  the  felicity  of  the  saints 
or  any  addition  to  be  made;  but  others 
think  it  quite  analogous  to  the  dealings 
of  God  with  us  here;  and  that,  from 
the  nature  of  the  mind  itself,  it  may  be 
concluded.  But  however  this  be,  it  is 
certain  that  our  happiness  will  be  com- 
plete, 1  Pet.  V.  10.  1  Pet.  V.  4.  Heb.  xi. 
10.  Watts's  Death  and  Heaven  ;  Gill's 
Body  of  Divinity,  vol.  ii.  p.  495  ;  Sau- 
rin's  Sermons,  vol.  iii.  p.  321 ;  Tofi- 
lady's  Works,  vol.  iii.  p.  471 ;  Bates's 
Works;  Ridgley's  Boay  of  Divinity, 
ques.  90. 

HEBREWS.    See  Jews. 

HELL,  the  place  of  divine  punish- 
ment after  death.  As  all  religions  have 
supposed  a  future  state  of  existence 
after  this  life,  so  all  have  their  hell,  or 
place  of  torment,  in  which  the  wicked 
are  to  be  punished.  Even  the  heathens 
had  their  tartara;  and  the  Mahome- 
tans, we  find,  believe  the  eternity  of 
rewards  and  punishments ;  it  is  not, 
therefore,  a  sentiment  peculiar  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

There  have  been  many  curious  and 
useless  conjectures  respecting  the  fi lace 
of  the  damned:  the  ancients  generally 
supposed  it  was  a  region  of  fire  near 
the  centre  of  the  earth.  Mr.  Swinden 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  it  is  seated 
in  the  sun.  Mr.  Whiston  advanced  a 
new  and  strange  hypothesis  ;  according 
to  him,  the  comets  are  so  many  hells, 
appointed  in  their  orliits  alternately  to 
carrj^  the  damned  to  the  confines  of  the 
sun,  there  to  be  scoi-ched  by  its  violent 
heat ;  and  then  to  return  with  them  be- 
yond the  orb  of  Saturn,  there  to  starve 
them  in  those  cold  and  dismal  regions. 
But,  as  Dr.  Doddridge  observes,  we 
must  here  confess  our  ignorance ;  and 
shall  be  much  better  emploved  in  stu- 
dying how  we  may  avoid  this  place  of 
hoiTor,  than  in  labouring  to  discover 
where  it  is. 

Of  the  nature  of  this  fiunishment  we 
may  form  some  idea  from  the  expres- 
sions made  use  of  in  Scripture.  It  is 
called  a  place  of  torment,  Luke  xvi. 
^'1.  the  bottomless  pit.  Rev.  xx.  3  to  6. 
a  prison,  1  Pet.  iii.  19.  darkness.  Matt. 
>  iii.  12.  Jude  13.  fire,  Matt.  xiii.  42,  50. 
a  worm  that  never  dies,  Mark  ix.  44, 
4S,  the  second  death,  Rev.  xxi.  8.  the 
wrath  of  God,  Rom.  ii.  5.  It  has  been 
debated  whether  there  will  be  a  mate- 
rial fire  in  hell.  On  the  affirmative  side 
it  is  obsen'ed,  that  fire  and  brimstone 


are  represented  as  the  ingredients  of 
the  torment  of  the  wicked,  Rev.  xiv. 
10,  11.  Rev.  XX.  10.  That  as  the  body  is 
to  be  raised,  and  the  whole  man  to  be 
condemned,  it  is  reasonable  to  believe 
there  will  be  some  corporeal  punish- 
ment provided,  and  therefore  probably 
material  fire.  On  the  negative  side  it 
is  alleged,  that  the  terms  above-men- 
tioned are  metaphorical,  and  signify  no 
more  than  raging  desire  or  acute  pain ; 
and  that  the  Divine  Being  can  sufficient- 
ly punish  the  wicked,  by  immediately 
acting  on  their  minds,  or  rather  leaving 
them  to  the  guilt  and  stings  of  their  own 
conscience.  According  to  several  pas- 
sages, it  seems  there  will  be  different 
degrees  of  fiunishment  in  hell,  Luke  xii. 
47.  Rom.  ii.  12.  Matt.  x.  20,  21.  Matt, 
xii.  25,  32.  Heb.  x.  28,  29. 

As  to  its  duration,  it  has  been  obser- 
ved that  it  cannot  be  eternal,  because 
there  is  no  proportion  between  tempo- 
rary crimes  and  etei-nal  punishments; 
that  the  word  everlasting  is  not  to  be 
taken  in  its  utmost  extent ;  and  that  it 
signifies  no  more  than  a  long  time,  or  a 
time  whose  precise  boundary  is  un- 
known. But  in  answer  to  this  it  is  al- 
leged, that  the  same  word  is  used,  and 
that  sometimes  in  the  veiy  same  place, 
to  express  the  eternity  of  the  happiness 
of  the  righteous,  and  the  eternity  of  the 
misery  of  the  wicked;  and  that  there 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  words 
express  two  such  different  ideas,  as 
standing  in  the  same  connection.  Be- 
sides, it  is  not  ti'ue,  it  is  obsen'ed,  that 
temporary  crimes  do  not  deserve  eter- 
nal punishments,  because  the  infinite 
majesty  of  an  offended  God  adds  a  kind 
of  infinite  evil  to  sin,  and  therefore  ex- 
poses the  sinner  to  infinite  punishment ; 
and  that  hereby  God  vindicates  his  in- 
jured majesty,  and  glorifies  his  justice. 
See  articles  Destructionists  and 
Universalists.  Berry  St.  Lect.  vol. 
ii.  p.  559,  562  ;  Dawes  on  Hell,  ser.  x. ; 
Whiston  on  ditto ;  Swinden,  Drexelius, 
and  Edwards  on  ditto.  A  late  popular 
writer  has  observed,  that  in  the  35th 
sermon  of  Tillotson,  every  thing  is  said 
upon  the  eternity  of  hell  torments  that 
can  be  known  with  any  certainty. 

HELL,  Christ's  descent  into.  That 
Christ  locally  descended  into  hell,  is  a 
doctrine  believed  not  only  by  the  pa- 
pists, but  by  many  among  the  reformed. 
1.  The  text  chiefly  brought  forward  in 
support  of  this  doctrine  is  the  1st  Petei*, 
iii.  19.  "  By  which  he  went  and  preach- 
ed to  the  spirits  in  prison ;"  but  it  evi- 
dently appears  that  the  "  spirit"  there 
mentioned  was  not  Christ's  human  soul, 
but  a  divine  nature,  or  rather  the  Holy 


HEL 


213 


HEN 


spirit  (by  which  he  was  quickened,  and 
raised  from  the  dead ;)  and  bv  tlie  in- 
spiration of  which,  granted  to  Koah,  he 
preached  to  those  notorious  sinners  who 
are  now  in  the  prison  of  hell  for  their 
disobedience. 

2.  Christ,  when  on  the  cross,  promis- 
ed the  penitent  thief  his  presence  that 
day  in  paradise  ;  and  accordingly,  when 
he  died,  he  committed  his  soul  into  his 
heavenly  Father's  hand :  in  heaven 
therefore,  and  not  in  hell,  we  are  to  seek 
the  separate  spirit  of  our  Redeemer  in 
this  period,  Luke  xxiii.  43,  46. 

3.  Had  our  Lord  descended  to  preach 
to  the  damned,  there  is  no  supposable 
reason  why  the  unbelievers  in  Noah's 
time  only  should  be  mentioned  rather 
than  those  of  Sodom,  and  the  unhappy 
multitudes  that  died  in  sin.  But  it  may 
be  said,  do  not  both  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  intimate  this?  Ps.  xvi.  10. 
Acts  ii.  34.  But  it  may  be  answered, 
tliat  the  words,  "  thou  wilt  not  leave 
my  soul  in  hell,"  may  be  explained  (as 
is  the  manner  of  the  Hebrew  poets)  in 
the  following  words :  "  Neither  wilt 
thou  suffer  thine  holy  one  to  see  cor- 
ruption." So  the  same  words  are  used, 
Ps.  Ixxxix.  48. — "What  man  is  he  that 
liveth,  and  shall  not  see  death  ?  shall 
he  deliver  his  soul  from  the  hand  of  the 
gi-ave  .•"'  In  the  Hebrew  ("?1*<tf')  the 
word  commonl]^'  rendered  hell  properly 
signifies  "the  invisible  state,'  as  our 
word  hell  originally  did  ;  and  the  other 
word  (tyjjj)  signifies  not  always  the  im- 
mortal soul,  but  the  animal  fi'ame  in 
general,  either  living  or  dead.  Bishofi 
Pearson  and  Dr.  Barroiv  07i  the  Creed; 
Edivards's  Hist,  of  Redemption,  notes, 
p.  351,  377  ;  Ridgley's  Body  of  Div.  p. 
30iS,  3d  edit.  Doddridge  and  Guise  on 
1  Pet.  iii.  19. 

HELLENISTS,  a  term  occurring  in 
the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  which  in  the  English  version  is  ren- 
dered Grecians,  Acts  vi.  1.  The  critics 
are  di\nded  as  to  the  signification  of  the 
word.  Some  observe,  that  it  is  not  to  be 
undei'stood  as  signifying  those  of  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Greeks,  but  those  who 
spoke  Greek.  The  authors  of  the  Vul- 
gate version  render  it  like  our  Greed; 
but  Messieurs  Du  Port  Royal,  more  ac- 
curately, Jidfs  Grecs,  Greek  or  Gre- 
cian Jews;  it  being  the  Jews  who  spoke 
Greek  that  are  here  treated  of,  and  who 
are  hereby  distinguished  from  the  Jews 
called  Hebrews,  that  is,  who  spoke  the 
Hebrew  tongue  of  that  time. 

The  Hellenists,  or  Grecian  Jews, 
were  those  who  lived  in  Eg\-pt,  and 
other  parts  where  the  Greek  tongue 
prevailed:  it  is  to  them  we  owe  the 


Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
commonly  called  the  Septuag-int,  or 
that  of  tlie  Seventy. 

Salmasius  and  \  ossius  are  of  a  differ- 
ent sentiment  with  respect  to  the  Hel- 
lenists :  the  latter  will  only  have  them 
to  be  those  who  adhered  to  the  Grecian 
interests.  Scaliger  is  represented  in  the 
Scaligerana  as  asserting  the  Hellenists 
to  be  the  Jews  who  lived  in  Greece  arid 
other  places,  and  who  read  the  Greek 
Bible  in  their  synagogues,  and  used  the 
Greek  language  in  sacris;  and  thus  they 
were  opposed  to  the  Hebrew  Jews,  who 

Performed  their  public  wor.ship  in  the 
[ebrew  tongue  ;  and  in  this  sense  St. 
Paul  speaks  of  himself  as  a  Hebrew  of 
the  Hebrews,  Phil.  iii.  5,  6.  i.  e.  a  He- 
brew both  by  nation  and  language. 
The  Hellenists  are  thus  properly  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Hellenes,  or  Greeks, 
mentioned  John  xii.  20.  who  were  Greeks 
by  birth  and  nation,  and  yet  proselytes 
to  the  Jewish  religion. 

HEMEROBAPTISTS,a  sect  among 
the  ancient  Je\ys,  thus  called  from  their 
washing  and  bathing  every  day,  in  all 
seasons;  and  performing  this  custom 
with  the  greatest  solemnity,  as  a  reli- 
gious rite  necessary  to  salvation. 

Epiphanius,  who  mentions  this  as  the 
fourth  heresy  among  the  Jews,  observes, 
that  in  other  points  these  heretics  had 
much  the  same  opinion  as  tlie  Scribes 
and  Pharisees ;  only  that  they  denied 
the  resuiTection  of  the  dead,  in  common 
with  the  Sadducees,  and  retained  a  few 
other  of  the  improprieties  of  these  last. 

The  sect  who  pass  in  the  East  under 
the  denomination  of  Sabians,  calling 
themselves  Mendai  liahi,  or  the  disci- 
ples of  St.  John,  and  whom  the  Eu- 
ropeans entitle  the  Christians  of  St. 
John,  because  they  yet  retain  some 
knowledge  of  the  Gospel,  is  probably' 
of  Jewish  origin,  and  seems  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  ancient  Hemerobap- 
tists ;  at  least  it  is  certain  that  John, 
whom  they  consider  as  the  founder  of 
their  sect,  bears  no  sort  of  similitude  to 
John  the  Baptist,  but  rather  resembles 
the  person  of  that  name  whom  tlie  an- 
cient writers  represent  as  the  chief  of 
the  Jewish  Hemerobaptists.  These  am- 
biguous Christians  dwell  in  Persia  and 
Arabia,  and  principally  at  Bassora;  and 
their  religion  consists  in  bodily  wash- 
ings, pei4ormed  frequently  and  with 
great  solemnit}-,  and  attended  with  cer- 
tain ceremonies  which  the  priests  min- 
gle with  this  superstitious  service. 

HENOTICON,a  famous  edict  of  the 
emperor  Zeno,  published  A.  D.  482, 
and  intended  to  reconcile  and  I'c-unite 
the  Eutvchians  with  the  Gatiiolics.    It 


HER 


214 


HER 


v;as  procured  of  the  emperor  by  means 
of  Acacius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  friends  of  Pe- 
ter Mongub  and  Peter  TruUo.  The  sting 
of  this  edict  lies  here ;  that  it  repeats  and 
confirms  all  that  has  been  enacted  in  the 
councils  of  Nice,  Constantinople,  Ephe- 
sus,  and  Chalcedon,  against  the  Arians, 
Nestorians,  and  Eutychians,  without 
making  any  particular  mention  of  the 
council  of  Chalcedon.  It  is  in  the  form 
of  a  letter,  addressed  by  Zeno  to  the 
bishops,  priests,  monks,  and  people  of 
Egypt  and  Liliya.  It  %vas  opposed  by 
the  Catholics,  and  condemned  in  form 
by  pope  Felix  II. 

HENRICIANS,  a  sect  so  called  from 
Henry,  its  founder,  who,  though  a  monk 
and  hei-mit,  undertook  to  reform  the 
superstition  and  vices  of  the  clerg}-.  For 
this  purpose  he  left  Lausanne,  in"  Swit- 
zerland, and,  removing  from  different 
places,  at  length  settled  at  Tholouse,  in 
the  year  114",  and  there  exercised  his 
ministerial  function;  till,  being  over- 
come by  the  opposition  of  Bernard,  ab- 
bot of  Clairval,  and  condemned  by  pope 
Eugenius  III.  at  a  council  assembled  at 
Rheims,  he  was  committed  to  a  close 
prison  in  1148,  where  he  soon  ended  his 
days. — This  reformer  rejected  the  bap- 
tism of  infants,  severely  censured  the 
corrapt  manners  of  the  clergy,  treated 
the  festivals  and  ceremonies  of  the 
church  with  the  utmost  contempt,  and 
held  private  assemblies  for  inculcating 
his  peculiar  doctrines. 

HERACLEONITES,  a  sect  of  Chris- 
tians, the  followers  of  Heracleon,  who 
refined  upon  the  Gnostic  divinity,  and 
maintained  that  the  world  was  not  the 
immediate  pi'oduction  of  the  Son  of  God, 
but  that  he  was  only  the  occasional 
cause  of  its  being  created  by  the  demiur- 
gus.  The  Heracleonites  denied  the  au- 
thority of  .the  prophecies  of  the  Old 
Testament ;  mamtained  that  thev  were 
mere  I'andom  sounds  in  the  air;  and 
that  St.  John  the  Baptist  was  the  only 
tioie  voice  that  directed  to  the  Messiah. 
_  HERESIARCH,  an  arch  heretic,  the 
founder  or  inventor  of  an  lieresy ;  or  a 
chief  of  a  sect  of  heretics. 

HERESY.  This  word  signifies  sect 
or  choice ;  it  was  not  in  its  earliest  ac- 
ceptation conceived  to  convey  any  re- 
proach, since  it  was  indifferently  used 
citlier  of  a  party  approved,  or  of  one 
disapproved  by  the  writer.  See  Acts 
V.  17.  XV.  3.  Afterwards  it  was  gene- 
rally used  to  signify  some  fundamental 
en-or  adhered  to  with  obstinacy,  2  Pet. 
ii.  1.  Gal.  V.  20. 

Accoi-ding  to  the  laws  of  this  king- 
dom, heresy  consists  in  a  denial  of  some 


of  the  essential  doctrines  of  Christianity, 

Eublicly  and  obstinately  avowed.  It  must 
e  acknowledged,  however,  that  par- 
ticular modes  of  belief  or  unbelieffnot 
tending  to  overturn  Christianity,  or  to 
sap  the  foundations  of  morality,  are  by 
no  means  the  object  of  coercion  by  the 
civil  magistrate,  \^^hat  doctrines  shall 
therefore  be  adjudged  heresy,  was  left 
by  our  old  constitution  to  the  determi- 
nation of  the  ecclesiastical  judge,  who 
had  herein  a  most  arbitrary  latitude  al- 
lowed him ;  for  the  general  definition 
of  an  heretic,  given  by  Lyndewode,  ex- 
tends to  the  smallest  deviations  from  the 
doctrines  of  the  holy  church :  "  Hsereti- 
cus  est  qui  dubitat  de  fide  catholka,  et 
qui  negligit  seri'are  ea  quse  Romana  ec- 
clesia  statuit,seu  serxmre  decreverat  :'* 
or,  as  the  statute,  2  Hen.  IV.  cap.  15, 
expresses  it  in  English,  "teachers  of 
erroneous  opinions,  contrary  to  the 
faith  and  blessed  determinations  of  the 
holy  church."  Vei-j'  conti-ary  this  to 
the  usage  of  the  first  general  councils, 
which  defined  all  heretical  doctrines 
with  the  utmost  precision  and  exactness; 
and  Avhat  ought  to  have  alleviated  the 
punishment,  the  uncertainty  of  the 
crime,  seems  to  have  enhanced  it  in 
those  days  of  blind  zeal  and  pious 
cruelty.  The  sanctimonious  hypocrisy 
of  the  Canonists,  indeed,  went,  at  first, 
no  farther  than  enjoining  penance,  ex- 
commimication,  and  ecclesiastical  de- 
privation, for  heresy  ;  but  afterwards 
they  proceeded  boldly  to  imprisonment 
by  the  ordinary,  and  confiscation  of 
goods  ill  fiios  usus.  But  in  the  mean 
time  they  had  prevailed  upon  the  weak- 
ness of  bigoted  princes  to  make  the  ci- 
vil power  subservient  to  their  purposes, 
by  making  heresy  not  only  a  temporal 
hilt  even  a  capital  offence  ;'  the  Romish 
ecclesiastics  determining,  without  ap- 
peal, whatever  they  pleased  to  be  he- 
resy, and  shifting  oflFto  the  secular  arm 
the  odium  and  drudgery  of  executions, 
with  which  they  pretended  to  be  too 
tender  and  delicate  to  intermeddle. 
Nay,  they  aflfccted  to  int?rcede  on  be- 
half of  the  convicted  heretic,  well 
knowing  that  at  the  same  time  they 
were  delivering  the  unhappy  victim  to 
certain  death.  See  Act  of  Faith. — 
Hence  the  capital  punishments  inflicted 
on  the  ancient  Donatists  and  Mani- 
clijeans  by  the  emperors Theodosius  and 
Justinian ;  hence,  also,  the  constitution 
of  the'  emperor  Frederic,  mentioned 
by  Lyndewode,  adjudging  all  persons, 
without  distinction,  to  be  burnt  with  fire, 
who  were  convicted  of  heresy  by  the 
ecclesiastical  judge.  The  same  empe- 
ror, in  another  constitution,  ordained. 


HER 


215 


HER 


that  if  any  temporal  lord,  when  admo- 
nished by  tlie  cliurch,  should  neglect  to 
clear  his  territories  of  heretics  witliin  a 
year,  it  should  be.  lawful  for  good  Ca- 
tholics to  sieze  and  occupy  the  lands, 
and  utterly  to  exterminate  the  heretical 
possessors.  And  upon  this  foundation 
■was  built  that  arbitran-  power,  so  long 
claimed,  and  so  fatally  exerted  by  the 
pope,  of  disposing  even  of  the  kingdoms 
of  refractory  princes  to  more  dutiful 
sons  of  the'  church.  The  immediate 
event  of  this  constitution  serves  to  illus- 
trate at  once  the  gratitude  of  the  holy 
see,  and  the  just  punishment  of  the  royal 
bigot ;  for,  upon  the  authority  of  this 
veiy  constitution,  the  pope  afterwards 
expelled  this  very  emperor  Frederic 
from  his  kingdom  of  Sicily,  and  gave  it 
to  Charles  of  Anjou.  Christianity  being 
thus  deformed  by  the  d:emon  of  perse- 
cution upon  the  continent,  our  own 
island  could  not  escape  its  scourge.  Ac- 
cordingly we  find  a  writ  de  heeretico 
comburendo,  i.  e.  of  burning  the  heretic. 
See  that  article.  But  the  king  might 
pardon  the  convict  by  issuing  no  pro- 
cess against  him  :  the  writ  de  hseretico 
comburendo  being  not  a  writ  of  course, 
but  issuing  only  by  the  special  direction 
of  the  king  in  council.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.  when  the  eyes  of  the  Chris- 
tian world  began  to  open,  and  the  seeds 
of  the  Protestant  religion  (under  the 
opprobrious  name  of  Lollardy)  took 
root  in  this  kingdom,  the  clei'gy,  taking 
advantage  from  the  king's  dubious  title 
to  demand  an  increase  of  their  own 
power,  obtained  an  act  of  parliament, 
which  shai'pened  the  edge  of  persecu- 
tion to  its  utmost  keenness.  See  Heere- 
tico Comburendo.  By  statute  2 
Hemy  V.  c.  7,  Lollardy  was  also  made 
a  temporal  offence,  and  indictable  in  the 
king's  courts;  which  did  not  thereby 
^ain  an  exclusive,  but  only  a  concun-ent 
jurisdiction  with  the  bishop's  consistory. 
Afterwards,  when  the  reformation  be- 
gan to  advance,  the  power  of  tlie  ec- 
clesiastics was  somewhat  moderated; 
for  though  what  heresy  is  was  not  then 
precisely  defined,  yet  we  are  told  in 
some  points  what  it  is  not;  the  statute 
25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  14.  declaring  that  of- 
fences against  the  see  of  Rome  are  not 
heresy ;  and  the  ordinary  being  thereby 
restrained  from  proceeding  in  any  case 
upon  mere  suspicion  ;  i.  e.  vmless  the 
party  be  accused  by  two  credible  wit- 
nesses, or  an  indictment  of  heresy  be 
first  previously  found  in  the  king's  courts 
of  common  law.  And  yet  the  spirit  of 
persecution  was  not  abated,  but  only  di- 
verted into  a  lay  channel ;  for  in"  six 
years  afterwards,  by  stat.  31  Hen.  VIII. 


c.  14.  the  bloody  law  of  the  six  articles 
was  made,  which  were  "determined 
and  resolved  by  the  most  godly  study, 
pain,  and  travail  of  his  majesty  ;  for 
which  his. most  humble  and  obedient 
subjects,  the  lords  spiritual  and  tempo- 
ral, and  the  commons  in  parliament  as- 
sembled, did  render  and  give  unto  his 
highness  their  most  high  and  hearty 
thanks!"  The  same  statute  established 
a  mixed  jurisdiction  of  clergy  and"  laity 
for  the  trial  and  conviction  of  heretics  ; 
Henn-  being  equally  intent  on  destroy- 
ing the  supremacy  of  the  bishops  of 
Rome,  and  establishing  all  their  other 
corruptions  of  the  Christian  religion. 
Without  recapitulating  the  various  re- 
peals and  revivals  of  these  sanguinary 
laws  in  the  two  succeeding  reigns,  we 
proceed  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
when  the  reformation  was  finally  esta- 
blished with  temper  and  decency,  un- 
sullied with  party  rancour  or  personal 
resentment. — By  stat.  1.  Eliz.  c.  1.  all 
former  statutes  relating  to  heresy  are 
repealed;  which  leaves  the  jurisdiction 
of  heresy  as  it  stood  at  common  law,  viz. 
as  to  the  infliction  of  common  censures 
in  the  ecclesiastical  courts ;  and  in  case 
of  burning  the  heretic,  in  the  provincial 
synod  only.  Sir  Matthew  Hale  is,  in- 
deed, of  a  different  opinion,  and  holds 
that  such  power  resided  in  the  diocesan 
also:  though  he  agrees  that  in  either 
case  the  writ  de  hxretico  comburendo 
was  not  demandable  of  common  riglit, 
but  grantable  or  otherwise  merely  at 
the  king's  discretion.  But  the  principal 
point  now  gained  was,  that  by  this  sta- 
tute a  boundary  was  for  the  first  time 
set  to  what  siiould  be  accounted  heresy ; 
nothing  for  the  future  being  to  be  so  de- 
termined, but  only  such  tenets  which 
have  been  heretofore  so  declared, — 1.  by 
the  words  of  the  canonical  Scriptures;-^ 
2.  by  the  first  four  general  councils,  or 
such  ethers  as  have  only  used  the  words 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures;  or, — 3.  which 
shall  hereafter  be  so  declared  by  the 
parliament,  with  the  assent  of  the  cler- 
g)'^  in  convocation.  Thus  was  heresy 
reduced  to  a  greater  certainty  than 
before,  though  it  might  not  have  been 
the  worse  to  have  defined  it  in  terms 
still  more  precise  and  particular ;  as  a 
man  continued  still  liable  to  be  burnt  for 
what,  perhaps,  he  did  not  understand  to 
be  heresy,  till  the  ecclesiastical  judge 
so  interpreted  the  words  of  the  canoni- 
cal Scriptures.  For  the  writ  de  heere- 
tico comburendo  remained  still  in  force, 
till  it  was  totally  abolished,  and  heresy 
again  subjected  only  to  ecclesiastical 
correction,  pro  salute  aniir^,  by  stat. 
29  Car.  II.  c.  9 ;  when,  in  one-  and  th. 


HER 


216 


HEX 


same  reign,  our  lands  were  delivered 
from  the  slavery  of  military  tenures ; 
our  bodies  from  arbitrary  imprisonment 
by  the  habeas  coi'pus  act :  and  our 
minds  from  the  tyramiy  of  superstitious 
bigotry,  by  demolishing  this  last  badge 
of  persecution  in  the  English  law. 
Every  thing  is  now  less  exceptionable, 
with  respect  to  the  spiritual  cognizance 
and  spiritual  punishment  of  heresy ;  un- 
less, perhaps,  that  the  crime  ought  to 
be  more  strictly  defined,  and  no  prose- 
cution permitted,  even  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical courts,  till  the  tenets  in  question 
ai'e  by  proper  authority  previously  de- 
clared to  be  heretical.  Under  these  re- 
strictions, some  tliink  it  necessary,  for 
the  support  of  the  national  religion,  that 
the  officers  of  the  church  should  have 

Eower  to  censure  heretics ;  yet  not  to 
arass  them  with  temporal  penalties, 
much  less  to  exterminate  or  destroy 
them.  The  legislatui-e  has,  indeed, 
thought  it  proper  that  the  civil  magis- 
trate should  intei'pose  with  regard  to 
one  species  of  heresy,  very  prevalent  in 
modem  times;  for  by  stat.  9  and  10,  W. 
III.  c.  32.  if  any  person,  educated  in  the 
Christian  religion,  or  professing  the 
same,  shall,  by  writing,  printing,  teach- 
ing, or  advised  speaking,  deny  any  one 
of  the  persons  in  the  Holy  Trinity  to  be 
God,  or  maintain  that  there  are  more 
Gods  than  one,  he  shall  undergo  the 
same  penalties  and  incapacities  which 
wei'e  inflicted  on  apostasy  by  the  same 
statute.  Enc.  Bi-it.  Dr.  Poster  and 
Stebbing  on  Heresy;  Halletfs  Discour- 
ses, vol.  iii.  No.  9.  p.  358,  408 ;  Dr. 
CainpheWs  Prel.  Dis.  to  the  Gospels. 

HERETIC,  a  general  name  for  all 
such  persons  under  any  religion,  but 
especially  the  Christian,  as  profess  or 
teach  opinions  contrary  to  the  establish- 
ed faith,  or  to  what  is  made  the  standard 
of  orthodoxv.  See  last  article,  and 
Lardner's  History  of  the  Heretics  of  the 
^rst  two  Centuries. 

HERMIANI,  a  sect  in  the  second 
century;  so  called  from  their  leader 
Hermias.  One  of  their  distinguishing 
tenets  was,  that  God  is  corporeal ; 
another,  that  Jesus  Christ  did  not  as- 
cend into  heaven  with  his  body,  but  left 
it  in  tlie  sun. 

HERMIT,  a  person  who  retires  into 
solitude  foi-  the  purpose  of  devotion. 
Who  were  the  first  hermits  cannot  ea- 
sily be  known ;  though  Paul,  surnamed 
the  hermit,  is  generally  reckoned  the 
first.  The  persecutions  of  Decius  and  jj 
Valerian  were  supposed  to  have  occa- 
sioned their  first  rise. 

HERMOGENIANS,  a  sect  of  an- 
cient heretics ;  denominated  from  their 


leader  Hermogenes,  who  lived  towards 
the  close  of  the  second  century.  Her- 
mogenes established  matter  as'  liis  first 
principle  ;  and  regarding  matter  as  the 
tountam  of  all  evil,  he  maintained,  that 
the  world,  and  every  thing  contained  in 
it,  as  also  the  souls  of  men  and  other 
spirits,  were  formed  by  the  Deity  from 
an  uncreated  and  eternal  mass  of  cor- 
rupt matter.  The  opinions  of  Hermo- 
genes with  regard  to  the  origin  of  the 
world,  and  tlie  nature  of  the  soul,  were 
warmlv  opposed  bv  Tertullian. 

HERNHUTTERS.    See  Moravi- 
ans. 

HERODIANS,  a  sect  among  the 
Jews,  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  Matt, 
xxii.  16.  Mai'k  iii.  6.  The  critics  and 
commentators  are  very  much  divided 
with  regard  to  the  Herodians.  St.  Je- 
rome, in  his  dialogue  against  the  Lu- 
ciferians,  takes  the  name  to  have  been 
given  to  such  as  owned  Herod  for  the 
Messiah  ;  and  Tertullian  and  Epipha- 
nius  ai'e  of  the  same  opinion.  But  the 
same  Jerome,  in  his  comment  on  St. 
Matthew,  treats  this  opinion  as  ridicu- 
lous ;  and  maintains  that  the  Pharisees 
gave  this  appellation, by  way  of  ridicule, 
to  Herod's  soldiers,  who  paid  tribute  to 
the  Romans;  agreeable  to  which  the 
Syrian  intei'preters  render  the  word 
by  the  domestics  of  Herod,  i.  e.  "his 
courtiers."  M.  Simon,  in  his  notes  on 
the  22d  chapter  of  Matthew,  advances 
a  more  probable  opinion:  the  name  He- 
rodian  he  imagines  to  have  been  given 
to  such  as  adliered  to  Herod's  party  and 
interest,  and  were  for  preserving  the 
government  in  his  family,  about  which 
were  great  divisions  among  the  Jews. 
F.  Hardouin  will  have  the  Herodians 
and  Sadducees  to  have  been  the  same. 
Dr.  Prideaux  is  of  opinion  that  they 
derived  their  name  from  Hei-od  the 
Great ;  and  that  thev  were  distinguish- 
ed from  the  other  Jews  by  their  con- 
currence with  Herod's  scheme  of  sub- 
jecting himself  and  his  dominions  to  the 
Romans,  and  likewise  by  complying 
with  many  of  their  heathen  usages  and 
customs.  This  symbolizing  with  idola- 
try upon  views  of  interest  and  worldly 
policy  was  probably  that  leaven  of  He- 
rod, against  which  our  Saviour  caution- 
ed his  disciples.  It  is  further  probable 
that  they  were  chiefly  of  the  sect  of  the 
Sadducees ;  because  the  leaven  of  He- 
rod is  also  denominated  the  leaven  of 
the  Sadducees. 

HETERODOX,  something  that  is 
contT-ary  to  the  faith  or  doctrine  esta- 
blished in  the  true  church.  See  Oji- 
THonox. 

HEXAPLA.aBible  disposed  in  J^i  r 


HEX 


217 


IIIG 


columns,  containing  the  text  and  divers 
versions  thereof,  compiled  and  publish- 
ed by  Origen,  with  a  \'iew  of  securing 
the  sacred  text  from  future  corniptions, 
and  to  correct  those  that  had  been  al- 
ready introduced.  Euscbius  relates, 
that  Origen,  after  his  return  from  Rome 
under  Caracalla,  applied  himself  to 
leai-n  Hebrew,  and  began  to  collect  the 
several  vei'sions  that  had  been  made  of 
the  sacred  writings,  and  of  these  to.com- 

Eose  his  Tetrapla  and  Hexapla ;  others, 
owever,  will  not  allow  him  to  have.bc- 
gun  till  the  time  of  Alexander,  after  he 
had  retired  into  Palestine,  about  the 
year  231.  To  conceive  what  this  Hex- 
apla was,  it  must  be  observed,  that,  be- 
sides the  translation  of  the  sacred  wri- 
tings, called  the  Septuagint,  made  under 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  above  280  years 
before  Christ,  tlxe  Scripture  had  been 
since  translated  uito  Greek  by  other  in- 
terpreters. The  first  of  those  versions, 
or  (reckoning  the  Septuagint)  the  se- 
cond, was  that  of  Aquila,  a  proselyte 
Jew,  the  first  edition  of  which  he  pub- 
lished in  the  12th  year  of  the  emperor 
Adrian,  or  about  the  year  of  Christ  128 ; 
the  third  was  that  of  Symmachus,  pub- 
lished, as  is  commonly  supposed,  under 
Marcus  Aurelius,  but,  as  some  say, 
under  Septimius  Severus,  about  the 
year  200  ;  the  fourth  was  that  of  Theo- 
dotion,  prior  to  that  of  Symmachus,  un- 
der Commodus,  or  about  the  year  175. 
These  Greek  versions,  says  Dr.  Kenni- 
cott,  were  made  by  the  Jews  fi-om  their 
corrupted  copies  of  the  Hebrew,  and 
were  designed  to  stand  in  the  place  of 
the  Seventy,  against  which  they  were 
prejudiced,  because  it  seemed  to  favour 
the  Christians.  The  fifth  was  found  at 
Jericho,  in  the  reign  of  Caracalla,  about 
the  year  217 :  and  the  sixth  was  disco- 
vered at  Nicopolis,  in  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander Severus,  about  the  year  228 ; 
lastly,  Origen  himself  recovered  part  of 
a  seventh,  containing  only  the  Psalms. 
Now,  Origen,  who  had  held  frequent 
disputations  with  the  Jews  in  Egypt  and 
Pa.lestine,  obsem-ing  that  they  alwavs 
objected  to  those  passages  of  Scripture 

Quoted  against  them,  appealed  to  the 
lebrew  text,  the  better  to  vindicate 
those  passages,  and  confound  the  Jews, 
by  showing  that  the  Seventy  had  given 
the  sense  of  the  Hebrew  ;  or  rather  to 
show,  by  a  number  of  different  versions, 
what  the  real  sense  of  the  Hebrew  was, 
undertook  to  reduce  all  these  sevend 
versions  into  a  body,  along  with  the  He- 
bi-ew  text,  so  as  they  might  be  easily 
confronted,  and  afford  a  mutual  light  to 
each  other.  He  made  the  Hebrew  text 
his  standard;  and  allowing  th^t  cor- 


ruptions might  have  happened,  and  that 
the  old  Hebrew  copies  might  and  did 
read  differently,  he  contented  himself 
with  marking  such  words  or  sentences  as 
were  not  in  his  Hebrew  text,  nor  the  la- 
ter Greek  versions,  and  adding  such 
words  or  sentences  as  were  omitted  in 
the  Seventy,  prefixing  an  asterisk  to  the 
additions,  and  an  obelisk  to  the  others. 
In  order  to  this,  he  made  choice  of  eight 
columns ;  in  the  first  he  made  the  He- 
brew text,  in  Hebrew  characters ;  in 
the  second,  the  same  text  in  Greek 
charactei's ;  the  rest  Avere  filled  with 
the  several  versions  above-mentioned ; 
all  the  columns  answering  verse  for 
verse,  and  phrase  for  phrase ;  and  in  the 
Psalms  there  was  a  ninth  column  for  the 
seventh  version.  This  work  Origen  call- 
ed 'EgoTrAa,  Heocafila,  q.  d.  sextuple,  or 
work  of  six  columns,  as  only  regarding 
the  first  six  Greek  versions.  St.  Epi- 
phanius,  taking  in  likewise  the  two  co- 
lumns of  the  text,  calls  the  work  Octa- 
fila,  as  consisting  of  eight  columns.  This  ' 
celebrated  work,  which  Montfaucon 
imagines  consisted  of  sixty  large  vo- 
lumes, perished  long  ago ;  probably  with 
the  libraiy  at  Cxsarea,  where  it  was 
preserved  in  the  year  653;  though  seve- 
ral of  the  ancient  Avriters  have  preserv- 
ed us  pieces  thereof,  particularly  St. 
Chrvsostom  on  the  Psalms,  Phileponus 
in  his  Hexameron,  &c.  Some  "modern 
writers  have  earnesth"  endeavoured  to 
collect  fragments  of  the  Hexapla,  par- 
ticularly Flaminius,  Nobilius,  Dnasius, 
and  F.  Montfaucon,  in  two  folio  volumes 
printed  at  Paris  in  1713. 

HIERACITES,  heretics  in  the  third 
centmy ;  so  called  fi'om  their  leader 
Hierax,  a  philosopher,  of  Egypt,  who 
taught  tliat  Melchisedec  was  the  Holy 
Ghost ;  denied  the  resurrection  and  con- 
demned man-iage. 

HIERARCHY,  an  ecclesiastical  es- 
tablishment. The  word  is  also  used  in  re- 
ference to  the  subordination  some  sup- 
pose there  is  among  the  angels :  but  whe- 
ther they  are  to  be  considered  as  having 
a  government  or  hierarchy  among  them- 
selves, so  that  one  is  superior  in  office 
and  dignity  to  others ;  or  whether  they 
have  a  kind  of  dominion  over  one  ano- 
ther ;  or  whether  some  are  made  par- 
takers of  privileges  others  are  deprived 
of,  cannot  be  determined,  since  Sci-ip- 
turc  is  silent  as  to  this  maLter. 

HIGH  CHURCHMEN,  a  term  first 
given  to  the  non-jurors,  v\'ho  refused  to 
acknowledge  "William  III.  as  their  law- 
ful king,  and  who  had  very  prrud  no- 
tions of  church  power ;  but  it  is  now 
commonly  used  m  a  more  extensive 
signification,  and  is  applied  to  all  thos^ 
E  e 


HOL 


21S 


HOL 


■who,  thoiTgh  far  from  being  non-jurors, 
yet  form  pompous  and  ambitious  con- 
ceptions of  the  authority  and  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  church. 

HISTORY,  ECCLESIASTICAL. 
See  Ecclesiastical  History. 

HOFFMANISTS,  those  who  espous- 
ed tlie  sentiments  of  Daniel  Hofthian, 
professor  in  the  university  of  Hehnstadt, 
wiio  in  the  year  1598  taught  that  the 
light  of  reason,  even  as  it  appears  in  the 
writmgs  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  is  ad- 
verse to  religion  ;  and  that  the  more  the 
human  understanding  is  cultivated  by 
philosophical  study,  the  more  perfectly 
is  the  enemy  supplied  with  weapons  of 
defence. 

HOLINESS,  freedom  from  sin,  or 
the  conformity  of  the  heart  to  God.  It 
docs  not  consist  in  knowledge,  talents, 
nor  outward  ceremonies  of  religion,  but 
hath  its  seat  in  the  heart,  and  is  the  ef- 
fect of  a  principle  of  grace  implanted  by 
the  Holy  Spirit,  Eph.  ii.  8, 10.  John  iii.  5. 
Rom.  vi.  22.  It  is  the  essence  of  happi- 
ness and  the  basis  of  true  dignity,  Prov. 
iii.  17.  Prov.  iv.  8.  It  will  manifest  itself 
by  the  propriety  of  our  conversation, 
regularity  of  our  temper,  and  uniformity 
of  our  lives.  It  is  a  principle  progressive 
in  its  operation,  Prov.  iv.  18,  and  abso- 
lutely essential  to  the  enjoyment  of  God 
here  and  hereaftei",  Heb.  xii.  14.  See 
Sanctification.    Works. 

HOLINESS  OF  GOD,  is  the  purity 
and  rectitude  of  his  nature.  It  is  an  es- 
sential  attribute  of  God,  and  what  is 
the  gloi'v,  lustre,  and  harmony  of  all  his 
other  perfections,  Ps.  xxvii.  4.  Exod. 
XV.  11.  He  could  not  be  God  without 
it;  Dcut.  xxxii.  4.  It  is  injiv'ite  and  un- 
bounded;  it  cannot  be  increased  or  di- 
m'nis'ned.  Immutable  and  invariable, 
Mai.  iii.  6.  God  is  originally  holy  ;  he 
is  so  of  and  in  himself,  and  the  author 
awd  promoter  of  all  holiness  among  his 
creatures.  The  holiness  of  God  is  visi- 
ble by  his  works ;  he  made  all  things 
holy.  Gen.  i.  31.  By  his/irovidences,  all 
Avhich  are  to  promote  holiness  in  the 
end,  Heb.  xii.  10.  By  his  c^race,  which 
influences  the  subjects  of  it  to  be  holy. 
Tit.  ii.  10,  12.  By  his  word,  which  com- 
mani^s  it,  I  Pet.  i.  15.  By  his  07-dinances, 
which  he  hath  apyjointed  for  that  end, 
Jer.  xliv.  4,  5,  By  i\\e /ninis/iment  of  sin 
in  the  death  of  Christ,  Is.  liii.  and  by  the 
eternal  fiunishment  of  it  in  wicked  men. 
Matt.  XXV.  last  verse.  See  Attri- 
butes. 

HOLOCAUST,  formed  from  o^oj, 
"wnole,"  and  xaiw,  "I  consume  with 
fire ;"  a  kind  of  sacrifice  wlierein  the 
■wliolc  burnt  offering  is  buiTit  or  consum- 
ed by  fire,  as  an  acknowledgment  that 


God,  the  Creator,  Presei'\'er,  and  Lord 
of  all,  was  worthy  of  all  honour  and 
worship,  and  as  a  token  of  men's  giving 
themselves  entirely  up  to  him.  It  is  call- 
ed in  Scripture  a  burnt-offering.  Sacri- 
fices of  this  sort  are  often  mentioned  by 
the  heathens  as  well  as  Jew^s.  They  ap- 
pear to  have  been  m  use  long  before  tne 
institution  of  other  Jewish  sacrifices  by 
the  law  of  Moses,  Job  i.  5.  Job  xlii.  8. 
Gen.  xxii.  13.  Gen.  viii.  20.  On  this 
account,  tlie  Jews,  who  would  not  allow  • 
the .  Gentiles  to  offer  on  their  altar  any 
other  sacrifices  peculiarly  enjoined  by 
the  law  of  Moses,  admitted  them  by 
the  Jewish  priests  to  offer  holocausts, 
because  these  were  a  sort  of  sacrifices 
prior  to  the  law,  and  common  to  all 
nations.  During  their  subjection  to  the 
Romans,  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  for 
those  Gentiles  to  offer  sacrifices  to  the 
God  of  Israel  at  Jerusalem.  Holocausts 
w^ere  deemed  by  the  Jews  the  most  ex- 
cellent of  all  their  saci'ifices.  See  Sa- 
crifice. 

HOLY  DAY,  a  day  sr**:  apart  by  the 
church  for  the  commemoration  of  some 
saint,  or  some  remai'kable  particular  in 
the  life  of  Christ.  It  has  been  a  ques- 
tion agitated  by  divines,  whether  it  be 
proper  to  appoint  or  keep  any  holy  days 
(the  Sabbath  excepted.)  The  advo- 
cates for  holy  days  suppose  that  they 
have  a  tendency  to  impress  the  minds  ' 
of  the  people  with  a  greater  sense  of 
religion ;  that  if  tlie  acquisitions  and 
victories  of  men  be  celebrated  with  the 
highest  joy,  how  much  more  those 
events  which  relate  to  the  salvation  of 
man,  such  as  the  birth,  death,  and  re- 
surrection of  Christ,  &:c.  On  the  other 
side  it  is  observed,  that  if  holy  days 
l>ad  been  necessary  under  the  present 
dispensation,  Jesus  Christ  would  have 
obsei-ved  something  respecting  them, 
whereas  he  was  silent  about  them  ;  that 
it  is  bringing  us  again  into  that  bondage 
to  ceremonial  laws  from  which  Christ 
freed  us ;  that  it  is  a  tacit  reflection  on 
the  Head  of  the  church  in  not  appoint- 
ing them  ;  that  such  days,  on  the  whole, 
are  more  pernicious  than  useful  to  so- 
ciety, as  they  open  a  door  for  indolence 
and'  pi'ofaneness ;  yea,  that  Scripture 
speaks  against  such  days.  Gal.  iv.  9 — 11. 
Cax>e^s  Pri>n.  Christ.;  Aelson^i  Fasts 
and  Feasts ;  Robinson's  History  arid 
Mystery  of  Good  Friday,  and  Lectures 
on  J\^onconformity ;  A  Country  Ficar's 
Ser?7ion  on  Christmas  day,  1753 ; 
Brown's  A'at.  and  Rev.  Relig.  p.  535  ; 
JVeale's  History  of  the  Puritans,  vol.  ii. 
p.  116,  qu. 

HOLY  GHOST,  the  third  person  ii-. 
the  Trmity. 


HOL 


219 


HOM 


I.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  a  real  and  dis- 
tinct fwrson  in  the  Godhead.  1.  Pei'- 
sonal  pOAvers  of  rational  understanding; 
and  will  are  ascribed  to  him,  1  Cor.  ii. 
10,  11.  1  Cor.  xii.  11.  Eph.  iv.  3.-2. 
He  is  joined  with  the  other  two  divine 
persons,  as  the  object  of  worsliip  and 
fountain  of  blessings.  Matt,  xxviii.  19. 
2  Cor.  xiii.  14.  1  John  v.  7. — 3.  In  the 
Greek,  a  masculine  article  or  epithet  is 
joined  to  his  name  Pncuma,  which  is 
naturally  of  the  neuter  gender,  John 
xiv.  26.  XV.  26.  x\\.  13.  Eph.  i.  13. — 4. 
He  appeared  under  the  emblem  of  a 
dove,  and  of  cloven  tongues  of  fire, 
Matt.  iii.  Acts  ii. — 5.  Personal  offices 
of  an  intercessor  belong  to  him,  Rom. 
Viii.  26. — 6.  He  is  represented  as  pei'- 
formmg  a  multitvide  of  personal  acts ; 
as  teaching,  speaking,  witnessing,  &c. 
Mark  xiii.'ll.  Acts  xx.  23.  Rom.  viii. 
15, 16.  1  Cor.  vi.  19.  Acts  xv.  28.  xvi.  6, 
7,  &c.  &c.  &c. 

n.  It  is  no  less  evident  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  a  divine  person  equal  in  porj- 
er  and  glory  ivith  the  Father  and  Son. 
1.  Names  proper  only  to  the  Most  High 


mediately,  as  by  a  whisper,  when  either 
awake  or  asleep,  that  we  are  the  chil- 
dren of  God  ;  or  in  any  other  way,  than 
by  enabling  us  to  exercise  repentance 
and  faith  and  love  to  God  and  our  neigh- 
bour. 2.  We  are  not  to  suppose  that  he 
reveals  any  thing  contrary  to  the  writ- 
ten word,  or  more  than  is  contained  in 
it,  or  thi'ougli  any  other  medium.  3.  We 
are  not  so  led  by,  or  opei-ated  upon  by 
the  Spirit  as  to  neglect  the  means  of 
grace.  4.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  not  pro- 
mised nor  given  to  render  us  infallible. 
5.  Nor  is  the  Holy  Spirit  given  in  order 
that  we  may  do  any  thiiig,  which  was 
not  before  our  duty.  See  Trinity,  and 
Scott's  Four  Sermons  on  Repentance, 
the  Evil  of  Sin,  Love  to  God,  and  the 
Promise  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  p.  86 — 89; 
Hawker's  Sermons  on  the  Holy  Ghost ; 
Pearson  on  the  Creed,  8th  article  ;  Dr. 
Ovoen.  on  the  Spirit ;  Hurrion's  16  Ser- 
nions  on  the  Spirit. 

HOLY  GHOST,  PROCESSION 
OF.    See  Procession. 

HOMILY,  a  sermon  or  discourse 
upon  some  point  of  religion  delivered  in 


God  are  ascribed  to  him  ;  as  Jehovah,  !4  a  plain  manner,  so  as  to  be  easily  un- 


Acts  xxviii.  25,  with  Is.  vi.  9.  and  Heb 
iii.  7,  9.  with  Exod.  xvii.  7.  Jer.  xxxi. 
31,  34.  Heb.  x.  15,  16.  God,  Acts  v. 
3,  4.  Lord,  2  Cor.  iii.  17,  19.  « The 
Lord,  the  Spirit." — 2.  Attributes  pro- 
per only  to  the  Most  High  God  are  as- 
cribed to  him ;  as  Omniscience,  1  Cor. 
ii.  10,  11.  Is.  xl.  13,  14.  Omnipresence, 
Ps.  cxxxix.  7.  Eph.  ii.  17,  18.  Rom. 
viii.  26,  27.  Omnipotence,  Luke  i.  35. 
Eternity,  Heb.  ix.  14. — 3.  Divine  works 
ai'e  evidently  asci'ibed  to  him,  Gen.  i. 
2.  Job  xxvi.  13.  Ps.  xxxiii.  6.  Ps.  civ. 
30. — 4.  Worship,  proper  only  to  God, 
is  required  and  ascribed  to  him.  Is.  vi.  3. 
Acts  xxviii.  25.  Rom.  ix.  1.  Rev.  i.  4.  2 
Cor.  xiii.  14.   Matt,  xxviii.  19. 

III.  The  agency  or  ivork  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  divided  by  some  into  extraor- 
dinary and  ordinary.  The  former  by  \ 
immediate  inspiration,  matcing  men 
prophets,  the  latter  by  his  regenerating 
and  sanctifying  influences  making  ?nen 
saints.  It  is  only  the  latter  which  is 
now  to  be  expected.  This  is  more  par- 
ticularly displayed  in,  1.  Conviction  of 
sin,  John  xvi.  8,  9. — 2.  Conversion,  1 
Cor.  xii.  Eph.  i.  17,  18.  1  Cor.  ii.  10, 
12.  John  iii.  5,  6. — 3.  SanctiJicatio}i,  2 
Thess.ji.  13.  J.  Cor.  vi.  11.  Rom.  xv. 
16. — 4.  Consolation,  John  xiv.  16,  26. — 
5.  Direction,  John  xiv.  17.  Rom.  viii.  14. 
— 6.  Confirmution,  Rom.  viii.  16,  26.  1 
John  ii.  24.  Eph.  i.  13,  14.  As  to  the 
gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  says  a  good  wri- 
ter, it  is  not  expected  to  be  bestowed  in 
answer  to  our  prayers,  to  inform  us  im- 


derstood  by  the  common  people.  The 
Greek  homily,  says  M.  Fleury,  signifies 
a  familiar  discourse  like  the  Latin  ser- 
mo,  and  discourses  delivered  in  the 
church  took  these  denominations,  to  in- 
timate that  they  were  not  harangues, 
or  matters  of  ostentation  and  flourish, 
like  those  of  profane  or^rs,  but  fami- 
liar and  useful  discourses,  as  of  a  mas- 
ter to  his  disciples,  or  a  father  to  his 
children.  All  the  homilies  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  fathers  are  composed  by 
bishops.  We  have  none  of  Tertullian, 
Clemens  Alexandrinus,  and  many  other 
learned  persons,  because  in  the  first 
ages  none  but  bishops  were  admitted  to 
preach.  The  privilege  was  not  ordina- 
rily allowed  to  priests  till  toward  the 
fifth  century.  St.  Chrysostom  was  the 
first  presbyter  that  preached  statedly, 
Origen  and  St.  Augustine  also  preach- 
ed, but  it  was  by  a  peculiar  licence  or 
privilege. 

Phc^tius  distinguishes  homily  from  ser- 
mon, in  that  the  homily  was  performed 
in  a  more  familiar  manner ;  the  prelate 
interrogating  and  talking  to  the  people, 
and  they  in  their  turn  answering  and 
intei-rogating  him,  so  that  it  was  pro- 
perly a  conversation  ;  whereas  the  ser- 
mon was  delivered  with  more  form,  and 
in  the  pulpit,  after  the  manner  of  the 
orators.  The  practice  of  compiling; 
homilies  which  were  to  be  committed 
to  memory,  and  recited  by  ignorant  or 
indolent  priests,  commenced  towards 
ji  the  close  of  the  eighth  century ;  when 


HON 


2;i0 


HOP 


Charlemagne  ordered  Paul,  Deacon, 
and  Alcuin,  to  form  homilies  or  discour- 
ses upon  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  from 
the  ancient  doctors  of  the  church.  This 
ga^e  rise  to  that  famous  collection  enti- 
tled the  Homiliarium  of  Charlemagne; 
and  which  being  followed  as  a  model  by 
many  productions  of  the  same'  kind, 
composed  by  private  pei-sons,  from  a 
principle  of  pious  zeal,  contributed 
much  (says  Mosheim)  to  nourish  the 
indolence  and  to  perpetuate  the  igno- 
rance of  a  wortliless  clergy.  There 
are  still  extant  several  fine  homilies 
composed  by  the  ancient  fathers,  parti- 
cularly St.  Chrysostom  and  St.  Gregon,'. 
—  The  Clementine  ho?7iilies  are  nineteen 
homilies  in  Greek,  published  by  Cote- 
lerius,  with  two  letters  prefixed,  one  of 
them  written  in  the  name  of  Peter,  the 
other  in  the  name  of  Clement,  to  James, 
bishop  of  Jerusalem  ;  in  which  last  let- 
ter they  are  entitled  Clement's  Epitome 
of  the  Preaching  and  Travels  of  Peter. 
According  to  Le  Clerc,  these  homilies 
■were  composed  by  an  Ebionite,  in  the 
second  century ;  but  Montfaucon  sup- 
poses that  they  were  forged*  long  after 
the  age  of  St.  Athanasius.  Dr.  Lardner 
apprehends  that  the  Clementine  homi- 
lies were  the  original  or  first  edition  of 
the  Recognitions  ;  and  that  they  are  the 
same  with  the  work  censured  by  Euse- 
bius  under  the  title  of  Dialogues  of  Peter 
and  Appion. — Homilies  of  the  Church 
of  Englan^l^^  those  which  were  com- 
posed at  theWformation  to  be  read  in  ! 
churches,  in  order  to  supply  the  defect 
of  sermons.  See  the  quarto  edition  of 
the  Homilies,  with  notes,  by  a  divine  of 
the  church  of  England. 

HONESTY  is  that  principle  which 
makes  a  person  prefer  his  promise  or 
duty  to  his  passion  or  interest.  See 
Justice. 

HONOUR,  a  testimony  of  esteem  or 
submission,  expressed  by  words  and  an 
exterior  behaviour,  by  which  we  make 
known  the  veneration  and  respect  we 
entertain  for  any  one,  on  account  of  his 
dignity  or  merit.    The  word  is  also  used 
in  general  for  the  esteem  due  to  virtue, 
^lory,  reputation,  and  probity ;  as  also 
lor  an  exactness  in  performing  whatever  ; 
we    have   promised ;   and    in   this  last 
sense  we  use  the  term,  c  man  of  ho- 
nour.   It  is  also  applied  to  two  different  | 
kinds  of  virtue  ;    bravery  in  men,  and  j 
chastity  in  women.    In  every  situation  Ij 
of  life,   religion    only  forms   the    true  | 
honour   and   happiness   of   man.     "  It  ji 
cannot,"  as  one  observes,  "  arise  from  ; 
riches,  dignity   of  rank   or  office,  nor '; 
fi'om  what  are  often  called  splendid  ac-  '}, 
tions  of   heroes,  or  civil   accomplish-  j| 


ments ;  these  may  be  found  among  men 
of  no  real  integiity,  and  mav  create  con- 
siderable fame  ;  but  a  distinction  must 
be  made  between  fame  and  true  honour 
The  foiTner  is  aloud  and  noisy  applause ; 
the  latter  a  more  silent  and  internal  ho- 
mage. Fame  floats  on  the  breath  of  the 
multitude ;  honour  rests  on  the  judg- 
ment of  the  thinking.  In  order,  then, 
to  discern  where  true  honour  lies,  we 
must  not  look  to  any  adventitious  cir- 
cumstance, not  to  any  single  spai'kling 
quality,  but  to  the  w^hole  of  what  forms 
a  man  ;  in  a  word,  we  must  look  to  the 
soul.  It  will  discover  itself  by  a  mind 
superior  to  feai',  to  selfish  interest,  and 
coiTuption ;  by  an  ardent  love  to  the 
Supreme  Being,  and  by  a  pi'inciple  of 
uniform  rectitude.  It  will  make  us  nei- 
ther afraid  nor  ashamed  to  discharge 
our  duty,  as  it  relates  both  to  God  and 
man.  It  will  influence  us  to  be  magnan- 
imous without  being  proud;  humble 
without  being  mean  ;  just  without  being 
harsh;  simple  in  our  manners,  but 
manly  in  our  feelings.  This  honour, 
thus  foraied  by  religion,  or  the  love  of 
God,  is  more  independent  and  more 
complete,  than  \vhat  can  be  acquired  by 
any  other  means.  It  is  productive  of 
higher  felicity,  and  will  be  commensu- 
rate with  eternity  itself;  while  that 
honour,  so  called,  which  arises  from  any 
other  principle,  will  resemble  the  feeble 
and  twinkling  flame  of  a  taper,  which 
is  often  clouded  by  the  smoke  it  sends 
forth,  but  is  always  wasting,  and  soon 
dies  totally  away."  Barroiu's  Works, 
vol.  i.  ser.  4 ;  Blair's  Sermons,  vol.  iii. 
ser.  1.;  Watts's  SermonSj  ser.  30.  vol.  ii. 
RyloTid's  Cont.  vol.  i.  p.  343 ;  Jortin's 
Sermons,  vol.  iii.  ser.  6. 

HOPE  is  the  desire  of  some  good, 
attended  with  the  possibility,  at  least  of 
obtaining  it ;  and  is  enlivened  with  joy 
greater  or  less,  according  to  the  proba- 
bility there  is  of  possessing  the  object 
of  our  hope.  Scarce  any  passion  seems 
to  be  more  natural  to  man  than  hope; 
and,  considermg  the  many  troubles  he 
is  encompassed  with,  none  is  more  ne- 
cessary ;  for  life,  void  of  all  hope,  would 
be  a  heavy  and  spiritless  thmg,  very 
little  desirable,  perhaps  hardly  to  be  ' 
borne;  whereas  hope  infuses  strength 
into  the  mind,  and  by  so  doing,  lessens 
the  burdens  of  life.  If  our  condition  be 
not  the  best  in  the  world,  yet  we  hope  it 
will  be  better,  and  this  helps  us  to  sup- 
port it  with  patience.  The  hope  of  the 
Christian  is  an  expectation  of  all  neces- 
sary good  both  m  time  and  eternity, 
founded  on  the  promises,  relations,  and 
perfections  of  God,  and  on  the  offices, 
righteousness,  and  intercession  of  Christ. 


HOP 


221 


HOP 


It  is  a  compound  of  desire,  expectation, 
patience,  and  joy,  Rom.  viii.  24,  25.     It 
may  be  considered,  1.  As  pure,  1  John  ■. 
iii.  2,  3,  as  it  is  resident  in  that  heart  i 
which  is  cleansed  from  sin. — 2.  As  ^ood, 
2  Thess.  ii.  16.  (in  distinction  from  tlic 
hope  of  the  hypocrite)  as  deriving  its 
origin  from  (i'od,  and  centring  in  him.  j 
— 3.  It  is  called  lively,  1  Pet.  i.  3,  as  it  i 
pi"oceeds  from  spiritual  life,  and  renders 
one  active  and  lively  in  good  works. — 
4.  It  is  courageous,  Rom.  v.  5.  1  Thess.  | 
V.  8.  because  it  excites  fortitude  in  all 
the  troubles  of  life,  and  yields  support  in } 
the   hour  of  death,  Prov.  xiv.  32. — 5.  | 
Sure,  Heb.  vi.  19,  because  it  will   not  j 
disappoint   us,    and  is  fixed  on  a  surej 
foundation. — 6.  Joyful,  Rom.  v.  2.  as  it 
produces  the  greatest    felicity  in  the 
anticipation    of    complete    deliverance 
from  all  evil.     CainJiocWs  Pleasures  of 
Jiofie ;    Grovels  Moral  Phil.  vol.  i.  p. 
381 ;  Giirs  Body  of  Div.  p.  82,  vol.  iii. ; 
No.  471,  Sjiect.;  Jay^s  Sermons,  \o\.'\i. 
ser.  2. 

HOPKINSIANS,  so  called  from  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Hopkins,  D.  D.  an  Ame- 
rican divine,  who  in  his  sermons  and 
tracts  has  made  several  additions  to  the 
sentiments  first  advanced  by  the  cele- 
brated Jonathan  Edwards,  late  presi- 
dent of  New- Jersey  College. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the 
distinguishing  tenets  of  the  Hopkinsians, 
together  with  a  few  of  the  reasons  they 
bring  forward  m  support  of  their  senti- 
ments. 

1.  That  all  time  virtue,  or  real  holi- 
ness, consists  in  disinterested  benevo- 
lence.   The  object  of   benevolence  is 
univei^al  bemg,  including  God  and  all 
intelligent    creatures.      It  wishes    and 
seeks  the  good  of  every  individual,  so 
far  as  is  consistent  with  the  greatest  good 
of  the  whole,  which  is  comprised  in  the 
glory  of  God  and  the  perfection  and 
happiness  of  his  kingdom.    The  law  of 
God  is  the  standai'd  of  all  moral  recti- 
tude or  holiness.    This  is  reduced  into 
love  to  God,  and  our  neighbour  as  our- 
selves ;  and  universal  good-will  compre- 
hends all  the  love  to  God,  our  neigh- 
bour, and  ourselves,  required  in  the  di- 
vine  la\y,   and  therefore  must  be  the 
whole  of  holy  obedience.    Let  any  seri- 
ous person  think  what  are  the  particu- 
lar branches  of  time  piety  ;  when  he 
has  viewed  each  one  by  itself,  he  will 
find  that  disinterested  friendly  affections, 
is  its  distinguishing  characteristic.     For 
instance,  all  the  holiness  in  pious  fear, 
which  distinguishes  it  from  the  fear  of 
the  wicked,  consists  in  love.     Again ; 
holy  gratitude  is  nothing  but  good-will 
to  God  and  our  neighbour,  in  which  we 


ourselves  are  included  ;  and  correspon- 
dent affection,  excited  by  a  view  of  the 
good-will  and  kmdncss  of  God.  Uni- 
versal good-will  also  implies  the  whole 
of  the  duty  we  owe  to  our  neighbour,  for 
justice,  truth,  and  fiiithfulness,  are  com- 
prised in  universal  benevolence ;  so  are 
temperance  and  chastity.  For  an  un- 
due indulgence  of  our  appetites  and 
passions  is  contrary  to  benevolence,  as 
tending  to  hurt  ourselves  or  others ;  and 
so  opposite  to  the  general  good,  and  the 
divine  command,  in  which  all  the  crime 
of  such  indulgence  consists.  In  short, 
all  virtue  is  nothing  but  benevolence 
acted  out  in  its  proper  nature  and  per- 
fection ;  or  love  to  God  and  our  neigh- 
bour, made  perfect  in  all  its  genuine 
exercises  and  expressions. 

II.  That  all  sm  consists  in  selfishness. 
By  this  is  meant  an  interested,  selfish 
affection,  by  which  a  person  sets  him- 
self up  as  supreme,  and  the  only  object 
of  regard ;  and  nothing  is  good  or  lovely 
in  his  view,  unless  suited  to  promote  his 
own  private  interest.  This  self-love  is 
in  its  whole. nature,  and  every  degree  of 
it,  enmity  against  God  :  it  is  not  subject 
to  the  law  of  "God,  and  is  the  only  af- 
fection that  can  oppose  it.  It  is  the 
foundation  of  all  spiritual  blindness,  and 
therefore  the  source  of  all  the  open 
idolatry  in  the  heathen  world,  and  false 
religion  under  the  light  of  the  Gospel ; 
all  this  is  agi-eeable  to  that  self-love 
^vhich  opposes  God's  true  character. 
Under  the  influence  of  this  principle, 
men  depart  from  truth  ;  it  being  itself 
the  greatest  practical  lie  in  nature,  cis 
it  sets  up  that  which  is  comparatively 
nothing  above  universal  existence.  Self- 
love  is  the  source  of  all  pi'ofaneness  and 
impiety  in  the  world,  and  of  all  pride 
and  ambition  among  men,  which  is 
nothing  but  selfishness,  acted  out  in  this 
particular  way.  This  is  the  foundation 
of  all  covetousness  and  sensuality,  as 
it  blinds  people's  eyes,  contracts  their 
hearts,  and  sinks  them  down,  so  that 
they  look  upon  earthly  enjoyments  as 
the  greatest  good.  Tliis  is  the  source 
of  all  falsehood,  injustice,  and  opi>res- 
sion,  as  it  excites  mankind  by  undue 
methods  to  invade  the  property  of 
others.  Self-love  produces  all  the  vio- 
lent passions ;  envy,  wrath,  clamour, 
and  evil  speaking :  and  every  thing  con- 
trary to  the  di%'ine  law  is  briefly  com- 
prehended in  this  fi-uitful  source  of  aU 
miquity,  self-love. 

III.  That  there  are  no  pi-omises  of 
regenerating  grace  made  to  the  doings 
of  the  unregenerate.  For  as  far  as  men 
act  from  self-love,  they  act  from  a  bad 
end :  for  those  who  liave  no  true  love  to 


HOP 


222 


HOP 


God,  really  do  no  duty  when  they  attend 
on  the  externals  of  religion.  And  as 
the  unregenerate  act  from  a  selfish 
principle,  they  do  nothing  which  is  com- 
manded; their  impenitent  doings  are 
wholly  opposed  to  repentance  and  con- 
version; therefore  not  implied  in  the 
command  to  repent,  &c.;  so  far  from 
this,  they  are  altogether  disobedient  to 
the  command.  Hence  it  appears  that 
there  are  no  promises  of  salvation  to 
the  doings  of  the  unregenerate. 

IV.  That  the  impotency  of  sinners, 
with  respect  to  believing  in  Christ,  is 
not  natural,  but  moral ;  for  it  is  a  plain 
dictate  of  common  sense,  that  natural 
impossibility  excludes  all  blame.  But 
an  unwilling  mind  is  universally  consi- 
dered as  a  crime,  and  not  as  an  excuse, 
and  is  the  very  thing  wherein  our  wick- 
edness consists.    That  the  impotence  of 

(J  .  the  sinner  is  owing  to  a  disaffection  of 
ite^  heart,  is  evident  from  the  promises  of 
*^  the  Gospel.  When  any  object  of  good 
is  proposed  and  promised  to  us  upon 
asking,  it  clearly  evinces  that  there  can 
be  no  impotence  in  us  with  I'espect  to 
obtaining  it,  besides  the  disapprobation 
of  the  will :  and  that  inability  which  con- 
sists in  disinclination,  never  renders  any 
thing  improperly  the  subject  of  precept 
or  command. 

V.  That,  in  order  to  faith  in  Christ,  a 
sinner  must  approve  in  his  heart  of  the 
divine  conduct,  even  though  God  should 
cast  him  off  for  ever ;  which,  however, 
neither  implies  love  of  misery,  nor  ha- 
tred of  happiness.  For  if  the  law  is 
good,  death  is  due  to  those  who  have 
broken  it.  The  Judge  of  all  the  earth 
<;annot  but  do  right.  It  would  bring 
everlasting  repi'oach  upon  his  govern- 
ment to  spare  us,  considered  merely  as 
in  ourselves.  When  this  is  felt  in  our 
iiearts,  and  not  till  then,  we  shall  be 
prepared  to  look  to  the  free  grace  of 
God,  through  the  redemption  which  is 
in  Christ,  and  to  exercise  faith  in  his 
blood,  ivho  is  set  forth  to  be  a  firopitia- 
f.ion  to  declare  God's  righteousness,  that 
he  might  he  just,  and  yet  he  the  just ijier 
of  him  who  believeth  in  Jesus. 

VI.  That  the  infinitely  wise  and  holy 
God  has  exerted  his  omnipotent  power 
in  such  a  manner  as  he  purposed  should 
be  foUoM'ed  with  the  existence  and  en- 
trance ol  moral  evil  into  the  system. — 
For  it  must  be  admitted  on  all  hands, 
that  God  has  a  perfect  knowledge, 
foresight,  and  view  of  all  possilile  exis- 
tences and  events.  If  that  system  and 
scene  of  operation,  in  which  moral  evil 
should  never  have  existed,  was  actually 
preferred  in  the  divine  mind,  certainly 
the  Deity  is  infinitely  disappointed  in 


the  issue  of  his  own  operations.  Noth- 
ing can  1)6  more  dishonourable  to  God 
than  to  imagine  that  the  sy.stem  which 
is  actually  formed  by  the  divine  hand, 
and  which  was  made  for  his  pleasure 
and  glory,  is  yet  not  the  fruit  of  wise 
contrivance  and  design. 

VII.  That  the  introduction  of  sin  is, 
upon  the  whole,  for  the  general  good. 
For  the  wisdom  and  power  of  the  Deity- 
are  displayed  in  carrying  on  designs  of 
the  greatest  good ;  and  the  existence  of 
moral  evil  lias  undoubtedly  occasioned 
a  more  full,  perfect,  and  glorious  disco- 
very of  the  infinite  perfections  of  the  di- 
vine nature,  than  could  otherwise  have 
been  made  to  the  view  of  creatures.  If 
the  extensive  manifestations  of  the  pure 
and  holy  nature  of  God,  and  his  infinite 
aversion  to  sin,  and  all  his  inherent  per- 
fections, in  their  genuine  fniits  and  ef- 
fects, is  either  itself  the  greatest  good, 
or  necessarily  contains  it,  it  must  ne- 
cessai'ily  follow  that  the  introduction 
of  sin  is  for  the  greatest  good. 

VIII.  That  repentance  is  before  faith 
in  Christ. — By  this  is  not  intended,  that 
repentance  is  before  a  speculative  belief 
of  the  being  and  perfections  of  God,  and 
of  the  person  and  character  of  Christ ; 
but  only  that  true  repentance  is  pre- 
vious to  a  saving  faith  in  Christ,  in 
which  the  believer  is  united  to  Christ, 
and  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  his  media- 
tion and  atonement.  That  repentance 
is  before  faith  in  this  sense,  appears 
from  several  considerations.  1.  As  re- 
pentance and  faith  respect  different  ob- 
jects, so  they  are  distinct  exercises  of 
the  heart ;  and  therefore  one  not  only 
may,  but  must  be  prior  to  the  other. — 
2.  There  may  be  genuine  repentance  of 
sin  without  faith  in  Christ,  but  there 
cannot  be  true  faith  in  Christ  without 
repentance  of  sin ;  and  since  repentance 
is  necessary  in  order  to  faith  in  Christ, 
it  must  necessarily  be  prior  to  faith  in 
Christ. — 3.  John  the  Baptist,  Christ  and 
his  apostles,  taught  that  repentance  is 
before  faith.  John  cried.  Repent,  for 
the  kingdo7n  of  heaven  is  at  hand ;  inti- 
mating that  true  repentance  was  neces- 
sary in  order  to  embrace  the  Gospel  of 
the  kingdom.  Christ  commanded.  Re- 
pent ye,  and  hclieue  the  Gospel.  And 
Paiil  preached  repentance  toward  God, 
and  faith  toward  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ. 

IX.  That  though  men  became  sinners 
by  Adam,  according  to  a  divine  consti- 
tution, yet  they  have  and  are  accounta- 
ble for  no  sins  but  personal  ;  for,  1. 
Adam's  act,  in  eating  the  forbidden 
fruit,  was  not  the  act  of  his  posterity; 
therefore  they  did  hot  sin  at  the  same 


HOR 


223 


HOS 


time  he  did. — 2.  The  sinfulness  of  that 
act  could  not  be  transferred  to  them 
afterwards,  because  the  sinfulness  of  an 
act  can  no  more  be  transfein'cd  from 
one  person  to  another  than  an  act  itself. 
— 3.  Thei'efore  Adam's  act,  in  eatin;^- 
the  forbidden  finiit,  was  not  the  cause, 
but  only  the  occasion  of  his  posterity's 
being  sinners.  God  was  pleased  to 
make  a  constitution,  that,  if  Adam  re- 
mained holy  fhrough  his  state  of  trial, 
his  posterity  should  in  consequence  be 
holy  also;  but  if  he  sinned,  his  posterity 
should  in  consequence  be  sinners  like- 
wise. Adam  sinned,  and  now  God 
brings  his  posterity  into  the  world  sin- 
ners. By  Adam's  sin  we  arc  become 
sinners,  not  for  it^  his  sin  being  only  the 
occasion,  not  the  cause  of  our  commit- 
ting sins. 

X.  That  though  believers  are  justified 
through  Christ's  righteousness  ;  yet  his 
righteousness  is  not  t7-ansferred  to  them. 
For,  1.  Personal  righteousness  can  no 
more  be  transferred  from  one  person  to 
another,  than  personal  sin. — 2.  If  Christ's 
personal  righteousness  were  transferred 
to  believers,  they  would  be  as  perfectly 
holy  as  Christ ;  and  so  stand  in  no  need 
of  forgiveness. — 3.  But  believers  are  not 
conscious  of  having  Christ's  personal 
righteousness,  but  feel  and  bewail  much 
indwelling  sin  and  coniiption. — 4.  The 
Scripture  represents  believers  as  re- 
ceivmg  only  the  benejits  of  Christ's 
righteousness  in  justification,  or  their 
being  pardoned  and  accepted  for 
Christ's  righteousness'  sake :  and  this 
is  the  proper  Scripture  notion  of  impu- 
tation. Jonathan's  righteousness  was 
imputed  to  Mephibosheth  when  David 
showed  kindness  to  him  for  his  father 
Jonathan's  sake. 

The  Hopkinsians  warmly  contend 
for  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  decrees, 
that  of  particular  election,  total  depra- 
vity, the  special  influences  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  in  regeneration,  justification  by 
faith  alone,  the  final  perseverance  of 
the  saints,  and  the  consistency  between 
entire  freedom  and  absolute  depen- 
dence ;  and  therefore  claim  it  as  their 
just  due,  since  the  world  will  make  dis- 
tinctions, to  be  called  Hopkinsian  Cal- 
vinists.  yJdams's  View  of  jReligions ; 
Hofikins  on  Holiness  ;  Edwards  on  the 
Will,  p.  234,  282 ;  Edwards  on  Virtue  ; 
JVest's  Essaij  on  Moral  Agency,  p.  170, 
181;  S/iri?ig's  A'ature  of  Duty,  23; 
Moral  Disquisitions,  p.  40. 

HORROR,  a  passion  excited  by  an 
object  which  causes  a  high  degi-ee  -of 
fear  and  detestation.  It  is  a  compound 
of  wonder  and  fear.  Sometimes  it  has 
a  mixture  of  pleasure,  from  which,  if 


predominant,  it  is  denominated  a  fileu' 
ing  horror.  Such  a  horror  seizes  us  at 
the  y\cvf  of  vast  and  hanging  precipices, 
a  tempestuous  ocean,  or  wild  and  soli- 
taiy  places.  This  passion  is  the  original 
of  superstition,  as  a  wise  and  well-tcm- 
I  percd  awe  is  of  religion.  Horror  and 
}  terror  seem  almost  to  be  synonymous ; 
I  but  the  former,  I  think,  refers  more  to 
I  what  disgusts;  the  latter  to  that  which 
I  alarms  us. 

;     HOSANNA,  in  the  Hebrew  ceremo- 

I  nies,  a  prayer  which  they  reheai'sed  on 

I  the  several  days  of  the  feast  of  taber- 

j  nacles.     It  signifies,  "  save  us  now  ;"  or 

I  "  save  us,  we  pray."  There  are  divers  of 

these  hosannas  ;  the  Jews  call  them  hos- 

I  channoth,  i.  e.  hosannas.    Some  are  re- 

j  hearsed  on  the  fii'st  day,  others  on  the 

j  second,  &:c.  which  they  call  hosanna  of 

I  the  first  day,  hosanna  of  the  second  day, 

j  &c.     Hosanna  Rabba,  or  Grand  Ho~ 

!  sanna,  is  a  name  they  give  to  their  feast 

\  of  tabernacles,  which  lasts  eight  da)s ; 

I  because  during  the  course  thereof,  they 

I  are  frequently  calling  for  the  assistance 

of  God,  the  forgiveness  of  their  sins, 

!  and  his  blessing  on  the  new  year ;  and 

j  to  that  pui-pose  they  make  gi'eat  use  of 

I  the  prayers   above    mentioned.     The 

Jews    also    apply   the   terms   hosanna 

rabba  in  a  more  peculiar  manner  to  the 

seventh  day  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,- 

because  they  apply  themselves  more 

immediately  on  that  day  to  invoke  the 

divine  blessing,  &c. 

HOSPITALITY,  kindness  exercised 
in  the  entertainment  of  strangers.  This 
virtue,  we  find,  is  explicitly  commanded 
by,  and  makes  a  part  of  the  morality  of 
the  New  Testament.  Indeed,  that  ve- 
ligion  which  breathes  nothing  but  chari- 
ty, and  whose  tendency  is  to  expand  the 
Heart,  and  call  forth  the  benevolent  exer- 
tions of  mankind,  must  evidently  embrace 
this  practice. — If  it  be  asked,  of  whom 
is  this  required .''  it  is  answered,  that  the 
firincifile  is  required  of  all,  though  the 
duty  itself  can  only  be  practised  by  those 
whose  circumstances  Avill  admit  of  it. 
Dr.  Stennet,  in  his  discourse  on  this  sub- 
ject {Domestic  Duties,  ser.  10,)  justly 
observes,  "  that  hospitality  is  a  species 
of  charity  to  which  ever}-  one  is  not 
competent.  But  the  temper  from  which 
it  proceeds,  I  mean  a  humane,  generous, 
benevolent  temper,  that  ought  to  pre- 
vail in  every  breast.  Some  are  misera- 
bly poor,  and  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  their  doors  should  be  thrown  open 
to  entertain  strangers ;  yet  the  cottage 
of  a  peasant  may  exhibit  noble  speci- 
mens of  hospitality.  Here  distress  has 
often  met  with  pity,  and  the  persecuted 
an  asvlum.    Nor  is  there  a  man  who 


HOS 


224 


HUG 


has  a  house  to  sleep  in,  but  may  be  be-  11  his  rain  fulls  on  the  evil  as  well  as  the 
nevolent  to  strangers. — But  there  are  |  good.  His  very  enemies  share  of  his 
persons  of  cei-tain  characters  and  sta-  |  bounty.  He  gives  liberallv  to  all  men, 
tions,  who  are  more  especially  oljliged  j  and  upbraids  not ;  but  especially  we 
to  it;  as  particularly  magistrates  and  j  should  remember  the  exceeding  nches 
others  in  civil  offices,  who  would  forfeit  j]  of  his  grace,  in  his  kindness  towards  us 


'the  esteem  of  the  public,  and  greatly 
injure  their  usefulness,  were  they  not  to 
observe  the  rites  of  hospitality.  Minis- 
ters also,  and  such  Christians  as  are 
qualified  by  their  particular  offices  in 
the  churcii,  and  their  affluent  cii'cum- 
stances,  may  be  eminentl)'  useful  in  this 
way.  The  two  grand  virtues  which 
ought  to  be  studied  by  every  one,  in  or- 
der that  he  may  have  it  in  his  power  to 
be  hospitable,  are,  iyidustinj  and  econo- 
my. But  it  may  be  asked  again,  to 
ivhom  is  this  duty  to  be  practised?  The 
answer  is,  to  strangers:  but  here  it  is 
necessary  to  observe,  that  the  term 
strangers  hath  two  acceptations.  It  is 
to  be  understood  of  travellers,  or  per- 
sons who  come  from  a  distance,  and 
■with  whom  we  have  little  or  no  ac- 
quaintance ;  and  more  generally  of  all 
•who  are  not  of  our  house — strangers,  as 
opposed  to  domestics.  ,  Hospitality  is 
especially  to  be  pi"actised  to  the  poor : 
they  who  have  no  houses  of  their  own, 
or  possess  few  of  the  conveniences  of 
life,  should  occasionally  be  in\ited  to 
our  houses,  and  refreshed  at  our  tables, 


through  Christ  Jesus.  Let  us  lay  all 
these  considerations  together,  and  then 
ask  ourselves  whether  Ave  can  find  it  in 
our  hearts  to  be  selfish,  parsimonious, 
and  inhospitable .'"' 

HOST,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  a 
name  given  to  the  elements  used  in  the 
eucharist,  or  rather  to  the  consecrated 
wafer,  which  they  pretend  to  offer  up 
every  day,  as  a  new  host  or  sacrifice  for 
the  sins  of  mankind.  They  pay  adora- 
tion to  the  host  upon  a  false  presump- 
tion that  the  elements  are  no  longer 
bread  and  wine,  but  transubstantiated 
into  the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
See  Transubstantiatiox. — Pope 
Gregory  IX.  first  decreed  a  bell  to  be 
rung,  as  the  signal  for  the  people  to  be- 
take themselves  to  the  adoration  of  the 
host.  The  vessel  wherein  the  hosts  are 
kept  is  called  the  cibory,  being  a  large 
kind  of  covered  chalice. 

HUGUENOTS,  an  appeUation  given 
by  way  of  contempt  to  the  reformed  or 
protestant  Ca.lvinists  of  Fi-ance.  The 
name  had  its  rise  in  1560,  but  authors  are 
not  agreed  as  to  the  origin  and  occasion 
thereof.    Some  derive  it  from  the  fol- 


Luke  xiv.  13,  14.    Hospitality  also  may  , 

be  practised  to  those  who  are  of  the  jl  lowing  circumstance  : — O.ne  of  the  gates 
same  character  and  of  the  same  com-  j  of  the  city  of  Tours  is  called  the  gate  of 
munity  with  ourselves.  As  to  the  va-  |j  Fourgon,  by  conniption  from  ^eu  Heu- 
rious  offices  of  hospitality,  and  the  man-  ll  gon,  i.  e.  the  late  Hugon.  This  Hugon 
ner  in  which  they  should  be  rendered,  Ij  was  once  count  of  Tours,  according  to 
it  must  be  observed,  that  the  entertain- ;  Eginhardus  in  his  life  of  Charles  the 
ments  should  be  filentiful,  frugal,  and '  Great,  and  to  some  other  historians. 
cordial.  Gen.  xviii,  6.  8.  John  xii.  3. 1  He  was,  it  seems,  a  very  wicked  man, 
Luke  XV.  17.  Tlie  obligations  to  this  ii  who  by  his  fierce  and  cruel  temper 
duty  a'/ise  from  thejitness  and  reasona- ;!  made  himself  dreadful,  so  that  after 
bleness  of  it;  it  brings  its -own  reward,  |i  his  death  he  was  supposed  to  walk 
Acts  XX.  35.  It  is  expressly  command-  ij  about  in  the  night  time,  beating  all  those 
ed  by  God,  Lev.  xxv.  35,  38.  Lukej 
xvi.  i9.  xiv.  13,  14.  Rom.  xii.  Heb.  i. 
xiii.  1,  2.  1  Pet.  iv.  9.  We  have  many  \' 
striking  examples  of  hospitality  on  di-  j 
vine  record  :  Abraham,  Gen.  xviii.  1,  8.  i 
Lot,  Gen.  xix.  1,  3.  Job  xxxi.  17,  22. ; 
Shunamite,  2  Kings  iv.  8,  10.    The  hos-  ] 

pitable  man  mentioned  in  Judges  xix.  |j  raneous  \-aults  near  the  gate  of  Hugon ; 
16,21.  David,  2  Sam.  vi.  19.  Obadiah, '  and  what  seems  to  countenance  this 
1  Kings  xviii.  4.  Nehemiah,  Neh.  v.  17, 1  opinion  is,  that  they  were  first  called  by 
18.  Martha,  Luke  x.  38.  Mary,  Matt.  I  the  name  of  Huguenots  at  this  city  of 
xxvi.  6,  13.  The  primitive  Christians,  ||  Tours.  Others  assign  a  more  illustri- 
Acts  ii.  45,  46.  rriscilla  and  Aquila,  jl  ous  origin  to  this  name,  and  say  tliat 
Acts  xv\n.  26.  Lydia,  Acts  xvi.  15,  &c.  j  the  leaguers  gave  it  to  the  reformed,  be- 
&c.  Lastly,  what  should  have  a  pow-  \\  cause  they  wei-e  for  keeping  the  crown 
erful  effect  on  our  minds,  is  the  consi- 11  upon  the  head  of  the  present  line  dc- 
deration  of  divine  hospitality. — God  is Lscended  from  Hugh  Capet;  whereas 
good  to  all,  and  his  tender  mercies  are  j  they  were  for  giving  it  to  the  house  of 
over  all  his  works.    His  sun  shines  andH  Gu!sc.  ?« rVsrcnded  from  Charles  the 


he  met  with :  this  tradition  the  judi- 
cious Thuanas  has  not  scnipled  to 
mention  in  his  histoiy.  Davila  and 
other  historians  pi-etend  that  the  nick- 
name of  Huguenots  was  first  given  to 
j  the  French  Protestants,  because  they 
used  to  meet  in  the  night  time  in  subter- 


HUiNI 


225 


HUM 


Great.    Others  again  derive  it  from  a  j 
French  and  faulty  pronunciation  of  the  | 
Gemian    word  edigrtossen,    signifying  | 
confederates ;  and  originally  ajjplied  to  I 
that  valiant  part  of  the  city  of  Geneva,  | 
which  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  { 
Swiss  cantons,  in  order  to  maintain  their  | 
liberties  against  the  tyrannical  attempts  j 
of  Charles  III.  duke  of  Savoy.     These  I 
confederates     were    called    Eigjiots;' 
whence  Huguenots.    The  persecuti:-a  i 
which  they  have  undergone  has  scarce  I 
its  parallel    in  tlie  history  of  religion. 
During  the  reign  of  Chai"fcs  IX.  and  on  | 
the  24th  of  August,  1572,  happened  the  j 
massacre  of  Bartholomew,  when  seven- 
ty thousand  of  them  throughou'.  France  j 
were  butchered  with  circumstances  of  j 
aggi-avated  ci-uelty.  See  Persf.cution. 
In  1598,  Henry  IV.  passed  the  famous  i 
edict  of  Nantz,  which  secured  to  the ; 
Protestants  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion.    This  edict  was  revoked  by 
Lewis  XIV.  their  churches  were  then 
razed  to  the  ground,  their  persons  in- 
sulted by  the  soldiery,  and,  after  the 
loss  of  innumerable  lives,  fifty  thousand 
valuable  members  of  society  were  dri- 
ven into  exile.     In  Holland  they  built 
sevei-al  places    of    worship,    and    had 
among  them  some  distinguished  preach- 
ers.    AmOTig  others   were    Superville, 
Duniont,  Dubosc,  and  the  eloquent  Sau- 
rin;  the  latter  of  whom,  in  one  of  his 
sermons  (ser.  9.  vol.  v.)  makes  the  fol- 
lowing fine  apostrophe  to   that  tyrant 
Lewis  XIV.  by  whom  they  were  driven 
into  exile:  "And  thou,  dreadful  prince, 
whom  I  once  honoured  as  my  king,  and 
whom  I  yet  respect  as  a  scourge  in  the 
hand  of  Almighty  God,  thou  also  shalt 
have  a  pail  in  my  good  wishes !     These 
provinces,  which  thou  threatenest,  but 
which  the  arm  of  the  Lord  protects; 
this  country,  which  thou  fillest  with  re- 
fugees, but  fugitives  animated  with  love ; 
those  walls,  which  contain  a  thousand 
martyrs  of  thy  making,  but  whom  reli- 
gion renders  victorious,  all  these  yet  re- 
sound benedictions  in  thy  favour.    God 
grant  the  fatal  bandage  that  hides  the 
truth  from  thine  eyes  may  fall  off!  May 
God  forget  the   rivers  of  blood    with 
which  thou  hast  deluged  the  earth,  and 
which  thy  reign  hath  caused  to  be  shed ! 
— May  God  blot  out  of  his  book  the  in- 
juries which  thou  hast   done  us;    and 
while  he  rewards  the  sufFei-ers,  mav  he 
pardon  those  wlio  exposed  us  to  suffer  ! 
O,  may  God,  who  hath  made  thee  to 
us,  and  to  the  whole  church,  a  minister 
of  his  judgments,  make  thee  a  dispenser 
of  his  favours — an  administrator  of  his 
mercv  I" 
HUMANITY,  the  exei-cise  of  the 


social  and  benevolent  virtues;  a  fellow- 
feeling  for  the  distresses  of  another. 
It  is  properly  called  humanity,  because 
there  is  little  or  nothing  of  it  in  brutes. 
The  social  affections  are  conceived  by 
all  to  be  more  refined  than  the  selfish. 
Sympathy  and  humanit)-  are  universally 
esteemed  the  finest  temper  of  mind ; 
and  for  that  reason  the  prevalence  of 
the  social  affections  in  the  progress  of 
society  is  held  to  be  a  rennement  of  cur 
nature.  Kaims's  El.  of  Crit.  p.  104. 
vol.  i. ;  Rcbhison's  Ser?noT2ii  on  Christi- 
anity a  Siiste?n  of  Humanity;  Prait^s 
Poe7n  on  'Humanity. 

HUMANITY  OF  CHRIST,  is  his 
possessing  a  tnae  human  body,  and  a 
true  human  soul,  and  which  he  assumed 
for  the  purpose  of  rendering  his  media- 
tion effectual  to  our  salvation.  See  Je- 
sus Christ. 

HUMILIATION  OF  CHRIST,  is 
that  state  of  meanness  and  distress  to 
which  he  voluntarily  descended,  for  the 
purpose  of  executing  his  mediatorial 
work.  This  appears,  1.  In  his  birth. 
He  was  born  oi  a  tvoman — a  sinfiil  wo- 
man ;  though  hs  was  without  sin,  Gal. 
iv.  4.  A  iioor  woman,  Luke  ii.  7,  24. 
In  a  poor  country  village,  John  i.  46. 
In  a  stable,  an  abject  place,  of  a  na- 
ture subject  to  infirmities,  Heb.  ii.  9. 
hunger,  thirst,  weariness,  pain,  &c. — 2. 
In  his  cij'cumstances,  laid  in  a  manger 
when  he  was  born ;  lived  in  obscurity 
for  a  long  time ;  probably  worked  at  the 
trade  of  a  cai-penter ;  had  not  a  place 
where  to  lay  his  head ;  and  was  oppress- 
ed with  poverty  while  he  went  about 
preaching  the  Gospel. — 3.  It  appeared 
m  his  refutation :  he  was  loaded  with 
the  most  abusive  railing  and  calumny. 
Is.  liii.  the  most  false  accusations.  Matt, 
xxvi.  59,  67.  and  the  most  ignominious 
ridicule,  Psal.  xxii.  6.  Matt.  xxii.  68. 
John  vii.  35. — 4.  In  his  soul  he  was  of- 
ten tempted.  Matt.  iv.  1,  8cc.  Heb.  ii. 
17,  18.  Heb.  iv.  15.  grieved  with  the 
reproaches  cast  on  himself,  and  with 
the  sins  and  miseries  of  others,  Heb.  xii. 
3.  Matt.  xi.  19.  John  xi.  35,  was  bur- 
dened with  the  hidings  of  his  Father's 
face,  and  the  fears  and  impressions  of 
his  wi-ath,  Psal.  xxii.  1.  Luke  xxii.  43. 
Heb.  v.  7. — 5.  In  his  death,  scourged, 
crowned  with  thorns,  received  gall  and 
vinegar  to  drink,  and  was  crucified  be- 
tween two  thieves,  Luke  xxiii.  John 
xix.  Mark  xv.  24,  25. — 6.  In  his  bu- 
rial: not  only  was  he  boi'n  in  another 
man's  house,  but  he  was  buried  in  ano- 
ther-man's  tomb  ;  for  he  had  no  tomb 
of  his  own,  or  family  vault  to  be  inter- 
red in.  Is.  liii.  10,  ike.  Matt.  xiii.  46. 
The  humiliation  of  Christ  was  neces- 
Ff 


HUM 


HUS 


saiy,  1.  To  execute  the  pui-pose  of  God, 
and  covenant  engagements  of  Christ, 
Acts  ii.  23,  24.  Psal.  xl.  6,  7,  8.-2.  To 
fulfil  the  manifold  types  and  predictions 
of  the  Old  Testament. — 3.  To  satisfy 
the  broken  law  of  God,  and  purchase 
eternal  redemption  for  us,  Isa.  liii.  Heb. 
ix.  12, 15. — i.  To  leave  us  an  unspotted 
pattern  of  holiness  and  patience  under 
suffering.-  Gi/l's  Body  of  Div.  p.  66, 
vol.  ii.  iiroivn's  Alit.  and  Pev.  Religion, 
p.  357 ;  Fidgley''s  Bodij  of  Div.  qu.  48. 
HUMILITY,  a  disposition  of  mind 
wherein  a  person  has  a  low  opinion  of 
himself  and  his  advantages.  It  is  a 
branch  of  internal  Avorship,  or  of  experi- 
mental religion  and  godliness.  It  is  the 
effect  of  divine  grace  operating  on  the 
soul,  and  always  characterises  the  true 
Christian.  The  heathen  philosophers 
•were  so  little  acquainted  with  this  vir- 
tue, that  they  had  no  name  for  it :  what 
they  meant  by  the  word  we  use,  was 
meanness  and  baseness  of  mind.  To 
consider  this  grace  a  little  more  parti- 
cularly, it  may  be  observed,  1.  That  hu- 
mility does  not  oblige  a  man  to  wrong 
the  trath,  or  himself,  by  entertaining  a 
meaner  or  worse  opinion  of  himself 
than  he  deserves. — 2.  Nor  does  it  oblige 
a  man,  right  or  wrong,  to  give  every 
body  else  the  pi'eference  to  himself. 
A  wise  man  cannot  believe  himself  in- 
ferior to  the  ignorant  multitude.;  nor  the 
virtuous  man  that  he  is  not  so  good  as 
those  whose  lives  are  vicious. — 3.  Nor 
does  it  oblige  a  man  to  treat  himself  with 
contempt  ui  his  words  or  actions:  it 
looks  more  like  affectation  than  humility, 
when  a  man  says  such  things  in  his  own 
dispraise  as  others  know,  or  he  himself 
believes,  to  be  false:  audit  is  plain,  also, 
that  this  is  often  done  merely  as  a  bait 
to  catch  the  praises  of  othei's.  .Humility 
consists,  1.  In  not  attributing  to  ourselves 
any  excellence  or  good  which  we  have 
not. — 2.  In  not  over-rating  any  thing  we 
do. — 3.  In  not  taking  an  immoderate  de- 
light in  ourselves.— 4.  In  not  assuming 
more  of  the  praise  of  a  quality  or  action 
than  belongs  to  us. — 5.  In  an  inward 
sense  of  our  many  imperfections  and 
sins. — 6.  In  ascribing  all  we  have  and 
are  to  the  grace  of  God.  True  humility 
ivill  ex/iress  itself,  1.  By  the  modesty  of 
our  appearance.  The  humble  man  will 
consider  his  age,  abilities,  character, 
function,  &c.  and  act  accordingly. — 2. 
By  the  modesty  of  our  pursuits.  We 
shall  not  aim  at  any  thmg  above  our 
strength,  but  prefer  a  good  to  a  great 
name. — 3.  It  will  express  itself  by  the 
modesty  of  our  conversation  and  beha- 
viour :  we  shall  not  be  loquacious,  obsti- 
nate, forward,  envious,  discontented,  or 


ambitious.  The  advantages  of  humili- 
ty are  7iumerous:  1.  It  is  well  pleasing 
to  God,  1  Pet.  iii.  4. — 2.  It  has  great  in- 
fluence on  us  in  the  performance  of  all 
other  duties,  praying,  hearing,  converse, 
&c. — 3.  It  indicates  that  more  gi'ace 
shall  be  given,  James  iv.  6.  Ps.  xxv.  9. 
— 4.  It  preserves  the  soul  in  great  tran- 
quillity and  contentment,  Ps.  Ixix.  32, 
33. — 5.  It  makes  us  patient  and  resign- 
ed under  afflictions,  Job  i.  22. — 6.  It  en- 
ables us  to  exercise  moderation  in  every 
thing.  To  obtain  this  excellent  spirit 
ivf  should  remember,  1.  The  example 
of  Christ,  Phil.  ii.  6,  7,  8.-2.  That  hea- 
ven is  a  place  of  humility.  Rev.  v.  8. — 3. 
That  our  sins  ai'e  numerous,  and  deserve 
the  greatest  punishment.  Lam.  iii.  39. — 
4.  That  humility  is  the  way  to  honour, 
Prov.  xvi.  18, — 5.  That  the  greatest 
promises  of  good  are  made  to  the  hum- 
ble. Is.  Ivii.  15.  Ivi.  2.  1  Pet.  v.  5.  Ps. 
cxlvii.  6.  Matt.  v.  5.  Grovels  Mor. 
Phil,  vol.'  ii.  p.  286 ;  Jivans's  Christian 
Temfier,  vol.  i.  ser.  1 ;  Watts  on  Hu- 
mility;  Baxter^s  Christian  Directory, 
V.  1.  p.  496  ;  Hale's  Cont.  p.  110 ;  Gilts 
Body  of  Div.  p.  151,  vol.  iii.  Walkers 
Ser.  iv.  ser.  3. 

HUSBAND,  duties  of.    See  Mar- 
riage State. 

HUSSITES,  a  party  of*reformers, 
the  followers  of  John  Huss. — John  Huss, 
from  whom  the  Hussites  take  their 
name,  was  born  in  a  little  village  in  Bo- 
hemia, called  Huss,  and  lived  at  Prague 
in  the  highest  reputation,  both  on  ac- 
count of  the  sanctity  of  his  manners  and 
the  purity  of  his  doctrine.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished by  his  uncommon  erudition 
and  eloquence;  and  performed  at  the 
same  time  the  functions  of  professor  of 
divinity  in  the  university,  and  of  ordi- 
nary pastor  in  tlie  church  of  that  city. 
He  adopted  the  sentiments  of  Wickliue 
and  the  Waldenses ;  and,  in  the  year 
1407,  began  openly  to  oppose  and  preach 
against  divers  errors  in  doctrine,  as  well 
as  corruptions  in  point  of  discipline,  then 
reigning  in  the  church.  Huss  likewise 
endeavoured  to  the  utmost  of  his  power 
to  withdraw  the  university  of  Prague 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  Gregory^  XII. 
whom  the  king  of  Bohemia  had  hitherto 
acknowledged  as  the  true  and  lawful 
head  of  the  church.  This  occasioned 
a  violent  quarrel  between  the  incensed 
archbishop  of  Prague  and  the  zealous 
reformer,  which  the  latter  inflamed  and 
augmented  from  day  to  day,  by  his  pa- 
thetic exclamations  against  the  court  of 
Rome,  and  the  corruption  that  prevail- 
ed among  the  sacerdotal  order. 

There  were  other  circumstances  that 
contributed  to  inflame  the  resentment 


HUS 


227 


HUS 


of  the  clergy  against  him.  He  adopted 
the  philosophical  opinions  of  the  Real- 
ists, and  vehemently  opposed  and  even 
persecuted  the  Nommalists,  whose 
number  and  influence  were  consider- 
able in  the  university  of  Prague.  He 
also  multiplied  the  number  of  his  ene- 
mies in  the  year  1408,  by  procuring, 
through  his  own  credit,  a  sentence  in 
favour  of  the  Bohemians,  who  disputed 
with  the  Germans  concerning  the  num- 
ber of  suftrages  which  their  respective 
nations  were  entitled  to  in  all  matters 
that  were  earned  by  election  in  this 
university.  In  consequence  of  a  decree 
obtained  in  favour  of  the  former,  which 
restored  them  to  their  constitutional 
right  of  three  suffrages  usui-ped  by  the 
latter,  the  Germans  withdrew  from 
Prague,  and  in  the  year  1409  founded  a 
new  academy  at  Leipsic.  This  event  no 
sooner  happened,  than  Huss  began  to 
inveigh,  with  greater  freedom  than  he 
had  dene  before,  against  the  vices  and 
corruptions  of  the  clergy ;  and  to  re- 
commend in  a  public  manner  the  wri- 
tings and  opinions  of  WicklifTe,  as  far  as 
they  related  to  the  papal  hierarchy,  the 
despotism  of  the  court  of  Rome,  and 
the  con-uption  of  the  clergy.  Hence  an 
accusation  was  brought  against  him  in 
the  year  1410,  before  the  tribunal  of 
John  XXIII.  by  whom  he  was  solemnly 
expel 'ed  from  the  communion  'of  the 
church.  Notwithstanding  this  sentence 
of  excommunication,  he  proceeded  to 
expose  the  Romish  church  .with  a  for- 
titude and  zeal  that  were  almost  uni- 
versally applauded. 

This  eminent  man,  whose  pietv  was 
equally  sincere  and  fervent,  though  his 
zeal  was  perhaps  too  violent,  and  his 
pinidence  not  always  circumspect,  was 
summoned  to  appxear  before  the  council 
of  Constance.  Secured,  as  he  thought, 
from  the  rage  of  his  enemies,  by  the 
safe  conduct  granted  him  by  the  empe- 
ror Sigismund  for  his  journey  to  Con- 
stance, his  residence  in  that  place,  and 
his  return  to  his  own  country,  John  Huss 
obeyed  the  order  of  the  council,  and  ap- 
peared before  it  to  demonstrate  his  in- 
nocence, and  to  prove  that  the  charge 
of  his  having  deserted  the  church  of 
Rome  was  entirely  groundless.  How- 
ever, his  enemies  so  far  prevailed,  that, 
by  the  most  scandalous  breach  of  public 
faith,  he  was  cast  into  prison,  declared 
a  heretic,  because  he  refused  to  plead 
giiilty  against  the  dictates  of  his  con- 
science, m  obedience  to  the  council,  and 
burnt  alive  in  1415;  a  punishm.ent 
which  lie  endured  with  unparalleled 
magnanimity  and  resolution.  When  he 
came  to  the  place  of  execution,  he  fell 


on  his  knees,  sang  portions  of  psalms, 
looked  steadfastly  towards  heaven,  and 
repeated  these  words :  "Into  thy  hands, 

0  Lord,  do  I  commit  my  spirit;  thou 
hast  redeemed  me,  O  most  good  and 
faithful  God.  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  assist 
and  help  me,  that  with  a  firm  and  pre- 
sent mind,  by  thy  most  powerful  grace 

1  may  undergo  this  most  cruel  and  igno- 
minious death,  to  which  I  am  condemned 
for  preaching  the  truth  of  thy  most  holy 
Gospel."  When  the  chain  was  put 
upon  him  at  the  stake,  he  said  witn  a 
smiling  countenance,  "My  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  was  bound  with  a  harder  chain 
than  this  for  my  sake,  and  why  should  I 
be  ashamed  of  this  old  rusty  one  .''* 
When  the  faggots  were  piled  up  to  his 
very  neck,  the  duke  of  Bavaria  was  of- 
ficious enough  to  desire  him  to  abjure. 
"No,"  says  Huss,  "I  never  preached 
any  doctrine  of  an  evil  tendency ;  and 
what  I  taught  with  my  lips,  I  seal  with 
my  blood."  He  said  to  the  executioner, 
"Are  you  going  to  bum  a  goose?  In 
one  century  you  will  have  a  sivan  you 
can  neither  roast  nor  boil."  If  he  were 
prophetic,  he  must  have  meant  Luther, 
who  had  a  swan  for  his  arms.  The  fire 
was  then  applied  to  the  faggots ;  when 
the  martyr  sang  a  hymn  with  so  loud 
and  cheerful  a  voice,  that  he  was  heard 
through  all  the  cracklings  of  the  com- 
bustibles and  the  noise  of  the  multitude. 
At  last  his  voice  was  cut  short,  after  he 
had  uttered,  "  Jesus  Christ,  thou  Son  of 
the  living  God,  have  mercy  upon  me." 
and  he  was  consumed  in  a  most  misera- 
ble manner.  The  duke  of  Bavaria  or- 
dered the  executioner  to  throw  all  the 
martyr's  clothes  into  the  flames :  after 
which  his  ashes  were  carefully  collect- 
ed, and  cast  into  the  Rhine. 

But  the  cause  in  which  this  eminent 
man  was  engaged  did  not  die  with  him. 
His  disciples  adhered  to  their  master's 
doctrines  after  his  death,  which  broke 
out  into  an  open  war.  John  Ziska,  a 
Bohemian  knight,  in  1420,  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  Hussites,  who  were 
now  become  a  very  considerable  party, 
and  threw  off"  the  despotic  yoke  of  Sigis- 
mund, who  had  treated  their  brethren 
in  the  most  barbarous  manner.  Ziska 
was  succeeded  by  Procopius  in  the  year 
1424.  Acts  of  barbarity  were  committed 
on  both  sides ;  for  notwithstanding  the 
irreconcileable  opposition  between  the 
religious  sentiments  of  the  contendhig 
parties,  they  both  agreed  in  this  one 
horrible  principle,  that  it  was  innocent 
and  lawful  to  persecute  and  extirpate 
with  fire  and  sword  the  enemies  of  the 
true  religion;  and  such  they  recipro^ 
cally  appeared  to  each,  other.    These 


HUT 


22S 


HUT 


commotions  in  a  great  measure  subsided 
by  the  interference  of  the  council  of  Ba- 
sil, in  the  year  1433. 

The  Hussites,  who  were  divided  into 
two  parties,  viz.  the  Calixtines  and  the 
Taborites,  spread  over  all  Bohemia,  and 
Hungary,  and  even  Silesia  and  Poland  ; 
and  there  are,  it  is  said,  some  remains 
of  them  still  subsisting  in  those  parts. 
Broughto7i's  Diet.  JSTiddleton^s  Evan. 
j5?op-.\-o1.  i.     3Iosheim''s  Ecc.  Hist. 

HUTCHINSONIANS,  the  followers 
of  John  Hutchinson,  who  was  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  167'4.  In  the  early  part  of 
his  life  he  served  the  duke  of  Somerset 
in  the  capacity  of  steward ;  and  in  the 
course  of  his  travels  from  place  to  place 
employed  himself  in  collecting  fossils. 
We  are  told  that  the  large  and  noble 
collection  bequeathed  by  Dr.  Woodward 
to  the  University  of  Cambridge  was  ac- 
tually made  by  him,  and  even  unfairly 
obtained  from  him.  In  1724,  he  pub- 
lished the  first  part  of  his  curious  book, 
called  Moses's  Princifua,  in  which  he 
-ridiculed  Dr.  Woodward's  Natural  His- 
torv  of  the  Earth,  and  exploded  the 
doctrine  of  gravitation  established  in 
Newton's  Principia.  In  1727,  he  pub- 
lished a  second  part  of  Moses's  Prin- 
cipia, contahiing  the  principles  of  the 
Scripture  philosophy.  From  this  time 
to  his  death  he  published  a  volume 
every  year  or  two,  which,  with  the 
manuscripts  he  left  behind,  were  pub- 
,  lished  in  1748,  in  12  volumes,  8vo.  On 
the  Monday  before  his  death,  Dr.  Mead 
urged  him  to  be  bled  ;  saying,  pleasant- 
ly, "I  wiU  soon  send  you  to  Moses," 
meaning  his  studies ;  but  Mr.  Hutchin- 
son taking  it  in  the  litei'al  sense,  an- 
swered in  a  muttering  tone,  "  I  believe, 
doctor,  you  will ;"  and  Avas  so  displeas- 
ed, that  he  dismissed  him  for  another 
phvsician ;  but  he  died  in  a  few  days 
after,  August  28,  1737. 

It  appears  to  be  a  leading  sentiment 
of  this  denomination,  that  all  our  ideas 
of  divinity  are  foiTned  from  the  ideas  in 
nature,— that  nature  is  a  standing  pic- 
ture, and  Scripture  an  application  of  the 
several  parts  of  the  pictui-e,  to  draw  out 
to,  as  the  great  things  of  CJod,  in  order 
to  reform  our  mental  conceptions.  To 
prove  this  point,  they  allege,  that  the 
bcripturcs  declare  the  invisible  things 
cf  God  from  the  formation  of  the  world 
are  clearly  seen,  being  understood  by 
the  things  ivhich  are  made;  even  his 
eternal  fiotuer  and  Godhead,  Rom.  i.  20. 
The  heavens  must  declare  God's  righ- 
teousness a?id  truth  in  the  congregation 
of  the  saints,  Psal.  Ixxxix.  5.  .And  in 
snojt  the  whole  system  of  nature,  in  one 
voice  of  analogy,  declares  and  gi\'es  us 


ideas  of  his  glory,  and  shows  us  his 
hand}--work.  We  cannot  have  any 
ideas'  of  invisible  things  till  they  are 
pointed  out  to  us  by  revelation .-  and  as 
we  cannot  know  them  immediately, 
such  as  they  are  in  themselves,  after 
the  manner  in  which  we  know  sensible 
objects,  they  must  be  communicated  to 
us  by  the  mediation  of  such  things  as  we 
already  comprehend.  For  this  reason 
the  Scripture  is  found  to  have  a  lan- 
guage of  its  own,  which  does  not  consist 
of  words,  Ijut  of  signs  or  figures  taken 
from  visible  things  :  in  consequence  of 
which  the  world  which  we  now  see  be- 
comes a  sort  of  commentary  on  the 
mmd  of  God,  and  explains  the  world  in 
which  we  believe.  The  doctrines  of  the 
Christian  faith  are  attested  by  the  whole 
natural  world :  they  are  recorded  in  a 
language  which  has  never  been  con- 
founded ;  they  are  written  in  a  text  ^' 
which  shall  never  be  con-upted. 

The  Hutchinsonians  maintain  that  the 
gi'eat  mystery  of  the  trinity  is  conveyed 
to  our  understandings  b)'  ideas  of  sense  ; 
and  that  the  created  substance  of  the 
air,  or  heaven,  in  its  three-fold  agency 
of  fire,  light,  and  spirit,  is  the  enigma  of 
the  one  essence  or  one  Jehovah  in  three 
persons.  The  unity  of  essence  is  exhi- 
bited by  its  unity  of  substance ;  the  tri- 
nity of  conditions,  fire,  light,  and  spirit. 
Thus  the  one  substance  of  the  air,  or 
heaven  in  its  three  conditions,  shows  the 
unity  in  trinity ;  and  its  three  conditions 
in  or  of  one  substance,  the  trinity  in 
unity.  For  (says  this  denomination)  if 
we  consult  the  writings  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  we  shall  find  the  per- 
sons of  the  Deity  represented  under  the 
names  and  characters  of  the  three  ma- 
terial agents,  fire,  light,  and  spirit,  and 
their  actions  expressed  b\'  the  actions 
of  these  their  eniblems.  The  Father  is 
called  a  consuming  fire ;  and  his  judicial 
proceedings  are  spoken  of  in  words 
which  denote  the  several  actions  of  fire, 
Jehovah  is  a  consuming Jire — Our  God  -. 
is  a  consuming  fire,  Deut.  iv.  24.  Heb. 
xii.  29.  The  Son  has  the  name  of  light, 
and  his  purifying  actions  and  offices  are 
described  by  words  which  denote  the  <■ 
actions  and  offices  of  light.  He  is  the  ' 
true  light,ivhich  lighteth  every  man  that 
cometh  into  the  world,  John  i.  9.  Mai. 
iv.  2.  The  Comforter  has  the  name  of 
Spirit;  and  his  animating  and  sustaining 
offices  are  described  by  words,  for  the 
actions  and  offices  of  the  material  spirit. 
His  actions  in  the  spiritual  economy  are 
agreealile  to  his  type  in  the  natural 
economy  ;  such  as  inspiring,  impelling, 
driving,  leading,  Matt.  ii.  1.  The  phi- 
losophic system  of  the  Hutchinsomans 


HUT 


229 


HYP 


is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
The  truth  of  it  rests  on  these  supposi- 
tions. 1.  That  the  Hebrew  language 
was  formed  under  divine  inspiration, 
cither  all  at  once,  or  at  diffei-ent  times, 
as  occa«on  required  ;  and  that  tlie  Di- 
vine Being  had  a  view  in  constructing 
it,  to  the  various  revelations  which  he 
in  all  succeeding  times  should  make  in 
that  language :  consequently,  that  its 
words  must  be  the  most  proper  and  de- 
terminate to  convey  such  truths  as  the 
Deity,  during  the  Old  Testament  dis- 
pensation, thought  fit  to  make  known  to 
the  sons  of  men.  Farther  than  this: 
that  the  inspired  penmen  of  those  ages 
at  least  Avere  under  the  guidance  of 
heaven  in  the  choice  of  words  for  re- 
cording what  was  revealed  to  them  : 
therefore  that  the  Old  Testament,  if 
^  the  language  be  rightly  understood,  is 
-»%  the  most  determinate  in  its  meaning  of 
any  other  book  under  heaven. — 2.  That 
whatever  is  recorded  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  strictly  and  literally  true,  al 


bbn  he  explahis  to  be  a  hieroglyphic  of 
divine  constiniction,  or  a  sacred  image, 
I  to  describe,  as  far  as  figures  could  go, 
the  humanity  united  to  Deity  :  and  so 
he  treats  of  several  other  words  of  si- 
milar import.  From  all  which  he  con- 
cluded, that  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of 
the  Jewish  disjiensation  were  so  many 
delineations  of  Christ,  in  what  he  was 
to  be,  to  do,  and  to  suffer;  that  the 
early  Jews  knew  them  to  be  t>-pes  of 
his  actions  and  sufferings  ;  and,  by  per- 
foi-ming  them  as  such,  were  so  far 
Christians  both  in  faith  and  practice. 

The  Hutchinsonians  have,  for  the 
most  part,  been  men  of  dcA  out  minds, 
zealous  in  the  cause  of  Christianity, 
and  untainted  with  heterodox  opinions, 
which  have  so  often  divided  the  church 
of  Christ.  The  names  of  Romaine,  Bi- 
shop Home,  Parkhurst,  and  others  of 
this  denomination,  will  be  long  esteemed, 
both  for  the  piety  they  possessed,  and 
the  good  they  have  been  the  instru- 
ments of  promoting  amongst  mankind. — 


lowing  only  for  a  few  common  figures  i  Should  the  reader  wish  to  know  more 
of  rhetoric:  that  nothing  contrary  tOj  of  the  philosophical  and  theological 
trath  is  accommodated  to  vulgar  ap- 1  opinions  of  Mr.  Hutchinson,  he  may 
prehensions. 

In  proof  of  this  the  Hutchinsonians 
argue  in  this  manner.  The  primary  i 
and  ultimate  design  of  revelation  is  in-  i 
deed  to  teach  men  "divinity  :  but  in  sub-  ' 
serviency  to  that,  geography,  history,  j;  273. 

and  chronology,  are  occasionally  intro-  ji  HYMN,  a  song  or  ode  in  honour  of 
duced  ;  all  Avhich  are  allowed  to  be  just  ij  the  Divine  Being.    St.  Hilary,  bishdb  of 


consult  a  work,  entitled  "  An  Abstract 
of  the  ^^^orks  of  John  Hutchinson,  Esq. 
Edinbm-gh,  1753."  See  also  Joneses 
Life  of  Bishop  Home,  2d  edit.  Jones's 
\  llorlcs;  Spearman's  Inguiry,  ip.  260 — 


and  authentic.  There  are  also  innume- 
rable references  to  things  of  nature,  and 
descriptions  of  them.  If,  then,  the  for- 
mer are  just,  and  to  be  depended  on, 
for  the  same  reason  the  latter  ought  to 
be  esteemed  philosophically  true.  Far- 
ther: thev  think  it  not  unworthy  of 
God,  that  he  should  make  it  a  secondary 
end  of  his  revelation  to  unfold  the  se- 
crets of  his  works ;  as  the  primary  was 
to  make  known  the  mysteries  of  his  na- 
ture, and  the  designs  of  his  grace,  that 
men  might  thereby  be  led  to  admire  and 
adore  the  wisdom  and  goodness  which 
the  great  Author  of  the  universe  has 
displayed  thi-oughout  all  his  works.  And 
as  our  minds  are  often  referred  to  na- 


Poictiers,  is  said  to  have  been  the  lirst 
who  composed  hymns  to  be  sung  in 
churches,  and  was  followed  by  St.  Am- 
brose. Most  of  those  in  the  Roman 
breviary  were  composed  by  Pnidentius. 
The  hymns  or  odes  of  the  ancients  ge- 
nerally consisted  of  three  sorts  of  stan- 
zas, one  of  which  was  sung  by  the  band 
as  they  walked  from  east  to  west ;  ano- 
ther was  perfomned  as  they  returned 
from  west  to  east ;  the  third  part  was 
svmg  before  the  altar.  The  Jewish 
hymns  were  accompanied  with  trum- 
pets, dnmns,  and  cymbals,  to  assist  the 
voices  of  the  Levites  and  the  people. 
We  have  had  a  considerable  number  of 
hvmns  composed  in  our  own  country. 


tural  things  for  ideas  of  spiritual  tiniths,  ji  The  most  esteemed  are  those  of  Watts, 
it  is  of  great  importance,  in  order  to  |j  Doddridge,  Newton,  and  Hart.    As  to 
conceive  aright  of  divine  matters,  that  '<■  selections,   few    are    superior    to    Dr, 
our  ideas  of  the  natural  things  referred  j:  Rippon's    and    Dr.    '\A'illiams's. 
to  be  strictly  just  and  tnie.  i  Psalmody. 

Mr.  Hutchinson  found  that  the  He- 1|     HITOCRISY 
brew  Scriptures  had  some  capital  words, 
which  he  thought  had  not  been  duly 

considered  and  understood  ;  and  whicli,    .^ ^ 

he  has  endeavoured  to  prove,  contain  in  I  not  belong  to  us,  and  bv  which  we  in- 
their  radical  meaning  the  greatest  and  j  tentionally  impose  upon  the  judgment 
most  comfortable  truths.    The  j:herii- 11  and  opinion  of  mankind  concerning  us. 


See 


IS  a  seemmg  or  pro- 
fessing to  be  what  in  truth  and  reality 
we  are  not.  It  consists  in  assuming  a 
character  which  we  are  conscious  does 


JAC 


ii30 


JAN 


The  name  is  borrowed  from  the  Greek 
tongue,  in  which  it  primarily  signifies 
the  profession  of  a  stage  player,  which 
is  to  express  in  speech,  habit,  and  ac- 
tion, not  his  own  person  and  manners, 
but  his  whom  lie  undertakes  to  repre- 
sent. And  so  it  is ;  for  the  very  essence 
of  hypocrisy  lies  in  apt  imitation  and  de- 
ceit ;  in  actmg  the  part  of  a  member  of 
Chinst  without  any  saving  grace.  The 
hypocrite  is  a  Uouble  person ;  he  has 
one  person,  which  is  natural ;  another, 
which  is  artificial :  the  first  he  keeps  to 
himself;  the  other  he  puts  on  as  he 
doth  his  clothes,  to  make  his  appear- 
ance in  before  men.  It  was  ingeniously 
said  by  Basil,  "  that  the  hypocrite  has 
not  put  off  the  old  man,  but  put  on  the 
neiv  upon  it."  Hypocrites  have  been 
divided  into  four  sorts.  1.  The  ivorldly 
hypocrite,  who  makes  a  profession  of 
religion,  and  pretends  to  be  religious, 
merely  from  worldly  considerations, 
Matt,  xxiii.  5. — 2.  The  le^al  hypocrite, 
who  relinquishes  his  vicious  practices, 
in  order  thereby  to  merit  heaven,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  has  no  real  love  to 
God,  Rom.  X.  3. — 3.  The  evarigelical 
hypocrite,  whose  religion  is  nothing 
niore  than  a  bare  conviction  of  sin ;  who 
rejoices  under  the  idea  that  Christ  died 
for  him^  and  yet  has  no  desire  to  live  a 
holy  life.  Matt.  xiii.  20.  2  Pet.  ii.  20. — 4. 
The  enthusiastic  hypocrite,  who  has  an 
imaginary  sight  of  his  sin,  and  of  Christ ; 
talks  of  remarkable  impulses  and  high 
feelings ;  and  thinks  himself  very  wise 
and  good  while  he  lives  in  the  most 
scandalous  practices,  Matt.  xiii.  39.  2 
Cor.  xi.  14.  Crook  on  Hi/fiocrisy ; 
Decoetlegojj's  Sermon  on  rs.  li.  6. 
Grove's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  ii.  p.  253. 
South's  Ser.  on  Job  viii.  13.  vol.  10; 
Bellamy's  Reliff.  Del.  p.  166. 
HYPOSTASIS,  a  term  literally  sig- 


nifying substance  or  subsistence,  or  that 
which  is  put  and  stands  under  another 
thing,  and  supports  it,  being  Its  base, 
ground,  or  foundation.  Thus  faith  is 
the  substantial  foundation  of  things 
hoped  for,  Heb.  xi.  1.  The  t;ord  is 
Greek,  vTr^trraan,  compounded  of  iiro, 
sub,  under ;  and  fo-TTixjii,  "  stoi"  I  stand, 

1  exist,  q.  d.  "  subsistentia."  It  likewise 
signifies  confidence,  stability,  firmness, 

2  Cor.  ix.  4.  It  is  also  used  for  person, 
Heb.  i.  3.  Thus  we  hold  that  there  is 
but  one  nature  or  essence  in  God,  but 
three  hypostases  or  persons.  The  word 
has  occasioned  great  dissensions  in  the 
ancient  church,  first  among  the  Greeks, 
and  afterwards  among  the  Latins ;  but 
an  end  was  put  to  them  by  a  synod  held 
at  Alexandria  about  the  year  362,  at 
which  St.  Athanasius  assisted;  from 
which  time  the  Latins  made  no  great 
scruple  of  saying  three  hypostases,  nor 
the  Greek  of  three  persons.  The  hy- 
postatical  union  is  the  union  of  the  hu- 
man  nature  of  Christ  with  the  divine  ; 
constituting  two  natures  in  one  person, 
and  not  two  persons  in  one  nature,  as 
the  Nestorians  believe.  See  Jesus 
Christ. 

HYPSISTARII,  (formed  from  6^^l<T«5, 
"highest,")  a  sect  of  heretics  in  the 
fourth  century;  thus  called  from  the 
profession  they  made  of  worshipping 
the  Most  High  God. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Hypsistarians 
was  an  assemblage  of  Paganism,  Juda- 
ism, and  Christianity. — They  adored 
the  Most  High  God  with  the  Christians ; 
but  they  also  revered  fire  and  lamps 
with  the  Heathens,  and  observed  the 
sabbath,  and  the  distinction  of  clean  and 
unclean  things,  with  the  Jews.  The 
Hypsistarii  boi-e  a  near  resemblance  to 
the  Euchites,  or  Messalians. 


I&J. 


JACOBITES,  a  sect  of  Christians  in 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia ;  so  called, 
either  from  Jacob,  a  Syrian,  who  lived 
in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Mauritius, 
or  from  one  Jacob,  a  monk,  who  flou- 
rished in  the  year  550. 

The  Jacobites  are  of  two  sects,  some 
following  the  rites  of  the  Latin  church, 
and  others  continuing  separated  from 
the  church  of  Rome.  There  is  also  a 
division  among  the  latter,  who  have  two  ! 
rival  patriarchs.  As  to  their  belief, ' 
they  hold  but  one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ :  j 


with  respect  to  pui"gatory,  and  prayers 
for  the  dead,  they  are  of  the  same  opi- 
nion with  the  Greeks  and  other  eastern 
Christians.  They  consecrate  unleaven- 
ed bread  at  the  eucharist,  and  are 
against  confession,  believing  that  it  is 
not  of  divine  institution. 

JANSENISTS,  a  sect  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  France  who  followed  the 
opinions  of  Jansenius  (bishop  of  Ypres, 
and  doctor  of  divinity  of  the  universities 
of  Louvain  and  Douay,)  in  relation  to 
grace  and  predestination. 


JAN 


281 


JAN 


In  tlie  year  1640,  the  two  universities 
just  mentioned,  and  particularly  father 
Molina  and  father  Leonard  Celsus, 
thought  fit  to  condemn  the  opinions  of 
the  Jesuits  on  grace  and  tree  will. 
This  having  set  the  controversy  on  foot, 
Jansenius  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Jesuits  the  sentiments  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  wrote  a  treatise  on  grace  which  he 
entitled  jiugustimts.  This  treatise  was 
attacked  by  the  Jesuits,  who  accused 
Jansenius  of  maintaining  dangerous  and 
heretical  opinions ;  and  afterwai'ds,  in 
1642,  obtained  of  Pope  Urban  VIII.  a 
formal  condemnation  of  the  treatise 
wrote  by  Jansenius  ;  when  the  partisans 
of  Jansenius  gave  out  that  this  bull  was 
spurious,  and  composed  by  a  person  en- 
tirely devoted  to  the  Jesuits.  After  the 
death  of  Urban  VIII.  the  affair  of  Jan- 
senism began  to  be  more  warmly  con- 
troverted, and  gave  birth  to  a  great 
number  of  polemical  writings  concern- 
ing grace ;  and  what  occasioned  some 
mirth,  were  the  titles  which  each  party 
gave  to  their  writings  :  one  writer  pub- 
lished the  Torch  of  St.  Augustine; 
another  found  Snu^prs  of  St.  Augus- 
tine's Torch;  and  tathcr  Veron  formed 
A  Gag  for  the  Jansenists,  &c.  In  the 
year  1650,  sixty-eight  bishops  of  France 
subscribed  a  letter  to  pope  Innocent  X. 
to  obtain  an  inquiry  into  and  condemna- 
tion of  the  five  following  propositions, 
extracted  from  Jansenius's  Augustinus : 

1.  Some  of  God's  commandments  are 
impossible  to  be  observed  by  tlie  righ- 
teous, even  though  they  endeavour  with 
all  their  power  to  accomplish  them. — 

2.  In  the  state  of  corrupted  nature,  we 
are  uicapable  of  resisting  inward  grace. 
— 3.  Merit  and  demerit,  in  a  state  of 
corrupted  nature,  do  not  depend  on  a 
liberty  which  excludes  necessity,  but  on 
a  liberty  which  excludes  constraint. — 4. 
The  Semi-pelagians  admitted  the  ne- 
cessity of  an  inward  pi'eventing  grace 
for  the  performance  of  each  particular 
act,  even  for  the  beginning  of  faith; 
but  they  were  heretics  in  maintaining 
that  this  grace  was  of  such  a  nature  that 
the  will  of  man  was  able  either  to  re- 
sist or  obey  it. — 5.  It  is  Semi-pelagian- 
ism  to  say,  that  Jesus  Christ  died,  or 
shed  his  blood,  for  all  mankind  in  ge- 
nerah 

In  the  year  1652,  the  pope  appointed 
a  congregation  for  examining  into  the 
dispute  relative  to  grace.  In  this  con- 
gregation Jansenius  was  condemned ; 
and  the  bull  of  condemnation  published 
in  May,  1653,  filled  all  the  pulpits  in 
Paris  with  violent  outcries  and  alanns 
against  the  Jansenists.  In  the  year  1656, 
pope  Alexander  VII.  issued  out  another 


bull,  in  which  he  condemned  the  five 
propositions  of  Jansenius.  However,  the 
Jansenists  affirmed  that  these  proposi- 
tions were  not  to  be  found  in  this  book  ; 
but  that  some  of  his  enemies  having 
caused  them  to  be  printed  on  a  sheet, 
inserted  them  in  the  book,  and  thereby 
deceived  the  pope.  At  last  Clement 
XI.  put  an  end  to  the  dispute  by  his  con- 
stitution of  July  17, 1705,  in  which,  after 
having  recited  the  constitutions  of  his 
predecessors  in  relation  to  this  affair,  he 
declared,  "That,  in  order  to  pay  a 
proper  obedience  to  the  papal  constitu- 
tions concerning  the  present  question, 
it  is  necessaiy  to  receive  them  with  a 
respectful  silence."  The  clergy  of  Pa- 
ris, the  same  year,  approved  and'  ac- 
cepted this  bull,  and  none  dared  to  op- 
pose it.  This  is  the  famous  bull  U)Li- 
genitus,  so  called  from  its  beginning 
'with  the  words,  Unigenitus  Dei  Filius, 
&c.  which  has  occasioned  so  much  con- 
fusion in  France. 

It  was  not  only  on  account  of  their 
embracing  the  doctrines  of  Augustine, 
that  the  Jesuits  wei'e  so  imbittered 
against  them  ;  but  that  which  offended 
the  Jesuits,  and  the  other  creatures  of 
the    Roman  pontiff,  was,  their    strict 

Jiiety,  and  severe  moral  discipline.  The 
ansenists  cried  out  against  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  com- 
plained that  neither  its  doctrines  nor 
morals  retained  any  traces  of  their  for- 
mer purity.  They  reproached  the  clergy 
with  an  universal  depravation  of  senti- 
ments and  manners,  and  an  entire  for- 
getfulness  of  the  dignity  of  their  cha- 
racter and  tlie  duties  of  their  vocation  ; 
they  censured  the  licentiousness  of  the 
monastic  orders,  and  insisted  upon  the 
necessity  of  reforming  their  discipline 
according  to  the  rules  of  sanctity,  ab- 
stinence, and  self-denial,  that  were  ori- 
ginally prescribed  by  their  respective 
founders.  They  maintained,  also,  that 
the  people  ought  to  be  carefully  in- 
stiTicted  in  all  the  doctrines  and  pre- 
cepts of  Christianity ;  and  that,  for  this 
purpose,  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  pub- 
lic liturgies  should  be  offered  to  their 
perusal  in  their  mother  tongue ;  and, 
finally,  they  looked  upon  it  as  a  matter 
of  the  highest  moment  to  persuade  all 
Christians  that  tnie  piety  did  not  con- 
sist in  the  observance  of  pompous  rites, 
or  in  the  performance  of  external  acts 
of  devotion,  but  in  inward  holiness  and 
divine  love. 

Notwithstanding  the  above-mentioned 
sentiments,  the  Jansenists  have  been 
accused  of  superstition  and  fanaticism  ; 
and,  on  account  of  their  severe  disci- 
pline and  practice,  have  been  denomi- 


ICO 


232 


ICO 


nated  Rigourists.  It  is  said,  that  they 
made  repentance  consist  chiefly  in  those 
voluntary  sufferings  which  the  .trans- 
gressor inflicted  \ipon  himself,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  nature  of  his  crimes  and 
the  degree  of  his  guilt.  They  tortured 
and  macerated  their  bodies  by  painful 
labour,  excessive  abstinence,  continual 
prayei',  and  contemplation:  nay,  they 
carried  these  austerities,  it  is  said,  to  so 
high  a  pitch,  as  to  place  merit  in  them, 
and  to  consider  those  as  the  sacred  vic- 
ti?ns  of  re}ientance  who  had  graduallj' 
put  aii  end  to  their  days  by  tlieir  exces- 
sive abstinence  and  labour.  Dr.  Haweis, 
howevei',  in  his  Church  History,  (vol. 
iii.  p.  46,)  seems  to  form  a  more  favour- 
able«opinion  of  them,  "I  do  not,"  says 
he,  "readily  receive  the  accusations 
that  Papists  or  Protestants  have  object- 
ed to  them,  as  over  rigorous  and  fana- 
tic in  their  devotion ;  but  I  will  admit 
many  things  might  be  blameable :  a 
tincture  of  popery  might  drive  them  to 
push  monkish  austerities  too  far,  and 
secretly  to  place  some  merit  in  mortifi- 
cation, which  they  m  general  disclaim- 
ed ;  yet,  with  all  that  can  be  said,  surely 
the  root  of  the  matter  was  in  them. 
When  I  read  Jansenius,  or  his  disciples 
Pascal  or  Quesnel,  I  bow  before  such 
distinguished  excellencies,  and  confess 
them  my  brethren  ;  shall  I  say  my  fa- 
thers? Their  principles  are  pure  and 
evangelical ;  their  morals  formed  upon 
the  apostles  and  prophets ;  and  their 
zeal  to  amend  and  convert,  blessed  with 
eminent  success." 

IBERIANS,  a  denomination  of  east- 
ern Christians,  which  derive  their  name 
from  Iberia,  a  province  of  Asia  now 
called  Georgia:  hence  they  are  also 
called  Georgians.  Their  tenets  are  said 
to  be  the  same  with  those  of  the  Greek 
church ;  which  see. 

ICONOCLASTES,  or  Iconoclas- 
TjE,  breakers  of  images :  a  name  which 
the  church  of  Rome  gives  to  all  who  re- 
ject the  use  of  images  in  religious  mat- 
ters. The  word  is  Greek,  formed  from 
tixtdv  imago,  and  x\acrT£iv  rumjiere,  "to 
break."  In  this  sense  not  only  the  re- 
formed, but  some  of  the  eastern  church- 
es, are  called  iconoclqstes,  and  esteemed 
by  them  heretics,  as  opposing  the  wor- 
ship of  the  images  of  God  and  the  saints, 
and  breaking  their  figures  and  repre- 
sentations in  churches. 

Tlie  opposition  to  images  began  in 
Greece,  under  the  reigni  of  Bai-danes, 
who  was  created  emperor  of  the  Greeks 
a  little  after  the  commencement  of  the 
eighth  century,  when  the  worship  of 
tliem  became  common.  See  Image.  But 
the  tumults  occasioned  by  it  were  quell- 


ed by  a  revolution,  which,  in  713,  de- 
prived Rardanesof  the  imperial  throne. 
The  dispute,  however,  broke  out  with 
redoubled  fury  under  Leo  the  I  saurian, 
who  issued  nut  an  e'iict  in  the  vear  726, 
abrogating,  as  some  say,  the  worship  of 
images;  and  ordering'  all  the  images, 
except  that  of  Christ's  cnicifixion,  to  be 
removed  out  of  the  churches  ;  but,  ac- 
cording to  others,  this  edict  only  pro- 
hibiting the  pa)-ing  to  them  any  kind  of 
adoration  or  worship.  This  edict  occa- 
sioned a  civil  war,  which  broke  out  in 
the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and,  by 
the  suggestions  of  the  priests  and  monks, 
ravaged  a  part  of  Asia,  and  afterwards 
reached  Italy.  The  civil  commotions 
and  insurrections  in  Italy  were  chiefly 
pi'omoted  by  the  Roman  pontifls,  Gre- 
gory I.  and  il.  Leo  was  excommunica- 
ted ;  and  his  subjects  in  the  Italian  pro- 
vinces violated  their  allegiance,  and 
rising  in  arms,  either  massacred  or 
banished  all  th?  emperor's  deputies  and 
officers.  In  consequence  of  these  pro- 
ceedings, Leo  assembled  a  council  at 
Constantinople  in  730,  which  degraded 
Germanus,  bishop  of  that  city,  who  was 
a  patron  of  images  ;  and  he  ordered  all 
the  images  to  be  publicly  burnt,  and  in- 
flicted a  variety  of  severe  punishments 
upon  such  as  were  attached  to  that  ido- 
latrous worship.  Hence  arose  two  fac- 
tions, one  of  which  adopted  the  adora- 
tion and  worship  of  images,  and  on  that 
account  were  called  iconoduli  or  vico- 
nolatrce;  and  the  other  m;untained  that 
such  worship  was  unlawful,  and  that 
nothing  was  more  worthy  the  zeal  of 
Christians  than  to  demolish  and  destroy 
those  statues  and  pictures  which  were 
the  occasion  of  this  gross  idolatry  ;  and 
hence-  they  were  distinguished  by  the 
titles  of  kono-machi  (from  fixuv  image, 
and  nax",  I  contend)  and  iconoclastx. 
The  zeal  of  Gregory  II.  in  favour  of 
image  worship  was  not  only  irritated, 
but  even  surpassed,  by  his  successor 
Gregory  III.  in  consequence  of  which 
the  Italian  provinces  were  torn  from  the 
Grecian  empire.  Constantine,  called 
Copronimus,  in  754,  convened  a  council 
at  Constantinople,  regarded  by  the 
Greeks  as  the  seventh  oecumenical 
council,  which  solemnly  condemned  the 
worship  and  use  of  images.  Those  who, 
notwithstanding  this  decree  of  the  coun- 
cil, raised  commotions  in  the  state,  wei-e 
severely  punished,  and  new  laws  Avere 
enacted  to  set  bounds  to  the  violence  of 
monastic  rage.  Leo  IV.  who  was  decla- 
red emperor  in  775,  pursued  the  same 
measures,  and  had  recourse  to  the  coer- 
cive influence  of  penal  laws,  in  order  to 
extirpate  idolatry  out  of  the  Christian 


ICO 


233 


ICO 


church.  Irene,  the  wife  of  Leo,  poison- 
ed her  husband  in  7H0 ;  assumed  the 
reins  of  the  empire  during  the  minority 
of  her  son  Constantine ;  and  in  786  sum- 
moned a  council  at  Nice,  in  Bithvnia, 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Second  J\ll- 
cenc  Council,  which  abrogated  the  laws 
and  decrees  against  the  new  idolatry, 
restored  the  worship  of  images  and  of 
the  cross,  and  denounced  severe  pimish- 
ments  against  those  who  maintained  that 
God  was  the  only  object  of  religious  ado- 
ration. In  this  contest  the  Britons,  Ger- 
mans, and  Gauls,  were  of  opinion  that 
images  might  be  lawfully  continued  in 
churches;  but  they  considered  the  -wor- 
ship.of  them  as  highly  injurious  and  of- 
fensive to  the  Supreme  Being.  Charle- 
ma^ie  distinguished  himself  as  a  media- 
tor )n  this  controversy :  he  ordered  four 
books  concerning  images  to  be  compo- 
sed, refuting  the  reasons  urged  by  the 
Nicene  bishops  to  justify  the  worship  of 
images,  which  he  sent  to  Adrian,  the 
Romi-u  pontiff,  in  790,  in  order  to  en- 
gage him  to  withdraw  his  approbation 
of  the  decrees  of  the  last  council  of  Nice. 
Adi'ian  wrote  an  answer;  and  in  794  a 
council  of  300  bishops,  assembled  by 
Chai-lemagne,  at  Francfort,  on  the 
Maine,  confirmed  the  opinion  contained 
in  the  four  books,  and  -solemnly  con- 
demned the  wor.ship  of  images. 

In  the  Greek  church,  after  the  banish- 
ment of  Irene,  the  controversy  concern- 
ing images  broke  out  anew,  and  was  car- 
ried on  by  the  contending  parties,  during 
the  half  of  the  ninth  century,  with  vari- 
ous and  uncertain  success.  The  empe- 
I'or  Nicephorus  appears  upon  the  whole 
to  have  been  an  enemy  to  this  idolatrous 
•worship.  His  successor,  Michael  Curo- 
palates,  surnamed  Rhangabe,  patroni- 
zed and  encouraged  it.  But  the  scene 
changed  on  the  accession  of  Leo,  the 
Armenian,  to  the  empire,  who  assem- 
bled a  council  at  Constantinople,  in  812, 
that  abolished  the  deci-ees  of  the  Nicene 
council.  His  successor,  Michael,  sur- 
named Balbus,  disapproved  of  the  wor- 
ship of  images,  and  his  son  Theophilus, 
treated  them  with  great  severity.  How- 
ever, the  empress  Theodora,  after  his 
death,  and  during  the  minority  of  her 
son,  assembled  a  council  at  Constantino- 
ple in  842,  which  reinstated  the  decrees 
of  the  second  Nicene  council,  and  en- 
couraged image  worship  by  a  law.  The 
council  held  at  the  same  place  under 
Protius,  in  879,  and  reckoned  by  the 
Greeks  the  eighth  general  council,  con- 
firmed and  renewed  the  Nicene  de- 
crees. In  commemoration  of  tliis  coun- 
cil, a  festival  was  instituted  by  the  su- 
perstitious Greeks,  called  the  Feast  of 


Orthodoxy.  The  Latins  were  generally 
of  opinion  that  images  might  be  suffer- 
ed, as  the  means  of  aiding  the  memory 
of  the  faithful,  and  of  calling  to  their  re- 
membi'ance  the  pious  exploits  and  vir- 
tuous actions  of  the  persons  whom  they 
represented ;  but  they  detested  all 
thoughts  of  paying  them  the  least  marks 
of  religious  homage  or  adoration.  The 
council  of  Paris  assembled  in  824  by 
Louis  the  Meek,  resolved  to  allow  the 
use  of  images  in  the  churches,  but  se- 
\  erely  prohibited  rendering  them  reli- 
gious worship  :  nevertheless,  towai'ds 
the  conclusion  of  this  century,  the  Gal- 
lican  clerg}-  began  to  pay  a  kind  of  re- 
ligious homage  to  the  images  of  saints, 
and  their  example  was  followed  by  the 
Gennans  and  other  n-ations.  However, 
the  Iconoclastes  still  had  their  adherents 
among  the  Latins;  the  most  eminent  of 
whom  was  Claudius,  bishop  of  Turin, 
who,  m  823,  ordered  all  images,  and 
e\  en  the  crosses  to  be  cast  out  of  the 
churches,  and  committed  to  the  flames; 
and  he  wrote  a  treatise,  in  which  he  de- 
clared both  against  the  use  and  worship 
of  them.  He  condemned  relics,  pilgrim- 
ages to  the  Holy  Land,  and  all  voyages 
to  the  tombs  of  saints ;  and  to  his  wri- 
ting and  labours  it  was  owing,  that  the 
city  of  Turin,  and  the  adjacent  country, 
was,  for  a  long  time  after  his  death, 
mucli  less  infected  with  superstition 
than  the  other  parts  of  Europe.  The 
controversy  concerning  the  sanctity  of 
images  was  again  revived  by  Leo,  bishop 
of  Chalcedon  :  in  the  11th  century,  on 
occasion  of  the  emperor  Alexius's  con- 
\erting  the  figures  of  silver  that  adorned 
the  portals  or  the  churches  into  money, 
in  order  to  supply  the  exigencies  of  the 
state.  The  bishop  obstinately  maintain- 
ed that  he  had  been  guilty  of  sacrilege ; 
and  published  a  treatise  in  which  he  af- 
firmed, that  in  these  images  there  i-e- 
sided  an  inherent  sanctity,  and  that  the 
adoration  of  Christians  ought  not  to  be 
confined  to  the  persons  repi'esented  by 
these  images,  but  extend  to  the  images 
themselves.  The  emperor  assembled  a 
council  at  Con-jtantinople,  which  deter- 
mined that  the  images  of  Christ  and  of 
the  saints  were  to  be  honoured  onh'  with 
a  relative  worship;  and  that  the  invoca- 
tion and  worship  were  to  be  addressed 
to  the  saints  only,  as  the  servants  of 
Christ,  and  on  account  of  their  relation 
to  him  as  their  master.  Leo,  dissatisfied 
with  these  absurd  and  superstitious  de- 
cisions, was  sent  into  banishment.  In  the 
western  church,  the  worship  of  images 
was  disapproved,  and  opposed  by  seve- 
ral considerable  parties,  as  the  Petro- 
brussians,  Albigenses,  Waldenses,  Sec. 
tig 


IDL 


234 


IDO 


till  at  length  this  idolatrous  practice  was 
abolished  in  many  parts  of  the  Christian 
world  by  the  reformation.    See  Image. 

ICONOLATR/E,  or  Tconolaters, 
those  who  worship  images ;  a  name 
which  the  Iconoclastes  give  to  those  of 
the  Romish  communion,  on  account  of 
their  adoring  images,  and  of  rendering 
to  them  the  worship  only  due  to  God. 
Xhe  word  is  formed  from  srxcov,  image, 
and  xaipjucj,  I  worship.  See  last  article, 
and  article  Imagp:. 

IDLENESS,  a  reluctancy  to  be  em- 
ployed in  any  kind  of  work.  The  idle 
man  is  in  every  view  both  foolish  and 
criminal.  "  He  neither  lives  to  God,  to 
the  world,  nor  to  himself.  He  does  not 
li\  e  to  God,  for  he  answers  not  the  end 
for  which  he  was  brought  into  being. 
Existence  is  a  sacred  trust;  but  he  who 
misemploys  and  squanders  it  away,  thus 
becomes  treacherous  to  its  Author. 
Those  powers  wliich  shovild  be  employ- 
ed in  his  service,  and  for  the  m-omotion 
of  his  glory,  lie  dormant.  The  time 
which  should  be  sacred  to  Jeliovah  is 
lost ;  and  thus  he  enjoys  no  fellowship 
with  God,  nor  any  way  devotes  himself 
to  his  praise.  He  lives  not  to  the  world, 
nor  for  the  benefit  of  his  fellow-crea- 
tures around  him.  While  all  creation  is 
full  of  life  and  activity,  and  nothing 
^tands  still  in  the  universe,  he  remains 
idle,  forgetting  that  mankind  are  con- 
nected by  various  relations  and  mutual 
dependencies,  and  that  the  order  of  the 
world  cannot  be  maintained  without 
perpetual  circulation  of  active  duties. 
lie  lives  not  to  himself.  Though  he  ima- 
gines that  he  leaves  to  others  the  drud- 
gery of  life,  and  betakes  himself  to  en- 
joyment and  ease,  yet,  '\\\  fact,  he  has  no 
true  pleasure.  While  he  is  a  blank  in 
society,  he  is  no  less  a  torment  to  him- 
self; for  he  Avho  knov.s  not  what-it  is  to 
labour,  knows  not  wliat  it  is  to  enjoy. 
He  shuts  the  door  against  improvement 
of  e\ery  kind,  whether  of  mind,  body,  or 
fortime.  Sloth  enfeebles  equally "  the 
bodily  and  the  mental  powers."  His 
character  falls  into  contempt.  Disorder, 
confusion,  and  embarras'-ment  mark  his 
whole  situation.  Idleness  is  the  inlet  to 
a  variety  of  other  vices.  It  undermines 
every  virtue  in  the  soul.  Violent  pas- 
sions, like  rapid  ton-ents,  run  their 
course ;  but  after  having  overflowed 
their  Kanks,  their  impetuosity  suljsides: 
but  sloth,  especially  when  it  is  haliitual, 
is  like  the  slowly-flowing  putrid  stream, 
which  stagnates  in  the  marsh,  breeds 
venomous  animals  and  poisonous  plants, 
and  infects  with  pestilential  vapours  the 
whole  country  round  it.  Having  once 
tainted  the  soul,  it  leaves  no  part  of  it 


sound ;  and  at  the  same  time  gives  not 
those  alarms  to  conscience  v/hich  the 
eruptions  of  bolder  and  fiercer  emotions 
often  occasion."  Log'an's  Sermons,  vol. 
i.  ser.  4.  Blair's  Sermon^,  vol.  iii.  ser.  4. 
Idler,  vol.  i.  p.  5,  171,  172.  Coiv/ier's 
Poems,  228,  vol.  T.  duod.  Johnson's 
Rambler,  vol.  ii.  p.  162,  163. 

IDOLATRY,  the  worship  of  idols, 
or  the  act  of  ascribing  to  things  and  per- 
sons, properties  which  are  peculiar  to 
God  alone.    The  principal  sources  of 
idolatry  seem  to  be  the  extravagant  ve- 
I  neration  for  creatures  and  beings  from 
I  which  benefits  accrue  to  men.    Dr.  Jor- 
I  tin  says,  that  idolatry  had  four  privile- 
,  ges  to  boast  of.    The  first  was  a  vene- 
[  rable  antiquity,  more  ancient  than  the 
I  Jewish   religion;    and   idolaters   might 
have  said  to  the  Israelites,  WTiere  was 
your  religion  before  Moses  and  Abra- 
j  liam  ?  Go,  and  enquire  in  Chaldea,  and 
i  there  you  will  find  that  your  fathers 
served  other  gods. — 2.  It  was  wider 
spread  than  the  Jewish  religion.  :•:  was 
the  religion  of  the  greatest,  the  wisest, 
and  the  politest  nations  of  the  Chal- 
deans, Egyptians,  and  Phrenicians,  the 
parents  of  civil  government,  and  of  arts 
and  sciences. — 3.  It  was  more  adapted 
to  the  bent  which  men  have  towai'ds 
visible  and  sensible  objects.    Men  want 
gods  who  shall  go  before  them,  and  be 
among  them.   God,  who  is  every  where 
in  power,  and  no  where  in  appeanmce, 
is  hard  to  be  conceived. — 4.  It  favoured 
human  passions:  it  required  no  morality: 
its  religious  ritual  Consisted  of  splendid 
ceremonies,  revelling,  dancing,  noctur- 
nal assemblies,  impure  and  scandalous 
mysteries,  debauched  priest.i,  and  gods, 
who  were  both  slaves  and  patrons  to  all 
sorts  of  vices. 

"All  the  more  remarkable  false  reli- 
gions that  have  been  or  are  in  the  world, 
recommend  themselves  by  one  or  other 
of  these  four  privileges  and  characters." 
The  first  objects  ot  idolatrous  wor- 
ship are  thought  to  have  been  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars.  Others  think  that  an- 
gels were  first  worshipped.  Soon  after 
the  flood  we  find  idolatry  greatly  pre- 
vail ing  in  the  Avorkl.  Abraham 's  father's 
family  served  other  gods  beyond  the 
river  Euphi'ates ;  and  Laban  had  idols 
which  Rachel  brought  along  with  her. 
In  process  of  time,  noted  patriots,  or 
kings  deceased,  animals  of  various  kinds, 
plants,  stones,  and,  in  fine,  whatever 
people  took,  a  fancy  to,  they  idolized. 
The  Egyptians,  though  high  pretendei'S 
to  wisdom,  worshipped  pied  Inills,  snipes, 
leeks,  onions,  &c.  The  Greeks  had 
abovit  30,000  gods.  The  Gomerians  de- 
ified their  ancient  kings;  nor  were  the 


JEA 


235 


JES 


Chaldeans,  Romans,  Chinese,  &C.  a  whit 
less  absurd.  Some  violated  the  most  na- 
tural affections  by  m  urdcring  multitudes 
of  their  neighbours  and  children,  under 
pretence  of  sacrificing  them  to  their  god. 
Some  nations  of  Germany,  Scandinavia, 
and  Tartaiy,  imagined  that  violent 
death  in  war,  or  by  self-murder,  was  the 
proper  method  of  access  to  the  future 
enjoyment  of  their  gods.  In  far  later 
times,  about  64,080  persons  were  sacri- 
ficed at  the  dedication  of  one  idolatrous 
temple  in  tlie  space  of  four  days  in 
America.  The  Hebrews  never  had  any 
idols  of  their  own,  but  they  adopted 
those  of  the  nations  around.  The  vene- 
ration which  the  Papists  pay  to  tlie  Vir- 
gin Mary,  and  other  saints  and  angels, 
and  to  the  bread  in  the  sacrament,  the 
cross,  relics,  and  images,  lays  a  founda- 
tion for  the  Protestants  to  charge  them 
with  idolatry,  though  they  deny  the 
charge.  It  is  evident  that  they  worship 
them,  and  that  they  justif)'  the  worship, 
but  deny  the  idolatry  of  it,  by  distin- 
guishing sr/(5>o?'rf/«a?e  from  Riijireine-vfOY- 
ship:  the  one  they  call  latria,  the  other 
dulia :  but  this  distinction  is  thought  by 
many  of  the  Protestants  to  be  vain,  fu- 
tile, and  nugatory. 

Idolatiy  has  been  divided  into  meta- 
phorical and  profiey.  By  metaphorical 
idolatry,  is  meant  that  inordinate  love 
of  riches,  honours,  and  bodily  pleasures, 
whereby  the  passions  and  appetites  of 
men  are  made  superior  to  the  will  of 
God;  man,  by  so  doing,  making  a  god  of 
himself  .and  his  sensual  temper.  Pro- 
per idolatiy  is  giving  the  divine  honour 
to  another.  The  objects  or  idols  of  that 
honouf  which  are  given  are  either  per- 
sonal, i.  e.  the  idolatrous  themselves, 
■  who  become  their  own  statues ;  or  vi- 
ternal,  as  false  ideas,  which  are  set  up 
in  the  fancy  instead  of  God,  such  as  fan- 
cying God  to  be  a  light,  flame,  matter, 
&c.  only  here,  the  scene  being  internal, 
the  scandal  of  the  sin  is  thereby  abated ; 
or  external,  as  worshipping  angels,  the 
sun,  stars,  animals,  &c.  Tenison  on  Ido- 
latry; A.  Youn{^  on  Idolatrous  Cor- 
ruptions ;  Ridgley's  Body  of  Div.  qu. 
106.  Fell's  Idolatry  of  Greece  and 
Rome ;  Stillingjleefs  Idolatry  of  the 
Church  of  Rome ;  Jortin's  &r.  vol.  vi. 
ser.  18. 

JEALOUSY  is  that  particular  unea- 
siness which  arises  from  the  fear  that 
some  rival  may  rob  us  of  the  affection  of 
one  whom  we  greatly  love,  or  suspicion 
that  he  has  already  done  it.  The  first 
sort  of  jealousy  is  inseparable  from  love, 
before  it  is  in  possession  of  its  object ; 
the  latter  is  unjust,  generally  mischiev- 
ous, and  always  troublesome. 


JEHOVAH,  one  of  the  Scripture 
names  of  God,  and  peculiar  to  him,  sig- 
nifying the  Being  who  is  self-existent, 
and  gives  existence  to  others.  The 
jiame  is  also  gi^^en  to  Christ,  Is.  xl.  3. 
and  is  a  proof  of  his  godhead.  Matt.  iii. 
3.  Is.  vi.  John  xii.  41.  The  Jews  had  so 
great  a  veneration  foi*  this  name,  that 
they  left  off  the  custom  of  pronouncing 
it,  whereby  its  true  pronunciation  was 
forgotten.  They  believe  that  whosoever 
knows  the  true  pronunciation  of  it  can- 
not fail  to  be  heard  of  God. 

JESUITS,  or  the  Society  of  Jesus  ;  a 
famous  religious  order  of  the  Romish 
Church,  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  a 
Spanish  knight,  in  the  sixteenth  centu- 
ry. The  plan  which  this  fanatic  formed 
of  its  constitution  and  laws,  was  sug- 
gested, as  he  gave  out,  by  the  immediate 
inspiration  oi  Heaven.  But,  notwith- 
standing this  high  pretension,  his  design 
met  at  hrst  with  violent  opposition.  The 
pope,  to  whom  Loyola  had  applied  for 
the  sanction  of  his  authority  to  confirm 
the  institution,  referred  his  petition  to  a 
committee  of  cardinals.  They  represen- 
ted the  establishment  to  be  unnecessary 
as  well  as  dangerous,  and  Paul  refused 
to  grant  his  approbation  of  it.  At  last, 
Loyola  removed  all  his  scruples,  by  an 
offer  which  it  was  impossible  for  any 
pope  to  resist.  He  proposed,  that  be- 
sides the  three  vows  of  poverty,  of  chas- 
tity, and  of  monastic  obedience,  which 
are  common  to  all  the  orders  of  regu- 
lars, the  members  of  his  society  should 
take  a  fourth  vow  of  obedience  to  the 
pope,  binding  themselves  to  go  Avhither- 
soever  he  should  command  for  the  ser- 
vice of  religion,  and  without  requiring 
any  thing  from  the  holy  see  for  their 
support.  At  a  time  when  the  papal 
authority  had  received  such  a  shock  by 
the  revolt  of  so  many  nations  from  the 
Romish  church,  at  a  time  when  every 
part  of  the  popish  system  was  attacked 
with  so  much  violence  and  success,  the 
acquisition  of  a  body  of  men,  thus  pecu- 
liarly devoted  to  the  see  of  Rome,  and 
whom  it  might  set  in  opposition  to  all 
its  enemies,  was  an  object  of  the  highest 
consequence.  Paul,  instantly  perceiving 
this,  confirmed  the  institution  of  the  Je- 
suits by  his  bull ;  granted  the  most  am- 
ple privileges  to  the  members  of  the 
society,  and  a}:)pointed  Loyola  to  be  the 
first  general  ot  the  oi'dei'.  The  event 
fully  justified  Paul's  di&ceniment  in  ex- 
pecting such  beneficial  consequences  to 
the  see  of  Rome  from  this  institution.  lu 
less  than  half  a  century  the  society  ob- 
tained establishments  in  every  country 
that  adhered  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
church ;  its  power  and  v/ealth  increased 


JES 


236 


JES 


amazingly ;  the  number  of  its  members 
oecame  great ;  their  character  as  well 
as  accomplishments  were  still  greater  ; 
and  the  Jesuits  were  celebrated  by  the 
friends  and  dreaded  b)'  the  enemies  of 
the  Romish  faith,  as  the  most  able  and 
entei^prising  order  in  the  church. 

2.  Jesuits,  object  of  the  order  of. — 
The  primary  object  of  almost  all  the 
monastic  orders  is  to  separate  men  from 
the  world,  and  from  any  concern  in  its 
affairs.  In  the  solitude  and  silence  of 
the  cloister,  the  monk  is  called,  to  work 
out  his  salvation  by  extraordinary  acts 
of  mortification  and  piety.  He  is  dead 
to  the  world,  and  ought  not  to  mingle  in 
its  transactions.  He  can  be  of  no  benefit 
to  mankind  but  by  his  example  and  by 
his  prayers.  On  the  contrary,  the  Je- 
suits are  taught  to  consider  themselves 
as  foiTned  for  action.  Thev  are  chosen 
soldiers,  bound  to  exert  themselves  con- 
tinually in  the  sennce  of  God,  and  of  the 
pope,  his  vicar  on  eai'th.  Whatever 
tends  to  instruct  the  ignorant,  whatever 
can  be  of  use  to  reclami  or  oppose  the 
enemies  of  the  holy  see,  is  their  proper 
object.  That  they  may  have  full  leisure 
for  this  active  ser\ice,  they  are  totally 
exempted  from  those  functions,  the  per- 
formance of  which  is  the  chief  business 
of  other  monks.  They  appear  in  no 
processions ;  they  practise  no  rigorous 
austerities ;  they  do  not  consume  one 
half  of  their  time  in  the  repetition  of  te- 
dious offices ;  but  they  are  required  to 
attend  to  all  the  transactions  of  the 
world  on  account  of  the  influence  which 
these  may  have  upon  religion :  thev  are 
directed  to  study  the  dispositions  of  per- 
sons in  high  rank,  and  to  cultivate  their 
friendship ;  and,  by  the  very  constitu- 
tion and  genius  of  the  order,  a  spirit  of 
action  and  intrigue  is  infused  into  all  its 
membei-s. 

3.  Jesrdts,  fieculiarities  of  their  policy 
and  goi^ernment. — Other  orders  are  to 
be  considered  as  voluntary  associations, 
in  which,  whatever  affects  the  whole 
body,  is  regulated  by  the  common  suf- 
frage of  all  its  members.  But  Loyola, 
full  of  the  ideas  of  implicit  obedience, 
which  he  had  derived  from  his  military 
profession,  appointed  that  the  govern- 
ment of  liis  order  should  be  purely  mo- 
narchical. A  general  chosen  for  life,  by 
deputies  from  the  several  provinces, 
possessed  power  that  was  supreme  and 
mdependent,  extending  to  every  pei-son 
and  to  every  case.  To  his  commands 
they  were  required  to  yield  not  only 
outward  obedience,  but  to  i-esign  up  to 
him  the  inclinations  of  their  own  wills, 
and  the  sentiments  of  their  own  under- 
standings.   Such  a  singular  form  of  po-  ji 


licy  could  not  fail  to  impress  its  charac- 
ter on  all  its  members  of  the  order,  and 
to  give  a  peculiar  force  to  all  its  opera- 
tions. There  has  not  been,  perhaps,  in 
the  annals  of  mankind,  any  example  of 
such  a  perfect  despotism  exercised,  not 
over  monks  shut  up  in  the  cells  of  a  con- 
vent, but  over  men  dispersed  among  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth.  As  the  consti- 
tutions of  the  order  vest  in  the  general 
such  absolute  dominion  over  all  its  mem- 
bers, they  carefully  provide  for  his  be- 
ing perfectly  informed  with  respect  to 
the  character  and  abilities  of  his  sub- 
jects. Every  novice  who  offers  himself 
as  a  candidate  for  entering  into  the  or- 
der, is  obliged  to  manifest  his  conscience 
to  the  superior,  or  a  person  appointed 
by  him  ;  and  is  required  to  confess  not 
only  his  sins  and  defects,  but  to  discover 
the  inclinations,  the  passions,  and  the 
bent  of  the  soul.  This  manifestation 
must  be  renewed  eveiy  six  months. 
Each  member  is  directed  to  observe  the 
words  and  actions  of  the  novices,  and 
are  bound  to  disclose  every  thing  of  im- 
portance concerning  them  to  the  supe- 
rior. In  order  that  this  scrutiny  mto 
their  chai-acter  may  be  as  complete  as 
possible,  a  long  novitiate  must  expii'e, 
during  which  they  pass  through  the  se- 
vei-al  gradations  of  rank  in  the  societ)'^ ; 
and  they  must  have  attained  the  full 
age  of  thirty-three  years  before  they 
can  be  admitted  to  take  the  final  vows 
by  which  they  become  professed  mem- 
bers. By  these  various  methods,  the  su- 
periors under  whose  immediate  inspec- 
tion the  novices  are  placed,  acquire  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  their  disposi- 
tions and  talents ;  and  the  general,  by 
examining  the  registers  kept  for  this. 
purpose,  is  enabled  to  choose  the  instru- 
ments which  his  absolute  power  can 
employ  in  any  service  for  which  he 
thinks'meet  to  destine  them. 

4.  Jesuits,  progress  of  the  power  and 
influence  of. — As  it  was  the  professed 
intention  of  this  order  to  labour  with 
unwearied  zeal  in  promoting  the  salva- 
tion of  men,  this  engaged  them,  of 
course,  in  many  active  functions.  From 
their  first  institution,  they  considered 
the  education  of  vouth  as  their  peculiar 
province :  they  aimed  at  being  spiritual 
guides  and  confessors ;  they  preached 
frequently  in  order  to  instruct  the  peo- 
ple ;  they  set  out  ;is  missionaries  to  con- 
vert unbelieving  nations.  Before  the  ex- 
piration of  the  sixteenth  century,  they 
had  obtained  the  chief  direction  of  the 
education  of  youth  in  every  Catholic 
country  in  Europe.  They  had  become 
the  confessors  of  almost  all  its  mo- 
narchs ;  a  function  of  no  small  impor- 


JES 


237 


JES 


I 


tance  in  any  reign,  but,  under  a  weak 
prince,  superior  to  th;it  of  minister. 
They  were  the  spiritual  guides  of  al- 
most eveiy  person  eminent  for  rank  or 
power  ;  thev  possessed  the  liighest  de- 
gi-ee  of  conlidence  and  biterest  with  the 
papal  court,  as  the  most  zealous  and 
able  champions  for  its  authority  ;  they 
possessed,  at  different  periods,  the  di- 
rection of  the  most  considerable  coui'ts 
in  Europe ;  they  mingled  in  all  affairs, 
and  took  part  in  CAcry  uitrigiie  and  re- 
volution. But  while  they  thus  advan- 
ced in  power,  they  increased  also  in 
wealth ;  various  expedients  were  devi- 
sed for  eluding  the  oljligation  of  the  vow 
of  poverty.  Besides  the  sources  of 
wealth  common  to  all  the  regular  cler- 
g)-,  the  Jesuits  possessed  one  which  was 
peculiar  to  themselves. — Under  the 
prete.yt  of  promoting  the  success  of 
their  missions,  and  of  facilitating  the 
support  of  their  missionaries,  they  ob- 
tamed  a  special  license  from  the  court 
of  Rome,  to  trade  w  ith  the  nations  which 
they  laboured  te  convert:  in  conse- 
quence of  this,  thev  engaged  in  an  ex- 
tensive and  lucrative  commerce,  both 
in  the  East  and  West  Indies ;  they 
opened  warehouses  in  different  parts  of 
Eui'ope,  in  which  they  vended  their 
commodities.  Not  satisfied  with  trade 
alone,  they  imitated  the  example  of 
other  commercial  societies,  and  aimed 
at  obtaining  settlements.  They  acqui- 
red possession,  accordingly,  of  the  large 
and  fei-tile  province  of  Paraguay,  which 
stretches  across  the  southern  continent 
of  America,  from  the  bottom  of  the 
mountains  of  Potosi  to  the  confines  of 
the  Spanish  and  Poi-tuguese  settlements 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  De  la  Plata. 
Here,  indeed,  it  must  be  confessed,  they 
were  of  service:  they  found  the  inhabi- 
tants in  a  state  little  different  from  that 
which  takes  place  among  men  when 
they  first  begin  to  unite  together ;  stran- 
gers to  the  arts ;  subsisting  precariously 
by  hunting  or  fishing;  ancl  hardlv  ac- 
quainted with  the  first  principles  of  sub- 
ordination and  government. — The  Je- 
suits set  themselves  to  instruct  and  ci- 
vilize these  savages  :  they  taught  them 
to  cultivate  the  ground,"  build  houses, 
and  brought  them  to  live  together  in 
villages,  8vc.  They  made  them  taste  the 
sweets  of  society,  and  trained  them  to 
arts  and  manufactures.  Such  was  their 
power  over  them,  that  a  few  Jesuits 
presided  over  some  hundred  thousand 
Indians.  But  even  in  this  meritorious 
effort  of  the  Jesuits  for  the  good  of 
mankind,  the  genius  and  spirit  of  their 
order  was  discernible:  they  plainly 
aimed  at  establish'mg  in  Paraguay  an 


independent  empire,  subject  to  the  so- 
ciety alone,  and  whic.i,  oy  the  superior 
excellence  of  its  constitution  and  police, 
could  scarcely  have  failed  to  extend  its 
dominion  over  all  the  southern  continent 
of  America.  With  this  view,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  Spaniards  or  Portuguese 
in  the  adjacent  settlements  from  acqui- 
ring any  dangerous  influence  over  the 
people  witiiin  the  limits  of  the  province 
subject  to  the  society,  the  Jesuits  en- 
deavoured to  inspire  the  Indians,  with 
hatred  and  contempt  of  these  nations : 
they  cut  off  all  intercourse  between 
their  subjects  and  the  Spanish  or  Portu- 
guese settlen^ents.  Wlien  they  were 
obliged  to  admit  any  person  in  a  public 
character  from  the  neighbouring  go- 
vernments, they  did  not  permit  him  to 
have  any  conversation  with  their  sub- 
jects ;  and  no  Indian  was  allowed  even 
to  enter  the  house  where  these  sti-angers 
resided,  unless  in  the  presence  of  a  Jesuit. 
In  order  to  i-ender  any  communication 
between  them  as  difficult  as  possible, 
they  industriously  avoided  giving  the 
Indians  any  knowledge  of  the  Spanish 
or  of  any  other  European  language ;  but 
encouraged  the  different  tribes  which 
they  had  civilized  to  acquire  a  certain 
dialect  of  the  Indian  tongue,  and  labour- 
ed to  make  that  the  universal  language 
throughout  their  dominions.  As  all 
these  precautions,  without  military 
force,  would  have  been  insufficient  to 
liave  rendered  their  empire  secure  and 
peiTiianent,  they  instructed  their  sub- 
jects in  the  European  ait  of  war,  and 
formed  tliem  into  bodies  completely 
amied,  and  well  disciplined. 

5.  Jesuits,  fiernicious  effects  of  this 
order  in  civil  society. — Though  it  must 
be  confessed  that  the  Jesuits  cultivated 
the  study  of  ancient  literature,  and  con.- 
tributed  much  towards  the  progress  of 
polite  learning ;  though  they  have  pro- 
duced eminent  masters  in  every  branch 
of  science,  and  can  boast  of  a  number  of 
ingenious  authors;  yet,  unhappily  for 
mankind,  their  vast  influence  has  been 
often  exerted  with  the  most  fatal  effects. 
Such  was  the  tendency  of  that  discipline 
observed  by  the  society  in  forming  its 
members,  and  such  the  fundamental 
maxims  in  its  constitution,  that  every 
Jesuit  was  taught  to  regard  the  inte- 
rest of  the  order  as  the  capital  object  to 
which  eveiy  consideration  was  to  be 
sacrificed.  As  the  prosperity  of  the 
order  was  intimately  connected  with 
the  presersation  of  the  papal  authority, 
the  Jesuits,  influenced  by  the  same  prin- 
ciple of  attachment  to  the  interest  of 
their  society,  have  been  the  most  zeal- 
ous patrons  of  those  doctrines  which 


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238 


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tend  to  exalt  ecclesiastical  powei'  on 
the  ruins  of  civil  government.  They 
have  attrilDuted  to  the  court  of  Rome  a 
jurisdiction  as  extensive  and  absolute  as 
was  claimed  by  the  most  presumptuous 
pontiffs  in  the  dark  ages.  They  have 
contended  for  the  entire  independence 
of  ecclesiastics  on  the  civil  magistrates. 
They  have  published  such  tenets  con- 
cerning the  duty  of  f>pposing  princes 
who  were  enemies  of  the  Catholic  faith, 
as  countenanced  the  most  atrocious 
crimes,  and  tended  to  dissolve  all  the 
ties  which  connect  subjects  with  their 
rulers.  As  the  order  deri^Td  both  re- 
putation and  authority  ft-om  the  zeal 
with  which  it  stood  forth  in  defence  of 
the  Romish  church  against  the  attacks 
of  the  refonners,  its  members,  proud  of 
this  distinction,  have  considered  it  as 
their  peculiar  function  to  combat  the 
opinions,  and  to  check  the  progress  of 
the  Protestants.  They  haA^e  made  use 
of  eveiy  art,  and  have  employed  every 
weapon  against  them.  They  have  set 
themseh'es  in  opposition  to  every  gen- 
tle or  tolerating  measure  in  their  fa- 
vour. They  have  incessantly  stirred  up 
against  them  all  the  rage  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal and  civil  persecution.  Whoever 
recollects  the  events  which  have  hap- 
pened in  Europe  during  two  centuries, 
will  find  that  the  Jesuits  may  justlv  be 
considered  as  responsible  for  most  of 
the  pernicious  effects  ai'ising  from  that 
corrupt  and  dangerous  casuistry,  from 
those  extravagant  tenets  concerning  ec- 
clesiastical power,  and  from  that  intole- 
rant spirit  which  \\:ive  been  the  disgrace 
of  the  church  of  Rome  throughout  that 
period,  and  which  have  brought  so 
many  calamities  ui)on  society. 

6.  Jesuits,  downfall  in  Eurofie. — 
Such  were  the  laws,  the  policy,  and  the 
genius  of  this  foi-midable  order ;  of 
which,  however,  a  perfect  knowledge 
has  only  been  attainable  of  late.  Eu- 
rope had  observed,  for  two  centuries, 
the  ambition  and  power  of  the  order; 
but  while  it  felt  many  fatal  effects  of 
these,  it  could  not  full)-  disceni  the  cau- 
ses to  which  they  were  to  be  imputed. 
It  was  unacquainted  with  many  of  the 
singidar  regulations  in  the  political  con- 
stitution or  government  of  the  Jesuits, 
which  formed  the  enterprising  spirit  of 
intrigue  that  distinguished  its  members, 
and  elevated  the  body  itself  to  such  a 
height  of  power.  It  was  a  fundamental 
maxim  with  the  Jesuits,  from  their 
first  institution,  not  to  publish  the  ndes 
of  their  order:  these  tliey  kept  conceal- 
ed as  an  impenetrable'  mystery.  They 
never  communicated  them  to  strangers, 
nor  even  to  the  greater  part  of  tlieir 


o^vn  members:  they  refused  to  produce 
them  when  required  by  courts  of  jus- 
tice ;  and  by  a  strange  solecism  in  poli- 
cy, the  civil  power  in  different  countries 
authorized  or  connived  at  tlie  establish- 
ment of  an  order  of  men,  w^iose  consti- 
tution and  laws  were  concealed  with  a 
solicitude  which  alone  was  a  good  rea- 
son for  having  excluded,  them.  During 
the  prosecutions  which  have  been  car-  . 
ried  on  against  them  in  Portugal  and 
France,  the  Jesuits  have  been  so  incon- 
siderate as  to  produce  the  mysterious 
volunaes  of  their  institute.  By  the  aid 
of  these  authentic  records,  the  princi- 
ples of  their  government  may  be  deli- 
neated, and  the  sources  of  their  power 
investigated,  with  a  degree  of  certainty 
and  precision  which,  previous  to  that 
e^'ent,  it  was  impossible  to  attain. 

The  pernicious  effects  of  the  sph-it 
and  constitution  of  this  order  rendered 
it  early  obnoxious  to  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal poweis-  in  Europe,  and  gradually 
brought  on  its  downfall.  There  is  a  re- 
markable passage  in-  a  sermon  preach- 
ed at  Dublin  by  Archbisliop  Brown,  so 
long  ago  as  the  year  1551,  and  which 
may  be  considered  almost  as  prophetic. 
It  IS  as  follows:  "But  there  are  a  new 
"  fraternity  of  late  sprung  up  who-  call 
"themselves  Jesuits,  which  will  deceive 
"many,  much  after  the  Scribes  and 
"Pharisees'  manner.  Amongst  the 
"Jews  they  shall  strive  to  abolish  the 
"truth,  and  shall  come  very  near  to  do 
"it.  For  these  sorts  will  turn  them- 
" selves  into  several  forms;  with  the 
" heathen, a  heathenist ;  with  the  atheist, 
"  an  atheist ;  with  the  Jews,  a  Jew ; 
"with  the  reformers,  a  reformade,  pur- 
"  posely  to  know  your  intentions,  your 
"  minds,  your  hearts,  and  your  inclina- 
"  tions,  and  thereby  bring  you,  at  last,  to 
"  be  like  the  fool  that  said  in  his  heart, 
"there  was  no  God.  These  shall  be 
"  spread  over  the  whole  world,  shall  be 
"  admitted  uito  the  councils  of  princes, 
"and  they. never  the  wiser;  charming 
"of  them,  yea,  making  your  princes 
"reveal  their  hearts,  and  the  secrets 
"therein,  and  yet  they  not  perceive  it; 
"which  will  happen  from  falling  from 
"the  law  of  God,  by  neglect  of  fulfil- 
"ling  the  law  of  God,  and  by  winking 
"at  their  sins;  yet,  in  the  end,  God,  to 
"  justify  his  law,  shall  suddenly  cut  off 
"this  society,  even  by  the  hands  of 
"  those  who  have  most  succoured  them, 
"  and  made  use  of  them  ;  so  tliat  at  the 
"end  they  shall  become  odious  to  all 
"nations."  They  shall  be  worse  than 
"  Jews,  having  no  resting  place  upon 
"  earth ;  and  then  shall  a  Jew  have 
"more  favour   than   a  Jesuit."    This 


JES 


239 


JES 


singular  passage  seems  to  be  accom- 
plished. The  emperor  Charles  V.  saw 
It  expedient  to  clicck  their  progress 
in  his  dominions;  they  were  expelled 
England  by  proclamation  2  James  I. 
in  1604;  Venice  in  1606;  Portugal  in 
1759  ;  France  in  1764  ;  Spain  and  Sicily 
in  1767;  and  totally  suppressed  and 
abolished  by  PJope  Clement  XIV.  in 
1773.  Enc.  Brit.  Moshehn's  Rcc.  Hist. 
Harleian  Misc.  vol.  v.  p.  566  ;  Brough- 
ton's  Diet. 

JESUS  CHRIST,  the  Lord  and  Sa- 
viour of  mankind.  He  is  called  Christ 
(anointed,)  because  he  is  anointed,  fur- 
nished, and  sent  by  God  to  execute  his 
mediatoiial  office ;  and  Jesus  (Saviour,) 
because  he  came  to  save  his  people  from 
their  sins.  For  an  account  of  his  nativi- 
ty, offices,  death,  resurrection,  8cc.  the 
reader  is  referred  to  those  articles  in 
this  work.  We  shall  here  more  parti- 
cularly consider  his  divinity,  humanity, 
and  character.  The  divi7nty  of  Jesus 
Christ  seems  evident,  if  we  consider,  1. 
The  language  of  the  A'e-iv  Testameyit, 
and  compare  it  with  the  state  of  the  Pa- 

f-an  nvorld  at  the  tiine  of  its  publication. 
i  Jesus  Christ  were  riot  God,  the  wri- 
ters of  the  New  Testament  discovered 
great  injudiciousness  in  the  choice  of 
their  words,  and  adopted  a  very  incau- 
tious and  dangerous  style.  The  whole 
world,  except  the  .small  kingdom  of 
Judea,  worshipped  idols  at  the  time  of 
Jesus  Christ's  appearance.  Jesus  Chi-ist ; 
the  evangelists,  who  wrote  his  history ; 
and  the  apostles,  who  wrote  epistles  to 
various  classes  of  men,  proposed  to  de- 
.  stroy  idolatry,  and  to  establish  the  wor- 
ship of  one  only  living  and  ti'ue  God.  To 
effii'Ct  this  pui'pose,  it  was  absolutely 
necessary  for  these  founders  of  Christi- 
anity to  avoid  confusion  and  obscurity 
of  language,  and  to  express  their  ideas 
in  a  cool  and  cautious  style.  The  least 
expression  that  would  tend  to  deify  a 
creature, or  countenance  idolatry,  would 
have  been  a  source  of  the  greatest  error. 
Hence  Paul  and  Barnabas  rent  their 
clothes  at  the  veiy  idea  of  the  multi- 
tude's confounding  the  creature  with 
the  Creator,  Acts  xiv.  The  writers  of 
the  New  Testament  knew  that  in 
speaking  of  Jesus  Christ,  extraordinary 
caution  was  necessary ;  yet,  when  we 
take  up  the  New  Testament,  we  find 
such  expressions  as  these  :  "  The  word 
was  God,  John  i.  1.  God  was  manifest 
in  the  iiesh,  1  Tim.  iii.  16.  God  with 
us,  Matt.  i.  23.  The  Jews  crucified  the 
Lord  of  glory,  1  Cor  ii.  8.  Jesus  Christ 
is  Lord  of  all.  Acts  x.  36.  Christ  is 
over  all ;  God  blessed  for  ever,  Rom.  ix. 
5."    These  are  a  few  of  many  proposi- 


tions, which  the  New  Testament  AvriterS 
lay  down  relative  to  Jesus  Christ.  If 
the  writers  intended  to  affirm  the  divi- 
nity of  Jesus  Christ,  these  are  woixls  of 
truth  and  soberness ;  if  not,  the  language 
is  incautious  and  rmwarrantable  ;  and  to 
address  it  to  men  ])rone  to  idolatry,  for 
the  purpose  of  destroying  idolatry,  is  a 
strong  presumption  against  their  inspi- 
ration. It  is  remarkable,  also,  that  the 
richest  words  in  the  (ireek  language  are 
made  use  of  to  describe  Jesus  Christ. 
Tliis  language,  which  is  veiy  copious, 
would  have  afforded  lower  terms  to  ex- 
press an  inferior  nature ;  but  it  could 
have  affiDrded  none  higher  to  express 
the  nature  of  the  Sujjreme  God.  It  is 
worthy  of  observation,  too,  that  these 
writers  addressed  their  writings  not  to 
philoso])hers  and  scholars,  but  to  the 
common  people,  and  consequently  used 
words  in  their  plain  popular  signification. 
The  common  people,  it  seems,  under- 
stood the  words  in  our  sense  of  them  ; 
for  in  the  Dioclesian  persecution,  when 
the  Roman  soldiei-s  burnt  a  Plirygian 
cit\^  inhabited  by  Christians ;  men,  wo- 
men, and  children  submitted  to  their 
i,xXQ,calling iijion  Chri.it,THK  god  over 
ALL. — 2.  Compare  the  style  of  the  A'e'w 
Testament  with  the  state  of  the  Jews  at 
the  time  of  its  publication.  In  the  time 
of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Jews  were  zealous 
defenders  of  the  unity  of  Ciod,  and-  of 
that  idea  of  his  perfections  which  the 
Scriptures  excited.  Jesus  Christ  and 
his  apostles  professed  the  highest  regard 
for  the  Jewish  Sci'iptures ;  yet  the  wri- 
ters of  the  New  Testament  described 
Jesus  Christ  by  the  very  names  and 
titles  by  which  the  writers  of  the  Old 
Testament  had  described  the  Si:preme 
God.  Compare  Exod-  iii.  14.  with  John 
viii.  58.  Is.  xliv.  6.  with  Rev.  i.  11, 
17.  Deut.  X.  17.  with  Rev.  xvii.  14. 
Ps.  xxiv.  10.  with  1  Cor.  ii.  8.  Hos.  i.  7. 
with  Luke  ii.  11.  Dan.  v.  23.  with  1  Cor. 
XV.  47.  1  Chron.  xxix.  11.  with  Col.  ii. 
10.  If  they  who  described  Jesus  Christ 
to  the  Jews  bj'  these  sacred  names  and 
titles  intended  to  convey  an  idea  of  iiis 
deity,  the  description  is  just  and  the 
application  safe  ;  but  if  they  intended  to 
describe  a  mere  man,  they  were  surely 
of  all  men  the  most  preposterous.  They 
chose  a  method  of  recommending  JesuS 
to  the  Jews  the  most  likely  to  alarm  and 
enrage  them.  Whatever  they  meant, 
the  Jews  understood  them  in  our  sense, 
and  took  Jesus  for  a  blasphemer,  John 
X.  33. — 3.  Co  mpare  the  perfections  which 
are  ascribed  to  Jesus  Christ  in  the  Scrifi- 
tures,  with  those  which  are  ascribed 
to  God.  Jesus  Christ  declares,  "All 
thbgs  that  the  Father  hath  are  mine,'" 


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240 


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JoKn  xvi.  15.  a  very  dangerous  proposi- 
tion, if  he  were  not  God.  The  writers 
ol'  i-evelation  ascribe  to  him  the  same 
pei-fections  which  they  ascribe  to  God. 
Compare  Jer.  x.  10.  with  Isa.  ix.  6. 
Exod.  XV.  13.  with  Heb.  i.  8.  Jer.  xxxii. 

19.  with  Is.  ix.  6.  Ps.  cii.  24,  27.  with 
Heb.  xiii.  8.  Jer.  xxiii.  24.  with  Eph.  i. 

20,  23.  1  Sam.  ii.  5.  with  John  xiv.  30. 
If  Jesus  Christ  be  God,  the  ascription  of 
the  perfections  of  God  to  him  is  proper  ; 
if  he  be  not,  the  apostles  ai-e  chargeable 
with  weakness  or  wickedness,  and  either 
would  destroy  their  claim  of  inspiration. 
— 4.  Consider  the  ivorks  that  are  as- 
cribed to  Jesus  Christ,  and  com/iare 
them  ivith  the  clairns  of  Jehovah.  Is 
creation  a  work  of  God  ^  "  By  Jesus 
Christ  were  all  things  created,"  Col.  i. 

15.  Is  pi'eservation  a  work  of  God? 
"  Jesus  Christ  upholds  all  things  by  the 
word  of  his  power,"  Heb.  i.  3.  Is  the 
mission  of  the  prophets  a  work  of  God .'' 
Jesus  Christ  is  the  Lord  God  of  the  holy 
prophets ;  and  it  was  the  Spirit  of  Christ 
which  testified  to  them  beforehand  the 
suffei-ings  of  Christ,  and  the  glory  that 
should  follow,  Neh.  ix.  30.  Rev.  x'xii.  6, 

16.  1  Pet.  i.  11.  Is  the  salvation  of  sin- 
ners a  work  of  God .'  Christ  is  the  Sa- 
viour of  all  that  believe,  John  iv.  42. 
Heb.  v.  9.  Is  the  forgiveness  of  sin  a 
work  of  God?  The  Son  of  Man  hath 
power' to  forgive  sins,  Matt.  ix.  6.  The 
same  might  be  said  of  the  illumination 
of  the  mind;  the  sanctification  of  the 
heart ;  the  resurrection  of  the  dead : 
the  judging  of  the  world;  the  glorifi- 
cation of  the  righteous ;  the  eternal 
punishment  of  the  wicked ;  all  which 
works,  in  one  part  of  Scripture,  are  as- 
cribed to  God ;  and  all  whicli,  in  ano- 
ther part  of  Scripture,  arc  ascribed  to 
Jesus  Christ.  Now,  if  Jesus  Christ  be 
not  God,  into  what  contradictions  these 
writers  must  fall !  They  contradict  one 
another:  they  contradict  themselves. 
Either  Jesus  Christ  is  God,  or  their  con- 
duct is  unaccountable. — 5.  Consider  that 
divine  worshi/i  which  the  Scriptures 
claim  for  Jes-us  Christ.  It  is  a  command 
of  God,  "  I'hou  shalt  worship  the  Lord 
thy  God,  and  him  only  shalt  thou  serve," 
Matt.  iv.  20.  yet  the  Scriptures  com- 
mand "  all  the  angels  of  God  to  worship 
Christ,"  Heb.  i.  6.  Twenty  times,  in  the 
New  Testament,  grace,  mercy,  and 
peace,  are  implored  of  Christ,  togetlier 
with  the  Father.  Baptism  is  an  act  ri' 
worship  performed  in  his  name,  Matt. 
xxviii.  19.  Swearing  is  an  act  of  Avor- 
ship;  a  solemn  appeal  in  important 
cases  to  the  onmiscient  God ;  and  this 
appeal  is  made  to  Christ,  Rom.  ix.  1. 
The  committing  of  the  soul  to  God  at 


death  is  a  sacred  act  of  worship  :  in  the 
performance  of  this  act,  Stephen  died, 
saying,  Lord  Jesus,  receive  mv  spirit. 
Acts  vii.  59.  The  whole  host  of  heaven 
worship  him  that  sitteth  upon  the 
throne,  and  the  Lamb,  for  ever  and 
ever.  Rev.  v.  14,  15. — 6.  Observe  the 
application  of  Old  Testa ?ne?it  passag-cs 
which  belong  to  Jehovah,  to  Jesus  in  the 
JVew  Testament,  and  try  whether  you 
can  acquit  the  writers  of  the  A''ew  Tes- 
tament of  misrepresentation,  on  suppo- 
sition that  Jesus  is  not  God.  St.  Paul 
says,  "We  shall  all  stand  before  the 
judgment-seat  of  Christ."  That  we 
shall  all  be  judged,  we  allow ;  but  how 
do  you  pi-ove  that  Christ  shall  be  our 
Judge  ?  Because,  adds  the  apostle,  it  is 
written,  "As  I  live,  saith  the  Lord, 
every  knee  shall  bow  to  me,  and  every 
tongue  shall  confess  to  God,"  Rom.  xiv. 
10,  11,  with  Is.  xiv.  20,  &c.  What  sort 
of  reasoning  is  this  ?  How  does  this  ap- 
ply to  Christ,  if  Christ  be  not  God? 
And  how  dare  a  man  quote  one  of  the 
most  guarded  passages  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament for  such  a  purpose  ?  John  the 
Baptist  is  he  who  was  spoken  of  bj^"  the 
prophet  Esaia.s,  saying.  Prepare  ye  the 
way.  Matt.  iii.  1,  3.  Isaiah  saith.  Pre- 
pare ye  the  way  of  the  Lord  ;  make 
straight  a  highway  for  our  God,  Is.  xl. 
3,  &c.  But  what  has  Jolivi  the  Baptist 
to  do  with  all  this  description  if  Jesus 
Christ  be  only  a  messenger  of  Jehovah, 
and  not  Jeho\'ah  himself?  for  Isaiah 
saith.  Prepare  ve  the  way  of  Jehovah. 
Compare  also  Zech.  xii.  10.  Avith  John 
xix.  34,  37.  Is.  vi.  with  John  xii.  39.  Is. 
viii.  13,  14.  with  1  Pet.  ii.  8.  Allow  Je- 
sus Christ  to  be  God,  and  all  these  ap- 
plications are  proper.  If  wc  deny  it, 
the  New  Testament,  we  must  OAvn  is 
one  of  the  most  unaccountable  compo- 
sitions in  the  world,  calculated  to  make 
easy  things  hard  to  be  lUiderstood. — 7. 
Examine  whether  events  have  justified 
that  notio7i  of  Christianity  which  the 
prophets  gave  their  countrumen  of  it, 
if  Jesus  Christ  be  not  God.  The  cjuling 
of  the  Gentiles  from  the  worship  of  idols 
to  the  worship  of  the  one  living  and  tme 
God,  is  one  event,  which,  the  prophets 
said,  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  should 
bring  to  pass.  If  Jesus  Christ  be  God, 
the  event  answers  the  projihecy ;  if  not, 
the  event  is  not  come  to  pass,  for  Chris- 
tians in  general  worship  Jesus,  which  is 
idolatry,  if  he  be  not  God,  Isaiah  ii.  iii. 
and  iv.  Zeph.  ii.  11.  Zech.  xiv.  9.  The 
l)rimitive  Christians  certainly  v/orship- 
ped  Him  as  God.  Pliny,  who  was  ap- 
pointed go\einor  of  the  proxince  of  Bi- 
I  thynia  by  the  emperor  T^'ajan,  in  tlie 
I  vcar  1 0.1,  examined  and  punished  several 


JES 


241 


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Christians  for  their  non-conformity  to  the 
established  religion  of  tlie  empire.    In  a 
letter  to  the  emperor,  giving  an  account 
of  his  conduct,  he  declares,  "  they  af- 
firmed the  whole  of  their  guilt,  or  their 
error,  was,  that  they  met  on  a  certain 
stated  day,  before  it  was  light,  and  ad- 
dressed themselves  in  a  form  of  prayer 
to  Christ  as  to  some  God."    Thus  Pliny 
meant    to    inform    the    emperor    that 
Christians  ivorshipjied  Christ.     Justin 
Martyr,  who  lived  about  150  years  after 
Christ,  asserts,  that  the  Christians  wor- 
shipped the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the 
Spirit.  Besides  his  testimony,  there  are 
numberless  passages  in  the  fathers  that 
attest  the  truth  in  question ;  especially 
in   TertuUian,    Hippolytus,   Felix,  Sec. 
Mahomet,  who  lived  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, considers  Christians  in  the  light  of  j 
infidels  and   idolaters   throughout   the  i 
Koran  ;  and  indeed,  had  not  Christians  j 
worshipped  Christ,  he  could  have  had  j 
no  shadow  of  a  pretence  to  reform  their  | 
religion,  and  to  bring  them  back  to  the . 
worship   of   one    God.    That    the   far 
g[reater  part  of  Christians  have  con-  j 
tinned   to   worship   Jesus,  will  not   be  \ 
doubted ;    now,  if  Christ  be  not  God,  | 
then  the  Christians  have  been  guilty  of 
idolatry;  and  if  they  have  been  guilty  of 
idolatry,  then  it  must  appear  remarka-  j 
ble  that  the  apostles,  who  foretold  the 
con'uptions  of  Christianity,  2  Tim.  iii. 
should  never  have  foreseen  nor  warned 
us  against  worshipping  Christ.  In  no  part 
of  the  Scripture  is  there  the  least  inti- 
mation of  Christians  falling  into  idolatry 
in  this  respect.    Sui-ely  if  this  had  been 
an  error  which  was   so  universally  to 
prevail,  those  Scriptures  which  are  able 
to  make  us  wise  unto  salvation,  would 
have  left  us  warning  on  so  important  a 
topic.  Lastly,  consider  what  numberless 
passages  of  Scripture  have  no  sense,  or 
avery  absurd  one,  if  Jesus  Christ  be  a 
mere  man.  See  Rom.  i.  3.  1  Tim.  iii.  16. 
John  xiv.  9.  xvii.  5.  Phil.  ii.  6.  Ps.  ex.  1, 4. 
1  Tim.  i.  2.  Acts  xxii.  12.  and  ix.  17. 

But  though  Jesus  Christ  be  God,  yet 
for  our  sakes,  and  for  our  salvation,'he 
took  upon  him  human  nature;  this  is 
therefore  called  his  humanity.  Mar- 
cion,  Apelles,  Valentinus,  and  many 
other  heretics,  denied  Christ's  huma- 
nity, as  some  have  done  since.  But 
that  Christ  had  a  true  human  body,  and 
not  a  mere  human  shape,  or  a  body  that 
was  not  real  flesh,  is  very  evident  from 
the  sacred  Scriptures,  Is',  vii.  12.  Luke 
xxiv.  39.  Heb.  ii.  14.  Luke  i.  42.  Phil, 
ii.  7,  8.  John  i.  14.  Besides,  he  ate, 
drank,  slept,  walked,  worked,  and  was 
weary.  He  groaned,  bled,  and  died,  upon 
the  cross.    It  was  necessary  that  he 


should  thus  be  human,  in  order  to  fulfil 
the  divine  designs  and  prophecies  re- 
specting the  shedding  oi  his  blood  for 
our  salvation,  which  could  not  have  been 
done  had  he  not  possessed  a  real  bod)'. 
It  is  also  as  evident  that  he  assumed  our 
whole  nature,  soul  as  well  as  body.  If 
he  had  not,  he  could  not  have  been  ca- 
pable of  that  sore  amazement  and  sor- 
row unto  death,  and  all  those  other  acts 
of  grieving,  feeling,  rejoicing,  8cc.  as- 
scribed  to  him.  It  was  not,  however,  our 
sinful  nature  he  assumed,  but  the  like- 
ness of  it,  Rom.  viii.  2.  for  he  was  with- 
out sin,  and  did  no  iniquity.  His  human 
nature  must  not  be  confounded  with  his 
divine ;  for  though  there  be  an  union  of 
natures  in  Christ,  yet  there  is  not  a  mix- 
ture or  confusion  of  them  or  their  pro- 
perties. His  humanity  is  not  changed 
into  his  deity,  nor  his  deity  into  huma- 
nity ;  but  the  two  natures  are  distinct 
in  one  person.  How  this  union  exists  is 
above  our  comprehension ;  and,  indeed, 
if  we  cannot  explain  how  our  own  bodies 
and  souls  are  united,  it  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed we  can  explain  this  astonishing 
mystery  of  God  manifest  in  the  flesh. 
See  Mediator. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  character  of 
Jesus  Christ,  which,  while  it  affords  us 
the  most  pleasing  subject  for  meditation, 
exhibits  to  us  an  example  of  the  most 
perfect  and  delightful  kind. 

"  Here,"  as  an  elegant  writer  ob- 
serves "every  grace  that  can  recom- 
mend religion,  and  every  virtue  that  can 
adorn  humanity,  are  so  blended,  as  to 
excite  our  admiration,  and  engage  our 
love.  In  abstaining  from  licentious  plea- 
sures, he  was  equally  free  from  ostenta- 
tious singularity  and  churlish  sullen- 
ness.  VViien  he  complied  with  the  es- 
tablished ceremonies  of  his  countiTmen, 
that  compliance  was  not  accompanied 
by  any  marks  of  bigotry  or  superstition  : 
when  he  opposed  their  rooted  prepos- 
sessions, his  opposition  was  perfectly  ex- 
empt from  the  captious  petulance  of  a 
controversialist,  and  the  undistinguish- 
ing  zeal  of  an  innovator.  His  courage 
was  active  in  encountering  the  dangers 
to  which  he  was  exposed,  and  passive 
under  the  aggravated  calamities  which 
the  malice  of  his  foes  heaped  upon  him  : 
his  fortitude  was  remote  from  every  ap- 
pearance of  rashness,  and  his  patience 
was  equally  exempt  from  abject  pusil- 
lanimity :  he  was  firm  without  obstinacy, 
and  humble  without  meanness.— Though 
possessed  of  the  most  unbounded  power, 
we  behold  him  living  continually  in  a 
state  of  voluntary  humiliation  and  po- 
vei-ty ;  we  see  him  daily  exposed  to  al- 
most every  species  of  want  and  disr 
Hh 


JES 


242 


JES 


tress;  afflicted  without  a  comforter, 
persecuted  without  a  protector;  and 
wandering  about,  according  to  his  own 
pathetic  complaint,  because  he  had  not 
•where  to  lay  his  head.  Tliough  regard- 
less of  the  pleasures,  and  sometimes 
destitute  of  the  comforts  of  life,  he  never 
provokes  our  disgust  hy  the  sourness  of 
the  misanthnpe,  oi-  our  contempt  by  the 
inactivity  of  the  recluse.  His  attention 
to  the  v/elfare  of  mankind  was  evidenc- 
ed not  only  by  his  salutary  injunctions, 
but  by  his  readiness  to  embrace  ever}- 
opportunity  of  relieving  their  distress 
and  administering  to  their  wants.  In 
every  period  and  circumstance  of  his 
life,  we  behold  dignity  and  elevation 
blended  witii  love  and  pity  ;  scmethii'g, 
which,  though  it  awakens  our  admira- 
tion, yet  attracts  our  confidence.  We 
see  power;  but  it  is  power  which  is 
rather  our  security  than  our  dread;  a 
power  softened  with  tenderness,  and 
soothing  while  it  awes.  With  all  the 
gentleness  of  a  meek  and  lowly  mind, 
we  behold  an  heroic  firmness,  which  no 
terrors  could  i-estrain.  In  the  private 
scenes  of  life,  and  in  the  public  occupa- 
tions r,f  his  ministry ;  whether  the  object 
of  admiration  or  ridicule,  of  love  or  of 

Eerspcution;  whether  welcomed  with 
osannas,  or  insulted  with  anathemas, 
we  still  see  him  pursuing  with  unweari- 
ed constancy  the  same  end,  and  pre- 
serving the  same  integrity  of  life  and 
manners."     White's  Sermons,  ser.  5. 

Considering  him  as  a  Moral  Teacher, 
"we  must  be  struck  with  the  greatest  ad- 
mirs-tion.  As  Dr.  Paley  observes,  "he 
preferred  solid  to  popular  virtues,  a 
character  which  is  commonly  despised, 
to  a  character  universally  extolled,  he 
placed,  in  our  licentious  vices,  the  check 
in  the  right  place,  viz.  upon  the  thoughts ; 
he  collected  human  duty  into  two  well- 
devised  rules ;  he  repeated  these  rules, 
and  laid  great  stress  upon  them,  and 
thereby  fixed  the  sentiments  of  his  fol- 
lowers ;  he  excluded  all  regard  to  repu- 
tation in  our  devotion  and  alms,  and,  by 
Earity  of  reason,  in  our  other  virtues ; 
is  instructions  were  delivered  in  a  fonn 
calculated  for  impression ;  they  were 
illustrated  by  parables,  the  choice  and 
stinicture  of  which  would  have  been  ad- 
mired in  any  composition  whatever  :  he 
■was  free  from  the  usual  symptoms  of 
enth.usiasm,  heat,  and  vehemence  in  de- 
votion, austerity  in  institutions,  and  a 
wild  particularity  in  the  description  of 
a  future  state ;  he  was  free  also  from 
the  depravities  of  his  age  and  country  ; 
without  superstition  among  the  most  su- 
perstitious of  men,  yet  not  decrying  po- 
sitive distinctions  or   external  observ- 


ances, but  soberly  recalling  them  to  the 
principle  of  their  establishment,  and  to 
their  place  in  the  scale  of  human  duties ; 
there  was  nothing  of  sophisti*y  or  trifling, 
though  amidst  teachers  remarkable  for 
nothing  so  much  as  frivolous  subtilties 
and  quibbling  expositions :  he  was  candid 
and  liberal  in  his  judgment  of  the  rest  of 
mankind,  although  belonging  to  a  peo- 
ple who  affected  a  separate  claim  to  di- 
vine favour,  and,  ui  consequence  of  th.at 
opinion,  prone  to  uncharitableness,  par- 
tiality, and  restriction ;  in  his  religion 
there  was  no  scheme  of  building  up  a 
hierarchy,  or  of  ministering  to  tlie  views 
of  human  governments;  in  a  word, there 
was  every  thing  so  grand  in  doctrine, 
and  so  delightful  in  mnnner,  thnt  the 
people  might  well  exclaim — Surely, 
never  man  spake  like  this  man  !" 

As  to  his  examfile,  bishop  Newcome 
observes,  "  it  was  of  the  most  perfect 
piety  to  Gcdj  and  of  the  most  extensive 
benevolence  and  the  most  tender  com- 
passion to  men.    He  does  not  merely 
exhibit  a  life  of  strict   justice,  but   of 
overflowing  benignity.   His  temperance 
has  not  the  dark  shades  of  austerity ; 
his  meekness  does  not  degenerate  into 
apathy ;  his  humility  is  signal,  amidst 
a    splendour    of    qualities   more    than 
human ;  his   fortitude    is  eminent  and 
exemplary  in  enduring  the  most  formi- 
dable external  e^ils,  and  the  shai'pest 
actual  suftxirings.   His  patience  is  invin- 
cible; his  resignation  entire  and  abso- 
lute. Ti-uth  and  sincei'ity  shine  through- 
out his  whole  conduct.    Though  of  hea- 
venly descent,  he  shows  obedience  and 
aflection  to  his  earthly  parents  ;  he  ap- 
proves, loves,  and  attaches  himself  to 
amiable  qualities  in  the  human  race ;  he 
respects  authority,  religious  and  civil; 
and  he  evidences  regard  for  his  country, 
by  promoting  its  most  essential  good  m 
a  painful  ministry  dedicated  to  its  ser- 
vice, by  deploring  its  calamities,  and 
b\'  laying  down  his  life  for  its  benefit. 
Every  one  of  his  eminent  virtues  is  regu- 
lated by  consummate  pi-udence  :  and  he 
both  wins  the  love  ot  his  friends,  and 
extorts  the  approbation  and  wonder  of 
his  enemies.   Never  was  a  character  at 
the  same  time  so  commanding  and  na- 
tural, so  resplendent  and  pleasing,  so 
amiable  and  venerable.    There  is  a  pe- 
culiar contrast  in  it  between   an  awful 
greatness,  dignity,  and  majesty,  and  the 
most  conciliating  loveliness,  tenderness, 
and  softness.     He  now  converses  with 
prophets,  lawgivers,  and    angels;   and 
the  next  instant  he  meekly  endures  tlie 
dulness  of  his  disciples,  and  the  blasphe- 
mies and  rage  of   the  multitude.     He 
now  calls  himself  greater  than  Solomon  ; 


JEW 


243 


JEW 


one  who  can  command  legions  of  angels ; 
and  giver  of  life  to  whomsoexer  he 
pleaseth  ;  the  Son  of  God,  who  shall  sit 
on  his  gloiious  throne  to  jud^e  the 
world  :  at  other  times  we  find  him  cm- 
bracing  young  children ;  not  lifting  up 
his  voice  in  the  btrc<.-ts,  nor  quenching 
the  smoking  flax ;  calling  his  disciples 
not  seivants,  but  friends  and  brethren, 
and  comfoiling  them  with  an  exubei'ant 
and  parental  affection.  Let  us  pause  an 
instant,  and  fill  our  minds  with  the  idea 
of  .one  who  knew  all  things,  hccivenly 
and  earthly;  searched  and  laid  open  the 
inmost  recesses  of  the  heart ;  rectified 
every  prejudice,  and  rcmo\ed  every 
mist  ike  of  a  moral  and  I'eligious  kind ; 
bv  •-■  word  exercised  a  sovereignty  over 
ail  nature,  penetrated  the  hidden  events 
of  futurity,  gave  promises  of  admission 
into  a  happy  immortality,  had  the  keys 
of  lite  and  death,  claimed  an  imion  with 
the  Father;  and  vet  was  pious,  mild, 
gentle,  humble,  afT.il>le,  social,  benevo- 
lent, friendly,  and  affectionate.  Such  a 
character  is  fairer  than  the  morning 
star.  Each  separate  virtue  is  made 
str<^nger  by  opposition  and  contrast  : 
and  the  union  ot  so  manj'  virtues  forms 
a  brightness  which  fitly  represents  the 
glory "vf  that  God  'who  inhabiteth  light 
macccsbible.' "  See  Rob/7ison's  Plea 
for  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  from  which 
many  of  the  aiiove  remarks  are  taken  ; 
Jiisho/i  Bull's  Judffjnefit  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church ;  Abbadiv,  Waterland,  Haw- 
ker, and  Heij,  on  the  Divinity  of  Christ; 
Reader,  Sfackhouse,  and  Doyley's  Lives 
of  Christ ;  Dr.  Ja?nieso7i's  Vino  of  the 
Doctrine  of  Scripture, and  the  Primitive 
Faith  concerning  the  Deity  of  Christ; 
Otoen  on  the  Glory  of  Christ^s  Person; 
Ilurrion's  Christ  Crucified;  Bishofi 
Menvcome's  Observations  on  our  Lord's 
Co7iduct ;  and  Paley's  Evidences  of 
Christianity. 

JEWS,  a  name  derived  from  the  pa- 
triarch Judah,  and  given  to  the  descend- 
ants of  Abraham  by  his  eldest  son 
Isaac.  We  shall  here  present  the  read- 
er with  as  comprehensive  a  view  of  this 
singular  people  as  we  can. 

1.  Jews,  history  of  the. — The  Al- 
mighty promised  Ahraham  that  he 
would  render  his  seed  extremely  nu- 
merous :  this  promise  began  to  be  ful- 
filled in  Jacob  s  twelve  sons.  In  about 
two  hundred  and  fifteen  years  they  in- 
creased in  Egypt  from  seventeen  to  be- 
tween two  and  three  millions,  men,  wo- 
men, and  children.  While  Joseph  lived, 
they  were  kindly  used  by  the  Eg^p- 
tian  monarchs ;  but  soon  after,  from  a 
suspicion  that  they  would  become  too 
strong  for  the  natives,  they  were  con-  H 


demned  to  slavery ;  but  the  more  they 
were  oppressed,  the  more  they  grew. 
The  minwives,  and  others,  were  there- 
fore ordered  to  murder  every  male  in- 
fant at  the  time  of  its  birth ;  but  they, 
shifting  the  horrible  task,  ever}''  bod.y 
was  then  ordered  to  destroy  the  male 
children  wherever  they  found  them. 
After  tb.ey  had  been  thus  oppressed  for 
about  one  hundred  years,  and  on  the 
very  day  that  finished  the  four  hundred 
and  thirtieth  year  from  God's  first  pro- 
mise of  a  seed  to  Abraham,  and  about 
four  hundred  years  after  the  birth  of 
Isaac,  God,  by  terrible  plagues  on  the 
Eg}'ptians,  obliged  them  to  liberate  the 
Hebrews  under  the  direction  of  Moses 
and  Aaron.  Pharaoh  pursued  them 
with  a  mighty  army ;  but  the  Lord 
opened  a  passage  for  them  through  the 
Red  Sea ;  and  the  Egyptians,  in  at- 
tempting to  follow  them,  were  drown- 
ed. After  this,  we  find  them  in  a  drj 
and  barren  desert,  without  any  provi- 
sion for  their  journey ;  but  God  sup- 
plied them  with  water  from  a  rock,  and 
manna  and  quails  from  heaven.  A  httlc 
after,  they  routed  the  Amalekites,  who 
fell  on  their  rear.  In  the  wilderness 
God  deli^'ered  them  the  law,  and  con- 
firmed the  authority  of  Moses.  Thi'ee 
thousand  of  them  were  cut  off  for  wor- 
shipping the  golden  calf ;  and  for  loath- 
ing the  manna,  they  were  punished 
with  a  month's  eating  of  flesh,  till  a 
plague  brake  out  among  them  ;  and  for 
their  rash  belief  of  the  ten  wicked  spies, 
and  their  contempt  of  the  promised 
land,  God  had  entirely  destroyed  them, 
had  not  Moses's  pi-a\ers  pi-evented. 
They  were  condemned,  however,  to 
wander  in  the  desert  till  the  end  of  forty 
years,  till  that  whole  generation,  except 
Caleb  and  Joshua,  should  be  cut  off  by 
death.  Here  they  were  often  punished 
for  their  rebellion,  idolatry,  whoredom, 
8cc.  God's  marvellous  favours,  however, 
were  still  continued  in  conducting  and 
supplying  them  with  meat ;  and  the 
streams  issuing  fi'om  the  rock  Meribah, 
followed  their  camp  about  thirty-nine 
years,  and  their  clothes  never  waxed 
old.  On  their  entrance  into  Canaan, 
God  ordered  them  to  cut  off  every  ido- 
latrous Canaanite ;  but  they  spared  vast 
numbers  of  them,  who  enticed  them  to 
wickedness,  and  were  sometimes  God's 
rod  to  punish  them.  For  many  ages 
they  had  enjoyed  little  prosperity,  and 
often  relapsed  into  awful  idolatry,  wor- 
shipping Baalim,  Ashtaroth.  Micah  and 
the  Danites  introduced  it  not  long  after 
Joshua's  death.  About  this  time  the 
lewdness  of  the  men  of  Gibeah  occa- 
sioned a  war  of  the  eleven  tribes  against 


JEW 


244 


JEW 


their  brethren  of  Benjamin :  they  were 
twice  routed  bv  the  Benjamites,  and 
forty  thousand  of  them  were  slain.  In 
the  third,  liowever,  all  the  Benjamites 
were  slain,  except  six  hundred.  Vexed 
for  the  loss  of  a  tribe,  the  other  Hebrews 
provided  wives  for  these  six  hundred,  at 
the  expense  of  slayins;  most  of  the  in- 
haliitants  of  Jabesh  Ollead.  Their  re- 
lapses into  idolatry  also  brought  on 
them  repeated  tunis  of  slavery  from  the 
heathen  among  or  around  them.  See 
books  of  Judges  and  Samuel.  Having 
been  governed  by  judges  for  about  three 
hundred  and  forty  years,  after  the 
death  of  Joshua  they  took  a  fancy  to 
have  a  king.  Saul  was  their  first  sove- 
reign, under  whose  reign  they  had 
perpetual  struggles  with  the  Ammon- 
ites, Moabites,  and  Philistines.  After 
about  seven  years'  struggling  between 
the  eleven  tribes  that  clave  to  Ishbo- 
sheth,  the  son  of  Saul,  and  the  tribe  of 
Judali,  which  erected  themselves  into  a 
kingdom  under  David,  David  became 
sole  monarch.  Under  him  they  sub- 
dued their  neighbours,  the  Philistines, 
Edomites,  and  others;  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  whole  dominion  which 
liad  been  promised  them,  froi?i  the  bor- 
der of  Egvpt  to  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. Under  Solomon  they  had  lit- 
tle war :  when  he  died,  ten  of  the  He- 
brew tribes  formed  a  kingdom  of  Israel, 
or  Ephraim,  for  themselves,  under  Jero- 
boam, the  son  of  Nebat,  in  opposition  to 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
ruled  by  the  family  of  David.  The 
kingdom  of  Israel,  Ephraim,  or  the  ten 
tribes,  had  never  so  much  as  one  pious 
king;  idolatry  was  always  their  esta- 
blished religion.  The  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah had  pious  and  wicked  sovereigns  by 
turns,  though  they  often  i-elapsed  into 
idolatry,  which  brought  great  distress 
upon  them.  See  books  of  Samuel, 
Kings,  and  Chronicles.  Not  only  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  but  that  of  Judah, 
was  brought  to  the  very  brink  of  ruin 
after  the  death  of  Jehoshaphat.  After 
various  changes,  sometimes  for  the  bet- 
ter, and  sometimes  for  the  worse,  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  was  I'uined,  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty-four  years  after  its  erec- 
tion, by  So,  king  of  Egypt,  and  Hal- 
manaser,  king  oi  Assyria,  who  invaded 
it,  and  destroyed  most  of  the  people. 
Judah  was  invaded  by  Sennacherib ; 
but  Hezekiah's  piety,  and  Isaiah's  pray- 
er, were  the  means  of  their  preserva- 
tion :  but  under  Manasseh,  the  Jews 
abandoned  themselves  to  horrid  im- 
piety :  for  which  they  were  punished 
by  Esarhaddon,  king  of  Assyria,  who 
invaded  and  reduced  the  kmgdom,  and 


carried  Manasseh  prisoner  to  Babylon. 
Manasseh  repented,  and  the  Lord 
brought  him  back  to  his  kingdom, 
where  he  promoted  the  reformation; 
but  his  son  Amon  defaced  all.  Josiah, 
however,  again  promoted  it,  and  car- 
ried it  to  a  higher  pitch  than  in  the 
reigns  of  David  and  Solomon.  After  Jo- 
siah was  slain  by  Pharaoh  Necho,  kmg 
of  Egypt,  the  people  returned  to  idola- 
tiy,  and  God  gave  them  up  to  servitude 
to  the  Egvptians  and  the  Chaldeans. 
The  fate  of  their  kings  Jehoahaz,  Jeho- 
iakim,  Jehoiachin,  and  Zedekiah,  was 
unhappy.  Provoked  by  Zedekiah's 
treachery,  Nebuchadnezzar  invaded  the 
kingdom,  murdered  vast  numbers,  and 
reduced  them  to  captivity.  Thus  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  was  ruined,  A.  M. 
3416,  about  three  hundred  and  eighty- 
eight  years  after  its  division  from  that 
of  the  ten  tribes.  In  the  seventieth 
year  from  the  begun  captivity,  the 
Jews,  according  to  the  edict  of  Cyrus,- 
king  of  Persia,  who  had  overturned  the 
empire  of  Chaldea,  returned  to  their 
own  country.  See  Nehemiah,  Ezra. 
Vast  numbers  of  them,  who  had  agree- 
able settlements,  remained  in  Babylon. 
After  their  return  they  rebuilt  the  tem- 
ple and  city  of  Jerusalem,  put  away  their 
strange  wives,  and  renewed  their  cove- 
nant with  God. 

About  3490,  or  3546,  they  escaped  the 
ruin  designed  them  by  Haman.  About 
3653,  Darius  Ochus,  king  of  Persia,  ra- 
vaged part  of  Judea,  and  carried  off  a 
great  many  prisoners.  When  Alexan- 
der was  in  Canaan,  about  3670,  he  con- 
firmed to  them  all  their  privileges;  and, 
having  built  Alexandria,  he  settled  vast 
numbers  of  them  there.  About  fourteen 
years  after,  Ptolem}'  Lagus,  the  Greek 
king  of  EgA'pt,  ravaged  Judea,  and  car- 
ried one  hundred  thousand  prisoners  to 
Egypt,  but  used  them  kindly,  and  as- 
signed them  many  places  of  trust. 
About  eight  years  after,  he  transported 
another  multitude  of  Jews  to  Egypt, 
and  gave  them  considerable  privileges. 
About  the  same  time,  Seleucus  Nicator, 
having  built  about  thirty  new  citiesin 
Asia,  settled  in  them  as  many  Jews  as 
he  could ;  and  Ptolcmv  PhiladeJphus, 
of  Eg^-pt,  about  3720,  bought  the  free- 
dom of  all  the  Jew  slaves  in  Egypt. 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  about  3834,  en- 
raged with  them  for  rejoicing  at  the  re- 
port of  his  death,  and  for  the  peculiar 
form  of  their  worship,  in  his  return 
from  Egypt,  forced  his  way  into  Jeru- 
salem, and  murdered  forty  thousand  of 
them  ;  and  about  two  years  after  he  or- 
dered his  troops  to  pillage  the  cities  of 
Judea,  and  murder  the  men,  and  sell 


JEW 


245 


JEW 


the  women  and  children  for  slaves. 
Multitudes  were  killed,  and  ten  thou- 
sand prisoners  carried  off;  the  temple 
was  dedicated  to  Olympius,  an  idol  of 
Greece,  and  the  Jews  exposed  to  the 
basest  treatment.  Mattathias,  the  priest, 
with  his  sons,  chiefly  Judas,  Jonathan, 
and  Simon,  who  were  called  Maccabees, 
braveh'  fought  for  their  religion  and  li- 
berties'. Judas,  who  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther about  3840  gave  Nicanor  and  the 
king's  troops  a  terrible  defeat,  regained 
the  temple,  and  dedicated  it  anew,  re- 
stored the  daily  worship,  and  repaired 
Jerusalem,  which  was  almost  in  a  ruin- 
ous heap.  After  his  death,  Jonathan 
and  Simon,  his  brethren,  successively 
succeeded  him ;  and  both  wisely  and 
bravely  promoted  the  welfare  of  the 
church  and  state.  Simon  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Hircanus,  who  subdued  Idu- 
mea,  and  reduced  the  Samaritans.  In 
3899  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jan- 
neus,  who  reduced  the  Philistines,  the 
country  of  Moab,  Ammon,  Gilead,  and 
part  of  Arabia.  Under  these  three 
reigns  alone  the  Jewislj  nation  was  in- 
dependent after  the  captivity.  After 
the  death  of  the  widow  of  Janneus,  who 
governed  nine  years,  the  nation  was  al- 
most ruined  with  civil  broils.  In  3939, 
Aristobulus  invited  the  Romans  to  as- 
sist him  against  Hircanus,  his  elder  bro- 
ther. The  country  was  quickly  reduced, 
and  Jerusalem  took  by  force ;  and  Pom- 
pey,  and  a  number  of  his  officers,  pushed 
their  way  into  the  sanctuary,  if  not  into 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  to  view  the  furni- 
ture thereof.  Nine  years  after,  Cras.sus 
the  Roman  general,  pillaged  the  temple 
of  its  valuables.  After  Judea  had  for 
more  than  thirty  vears  been  a  scene  of 
ra\'age  and  blood,  and  twenty-four  of 
which  had  been  oppressed  by  Herod 
the  Great,  Herod  got  himself  installed 
in  the  kingdom.  About  twenty  years 
before  our  Saviour's  birth,  he,  with  the 
Jews'  consent,  began  to  build  the  tem- 
ple. About  this  time  the  Jews  had 
hopes  of  the  Messiah ;  and  about  A.  M. 
4000,  Chnst  actually  came,  whom  Herod 
(instigated  by  the  fear  of  losing  his 
throne)  sought  to  murder.  The  Jews, 
however,  a  few  excepted,  rejected  the 
Messiah,  and  put  him  to  death.  The 
sceptre  was  now  wholly  departed  from 
Judah  ;  and  Judea,  about  twentv-seven 
vea^-s  before,  reduced  to  a  province. 
The  Jews  since  that  time,  have  been 
scattered,  contemned,  persecuted,  and 
enslaved  among  all  nations,  not  mixed 
with  any  in  the  common  manner,  but 
have  remained  as  a  body  distinct  by 
tliem  selves. 
2.  Jews,  sentiments  of.     The  Jews 


commonly  reckon  but  thirteen  articles 
of  their  faith.    Maimonides,  a  famous 
Jewish  ral)bi,  reduced  them  to  this  num- 
ber when  he  drew  up  their  confession 
about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  centurj', 
and  it  was  generally  received.    All  the 
Jews  are  obliged  to  live  and  die  in  the 
profession  of    these  thirteen    articles, 
^  which  are  as  follow : — 1.  That  God  is 
j  the  creator  of  all  things ;  that  he  guides 
I  and  supports  all  creatures  :  thjit  he  has 
[  done  every  thing ;  and  that  he  still  acts, 
and  shall  act  during  the  whole  eternity. 
I  — 2.  That  God  is  one :  there  is  no  unity 
I  like  his.    He  alone  hath  been,  is,  and 
j  shall  be  eternally  our  God. — 3.    That 
God  is  incorporeal,  and  cannot  have  any 
material  properties;  and  no  corporeal 
I  essence  can  be  compared  with  him. — 4. 
1  That  God  is  the  beginning  and  end  of 
!  all  things,  and  shall  eternally  subsist. — 
I  5.  That  God  alone  ought   to  be  wor- 
]  shipped,  and  none  beside  him  is  to  be 
adored. — 6.  That  whatever  has   been 
taught  by  the  prophets  is  time. — 7.  That 
I  Moses  is  tlie  head  and  father  of  all  con- 
I  temporary  doctors,  of  those  who  lived 
I  before  or  shall  live  after  him. — 8.  That 
I  the  law  was  given  by  Moses. — 9.  That 
I  the  law  shall  never  be  altei-ed,  and  that 
\  God  will  give  no  other. — 10.  That  God 
knows  all  the  thoughts  and  actions  of 
I  men. — 11.  That  God  will    regard   the 
I  works  of  all  those  who  have  performed 
!  what  he  commands,  and  punish   those 
I  who  have  transgressed  his  laws. — 12. 
j  That  the  Messiah  is  to  come,  though  he 
j  tany  a  long  time. — 13.  That  there  shall 
I  be  a  resurrection  of  the  dead  when  God 
I  shall  think  fit. 

The    modern  Jews   adhere   still  as 
closely  to  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  afe 
I  their  dispersed  and  despised  condition 
I  will  permit  them.  Their  service  consists 
chiefly  in  reading  the  law  in  their  syna- 
gogues, together  with  a  variety  of  pray- 
1  ei's.    They  use  no  sacrifices  since  the 
destiiiction  of  the  temple.  They  repeat 
blessings  and  particular  praises  to  God, 
not  only  in  their  prayers,  but  on  all  ac- 
cidental occasions,  and   in    almost   all 
their  actions.    They  go  to  prayers  three 
times  a  day  in  their  synagogues.    Their 
sermons  are  not  made  in  Hebrew,  which 
few  of  them  now  perfectly  understand, 
but  in  the  language  of  the  country  where 
they   reside.    They  are   forbidden   all 
vain  swearing,  and  pronouncing  any  of 
the   names  of  God  without  necessity. 
I  Thev  abstain  from  meats  pi-ohibited  by 
;  the  Levitical   law ;   for  which   reason, 
j  whatever  they  eat  must  be  dressed  by 
I  Jews,  and  after  a  manner  peculiar  to 
i  themselves.    As    soon   as  a  child   can 
I  speak,  thev  teach  him  to  read  and  trans- 


JEW 


246 


JEW 


late  the  Bible  into  the  language  of  the 
country  where  they  live.  In  general 
they  observe  the  same  ceremonies 
which  were  practised  by  their  ancestors 
in  the  celebration  of  the  passover.  They 
acknowledge  a  two-fold  law  of  God,  a 
written  and  an  unwritten  one ;  the  for- 
mer is  contained  in  the  Pentateuch,  or . 
five  books  of  Moses;  the  latter,  they 
pi'etend,  was  delivered  by  God  to  Mo- 
ses, and  handed  down  from  him  by  oral 
tradition,  and  now  to  be  received  as  of 
equal  authority  with  the  former.  They 
assert  the  perpetuity  of  their  law,  to- 
gether with  its  perfection.  They  deny 
the  accomplishment  of  the  prophecies 
in  the  person  of  Christ;  alleging  that 
the  Messiah  is  not  yet  come,  and  that 
he  will  make  his  appearance  with  the 
greatest  worldly  pomp  and  grandeur, 
suljduing  all  nations  before  him,  and 
subjecting  them  to  the  house  of  Judah. 
Since  the  prophets  have  predicted  his 
mean  condition  and  sufferings,  they  con- 
fidently talk  of  two  Messiahs;  one 
Ben-Ephraim,  \vhom  they  grant  to  be 
a  person  of  a  mean  and  afflicted  condi- 
tion in  this  woi'ld;  and  the  other  Ben- 
David,  who  shall  be  a  victorious  and 
powerful  prince. 

The  Jews  pray  for  the  souls  of  the 
dead,  because  they  suppose  there  is  a 
paradise  for  the  souls  of  good  men, 
wliere  they  enjoy  glory  in  the  presence 
of  God.  They  believe  that  the  souls  of 
the  wicked  are  tormented  in  hell  with 
fire  and  other  punishments ;  that  some 
are  condemned  to  be  punished  in  this 
manner  for  ever,  while  others  continue 
only  for  a  limited  time ;  and  this  they 
call  fmrsatory,  which  is  not  different 
from  hell  in  I'espect  of  the  place,  but  of 
the  duration.  They  suppose  no  Jew, 
unless  guilty  of  heresy,  or  certain  crimes 
specified  by  the  rabbins,  shall  continue 
m  purgatory  above  a  twelvemonth ;  and 
that  there  are  but  few  who  suffer  eter- 
nal punishment. 

Almost  all  the  modem  Jews  are  Pha- 
risees, and  are  as  much  attached  to 
tradition  as  their  ancestors  were ;  and 
assert  that  whoever  rejects  the  oral  law 
deserves  death.  Hence  they  entertain 
an  implacable  hatred  to  the  Caraites, 
who  adhere  to  the  text  of  Moses,  re- 
jecting the  rabbinistical  interpretation. 
See  Caraites. 

Tliere  are  still  some  of  the  Sadducees 
in  Africa,  and  in  several  other  places ; 
but  tliey  ai'e  few  in  number:  at  least 
there  are  but  very  few  who  declare 
openly  for  these  opinions. 

There  are  to  this  day  some  remains 
of  the  ancient  sect  of  the  Samaritans, 
wlio  are  zealous  for  the  law  of  Moses, 


but  are  despised  by  the  Jews,  because 
they  receive  only  the  Pentateuch,  and 
observe  different  ceremonies  from  theirs. 
They  declare  they  are  no  Sadducees, 
but  acknowledge  the  spirituality  and 
immortality  of  the  soul.  There  are 
numbers  of  this  sect  at  Gaza,  Damas- 
cus, Grand  Cairo,  and  in  some  other 
places  of  the  east ;  but  especially  at 
Sichem,  now  called  Naplouse,  which  is 
risen  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Sa- 
maria, where  they  sacrificed  not  many 
years  ago,  having  a  place  for  this  pur- 
pose on  Mount  Genzim. 

David  Levi,  a  learned  Jew,  who  in 
1796  published  "Dissertations  on  the 
Prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament,"  ob- 
serves in  that  work,  that  deism  and  in- 
fidelity have  made  such  large  strides  in 
the  world,  that  they  have  at  length 
reached  even  to  the  Jewish  nation; 
many  of  whom  are  at  this  time  so  greatly 
infected  with  scepticism,  by  reading 
Bolingbroke,  Hume,  Voltaire,  &c.  that 
they  scarcely  believe  in  a  revelation; 
much  less  have  they  any  hope  in  their 
futui-e  restoration. 

3.  Jeivs,  calamities  of. — All  histoiy 
cannot  furnish  us  with  a  parallel  to  the 
calamities  and  miseries  of  the  Jews  ;  ra- 
pine and  murder,  famine  and  pestilence, 
within  ;  fire  and  sword,  and  all  the  ter- 
rors of  war,  without.  Our  Saviour  wept 
at  the  foresight  of  these  calamities ;  and 
it  is  almost  impossible  for  persons  of 
any  humanity  to  read  the  account  with- 
out being  affected.  The  predictions  con- 
cerning them  were  remarkable,  and  the 
calamities  that  came  upon  them  were 
the  greatest  the  Avorld  ever  saw.  Deut. 
xxviii.  xxix.  Matt,  xxiv.  Now,  what 
heinous  sin  was  it  that  could  be  the 
cause  of  such  heavy  judgments .'  Can 
any  other  be  assigned  than  what  the 
Scripture  assigns  ?  1  Thess.  ii.  15,  16. 
"  They  both  killed  the  Lord  Jesus  and 
their  own  prophets,  and  persecuted  the 
apostles :  and  so  filled  up  their  sins,  and 
wrath  came  upon  them  to  the  utter- 
most." It  is  hardly  possible  to  consider 
the  nature  and  extent  of  their  sufferings, 
and  not  conclude  the  Jews'  own  im- 
precation to  be  singularlv  fulfilled  upon 
them,  Matt,  xxvii.  25.  '«  His  blood  be 
on  us  and  our  children."  At  Cesarea 
twenty  thousand  of  the  Jcavs  were  killed 
by  the  Syrians  in  their  mutual  bi'oils. 
At  Damascus  ten  thousand  unarmed 
Jews  were  killed :  and  at  Bethshan  the 
Heathen  inhabitants  caused  their  Jew- 
ish neighbours  to  assist  them  against 
their  brethren,  and  then  murdered  thir- 
teen thousand  of  these  inhabitants.  At 
Alexandria  the  Jews  murdered  multi- 
tudes of  the  Heathens,  and  were  mur- 


JEW 


247 


JEW 


dered  in  their  tum  to  about  fifty  thou- ' 
sand.     The   Romans  undej  Vespasian 
invaded  the  country,  and  took  the  cities 
of  Galilee,   Chorazen,   Bethsaida,   Ca- 
pernaum, &c.  where  Christ  had   been 
especially  rejected,  and  murdered  num- 
bers of  tl\e  inhabitants.     At  Jenisalem 
the  scene  was  most  wretched  of  all.    At 
the  passover,  when  there  might  be  two 
or  three  millions  of  people  in  the  city, 
the  Romans  surrounded  it  with  troops, 
trenches,  and  walls,  that  none  might  es- 
cape. The  three  different  factions  with- 
in nnirdei'cd  one  another.    Titus,  one  of 
the   mo.st    merciful  generals  that  ever 
breathed,  did  all  in  his  power  to  per- 
suade them  to  an  adAantageous  suri-en- 
dcr,  but  the)'  scorned   ever\-  proposal. 
The  multitudes  of  unburied  carcasses  j 
coriiipted  the  air,  and  produced  a  pesti- 
lence.   The  people  fed  on  one  another; 
and  even  ladies,  it  is  said,  broiled  their 
sucking  infants,  and  ate  them.     After  a 
siege  ot  six  months,  the  city  was  taken. 
They  murdered  almost  every  Jew  they 
met  with.    Titus  was  bent  to  sa.ve  the 
temple,  but  could  not :  there  were  six 
thousand  Jews  who  had  taken  shelter 
in  it,  all  burnt  or  murdered  !    The  out- 
cries  of  the   Jews,  when  they  saw.it, 
were   most   dreadful :   the  whole  city, 
except  three  towers  and  a  small  part  of 
the  wall,  was  razed  to  the  ground,  and 
the  foundations  of  the  temple  and  other 
places  were  ploughed  up.     Soon  after 
the   forts  of   Herodian  and   Macheron 
•were  taken,  the  garrison   of  Massada 
murdered  themselves  rather  than  sur- 
render.   At  Jerusalem  alone,  it  is  said, 
one  iTiillion  one  hundred  thousand  pe- 
rished by  sword,  famine,  and  pestilence. 
In  other  places  we  hear  of  two  hurtdred 
and  fifty  thousand  that  were  cut  oif,  be- 
sides vast  numbers  sent  into  Egypt  to 
labour  as  slaves.    About  fifty  years  af- 
ter, the  Jews  murdered  about  five  hun- 
dred thousand  of  the  Roman  subjects, 
for  which  they  were  severely  punished 
by  Trajan.    About  130,  one  Barocaba 
pretended   that   he  was   the  Messiaii, 
and  raised  a  Jewish  army  of  two  hun- 
dred  thousand,  who  murdered  all  the 
Heathens  and  Christians  who  came  in 
their  way ;   but   he   was   defeated    by 
Adrian's  forces.    In  this  war,  it  is  said, 
about  sixty  thousand  Jews  were  slain, 
and    pe/ished.    Adrian  built  a  city  on 
Mount  Calvary,  and  erected  a  marble 
statue  of  swine  over  the  gate  that  led  to 
Bethlehem.    No  Jew  was  allowed  to  en- 
ter the  city,  or  to  look  to  it  at  a  distance, 
under  pain  of  death.    In  360  they  began 
to  rebuild  their  city  and  temple' ;  but  a 
terrible  earthquake  and  flames  of  fire 
issuing  from  the  eaith,  killed  the  work- 


men, and  scattered  their  materials.  Nor 
till  the  seventh  century  durst  they  so 
much  as  creep  over  the  rubbish  to  be- 
wail it,  without  bribing  the  guards,    lii 
the   third,   fourth,   and  fifth  centuries, 
there   were    many   of   them    furiously 
harassed  and  murdered.    In  the  sixtii 
century  twenty  thousand  of  them  were 
slain,  and  as  many  taken  and  sold  for 
slaves.    In  602  tliey  were  severely  pun- 
ished for  their  horrible  massacre  of  the 
Christians  at  Antioch.    In  Spain,  in  700, 
they  were  ordered  to  be  enslaved.    In 
the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  they  were 
greatly  derided   and  abused ;   in  some 
places  they  were  made  to  wear  leathern 
girdles,   and    ride  without  stirnips   on 
asses  and  mules.    In  Fi-ance  and  Spaia 
they  were  much  insulted.    In  the  tenth, 
eleventh,  and  twelfth   centuries,  their 
miseries  rather  increased :   they  were 
greatly  persecuted  in  Egypt.    Besides 
what  they  suffered  in  the  East  by  the 
Turkish  and  sacred  war,  it  is  shocking 
to  think  what  multitudes  of  them  the 
eight  croisades  murdered  in  Germany, 
Hungary,  Lesser  Asia,  and  elsewhere. 
In  France  multitudes  were  burnt. — Iti 
England,  in  1020,  they  were  banished ; 
and  at  the  coronation  of  Richard  I.  the 
mob  fell  upon  them,  and   murdered  a 
great  many  of  them.    About  one  thou- 
sand five  hundred  of  them  were  burnt 
in  the  palace  in  the  city  of  York,  which 
they  set  fire  to,  themselves,  after  killing 
then-  wives  and  children.     In  the  thir- 
teenth  and   fourteenth   centuries  their 
condition  was  no  better.    In  Egypt,  Ca- 
naan, and  Syria,  the  croisadei's  still  ha- 
rassed them.    Provoked  with  their  mad 
ninning  after  pretended  Messiahs,  Ca- 
jliff  Nasser   scarce   left   any   of  them 
alive  in  his  dominions  of  Mesopotamia. 
I  In  Persia,  the  Tartars  murdered  them 
j  in    multitudes.      In    Spain,    Ferdinand 
!  persecuted  them  furiously.  About  1349, 
the  terrible  massacre  of  them  at  Toledo 
forced  many  of  them  to  murder  them- 
selves, or  change  their  religion.    About 
1253,  many  were  murdered,  and  others 
banished  from  France,  but  in  1275  re- 
called.   In  1320  and  1330,  the  croisades 
of  the  fanatic  shepherds,  who  wasted 
the  south  of  France,  massacred  them ; 
besides  fifteen  hundred  that  were  mur- 
dered  on   another   occasion.     In   1358 
they  were  totally  banished  from  France, 
since  which  few  of  them  have  entered 
I  that  country.    In  1291  king  Edward  ex- 
pelled them  from  England,  to  the  num- 
I  her  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand. 
j  In  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seven- 
teenth centuries,  their  misery  continued. 
I\i  Persia  they  have  been  terribly  used  ; 
I  from  1663  to  1666,  the  murder  oV  them 


JEW 


24S 


JEW 


was  so  universal,  that  but  a  few  escaped 
to  Turkey.  In  Portugal  and  Spain  they 
have  been  miserably  handled.  About 
1392,  six  or  eight  hundred  thousand 
were  banished  from  Spain.  Some  were 
drmvned  in  their  passage  to  Africa ; 
some  by  hard  usage  ;  and  many  of  their 
carcasses  lay  in  the  fields  till  the  wild 
beasts  devoured  them.  In  Germany 
they  have  endured  many  hardships. 
They  have  been  banished  from  Bohe- 
mia, Bavaria,  Cologne,  Nuremberg, 
Augsburg,  and  Vienna  :  they  have  been 
terribly  massacred  in  Moravia,  and 
plundered  in  Bonn  and  Bamberg.  Ex- 
cept in  Portugal  and  Spam,  their  pre- 
sent condition  is  generally  tolerable.  In 
Holland,  Poland,  and  at  Frankfort  and 
Hamburgh  they  have  their  liberty. 
They  have  repeatedly,  but  in  vain,  at- 
tempted to  obtain  a  naturalization  in 
England,  and  other  nations  among 
whom  they  are  scattered. 

4.  Jews,  preservation  of. — "  The  pre- 
servation of  the  Jews,"  says  Basnage, 
"in  the  midst  of  the  miseries  which 
they  have  undergone  during  1700  years, 
is  the  greatest  prodigy  that  can  be  ima- 
gined. Religions  depend  on  temporal 
prosperity ;  they  triumph  under  the 
protection  of  a  con(jueror :  they  languish 
and  sink  with  sinkmg  monarchies.  Pa- 
ganism which  once  covered  the  earth,  is 
extinct.  The  Christian  church,  glorious 
in  its  martyrs,  yet  was  considerably  di- 
minished by  the  persecutions  to  which 
it  was  exposed  ;  nor  was  it  easy  to  re- 
pair the  breaches  in  it  made  by  those 
acts  of  violence.  But  here  we  behold  a 
church  hated  and  persecuted  for  1700 
years,  and  yet  sustaining  itself,  and  wide- 
ly extended.  Kings  have  often  employ- 
ed the  severity  of  edicts  and  the  hand  of 
executioners  to  ruin  it.  The  seditious 
multitudes,  by  murders  and  massacres, 
have  committed  outrages  against  it  still 
more  violent  and  tragical.  Princes  and 
people.  Pagans,  Mahometans,  Chris- 
tians, disagreeing  in  so  many  things, 
have  united  in  the  design  of  extermina- 
ting it,  and  have  not  been  able  to  suc- 
ceed. The  bush  of  Moses,  surrounded 
with  flames,  ever  burns,  and  is  never 
consumed.  The  Jews  have  been  expel- 
led, in  different  times,  from  every  part 
of  the  world,  which  hath  only  served  to 
spread  them  in  all  regions.  From  age 
to  age  they  have  been  exposed  to  mise- 
ry and  persecution ;  yet  still  they  sub- 
sist, in  spite  of  the  ignominy  and  the  ha- 
tred which  hath  pursued  them  in  all 
places,  whilst  the  greatest  monarchies 
ai-e  fallen,  and  nothing  remains  of  them 
besides  the  name. 

"  The  judgments  which  God  has  ex- 


ercised upon  this  people  are  terrible, 
extending  to  the  men,  the  religion,  and 
the  vciy  land  in  which  they  dwelt.  The 
ceremonies  essential  to  their  religion 
cr.n  no  more  be  observed :  the  ritual 
law,  which  cast  a  splendour  on  the  na- 
tional worship,  and  struck  the  Pagans 
so  much  that  they  sent  their  presents 
and  their  victims  to  Jerusalem,  is  abso- 
lutely fallen,  for  they  have  no  temple, 
no  altar,  no  sacrifices.  Their  land  itself 
seems  to  lie  under  a  never-ceasing  cur.se. 
Pagans,  Christians,  Mohammedans,  in 
a  word,  almost  all  nations  have  bv 
turns  seized  and  held  Jerusalem.  To 
the  Jew  only  hath  God  refused  the  pos- 
session of  this  small  tract  of  ground,  so 
supremely  necessary  for  him,  since  he 
ought  to  worship  on  this  mountain.  A 
Jewish  writer  hath  affirmed,  that  it  is 
long  since  any  Jew  has  been  settled 
near  Jerusalem  :  scarcely  can  they  pur- 
chase there  six  feet  of  land  for  a  bury- 
ing-place. 

"  In  all  this  there  is  no  exaggei^ation  : 
I  am  only  pointing  out  known  facts: 
and,  far  from  h.r.  ing  tlie  least  design  to 
raise  an  odium  against  the  nation  from 
its  miseries,  I  conclude  that  it  ought  to 
be  looked  upon  as  one  of  those  prodigies 
which  we  admire  without  comprehend- 
ing :  since,  in  spite  of  evils  so  durable, 
and  a  patience  so  long  exercised,  it  is 
preser\'ed  by  a  particular  providence. 
The  Jew  ought  to  be  weary  of  expect- 
ing a  Messiah,  who  so  unkindly  disap- 
points his  vain  hopes :  and  the  Christian 
ought  to  have  his  attention  and  his  re- 
gard excited  towards  men  whom  God 
preserves,  for  so  great  a  length  of  time, 
under  calamities  which  would  have  been 
the  fntal  ruin  of  any  other  people." 

5.  Jews,  number  and  disfiersion  of.-^ 
They  are  looked  upon  to  be  as  numer- 
ous at  present  as  tliey  were  formerly  la 
the  land  of  Canaan. '  Some  liave  rated 
them  at  three  millions,  and  others  more 
than  double  that  number.  'I'hcir  disper- 
sion is  a  remarkable  particular  in  this 
people.  They  swarm  all  over  the  east, 
and  are  settled,  it  is  said,  in  the  remo- 
test parts  of  China.  The  Turkisli  em- 
pire abounds  with  them.  There  are 
more  of  them  at  Constantinople  and 
Salonichi  than  in  any  other  place  :  they 
are  spread  through  most  of  the  nations 
of  Europe  and  Africa,  and  many  fami- 
lies of  them  are  established  in  the  West 
Indies ;  not  to  mention  whole  nations 
bordering  on  Prester  Jolin's  country, 
and  some  discovered  in  the  inner  parts 
of  America,  if  we  may  give  any  credit 
to  their  own  writers,  't'hcir  being  al- 
ways in  rebellions  (as  Addison  Observes) 
whUe  thev  had   the  Holy  Temple  in 


JEW 


249 


ILL 


view,  has  excited  most  nations  to  banish 
them.     Besides,  the  whole  people  are 
now  a  race  of  such  merchants  as  are 
■wanderers  by  profession ;   and  at  the 
same  time  are  in  most,  if  not  in  all  pla- 
ces, incapable  of  either  lands  or  offices, 
that  migrvt  engage  them  to  make  any 
part  of  the  world  their  home.     In  addi- 
tion to  this,  we  may  consider  what  pro- 
vidential reasons  may  be  assigned  for 
their  numbers  and  dispersion.     Their 
firm   adherence  to  then-  religion,   and 
being  dispersed  all  over  the  earth,  has 
furnished  every  age  and  e\ery  nation  | 
with   the  strongest  arguments  for  the  i 
Christian  faith  ;  not  only  as  these  very  il 
particulars  are  foretold  of  them,  but 
as  they  themselves  are  the  depositories  II 
of  these  and  all  other  prophecies  which] 
tend  to  their  own  confusion  and  the  es-  | 
tablishment  of  Christianity.  Then-  num-  | 
ber  furnishes  us  with  a  sufficient  cloud  j 
of  witnesses  that  attest  the  ti-uth  of  the  | 
Bible,  and  their  dispersion  spreads  these 
witnesses  through  all  parts  of  the  world,  j 
6.   Je\vs,   restoration   of. — From    the  j 
declarations  of  Scripture  we  have  rea-  j 
son  to  suppose  the  Jews  shall  be  called  i 
to  a  participation  of  the  blessings  of  the  t 
Gospel,  Rom.  xi.    2  Cor.  iii.  16.    Hos.  i.  i 
11,  and  some  suppose  shall  return  to 
their  own  land,  Hos.  iii.  5.    Is.  Ixv.  17, 
&c.  Ezek.  xxxvi.    As  to  the  time,  some 
think  about  1866  or  2016  ;  but  this,  per- 
haps, is  not  so  easy  to  determine  alto- 
gether, though  it  is  probable  it  will  not  j 
be  before  the  ftill  of  Antichrist  and  the  i 
Ottoman   empire.      Let    us,    however, 
avoid  putting  stumliling-blocks  in  their  > 
■way.     If  we  attempt  any  thing  for  their 
conversion,  let  it  be  with  peace  and 
love.    Let  us,  says  one,  propose  Christi- 
anity to  them  as  Christ  pi'oposed  it  to 
them.    Let  us  lay  before  them  their  own 
prophecies.    Let  us  show  them  their  ac- 
complishment in  Jesus.    Let  us  applaud 
their  hatred  of  idolatry.    Let  us  show 
them  the  morality  of  Jesus  in  our  lives 
and  tempers.  I^et  us  never  abridge  their 
civil  libei'ty,  nor  ever  try  to  force  their 
consciences.    Josefihus's  History  of  the 
Jews;  Sjiect.  No.  495,  vol.  iv.;    Levi's 
Ceremonies   of  the    Jewish    Religion ; 
Biixtorf  de  Synagos-a  Judaica  ;  S/ien- 
cer  de  Legibus  Keo.  Rit.;  .Yewton  on 
Projih.;    Warburton's  Address  to  the 
Jews,  in  the  Dedication  of  the  2(7  vol.  of 
his  Legation  ;  Sermons  fireached  to  the 
Jews  at  Berry-street,  by  Dr.  Haweis 
and  others;  Basnage's  and  Orckley's 
Hist,  of  the  Jetvs;  Shaw's  Philosophy 
of  Judaism ;    Hartley  on  Man,\o\.\\. 
prop.  8,  vol.  iii.  p.  455,  487  ;  Bicheno's 
Restoration  of  the  Jews  ;  Jortin's  Rem. 
on  Ecc.  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p.  427,  447 ;  Dr. 


H.  Jacksoti's  IVorks,  vol.  i.  p.  153; 
.'Vt'o/f's  History  of  the  Jews ;  Pirie's 
Pnsih.  ]Vorks,  vol.  i.;  Fuller's  Serm.  on 
the  Alessiah. 

IGNORANCE,  the  want  of  know- 
ledge or  instruction.  It  is  often  used  to 
denote  illiteracy.  Mr.  Locke  observes, 
that  the  causes  of  ignorance  are  chiefly 
three. — 1.  \^^ant  of  ideas. — 2.  Want  of 
a  discoverable  connection  between  the 
ideas  we  have. — 3.  Want  of  tracing  and 
examining  our  ideas.  As  it  respects  re- 
ligion, ignorance  has  been  distingviished 
into  three  soits:  1.  Kn  invincible  igno- 
rance, in  wliich  the  will  has  no  part.  It 
is  an  insult  upon  justice  to  suppose  it 
wiU  punis}i*TTien  because  they  were  ig- 
norant of  things  which  they  were  phy- 
sically incapable  of  knowing. — 2.  Tnere 
is  a  wilful  and  obstinate  ignorance  ;  such 
an  ignorance,  far  from  exculpating,  ag- 
gravates a  man's  crimes. — 3.  A  sort  of 
ignorance  which  is  neither  entirely  wil- 
ful, nor  entirely  invincible ;  as  when  a 
man  has  the  means  of  knowledge,  and 
does  not  use  them.  See  Knowledge  ; 
and  Locke  on  the  Lind.  vol.  ii.  p.  178 ; 
Grove's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  ii.  p.  26,  29,  64; 
Watts  on  the  Mind. 

ILLUMINx\TI,  a  term  anciently  ap- 
plied to  such  as  had  received  baptism. 
The  name  was  occasioned  by  a  ceremo- 
ny in  the  baptism  of  adults,  which  con- 
sisted in  putting  a  lighted  taper  in  the 
hand  of  the  person  baptized,  as  a  sym- 
bol of  the  faith  and  grace  he  had  re- 
ceived in  the  sacrament. 

ILLUMINATI  was  also  the  name  of 
a  sect  which  appeared  in  Spain  about 
the  yeifr  1575.  1  hey  were  charged  with 
maintaining  that  mental  prayer  and 
contemplation  had  so  intimately  united 
them  to  God,  that  they  were  arrived  to 
such  a  state  of  perfection,  as  to  stand  in 
no  need  of  good  works,  or  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  church,  and  that  they 
might  commit  the  gi-ossest  ci'imes  Avith- 
out  sin. 

After  the  suppression  of  the  Illumi- 
nati  in  Spain,  there  appeared  a  denomi- 
nation in  France  which  took  the  same 
name.  They  maintained  that  ^ne  An- 
thony Buckuet  had  a  system  of  belief 
and  practice  revealed  to  him  which  ex- 
ceeded every  thing  Christianity  had  yet 
been  acquainted  with  :  that  by"  this  me- 
thod persons  might  in  a  short  time  ar- 
rive at  the  same  degrees  of  perfection 
and  glorv  to  which  the  saints  and  the 
Blessed  Virgin  have  attained;  and  this 
improvement  might  be  carried  on  tiU 
our  actions  became  divine,  and  our 
minds  wholly  given  mj  to  the  influence 
of  the  Almighty.  They  said  further^ 
that  none  of  tlie  doctors  of  the  churph 
Ii 


ILL 


250 


ILL 


knew  any  thing  of  religion ;  that  Paul 
and  Peter  wei-e  well-meaning  men,  but 
knew  nothing  of  devotion ;  that  the 
whole  church  lay  in  darkness  and  un- 
belief ;  that  every  one  was  at  liberty  to 
follow  the  suggestions  of  his  conscience ; 
that  God  regarded  nothing  but  himself; 
and  that  within  ten  years  their  doctrine 
would  be  received  all  over  the  world ; 
then  there  would  be  no  more  occasion 
for  priests,  monks,  and  such  other  reli- 
gious distinctions. 

ILLUMINATI,  a  name  assumed  by 
a  secret  society,  founded  on  the  first  of 
May,  1776,  by  Dr.  Adam  Weishaupt, 
professor  of  canon  law  in  the  university 
of  Ingoldstadt.  The  avowed  object  of 
this  order  was,  "  to  diffuse  from  secret 
societies,  as  from  so  many  centres,  the 
light  of  science  over  the  world ;  to  pro- 
pagate the  purest  principles  of  virtue; 
and  to  reinstate  mankind  in  the  happi- 
ness which  they  enjoyed  during  the  gol- 
den age  fabled  by  the  poets.  Such  a 
philanthropic  object  was  doubtless  well 
adapted  to  make  a  deep  impression  on 

»J^  the  minds  of  inger|ous  young  men  ;  and 
to  such  alone  did  Dr.  Weishaupt  at  first 

""^  address  himself.  But  "the  real  ob- 
ject," we  are  assured  by  Professor  Ro- 
bison  and  Abbe  Ban'uel,  "was,  by 
clandestine  arts,  to  overturn  every  go- 
vernment and  every  religion ;  to  bring 
the  sciences  of  civil  life  into  contempt ; 
and  to  reduce  mankind  to  that  imagina- 
ry state  of  nature,  when  they  lived  in- 
dependent of  each  other  on  the  sponta- 
neous productions  of  the  eartli."  Free 
Masonry  being  in  high  reputation  all 
over  Europe  when  Weishaupt  first 
formed  the  plan  of  his  society,  he  avail- 
ed himself  of  its  secrecy  to  introduce 
his  new  order ;  of  which  he  constituted 
himself  general,  after  initiating  some  of 
his  pupils,  whom  he  styled  Areojiagites, 
in  its  mysteries.  And  when  report 
spread  the  news  throughout  Germany 
of  the  institution  of  tlie  Order  of  Illumi- 
nees,  it  was  generally  considered  as  a 
mere  college  lodge,  which  could  interest 
the  students  no  longer  than  during  the 
period  of  their  studies.  Weishaupt's 
character,  too,  which  at  this  time  was 
respectable  for  morality  as  well  as  eru- 
dition, prevented  all  suspicion  of  his 
harbounng  any  such  dark  designs  as 
have  since  come  to  liglit.  But  it  would 
far  exceed  tlie  limits  to  whicli  this  work 
is  I'estricted,  to  give  even  an  outline  of 
the  nature  and  constitution  of  this  ex- 
traordinary society ;  of  its  secrets  and 
mysteries ;  of  the  deep  dissimulation, 
consummate  hypocrisy,  and  shocking 
impiety  of  its  founder  and  his  associates  ; 
of  their  Jesuitical  art  in  concealing  their 


real  objects,  and  their  incredible  indus- 
try and  astonishing  exertions  in  making 
converts ;  of  the  absolute  despotism  and 
complete  system  of  esfiionnage  esta- 
blished throughout  the  order ;  of  its  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  .Yovices,  Minerx'als, 
Mhwj-and  Major  Illuminees  ;  Epofits, 
or  Priests,  Regents,  Magi,  and  Alan- 
kings ;  of  the  Recruiters  or  Insinuators, 
with  their  various  subtle  methods  of  in- 
sinuating into  all  charactei's  and  com- 
panies ;  of  the  blind  obedience  exacted 
of  the  Novices,  and  the  absolute  power 
of  life  and  death  assumed  by  the  order, 
and  conceded  by  the  Novices;  of  the 
dictionary,  geography,  kalendar,  aijd 
cipher  ot  the  order ;  of  the  new  names 
assumed  by  the  members,  such  as  S/iar- 
tacus  by  Weishaupt,  because  he  pre- 
tended to  wage  war  against  oppressors;* 
Cato  by  Zwack  ;  Jljax  by  Massenhau- 
sen,  &c.  of  the  Minerval  Academy  and 
Library  ;  of  the  questions  proposed  to 
the  candidates  for  degrees,  and  the  va- 
rious ceremonies  of  admission  to  each  ; 
and  of  the  pretended  morality,  real 
blasphemies,  and  absolute  atheism,  of 
tlie  founder  and  his  tried  friends.  Such 
of  our  readers  as  wish  to  be  fully  in- 
formed of  these  matters,  we  must  refer 
to  the  Abbe  Barruel's  works,  and  to 
Prof.  Robison's  Proofs  of  a  Cons/iiracy 
against  all  the  Religions  and  Gouern- 
ments  of  Enrofie.  But  while  credit  may 
be  given  to  the  general  facts  related  in 
these  works,  some  doubts  respecting 
the  ultimate  objects  of  Dr.  Weishaupt 
and  his  associates  in  this  conspiracy 
may  be  expressed :  as,  That  men  of 
their  principles  should  secretly  con- 
spire to  overthrow  all  the  religions  and 
governments  at  present  in  Europe,  is  by 
no  means  incredible  ;  that  they  should 
even  prevail  on  many  well-meaning 
philanthropists,  who  are  no  enemies  to 
rational  religion  or  good  government,  to 
join  them,  is  also  very  credible.  But 
that  a  set  of  men  of  learning  and  abili- 
ties, such  as  Weishaupt  and  his  asso- 
ciates are  allowed  to  be,  should  foi-m  a 
conspiracy  to  overturn,  and  with  more 
than  Gothic  rage  utterly  abolish  the 
arts  and  sciences,  and  to  restore  the 
su/i/iosed  original  savage  state  of  man, 
appears  to  us  a  jjhenomenon  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  human  heart  totalh'  unac- 
countable. That  "  the  heiut  of  man  is 
deceitful  above  all  things,  and  despe- 
rately wicked,"  is  a  melancholy  truth, 
which  not  Scripture  alone,  but  the  his- 
tory of  mankind  in  all  ages  and  nations, 
affords  full  proof  of,  as  well  as  the 
shocking  history  of  the  Ilium  inati ;  but 
while  pride  and  vanity  have  a  place  in 
the  human  heart,  to  say  nothing  of  our 


IMA 


251 


IMA 


other  passions,  which  are  more  or  less 
mterested  in  the  preservation  of  the 
disco\eries  and   improvements  in  arts, 
sciences,  and  their  inseparable  concom- 
itant hixury,  we  are  persuaded  no  man, 
or  body  of  men,  who  have  enjoyed  the 
sweets  of  civilized  lite,  ever  fomned  a 
serious  wish  for  the  total  abolition  of  the 
arts  and  sciences.    In  the  fur\^  and  rage 
of  war,  Goths,  Vandals,  and  Turks,  ma)' 
bum  and  destroy  monuments  of  art  and 
repositories  of  science  ;  but  when  the 
wars  are  over,  instead  of  returning  to 
the   savage   state,   the   barbarous  con- 
querors mix  and  amalgamate  with  the 
conquered,    and    become     themselves 
more  or  less  civilized.     Dr.  Weishaupt 
is  allowed  to  be  influenced  by  a  high  de- 
gree of  vanity ;  as  an  evidence  of  which 
he  communicates  as  the  last  secret  to 
his  most  favoured  adepts,  that  the  mys- 
teries of  Illumixism,  which,  in  gomg 
through  the  inferior  degrees,  had  been 
successively  attributed  to  the  most  an- 
cient patriarchs  and  philosophers,  and 
even  to  Christ  himself,  owed  its  origin 
to  no  other    than    Adam   Weishaopt, 
known  in  the  order  by  the  name  of  Spar- 
tacus.  The  same  vanity  which  leads  the 
d(Ktor  to  take  this  traditional  method, 
while  seci-ecy  is  deemed  necessary,  of 
securing  to  himself  the  honour  of  having 
founded   the    societj-,  would  lead  him, 
were  the  lUuminati  actually  victorious 
r>\CY  all  religions  and  governments,  to 
wish  to  have  his  memory  recorded  in  a 
more    durable   manner  by   writing  or 
printing.    But  if  these  and  all  the  other 
aits  were  to  perish  in  a  mass,  then  the 
memory  of  the  doctor,  and  the  important 
services  he  had  done  to  the  order  and 
to  savagism,  must,  within  a  century  at 
the  utmost,  perish  along  with  them.  But 
if,  in  fact,  the  total  annihilation  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  as  well  as  of  all  reli- 
gion and  government,  be  really  the  ob- 
ject of  Weishaupt  and  his  Illuminees, 
then  we  may  agree  with  the  celebrated 
Mandeville,'  that  "  human  nature  is  the 
true    Libyan    desei-t,  daily   producing 
■new  monsters,"  and  that  of  these  mon- 
sters the  doctor  and  his  associates  are 
beyond  a  doubt  the  most  extraordinary. 
Professor  Robison  informs  us,  that  "  the 
order  of  the  Illuminati  was  abolished  in 
1786  by  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  but  re- 
vived immediately  after,  under  another 
name,  and  in  a  different  form,  all  over 
Gei-many.    It  was  again  detected  and 
seemingly  broken  up  ;  but  it  had  by  this 
time  taken  so  deep  root  that  it  still  sub- 
sists without  being  detected,  and  has 
spread,  %ye  are  told,  into  all  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe. 
IMAGE,  ui  a  religious  sense,  is  an 


artificial  representation  of  some  person 
or  thing  used  as  an  object  of  adoration; 
in  which  sense  it  is  used  synonymously 
with  idol.  The  use  and  adoration  of  ima- 
ges have  been  long  controverted.    It  is 
plain,  from  the  practice  of  the  primitive 
church,  recorded  by  the  earlier  fathers, 
that  Christians,  during  the  first  three 
I  centuries,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
fourth,  neither  worshipped  images,  nor 
used  tliem  in  their  worship.     However, 
the    generality   of   the   popish   divines 
maintain  that  the  use  and  worship  of 
images  are  as  ancient  as  the  Christian 
religion  itself:  to  prove  this,  they  allege 
a  decree,  said  to  have  been  made  in  a 
council  held  by  the  apostles  at  Antiocli, 
commanding  the  faithfid,  that  they  may 
not  err  about  the  object  of  their  wor- 
ship, to  make  images  of  Christ,  and  wor- 
ship them.    Baron,  ad.  ann.  102.    But 
no  notice  is  taken  of  this  decree  till 
seven  hundred  years  after  the  apostolic 
I  times,  after  the  dispute  about  images 
I  had  commenced.  The  first  instance  that 
j  occurs,  in  any  credible  author,  of  ima- 
I  ges  among  Christians,  is  that  recorded 
I  by  Tertullian  de  Pudicit.  c.  10,  of  cer- 
I  tain  cups  or  chalices,  as  Bellarmine  pre- 
i  tends,  on  which  was  represented  the 
parable  of  the  good  shepherd  can-ying 
the  lost  sheep  on  his  shoulders:  but  this 
instance  only  pro\  es  that  the  church,  at 
that  time,  did  not  think  emblematical 
figures  unlawful  ornaments  of  chalices. 
Another  instance  is  taken  from  Euse- 
bius  (Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  vii.  cap.  18,)  who 
says,  that  in  his  time  there  were  to  be 
seen  two  brass  statues  in  the  city  of  Pa- 
neas,  or  Cxsarea  Philippi;  the  one  of  a 
woman  on  her  knees,   with   her  arm 
stretched  out ;  the  other  of  a  man  over 
against  her,  with  his  hand  extended  to 
receive  her:  these  statues  were  said  to 
be  the  images  of  our  Saviour,  and  the 
['  woman  whom  he  cured  of  an  issue  of 
\  blood.     From  the  foot  of  the  statue  re- 
presenting our  Saviour,  says  the  histo- 
!i  rian,  spining  up  an  exotic  plant,  which 
I;  as  soon  as  it  grew  to  toucli  the  border  of 
i  his  gannent,  was  said  to  cure  all  sorts  of 
i]  distempers.  Eusebius,  however,  vouches 
!j  none  of  these  things;  nay,  he  supposes 
j  that  the  woman  who  erected  this  statue 
ii  of  our  Saviour  was  a  pagan,  and  ascribes 
j;  it  to   a  pagan   custom.      Philostorgius 
j!  {Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  vii.  c.  3.)  expressly  says, 
l|  that  this  statue  was  carefully  preserved 
ij  by  the  Christians,  but  that  they  paid 
\  no  'kind   of  worship   to   it,  because   it 
ij  is  not  lawful  for  Christians  to  worship 
I  brass,  or  any  other  matter.    The  primi- 
j  tive  Christians  abstained  from  the  wor- 
i  ship  of  images,  not,  as  the  Papists  pre- 
tl  tend,  from  tenderness  to  heathen  idola- 


IMA 


252 


IMM 


ters,  but  because  they  thought  it  unlaw- 
ful in  itself  to  make  any  images  of  the 
Deity.  TertuUian,  Clemens  Alexandri- 
nus,  and  Orlgen,  were  of  opinion,  that, 
by  the  second  commandment,  painting 
and  engraving  were  unlawful  to  a  Chris- 
tian, styling  them  evil  and  wicked  arts. 
Tert.  de  Idol.  cap.  3.  Clem.  Alex.  Ad- 
mon.  ad  Gent.  p.  41.  Origen  contra 
Celsum,  lib.  vi.  p.  182.  The  use  of  ima- 
ges in  churches,  as  ornaments,  was  first 
introduced  by  some  Christians  in  Spain, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  ; 
but  the  practice  was  condemned  as  a 
dangerous  innovation,  in  a  council  held 
at  Eliberis,  in  305.  Epiphanius,  in  a  let- 
ter preserved  by  .Terome,  torn.  ii.  cp.  6, 
bears  strrmg  testimony  against  images  ; 
and  he  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
first  iconoclasts.  The  custom  of  admit- 
ting pictures  of  saints  and  martyrs  into 
churches  (for  this  was  the  first  source 
of  image  worship)  was  rare  in  the  end 
of  th(|^onrth  centurv,  but  became  com- 
mon nr  the  fifth.  But  they  were  still 
considered  only  as  ornaments,  and, 
even  in  this  view,  they  met  with  very 
considerable  opposition.  In  the  follow- 
ing century,  the  custom  of  thus  adorning 
churches  became  almost  universal,  both 
in  the  East  and  West.  Peta^•ius  ex- 
pressly says  {de  Incar.  lib.  xv.  cap.  14.) 
that  no  statues  were  yet  allowed  in  the 
churches,  because  they  bore  too  near  a 
resemblance  to  the  idols  of  the  Gentiles. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  fourth,  or  be- 
ginning of  the  fifth  ccntuiy,  images, 
which  were  introduced  by  way  of  orna- 
ment, and  then  used  as  an  aid  to  devo- 
tion began  to  be  actually  worshipped. 
However,  it  continued  to  be  the  doc- 
trine of  the  church  in  the  sixth,  and  in 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century, 
that  images  were  to  be  used  only  as 
helps  to  devotion,  and  not  as  objects  of 
worship.  Tlie  worship  of  them  was  con- 
demned in  the  strongest  terms  by  Gre- 
gory the  Great,  as  appears  by  two  of 
his  letters  written  in  601.  From  this 
time  to  tiie  beginning  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, there  occurs  no  instance  of  any 
worship  given,  or  allowed  to  be  given  to 
images,  by  any  council  or  assembly  of 
bishops  whatever.  But  they  were  com- 
monly worshipped  by  the  monks  and 
populace  in  the  beginning  of  tlie  eighth 
century;  insomuch,  that  in  726,  when 
Leo  published  his  famous  edict,  it  had 
already  spread  into  all  the  provinces 
subject  to  the  empire.  The  Lutherans 
condemn  the  Calvinists  for  breaking  the 
images  in  the  churches  of  the  Catholics, 
lookmg  on  it  as  a  kind  of  sacrilege;  and 
yet  they  condemn  the  Romanists  (who 
are  professed   image-ivorshipjiers)    as 


idolaters :  nor  can  these  last  keep  pace 
with  the  Greeks,  who  go  far  beyond 
them  in  this  point,  which  has  occasioned 
abundance  of  disputes  among  them.  See 
IcoNOCLASTEs.  The  Jews  absolutely 
condemn  all  images,  and  do  not  so  much 
as  suffer  any  statues  or  figures  in  their 
houses,  much  less  in  their  synagogues, 
or  places  of  worship.  The  Mahometans 
ha\'e  an  equal  aversion  to  images ; 
which  led  them  to  destroy  most  of  the 
beautiful  monuments  of  antiquity,  both 
sacred  and  profane,  at  Constantinople. — 
Bing/iain's  Orig.  Ecrl.  b.  \nii.  c.  8.  Mid- 
dleton's  Letters  from  Rome,  p.  21.  Bur- 
net on  the  Art.  p.  209,  219.  Doddridge's 
Led.  lee.  193.  Tennison  on  Idolatry, 
p.  269,  275.  Ridgely's  Body  of  Div. 
qu.  110. 

IMAGE  OF  GOD  in  the  soul,  is  dis- 
tinguished into  natural  and  moral.  By 
natural  is  meant  the  understanding,  rea- 
son, will,  and  other  intellectual  faculties. 
By  the  inoral  image,  the  right  use  of 
those  fac.idties,orwhat  we  term  holiness. 

IMAGINATION  is  a  power  or  fa- 
culh'  of  the  mind,  whereby  it  conceives 
and  forms  ideas  of  things  communicated 
to  't  by  the  outward  organs  of  sense ;  or 
it  is  the  power  of  recollecting  and  as- 
sembling images,  and  of  painting  for- 
cibly those  images  on  our  minds,  or  on 
the  minds  of  others.  The  cause  of  the 
pleasures  of  the  imagination  in  what- 
ever is  great,  uncommon,  or  beautiful, 
is  this  ;  that  God  has  annexed  a  secret 
pleasure  to  the  idea  of  any  thing  that  is 
new  or  rare,  that  he  might  encourage 
and  stimulate  us  in  the  eager  and  keen 
pursuits  after  knowledge,  and  inflame 
our  best  passions  to  search  into  the  won- 
ders of  creation  and  revelation ;  for  every 
new  idea  brings  such  a  pleasure  along 
with  it,  as  rewards  any  pains  we  have 
taken  in  its  acquisition,  and  consequently 
serves  as  a  striking  and  powerful  motive 
to  put  us  upon  fresh  discoveries  in  learn- 
ing and  science,  as  well  as  in  the  word 
and  works  of  God.  See  Rev.  W.  Jones's 
Works,  vol.  vi.  sei'.  17  ;  Ry land's  Con- 
temfilations,  vol.  i.  p.  64  ;  Akeiiside's 
Pleasures  of  Lnaginafion;  Addison'^ 
beautiful  pafxers  on  the  Imagination^ 
vol;  vi. ;  S/iect.  p.  64,  &c. ;  Grove's  Mor. 
Phil.  p.  354:  355,  410,  vol.  i. 

IMMATERIAL  ISM,  the  belief  that 
the  soul  is  a  spiritual  substance  distinct 
from  the  body.  See  Materialism  and 
Soul. 

IMMENSITY,  unbounded  or  incom- 
prehensible greatness ;  and  unlimited 
extension,  which  no  finite  and  determi- 
nate space,  repeated  ever  so  often,  can 
eqiial.    See  iNiixn  y  of  God. 

IMMORALITY,    an  action   incon- 


IMM 


253 


IMP 


sistent  with  our  duty  towards  men,  and 
consequently  a  sin  against  God,  who 
hath  commanded  us  to  do  justly,  and 
love  mercv.    See  Morality. 

IMMOHTALTTY,  a  state  which 
has  no  end  ;  the  impossibility  of  dyin?j. 
It  is  applied  to  God,  who  is  absolutely 
immortal,  1  Tim.  i.  17.  and  to  the  hu- 
man soul,  which  is  only  hypothetically 
immortal ;  as  God,  who  at  first  gave  it, 
can,  if  he  pleases,  deprive  us  of  our  ex- 
istence.   See  Soul. 

IMMUTABILITY  OF  GOD,  is  his 
unchangeableness.  He  is  immutable  in 
his  essence,  James  i.  17.  In  his  attributes, 
Ps.  cii.  27.  In  h.\s  purposes,  Isa.  xxv.  1. 
Ps.  xxxiii.  11.  In  hh  promises,  Mai.  iii. 
6.  2  Tim.  ii.  12.  And  in  his  threatenings. 
Matt.  xxv.  41.  "This  is  a  perfection," 
says  Dr.  Blair,  "  which,  perhaps,  more 
than  any  othei",  distinguishes  the  divine 
nature  from  the  human,  gives  complete 
energy  to  all  its  attributes,  and  entitles 
it  to  the  highest  adoration.  From  hence 
are  derived  the  regular  order  of  nature, 
and  the  steadfastness  of  the  universe. 
Hence  flows  the  unchanging  tenor  of 
those  laws  which  from  age  to  age  regu- 
late the  conduct  of  mankind.  Hence  the 
uniformity  of  that  government,  and  the 
certainty  of  those  promises,  which  are 
the  ground  of  our  trust  and  securitv. 
An  objection,  however,  may  be  raised 
against  this  doctrine,  from"  the  com- 
mands gi\en  us  to  prayer,  and  other  re- 
ligious exercises.  To  what  purpose,  it 
may  be  urged,  is  homage  addressed  to 
a  Being  whose  plan  is  unalterably  fixed  .•• 
This  objection  would  have  weight,  if 
our  religious  addresses  were  designed 
to  work  any  alteration  in  God,  either  bv 
giving  him'  information  of  what  he  did 
not  know,  or  by  exciting  affections  which 
he  did  not  possess  ;  or  by  inducing  him 
to  change  measui-es  which  he  had  pre- 
viously formed  :  but  they  are  only  crude 
and  imperfect  notions  of  religion  which 
can  suggest  such  ideas.  The  change 
which  our  devotions  are  intended  to 
make,  are  upon  ourselves,  not  upon  the 
Almighty.  By  pouring  out  our  senti- 
ments and  desires  before  God,  by  ador- 
ing his  perfections,  and  confessing  our 
unworthmess;  by  expressii%  our  de- 
pendence on  his  aid ;  our  gratitude  for 
his  past  favours,  our  submission  to  his 
present  will,  and  our  trust  in  his  future 
mercy,  we  cultivate  such  affections  as 
suit  our  place  and  station  in  the  universe, 
and  are  to  be  exercised  bv  us  as  men 
and  as  Christians.  The  contemplation 
of  this  divine  perfection  should  raise  in 
our  minds  admiration;  should  teach  us 
to  imitate,  as  far  as  our  frailtv  will  per- 
mit, that  constancy  and  steadfastness 


which  we  adore,  2  Cor.  iii.  18 ;  and, 
lastly,  should  excite  tnist  and  confidence 
in  the  Divine  Being,  amidst  all  the  revo- 
lutions of  this  uncertain  world."  Blair's 
Sermons,  ser.  4.  vol.  ii. ;  Charnock^t 
Works,  vol.  i.  p.  203;  Gill's  Body  of 
Div.  vol.  i.  p.  50;  Lambert's  Sermons^ 
Ser.  on  Mai.  iii.  6. 

IMPANATION,  a  term  used  by  di- 
vines to  signify  the  opinion  of  the  Lu- 
therans with  regard  to  the  eucharist, 
who  believe  that  the  species  of  bread 
and  wine  remain  together  with  the  body 
of  our  Saviour  after  consecration. 

IMPECCABILES,  a  name  given  to 
those  heretics  who  boasted  that  they 
were  impeccable,  and  that  there  was 
no  need  of  repentance ;  such  were  the 
Gnost'cs,  Priscillianists,  &c. 

IMPECCABILITY,  the  state  of  a 
person  who  cfuin'^t  sin ;  or  a  grace, 
privilege,  or  principle,  which  puts  him 
out  of  a  possibility  of  sinning.  Divines 
have  distinguished  several  kmds  of  im- 
peccability :  that  of  God  belongs  to  him 
bv  nature :  that  of  Jesus  Christ,  consi- 
dered as  man,  belongs  to  him  by  the. 
hvpostatical  union  ;  that  of  the  blessed, 
in  consequence  of  their  condition,  &c. 

IMPLICIT  FAITH,  is  that  by  which 
we  take  up  any  system  or  opinion  of 
another  without  examination.  This  has 
been  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  igno- 
r?-nce  and  error  in  the  church  of  Rome. 
The  divines  of  that  communitv  teach, 
"  That  we  are  to  observe,  not  how  the 
church  proves  any  thing,  but  what  she 
I  «ars :  that  the  will  of  God  is,  that  we 
should  believe  and  confide  in  his  minis- 
te'S  in  the  same  manner  as  himself." 
Cardinal  Toletus,  in  his  insti-uctions  for 
priests,  asserts,  "  That  if  a  rustic  be- 
lieves his  bishop  proposing  an  heretical 
tenet  for  an  article  of  faith,  such  belief 
is  meritorious."  Cardinal  Cusanus  tells 
us,  "  That  irrational  obedience  is  the 
most  consummate  and  perfect  obedi- 
ence, when  we  obey  without  attending 
to  reason,  as  a  beast  obevs  his  driver. 
In  an  epistle  to  the  Bohemians  he  has 
these  words :  "  I  assert,  that  thei-e  are 
no  precepts  of  Christ  but  those  wliich 
are  received  as  such  by  the  church 
(meaning  the  church  of  Rome.)  When 
the  church  changes  her  judgment,  God 
changes  his  judgment  likewise."  What 
madness !  what  blasphemy !  For  a 
church  to  demand  belief  of  what  she 
teaches,  and  a  submission  to  what  she 
enjoins,  merely  upon  her  assumed  au- 
thoritj',  must  appear  to  unprejudiced 
minds  the  height  of  unreasonableness 
and  spiritual  despotism.  We  could 
wish  this  doctrine  had  been  confined  to 
this  church ;  but,  alas  !  it  has  been  too 


IMP 


254 


IMP 


f>revalent  in  other  communities.  A  theo- 
ogical  s)stem,  says  Dr.  Jortin,  is  too 
often  no  more  than  a  tem])le  consecra- 
ted to  ini])licit  faith  ;  and  he  who  enters 
in  there  to  worship,  instead  of  leaving 
his  shoes,  after  the  eastern  manner, 
must  leave  his  understanding  at  the 
door ;  and  it  will  be  well  if  he  find  it 
when  he  comes  out  again. 

IMPOSITION  OF  HANDS,  an  ec- 
clesiastical action,  by  which  a  bishop 
lays  his  hands  on  the  head  of  a  person 
in  ordination,  confirmation,  or  in  uttering 
a  blessing.  This  practice  is  also  fre- 
quently observed  by  the  Dissenters  at 
the  ordination  of  their  preachers ;  when 
the  ministers  present  place  their  hands 
on  the  head  of^  him  whom  they  are  or- 
daming,  while  one  of  them  prays  for  a 
blessing  on  him  and  on  his  future  la- 
bours. They  are  not  agreed,  howe^^er, 
as  to  the  propriety  of  this  ceremony. 
Some  suppose  it  to  be  confined  to  those 
who  received  extraordinary  gifts  in  the 
pi'imitive  times :  others  think  it  ought 
to  be  retained,  as  it  was  an  ancient 
practice  used  where  no  extraordinary 
gifts  were  conveyed,  Gen.  xlviii.  14. 
Matt.  xix.  15.  They  do  not  suppose  it 
to  be  of  such  an  important  and  essential 
nature,  that  the  validity  and  usefiilness 
of  a  man's  future  ministry  depend  upon 
it  in  any  degree.  Imposition  of  hands 
was  a  Jewish  ceremony,  introduced  not 
by  any  divine  authority,  but  by  custom  ; 
it  being  the  practice  among  those  peo- 
ple, whenever  they  prayed  to  God  for 
any  person,  to  lay  their  hands  on  his 
head.  Our  Saviour  obsened  the  same 
custom,  both  when  he  conferred  his 
blessing  on  children,  and  when  he 
healed  the  sick,  adding  prayer  to  the 
ceremony.  The  apostles,  likewise,  laid 
hands  on  those  upon  whom  they  be- 
stowed the  Holy  Ghost.  The  priests 
observed  the  same  custom  when  any 
one  was  received  in  their  body.  And 
the  apostles  themselves  underwent  the 
imposition  of  hands  afresh  every  time 
they  entered  upon  any  new  design. 
In  the  ancient  church,  imposition  of 
hands  was  even  practised  on  persons 
when  they  married,  which  custom  the 
Abyssinians  still  olSserve.  Alaiirice's 
Dial,  on  Soc.  Re/iifio7i,  p.  163,  168. 
Jlaftfi's  Rational  Founcladon  of  a 
Chri/itian  C7/.  p.  31;  Turner  07i  Church 
Gov.  p.  70;  Kind's  Primitive  Christ. 
Ch.  p.  49. 

IMPOSTORS,  RELIGIOUS,  are 
such  as  pretend  to  an  extraordinary 
commission  from  heaven,  and  who  ter- 
I'ify  the  people  with  false  deiuuiciations 
of  judgments.  Too  many  of  these  have 
abounded  in  almost  all  ages.    They  are 


punishable  in  the  tempoi'al  courts  with 
fine,  imprisonment,  and  corporeal  pun- 
ishment.   See  False  Messiahs. 

IMPOTENCY,  or  Impotence,  is 
considered  as  natural  and  moral.  A'a- 
tui'al  is  the  want  of  some  physical  prin- 
ciple necessary  to  an  action,  or  where  a 
being  is  absolutely  defective,  or  not  free 
and  at  liberty  to  act.  Moral  impotency 
imports  a  great  difficulty  ;  as  a  sti'ong 
habit  to  the  contrary;  a  violent  passion ; 
or  the  like. 

IMPROPRIATION,  a  parsonage  or 
ecclesiastical  living,  the  profits  of  which 
are  in  the  hands  of  a  layman;  in  which 
case  its  stands  distinguished  from  a/ifiro- 
firiation,  which  is  where  the  profits  of 
a  benefice  are  in  the  hands  of  a  bishop, 
college,  &c.  though  the  terms  are  now 
used  promiscuously. 

IMPULSE,  an  influence,  idea,  or 
motive  acting  upon  the  mind.  We 
must  be  careful  how  we  are  guided  by 
impulses  in  religion.  "  There  are^ 
manv,"  as  one  observes,  "  who  fre- 
quently feel  singular  impressions  upgn 
their  minds,  and  are  inclined  to  pay  a 
very  strict  regard  unto  them.  Yea, 
some  carry  this  point  so  far,  as  to  make 
it  almost  the  only  rule  of  their  judg- 
ment, and  will  not  determine  any  thing, 
until  they  find  it  in  their  hearts  to  do  it, 
as  their  phrase  is.  Others  take  it  for 
granted,  that  the  diA  ine  mind  is  notified 
to  them  bv  sweet  or  powerfid  impres- 
sions of  some  passages  of  sacred  writ. 
There  are  others  who  are  determined 
by  visionary  manifestations,  or  by  the 
impressions  made  in  dreams,  and  the 
interpretations  they  put  upon  them. 
All  these  things  being  of  the  same 
general  nature,  may  very  justly  be  con- 
sidered together  ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of 
doubt  with  many  how  fiir  these  things 
are  to  be  regarded,  or  attended  to  by 
us ;  and  how  we  may  distinguish  any 
divine  impressions  of  this  kind  from  the 
delusions  of  the  tempter,  or  of  our  own 
evil  hearts.  But,  whoever  makes  any 
of  these  things  his  rule  and  standai'd, 
he  forsakes  the  divine  word;  and  no- 
thing tends  more  to  make  persons  un- 
happy in  tiiem  selves,  unsteady  in  their 
conduct,  «r  more  dangerously  deluded 
in  their  practice,  than  paying  a  random 
regard  to  these  impulses,  as  notifica- 
tions of  the  divine  will."  See  Enthusi- 
asm, Providence. 

IMPURITY,  want  of  that  regard  to 
decency,  chastity,  or  holiness,  which 
our  dutv  requires.  Impurity,  in  the 
law  of  Moses,  is  any  legal  defilement. 
Of  these  there  were  several  sorts: 
some  were  voluntary,  as  the  touching  a 
dead  body,  or  any  animal  that  died  of  it- 


IMP 


255 


INA 


self;  or  any  creature  that  was  esteemed  I 
unclean  ;  or  touching  things  holy  by  one  1 
■who  was  not  clean,  or  was  not  a  priest ;  ' 
the  touching  one  who  had  a  lepros}', 
one  who  had  a  gonorrhoea,  or  who  was  I 
polluted  by  a  dead  carcase,  &c.  Some-  | 
times  these  impurities  were  involunta-  i 
ry ;  as  when  any  one  inadvertently  i 
touched  bones,  or  a  sepulchre,  or  any  ! 
thing  polluted :  or  fell  into  such  diseases  1 
as  pollute,  as  the  leprosy,  &c.  j 

The  beds,  clothes,  and  moveables 
which  had  touched  any  thing  unclean, 
contracted  also  a  kind  of  impurity,  and 
in  some  cases  communicated  it  to  others. 
These  legal  pollutions  were  general- 
ly removed  by  bathing,  and  lasted  no 
longer  than  the  evening.  The  person 
polluted  plunged  over  head  in  the  wa- 
ter; and  either  had  his  clothes  on 
when  he  did  so,  or  washed  himself  and 
his  clothes  separately.  Other  pollutions 
continued  seven'  days ;  as,  that  which 
was  contracted  by  touching  a  dead  bodv. 
Some  impurities  lasted  forty  or  fiftv 
days;  as,  that  of  women  who  were  lately 
delivered,  who  were  unclean  forty  days 
after  the  birth  of  a  boy,  and  fifty  after 
the  birth  of  a  girl.  Others,  again,  lasted 
till  the  person  was  cured. 

Many  of  these  pollutions  were  expia- 
ted by  sacrifices,  and  others  by  a  certain 
water  or  lye  made  with  the  ashes  of  a 
red  heifer,  sacrificed  on  the  great  day 
of  expiation.  When  the  leper  was 
cured,  he  went  to  the  temple,  and  of- 
fered a  sacrifice  of  two  birds,  one  of 
which  was  killed,  and  the  other  set  at 
liberty.  He  who  had  touched  a  dead 
body,  or  had  been  present  at  a  funeral, 
was  to  be  purified  with  the  water  of  ex- 
piation, and  this  upon  pain  of  death. 
The  woman  who  had  been  delivered, 
offered  a  turtle  and  a  lamb  for  her  ex- 
piation ;  or  if  she  was  poor,  two  turtles, 
or  two  young  pigeons. 

These  impurities,  which  the  law  of 
Moses  has  expressed  with  the  gi-eatest 
accuracy  and  care,  were  only  figures 
of  other  more  important  irnpurities, 
such  as  the  sins  and  iniquities  commit- 
ted against  God,  or  faults  committed 
against  our  neighbour.  The  saints  and 
prophets  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
sensible" of  this;  and  our  Saviour,  in  the 
Gospel,  has  strongly  inculcated, — that 
thev  are  not  outward  and  corporeal 
pollutions  which  render  us  unaccepta- 
nle  to  God,  but  such  inward  pollutions 
as  infect  the  soul,  and  are  violations  of 
justice,  truth,  and  charity. 

IMPUTATION  is  the  attributing 
any  matter,  quality,  or  character, 
whether  good  or  evil,  to  any  pei-son 
as  his  own.    It  may  refer  to  what  was 


originally  his,  antecedently  to  such  im- 
putation ;  or  to  what  was  not  antece- 
dently his,  but  becomes  so  by  virtue  of 
such  imputatif>n  only,  2  Sam.  xix.  19. 
Ps.  cvi.  31.  The  imputation  that  re- 
spects our  juVvification  before  God  is  of 
the  latter  kind,  and  may  be  defined 
thus :  it  is  God's  gracious  donation  of 
the  righteousness  of  Christ  to  believers, 
and  his  acceptance  of  their  persons  as 
righteous  on  the  account  thereof.  Their 
sins  being  imputed  to  him,  and  his  obedi- 
ence being  irajjuted  to  them,  they  are, 
in  virtue  hereof,  both  acquitted  from 
guilt,  and  accepted  as  righteous  before 
God,  Rom.  iv.  6,  7.  Rom.  v.  18,  19.  2 
Cor.  V.  21.  See  Righteousxkss,  Sin  ; 
Dickrnfion's  Letters,  p.  156;  Hcrvey's 
Theron  and  ^ispasio,  vol.  ii.  p.  43 ; 
Doddridge's  IVorks,  vol.  iv.  p.  562 ; 
IVatts's  iVorks,  vol.  iii.  p.  532. 

INABILITY,  want  of  power  suffi- 
cient for  the  performance  of  any  parti- 
cular action  or  design.  It  has  been  di- 
vided into  natural  and  moral.  We  are 
said  to  be  naturally  unable  to  do  a  thing 
when  we  cannot  do  it  if  we  wish,  be- 
cause of  some  impeduig  defect  or  ob- 
stacle that  is  extrinsic  to  the  will,  either 
in  the  understanding,  constitution  of  the 
body,  or  external  objects,  floral  ina- 
bility consists  not  in  any  of  these  things, 
but  either  in  the  want  of  inclination,  or 
the  strength  of  a  contraiy  inclination ; 
or  the  want  of  sufficient  motives  in  view 
to  induce  and  excite  the  act  of  the  will, 
or  the  strength  of  apparent  motives  to 
the  contrary.  For  the  sake  of  illustra- 
tion, we  will  here  present  the  reader 
with  a  few  examples  of  both. 


Natural. 

Cain  could  not  have  kill- 
ed Abel,  if  Cain  had  been 
the  weakest,  and  Abel 
aware  of  him. 

Jacob  couW  not  rejoice 
in  Joseph's  exaliaiion  be- 
fore he  heard  of  it. 

The  woman  mentioned 
in  2d  Kings  vi.  29.  could 
not  kill  her  neiehbour's 
son  and  eat  him.  when 
he  was  iiid,  and  she  could 
not  find  him. 

Hazael  could  not  have 
smothered  Benhadad.  if 
he  had  not  been  suftered 
to  enter  his  chamber. 


Mirol. 

Cuincould  nut  have  kill- 
ed Abel,  if  Cain  had  fear- 
ed God,  and  loved  his 
brother. 

Potiphar's  wife  could 
■nnt  rejoice  in  it.  if  shecon- 
tiniied  under  it. 

Had  that  woman  been  a 
very  atfectionate  mother, 
she  could  not  have  killed 
her  own  son  in  a  time  of 
plenty,  as  she  did  in  a 
time  of  famine. 

If  a  dutifid,  afTection- 
afe  sfjn  had  been  waitiii? 
on  Benhadad  in  Hazael's 
stead,  lie  cuut-i  not  have 
smothered  him,  as  Hazael 
did. 

These  are  a  few  instances  from  which 
we  may  clearly  learri  the  distinction  of 
natural  and  moral  inability.  It  must 
not,  however,  be  forgotten,  that  moral 
inability  or  disinclination  is  no  excuse 
for  our  omission  of  duty,  though  want  of 
natural  faculties  or  necessary  means 
il  would.      That    God    may    command. 


INC 


256 


INC 


though  man  has  not  a  present  moral 
ability  to  perform,  is  evident,  if  we  con- 
sider, 1.  That  man  once  had  a  power  to 
do  whatsoever  God  would  command 
him,  he  had  a  power  to  cleave  to  God. 
— 2.  That  God  did  not  deprive  man  of 
his  ability. — 3.  Therefore  God's  right  of 
commanding,  and  man's  obligation  of 
returning  and  cleaving  to  God,  remains 
firm.  See  Liberty;  and  The ol.  Misc. 
vol.  ii.  p.  4S8;  Edwards  on  the  Will; 
Charlock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  187; 
Watts  on  Liberty,  p.  4. 

INCARNATION,  the  act  whereby 
the  Son  of  God  assumed  the  human  na- 
ture ;  or  tlie  mystery  by  which  Jesus 
Clirist,  the  Eternal  v\'^ord,  was  made 
man,  in  order  to  accomplish  the  work 
of  our  salvation.  See  Nativity,  and 
Meldriun  on  the  Incarnation. 

INCEST,  the  crime  of  criminal  and 
unnatural  commerce  with  a  person 
within  the  degrees  forbidden  by  the 
law.  By  the  rules  of  the  church,  incest 
Tvas  formerly  very  absurdly  extended 
even  to  the  seventh  degree ;  but  it  is 
now  restricted  to  the  third  or  fourth. 
Most  nations  look  on  incest  witli  horror, 
Persia  and  Egypt  excepted.  In  the 
history  of  the  ancient  kings  of  those 
countries  Ave  meet  with  instances  of 
brothers  marrying  their  own  sisters,  be- 
cause they  thought  it  too  mean  to  join 
in  alliance  Avith  their  own  subjects,  and 
still  more  so  to  marry  into  any  foreign 
family.  Vortigem,  king  of  South  Bri- 
tain, equalled,  or  rather  excelled  them 
in  wickedness,  by  manying  his  own 
daughter.  The  queen  of  Portugal  was 
married  to  her  uncle  ;  and  the  prince  of 
Brazil,  the  son  of  that  incestuous  mar- 
riage, is  wedded  to  his  aunt.  But  tliey 
had  dispensations  for  these  unnatural 
marriages  from  his  holiness.  "  In  or- 
der," says  one,  "to  preserve  chastity 
in  families,  and  between  persons  of  dif- 
ferent sexes  brought  up  and  living  to- 
gether in  a  state  of  unreserved  ii\ti- 
macy,  it  is  necessaiy,  by  every  method 
possible,  to  inculcate  an  abhorrence  of 
incestuous  conjunctions ;  which  abhor- 
rence can  only  be  ujiliekl  by  the  abso- 
lute reprobation  of  all  comniei'ce  of  the 
sexes  between  near  relations.  Upon 
this  principle  the  marriai^e,  as  well  as 
other  cohabitation  of  brothers  and  sis- 
ters of  lineal  kindred,  and  of  all  who 
usually  live  in  the  same  family,  may  be 
said  to  be  forbidden  by  the  law  of  nature. 
Restrictions  which  extend  to  remoter 
degrees  of  kindled  than  what  this  rea- 
son makes  it  necessary  to  prcjhibit  from 
intermarriage,  ai-e  founded  in  the  au- 
thority of  the  positive  law  whicli  or- 
dains them,  and  can  only  be  justified  by 


their  tendency  to  diffuse  wealth,  to  con- 
nect families,  or  to  promote  some  po- 
litical advantage. 

"The  Levitical  laAV,  which  is  re- 
ceived in  tliis  country,  and  from  whicli 
the  rule  of  the  Roman  law  differs  very 
little,  prohibits  marriage  between  rela- 
tions within  three  degrees  of  kindred ; 
computing  the  generations  not  from, 
but  thx'ough  the  common  ancestor,  and 
accounting  affinity  the  same  as  consan- 
guinity. The  issue,  however,  of  such 
marriages  are  not  bastardized,  unless 
the  parents  be  divorced  during  their 
lifetime."  Paleifs  Mor.  Phil.  p.  316, 
vol.  1. 

INCEST,  SPIRITUAL,  an  ideal 
crime,  committed  between  two  persons 
who  have  a  spiritual  alliance,  by  means 
of  baptism  or  confirmation.  Tliis  ridicu- 
lous fancy  was  made  use  of  as  an  instil- 
ment of  great  tyranny »in  times  when 
the  power  of  the  pope  was  unlimited, 
even  queens  being  sometimes  divorced 
upon  this  pretence.  Incest  Sjiiritual 
is  also  understood  of  a  \icar,  or  other 
beneficiary,  who  enjoys  both  tlie  mother 
and  the  daughter ;  that  is,  holds  two 
benefices,  one  whereof  depends  upon 
the  collation  of  the  other.  Sucli  spiritual 
incest  renders  both  tlie  one  and  the 
other  of  these  benefices  vacant. 

INCLINATION  is  the  disposition  or 
propensity  of  the  mind  to  any  jiarticular 
object  or  action :  or  a  kind  of  bias  upon 
nature,  by  the  force  of  which  it  is  car- 
ried towards  certain  actions  previously 
to  the  exercise  of  thought  and  reasoning 
about  the  nature  and  consequences  of 
them.  Inclinations  are  of  two  kinds, 
natural  or  acquired.  1.  A''atiiral  are 
such  as  we  often  see  in  children,  who 
from  their  earliest  years  differ  in  their 
tempers  and  dispositions,.  In  one  you 
see  the  dawnings  of  a  liberal  diffusive 
soul ;  another  gives  us  cause  to  fear  he 
will  be  altogether  as  narrow  and  sor- 
did. Of  one  we  may  say  he  is  naturally 
revengeful ;  of  another,  that  he  is  pa- 
tient and  forgiving. — 2.  Acquired  incli- 
nations are  such  as  are  superindu- 
ced by  custom,  which  are  called  habits; 
and  these  are  either  good  or  evil.    See 

INCOMPREHENSIBILITY     OF 

GOD.  This  is  a  rehitive  term,  and  in- 
dicates a  relation  between  an  object  and 
a  faculty ;  between  God  and  a  ci'eated- 
Kuderstanding ;  so  that  the  meaning  of 
it  is  this,  tliat  no  created  understanding 
can  com])rehend  God  ;  that  is,  have  a 
perfect  and  exact  knowledge  of  him, 
such  a  knowledge  as  is  ade(|uate  to  the 
jK'rfection  of  tlie  object.  Job  xi.  7.  Is. 
xl.    God  is  incomprehensible,  1.  As  to 


INC 


357 


IND 


the  nature  of  his  essence.  2.  The  ex- 
cellency of  his  attributes.  3.  The  depth 
of  his  counsels.  4.  The  works  of  his 
providence.  5.  The  dispensation  of  his 
grace,  Eph.  iii.  8.  Job  xxxvii.  25.  Rom. 
xi.  The  incomprehensibility  of  God 
follo\s-s,  1.  From  his  being  a  spirit  endu- 
ed with  perfections  greatly  superior  to 
our  own. — 2.  There  may  be  (for  any 
thing  we  certainly  know)  attributes  and 
perfections  in  God  of  which  we  have 
not  the  least  idea. — 3.  In  those  perfec- 
tions of  the  divine  nature  of  which  we 
have  some  idea,  there  are  many  things 
to  us  inexphcable,  and  with  which,  the 
more  deeply  and  attentively  we  think 
of  them,  the  more  we  find  our  thoughts 
swallowed  up :  such  as  his  sel  f-existence, 
eternity,  omnipresence,  8cc.  This  should 
teach  us  therefore,  1.  To  admii-e  and 
reveresce  the  Divine  Being,  Zech.  ix. 
17.  Neh.  ix.  5. — 2.  To  be  humble  and 
modest,  Ps.  viii.  1,  4.  Eccl.  v.  2,  3.  Job 
xxxvii.  19. — 3.  To  be  serious  in  our  ad- 
dresses, and  sincere  in  our  behaviour 
towards  him.  Caryl  on  Job  xzvii.  25  ; 
Tillotson's  Sermons,  sermon  156;  Aber- 
nethy^s  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  No.  6,7 ;  Dod- 
drid'ge's  Led.  lee.  59. 

INCONTINENCY,  not  abstaining 
from  unlawfvil  desires.  See  CoNTiNENCY. 
INCORPOREALITY  of  god,  is 
his  being  without  a  body.  That  God  is 
incorporeal  is  evident ;  for,  1.  Materi- 
ality IS  incompatible  with  self-existence, 
and  God  being  self-existent,  must  be  in- 
corporeal.— 2.  If  God  wei-e  corporeal, 
he  could  not  be  present  in  any  part  of 
the  world  where  body  is ;  yet  his  pre- 
sence is  necessary  for  the  support  and 
motion  of  body. — 3.  A  body  cannot  be  in 
two  places  at  the  same  time ;  yet  he  is 
eveiy  where,  and  fiUs  heaven  and  earth. 
— 4.  A  body  is  to  be  seen  and  felt,  but 
God  is  invisible  and  impalpable,  John  i. 
18.  Charnock's  TForA-s,  vol.  i.  p.  117; 
Doddridge^s  Lect.  lee.  47 ;  GiWs  Body 
of  Dtv.  vol.  i.  p.  45.  Oct. 

INCORRUPTIBLES,or  Incorrup- 
TIBILES,  the  name  of  a  sect  which 
sprang  out  of  the  Eutycliians.  Their 
distinguishing  tenet  was,  that  the  body 
of  Jesus  Christ  was  incomiptible ;  by 
which  they  meant,  that,  after  and  from 
the  time  wherein  he  was  formed  in  the 
womb  of  his  mother,  he  was  not  suscep- 
tible of  any  change  or  alteration ;  not 
even  of  any  natural  or  innocent  passion, 
as  of  hunger,  thirst,  &c.  so  that  he  ate 
without  occasion  before  his  death,  as 
well  as  after  his  resurrection. 

INCREDULITY,  the  withholding 
pur  assent  to  any  proposition,  notwith- 
standing arguments  sufficient  to  demand 
assent.    See  Duncan  Forbes's  piece,  en- 


titled, TieJie<rtions  on  the  Sources  of  In- 
credulity ivith  7'e^ard  to  Religion,  and 
Casaitbon  on  Creaulitu  and  Incredulity, 
INDEPENDENCY  OF  GOD  is  his 
existence  in  and  of  himself,  without  de- 
pending on  any  other.  "  His  Ijeing  and 
perfections,"  as  Dr.  Ridgley  observes, 
(Body  of  Div.  q.  7.)  "  are  underived,  and 
not  communicated  to  him,  as  all  finite 
perfections  are  by  him  to  the  creature. 
This  attribute  of  independency  belongs 
to  all  his  perfections.  1.  He  is  indepen- 
dent as  to  his  knowledge.  He  doth  not 
receive  ideas  from  any  object  out  of 
himself,  as  intelligent  creatures  do. 
This  is  elegantly  described  by  the  pro- 
phet. Is.  xl.  13,  14. — 2.  He  is  indepen- 
dent in  power.  As  he  receives  strength 
from  no  one,  so  he  doth  not  act  depen- 
dently  on  the  will  of  the  creature.  Job 
xxxvi.  23. — 3.  He  is  independent  as  to 
his  holiness,  hating  sin  necessarily,  and 
not  barely  depending  on  some  reasons 
out  of  himself  inducing  him  thereto; 
for  it  is  essential  to  the  divine  nature  to 
be  infinitely  opposite  to  sin,  and  there- 
fore to  be  independently  holy.— 4.  He 
is  independent  as  to  his  bounty  and 
goodness.  He  communicates  blessings 
not  by  consti-aint,  but  according  to  his 
sovereign  will.  Thus  he  gave  being 
to  the  world,  and  all  things  therein, 
which  was  the  first  instance  of  bounty 
and  goodness;  and  this  not  by  constraint, 
but  by  his  free  will ;  '  for  his  pleasure 
they  are  and  were  created.'  In  like 
manner,  whatever  instances  of  mercy 
he  extends  to  m.iserable  creatures,  he 
acts  independently,  and  not  by  force. 
He  shows  mercy,  because  it  is  his 
pleasure  to  do  so',  Rom.  ix.  18.  That 
God  is  independent,  let  it  farther  be 
considered,  1.  That  all  things  depend 
on  his  power  which  brought  them  into 
and  preserves  them  in  being.  If,  there- 
foi'e,  aU  things  depend  on  God,  then  it 
would  be  absurdity  to  say  that  God 
depends  on  any  thing,  for  this  would  be 
to  suppose  the  cause  and  the  effect  to 
be  mutually  dependent  on  and  derived 
from  each  other,  which  infers  a  contra- 
diction.—2.  If  God  be  infinitely  above 
the  highest  creatures^  he  cannot  de- 
j  pend  on  any  of  them,  for  dependence 
]  argues  inferiority.  Is.  xl.  15.  17. — 3.  If 
God  depend  on  any  creatui'e,  he  does 
!  not  exist  necessarily ;  and  if  so,  then 
i  he  might  not  have  been  :  for  the  same 
j  will  by  which  he  is  supposed  to  exist, 
I  might  have  determined  that  he  shoidd 
not  have  existed,  v\'hich  is  altogether 
inconsistent  with  the  idea  of  a  (rod. 
I  From  God's  being  independent,  we  in- 
I  fer,  1.  That  we  ought  to  conclude  that 
1  the  creature  cannot  lay  any  obligation 
Kk 


IND 


258 


IND 


oil  him,  or  do  any  thing  that  may  tend 
to  make  him  more  hajjpy  than  he  is  in 
himself,  Rom.  xi.  35.  Job  xxii.  2,  3. — 2. 
If  independency  be  a  divine  perfection, 
then  let  it  not  in  any  instance,  or  by  any 
consequevice,  be  attribiited  to  the  crea- 
ture; let  us  conclude  that  all  our  springs 
are  in  him :  and  that  all  we  enjoy  and 
hope  for  is  from  him,  who  is  the  author 
and  finisher  of  our  faith,  and  the  foun- 
tain of  all  our  blessedness." 

INDEPENDENTS,  a  sect  of  Pro- 
testants, so  called  from  their  maintain- 
ing that  each  congregation  of  Christians 
which  meet  in  one  house  for  public  wor- 
ship is  a  complete  church ;  has  sufficient 
power  to  act  and  perform  every  thing 
relating  to  religious  government  within 
itself;  and  is  in  no  respect  subject  or 
accountable  to  other  churches. 

Though  the  Episcopalians  contend 
that  there  is  not  a  shadow  of  the  inde- 
pendent discipline  to  be  found  either  in 
the  Bible  or  the  primitive  church,  the 
Independents,  on  the  contrary,  believe 
that  it  is  most  clearly  to  be'  deduced 
from  the  practice  of  the  apostles  in  plant- 
ing the  first  churches.  See  Church 
Congregational,  and  Episcopacy. 
The  Independents,  however,  were  not 
distinguished  as  a  body  till  the  time 
of  queen  Elizabeth.  The  hierarchy 
established  by  that  princess  in  the 
churches  of  her  dommions,  the  vest- 
ments worn  by  the  clergy  in  the  cele- 
bration of  divine  worsliip,  the  book  of 
Common  Prayer,  and,  above  all,  the 
sign  of  the  cross  used  in  the  administra- 
tion of  baptism,  -svere  very  offensive  to 
many  of  her  subjects,  who,  during  the 
persecutions  of  the  former  reign,  had 
taken  refuge  among  the  Protestants  of 
Germany  and  Geneva.  These  men 
thought  that  the  church  of  England  re- 
sembled in  too  many  particulars  the 
anti-christian  church  of  Rome :  they 
therefore  called  perpetually  for  a  more 
thoroueli  reformation,  and  a  fiurer  wor- 
ship. From  this  circumstance  they 
were  stigmatized  with  the  general  name 
of  Puritans,  as  the  followers  of  Nova- 
tian  had  been  in  the  ancient  church. 
See  NovATiANg.  Elizabeth  was  not 
disposed  to  comply  witli  tlicir  demands; 
and  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  might 
have  been  the  iesue  of  the  contest,  had 
the  Puritans  been  united  among  them- 
selves, in  sentiments,  views,  and  mea- 
sures. But  the  case  was  quite  other- 
wise :  that  large  body,  composed  of 
persons  of  different  ranks,  characters, 
opinions,  and  intentions,  and  unanimous 
in  nothing  but  their  antipathy  to  the  es- 
tablished church,  was  all  of  a  sudden  di- 
vided into  a  varietv  of  sects.    Of  these, 


the  most  famous  was  that  which  was 
formed  about  the  year  1581,  by  Robert 
Brown,  a  man  insinuating  in  his  man- 
ners, but  unsteady  and  inconsistent  in 
his  views  and  notions  of  men  and  things. 
Brown  was  for  dividing  the  whole  body 
of  the  faithful  into  separate  societies 
or  congregations;  and  maintained  that 
such  a  number  of  persons  as  could  be 
contained  in  an  ordinary  place  of  wor- 
ship ought  to  be  considered  as  a  church, 
and  enjoy  all  the  rights  and  privileges 
that  are  competent  to  an  ecclesiastical 
community.  These  small  societies  he 
pronounced  mdejwndent,  jure  clhnno, 
and  entirely  exempt  from  the  jui-isdic- 
tion  of  the  bishop,  in  whose  hands  the 
covirt  had  placed  the  reins  of  a  spiritual 
government;  and  also  from  that  of 
presbyters  and  synods,  which  the  Puri- 
tans regarded  as  the  supreme  visible 
sources  of  ecclesiastical  authority.  But 
as  we  have  given  an  account  of  the 
general  opinions  and  discipline  of  the 
Brownists,  we  need  not  enumerate  them 
here,  but  must  beg  the  reader  to  refer 
to  that  article.  The  zeal  with  which 
Brown  and  his  associates  maintained 
and  propagated  his  notions,  was,  in  a 
high  degree,  intemperate  and  extrava- 
gant. He  affinned  that  all  communion 
was  to  be  broken  off  with  those  religious 
societies  that  were  founded  upon  a  dif- 
ferent plan  from  his  ;  and  treated  moi-e 
especially  the  church  of  England  as  a 
spurious  church,  whose  ministers  were 
unlawfully  ordained  ;  whose  discipline 
was  popish  and  anti-christian;  and 
whose  sacraments  and  institutions  were 
destitute  of  all  efficacy  and  virtue  His 
followers  not  being  able  to  endure  the 
severe  treatment  which  they  met  with 
from  an  administration  that  was  not 
distinguished  for  its  mildness  and  indul- 
gence, retired  into  the  Netherlands,  and 
founded  churches  at  Middlebourg,  Am- 
sterdam, and  Leyden.  Their  founder, 
however,  retui-ned  into  England,  re- 
nounced his  principles  of  separation, 
and  took  orders  m  the  established 
church.  The  Puritan  exiles,  wiiom  he 
thus  abandoned,  disagreed  among  them- 
selves, were  s])lit  into  parties,  and  their 
affairs  declined  from  day  to  day.  This 
engaged  the  wiser  part  of  them  to 
mitigate  the  severity  of  their  founder's 
plan,  and  to  soften  the  rigour  of  his  un- 
charitable decisions. 

The  person  who  had  the  chief  merit 
of  bringing  about  this  reformation  was 
one  of  their  pastors,  of  the  name  of  Ro- 
binson ;  a  man  who  had  much  of  the 
solemn  piety  of  the  times,  and  no  incon- 
sidcr;il)le  portion  of  learning.^  Tliis 
well-meaning  refoi'merj  perceiving  the 


IND 


259 


IND 


defects  that  reigned  in  the  discipline  of 
Brown,  and  in  the  spirit  and  temper  of 
his  followers,  employed  his  zeal  and 
diligence  in  correcting  them,  and  in 
new-modelling  the  society  in  such  a 
manner,  as  to  render  it  less  odious  to  his 
adversaries,  and  less  liable  to  the  just 
censure  of  those  true  Christians  who 
look  upon  charity  as  the  end  of  the 
commandments.  Hitherto  the  sect  had 
been  called  Brownists ;  but  Robinson 
having  in  his  apology  affirmed  that  all 
Christian  congregations  were  so  manj' 
inde/imdent  religious  societies,  that  had 
a  right  to  be  governed  by  their  own 
laws,  mdejiejident  of  any  farther  or  fo- 
reign jui-isdiction,  the  sect  was  hence- 
forth called  Independents,  of  which  the 
apologist  was  considered  as  the  founder. 

The  first  Independent  or  congrega- 
tional church  in  England  was  establish- 
ed by  a  Mr.  Jacob,  in  the  year  1616. 
Mr.  Jacob,  who  had  fled  from  the  per- 
secution of  bishop  Bancroft,  going  to 
Holland,  and  havmg  impaited  his  de- 
sign of  getting  up  a  separate  congrega- 
tion, like  those  in  Holland,  to  the  most 
learned  Puritans  of  those  times,  it  was 
not  condemned  as  unlawful,  considering 
there  was  no  prospect  of  a  national  re- 
formation. Mr.  Jacob,  therefore,  ha\'- 
ing  summoned  several  of  his  friends 
together,  and  having  ol^tained  their  con- 
sent to  unite  in  church  fellowship  for 
enjoying  the  ordinances  of  Clirist  in  the 
purest  manner,  they  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  first  independent  chui'ch  in  Eng- 
land in  the  following  way.  Having  ob- 
served a  day  of  solemn  fasting  and 
prayer  for  a  blessing  upon  their  under- 
taking, towards  the  close  of  the  solem- 
nity, each  of  them  made  an  open  con- 
fession of  their  faith  in  Christ;  and  then, 
standing  together,  they  joined  hands, 
and  solemnly  covenanted  with  each 
other,  in  the  presence  of  Almighty  God, 
to  walk  together  in  all  God's  ways  and 
ordinances,  according  as  he  had  already 
revealed,  or  shoidd  farther  make  known 
to  them.  Mr.  Jacob  was  then  chosen 
pastor  by  the  suffrage  of  the  brother- 
hood; and  others  were  appointed  to 
the  office  of  deacons,  with  fasting  and 
praA-er,  and  imposition  of  hands. 

The  Independents  were  much  more 
commendable  than  the  Brownists;  they 
surpassed  them,  both  in  the  moderation 
of  their  sentiments,  and  in  the  order  of 
their  discipline.  Thev  did  not,  like 
Brown,  pour  forth  bitter  and  uncharita- 
ble invectives  against  the  churchQs 
which  were  governed  by  rules  entirely 
different  from  theirs,  nor  pronounce 
them,  on  that  account,  unworthy  of  the 
Christian    name.     On    the    contrary, 


though  they  considered  their  own  foiin 
of  ecclesiastical  government  as  of  dis'ine 
institution,  and  as  originally  introduced 
by  the  authority  of  the  apostles,  nay, 
by  the  apostles  themselves,  they  had 
yet  candour  and  charity  enough  to  ac- 
knowledge, that  true  religion  and  solid 
piety  might  flourish  in  those  communi- 
ties which  were  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  bishops,  or  the  government  of  synods 
and  presbyteries.  They  were  also  much 
more  attentive  than  the  Brownists  in 
keeping  on  foot  a  regular  ministry  in 
tlieir  communities  ;  for,  while  the  latter 
allowed  promiscuously  all  ranks  and 
orders  of  men  to  teach  in  public,  the 
Independents  had,  and  still  have,  a  cer- 
tain number  of  ministers,  chosen  re- 
spectively by  the  congregations  where 
they  are  fixed ;  nor  is  it  common  for  any 
person  among  them  to  speak  in  public 
before  he  has  submitted  to  a  proper  ex- 
amination of  his  capacity  and  talents, 
and  been  approved  of  by  the  heads  of 
the  congregation. 

From  1642,  the  Independents  are 
very  fi-equentlv  mentioned  in  the  Eng- 
lish annals.  The  charge  alleged  against 
them  by  Rapin  (in  his  history  of  Eng- 
land, vol.  ii.  p.  514.  folio  ed.)  that  they 
could  not  so  much  as  endure  oi'dinary 
ministers  in  the  church,  Sec.  is  ground- 
less. He  was  led  into  this  mistake  by 
confounding  the  Independents  with  the 
Bi'ownists.  Other  charges,  no  less  un- 
justifia!)le,  have  been  urged  against  the 
Independents  by  this  celebrated  histo- 
rian, and  others.  Rapin  says,  that  they 
abhorred  monarch}',  and  approved  of  a 
republican  government:  this  might  have 
been  true  with  regard  to  many  persons 
among  them,  in  common  with  other 
sects  ;  but  it  does  not  appear,  from  any 
of  their  public  writings,  that  republican 
principles  formed  their  distinguishing 
characteristic ;  on  the  contrary,  in  a 
public  memorial  drawn  up  by  them  in 
1647,  they  declare,  that  they  do  not  dis- 
approve of  any  form  of  civil  govern- 
ment, but  do  fi'eely  acknowledge  that  a 
kingly  government,  bounded  by  just  and 
wholesome  laws,  is  allowed  by  God,  and 
also  a  good  accommodation  unto  men. 
The  Independents,  however,  have  been 
generally  ranked  among  the  regicides, 
and  charged  with  the  death  of  Cliarlesl. 
Whether  this  fact  be  admitted  or  de- 
nied, no  conclusion  can  be  fairly  drawn 
from  the  greater  prevalence  of  repub- 
lican principles,  or  from  violent  pro- 
ceedings at  that  period,  that  can  affect 
the  distinguishing  tenets  and  conduct  of 
the  Independents  in  our  times.  It  is 
certain  that  the  present  Independents 
are  stead}-  friends  to  a  limited  monar- 


IND 


260 


IND 


cliy.  Rapin  is  farther  mistaken  when 
he  rem-esents  the  religious  principles 
of  the  English  Independents  as  contraiy 
to  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  It 
appears  from  two  confessions  of  faith, 
one  composed  by  Robinson  in  behalf  of 
the  Enjilish  Independents  in  Holland, 
and  published  at  Ley  den  in  1619,  enti- 
tled. Apologia  pro  Exulibus  Anglis, 
qui  Browfiistse  viclgo  appellantur;  and 
another  drawn  up  in  London  in  1658,  by 
the  pi'incipal  members  of  this  commu- 
nity in  England,  entitled,  "  A  Declara- 
tion of  the  Faith  and  Order  owned  and 
practised  by  theCongregationalChurch- 
es  in  England,  agreed  upon  and  con- 
sented unto  by  then'  Elders  and  Messen- 
gers, in  their  meeting  at  the  Savoy,  Oct. 
12th,  1658,"  as  well  as  from  other  writ- 
ings of  the  Independents,  that  they  dif- 
fered from  the  rest  of  the  reformed  in 
no  single  point  of  any  consequence,  ex- 
cept that  of  ecclesiastical  government ; 
and  their  religious  doctrines  were  al- 
most entirely  the  same  with  those  adopt- 
ed by  the  church  of  Geneva.  During 
the  administration  of  Cromwell,  the  In- 
dependents acquired  very  considerable 
reputation  and  nifluence  ;  and  he  made 
use  of  them  as  a  check  to  the  ambition 
of  the  Presbyterians,  who  aimed'  at  a 
very  high  degree  of  ecclesiastical  pow- 
er, and  who  had  succeeded,  soon  after 
the  elevation  of  Cromwell,  in  obtaining 
a  parliamentary  establishment  of  their 
own  church  government.  But  after 
the  restoration,  their  cause  declined ; 
and  in  1691  they  entered  ir^to  an  asso- 
ciation v'ith  the  Presbyterians  residing 
in  and  about  London,  comprised  in  nine 
articles,  that  tended  to  the  maintenance 
of  their  respective  institutions.  These 
may  l:ie  found  in  the  second  volume  of 
VVhiston's  Memoirs,  and  the  substance 
of  them  in  Mosheim.  At  this  time  the 
Independents  and  Presbyterians,  called 
from  this  association  the  United  Breth- 
ren, were  agreed  with  regard  to  doc- 
trines, being  generally  Calvinists,  and 
differed  only  with  respect  to  ecclesias- 
tical discipline.  But  at  present,  though 
the  English  Independents  and  Presby- 
terians form  two  distinct  parties  of 
Protestant  Dissenters,  they  are  dis- 
tinguished by  very  trifling  differences 
with  regard  to  church  goveriUTient,  and 
the  denominations  are  more  arbitrarily 
used  to  comprehend  those  who  differ  in 
theological  opinions.  The  Independents 
ai-e  generally  more  attached  to  Calvin- 
ism than  the  Presbyterians.  Indepen- 
dentism  is  peculiar  to  Great  Britain, 
the  United  States,  and  the  Batavian  Re- 
public. It  was  carried  first  to  the  Ame- 
lican  colonies  in  1620,  and  by  successive 


Puritan  emigrants,  in  1629  and  1633, 
from  England.  One  Morel,  in  the  six- 
teenth centuiy,  endeavoured  to  intro- 
duce it  into  France ;  but  it  was  con- 
demned at  the  synod  of  Rochelle,  where 
Beza  presided ;  and  again  at  the  synod 
of  Rochelle,  in  1644. 

Many  of  the  Independents  reject  the 
use  of  all  creeds  and  confessions  drawn 
up  by  fallible  men,  though  they  require 
of  their  teachers  a  declaration  of  their 
belief  in  the  Gospel  and  its  various  doc- 
trines, and  their  adherence  to  the  Scrip- 
tures as  the  sole  standard  of  faith  and 
practice.  They  attribute  no  virtue 
whatever  to  the  rite  of  ordination,  upon 
which  some  other  churches  lay  so  much 
stress.  According  to  them,  the  quali- 
fications which  constitute  a  regular 
minister  of  the  New  Testament  are, 
a  firm  belief  in  the  Gospel,  a  principle 
of  sincere  and  imaffected  piety,  a  com- 
petent stock  of  knowledge,  a  capacity 
for  leading  devotion  and  communicating 
instruction,  a  sei'ious  inclination  to  en- 
gage in  the  important  employment  of 
promoting  the  everlasting  salvation  of 
mankind,  and  ordinarily  an  invitation 
to  the  pastoral  office  from  some  par- 
ticular society  of  Christians.  Where 
these  things  concur,  they  consider  a  per- 
son as  fitted  and  authorised  for  the  dis- 
charge of  every  duty  which  belongs  to 
the  ministerial  function ;  and  they  be- 
lieve that  the  imposition  of  hands  of 
bishops  or  presbyters  would  convey  to 
him  no  powers  or  prerogatives  of  which 
he  was  not  befoi-e  possessed.  But  though 
they  attribute  no  virtue  to  ordination, 
as  conveying  any  new  powers,  yet  they 
hold  with  and  practise  it.  Many  of 
them,  indeed,  suppose  that  the  essence 
of  ordination  does  not  lie  in  the  act  of 
the  ministers  who  assist,  but  in  the 
choice  and  call  of  the  people,  and  the 
candidate's  acceptance  of  that  call ;  so 
that  their  ordination  may  be  considered 
only  as  a  pulilic  declaration  of  that 
agreement.  See  Ordination.  They 
consider  it  as  their  right  to  choose  their 
own  ministers  and  deacons.  They  own 
no  man  as  head  of  the  church.  They 
disallow  of  parochial  and  provincial 
subordination ;  but  though  they  do  not 
think  it  necessary  to  assemble  synods, 
yet,  if  any  be  held,  they  look  upon  their 
resolutions  as  prudential  counsels,  but 
not  as  decisions  to  which  they  are 
obliged  to  conform.  They  consider  the 
Scriptures  as  the  only  criterion  of  truth. 
Then-  worship  is  conducted  in  a  decent, 
plain,  and  simple  manner,  without  the 
ostentation  of  form  and  the  vain  pomp 
of  ceremony. 

The  congregations  of  the  Indepen- 


IND 


261 


IND 


dents  are  very  numerous,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  America,  and  some  of  them 
very  respectable,  lliis  denomination 
has  produced  many  characters  as  emi- 
nent for  learning  and  piety  as  any 
chm-ch  in  Christendom  ;  whose  works, 
no  doubt,  will  reflect  histing  honour  on 
their  characters  and  abilities.  Sec 
Church  Congrkgationai.  ;  Noncon- 
formists, and  books  under  those  ar- 
ticles. 

INDEX,  EXPURGATORY,  a  cata- 
logue of  prohibited  books  in  the  church 
of  Rome.  The  first  catalogues  of  this 
kind  were  made  by  the  imjuisitors,  and 
these  were  afterwards  approved  of  by 
the  council  of  Trent,  after  some  alter- 
ation was  made  in  them  bv  way  of  re- 
trenchment or  addition.  Thus  an  in- 
dex of  heretical  books  being  formed, 
it  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  Clement 
VIII.  in  1595,  and  printed  with  several 
introductory  rules ;  by  the  fourth  of 
which,  the  use  of  the  Scriptures  in  the 
vulgar  tongue  is  forbidclen  to  all  per- 
sons without  a  pai'ticular  licence :  and 
by  the  tenth  rule  it  is  ordained,  that  no 
book  shall  be  printed  at  Rome  without 
the  approbation  of  the  pope's  vicar,  or 
some  person  delegated  by  the  pope : 
nor  in  any  other  places,  unless  allowed 
by  the  bishop  of^  the  diocese,  or  some 
person  deputed  by  him,  or  by  the  inqui- 
sitor of  heretical  pravity.  The  Trent 
index  being  thus  published,  Philip  II. 
of  Spain  ordered  another  to  be  printed 
at  Antwei-p  in  1571,  with  considerable 
enlargements.  Another  index  was  pub- 
lished m  Spain  in  1584,  a  copy  of  which 
was  snatched  out  of  the  fire  when  the 
English  plundered  Cadiz.  Afterwards 
there  were  several  expurgatoiy  indexes 
printed  at  Rome  and  Naples,  and  par- 
ticularlv  in  Spain. 

INDIGNATION,  a  strong  disappro- 
bation of  mind,  excited  by  something 
flagitious  in  the  conduct  of  another.  It 
does  not,  as  Mr.  Cogan  observes,  al- 
ways suppose  that  excess  of  depravity 
which  alone  is  capable  of  committing 
deeds  of  horror.  Indignation  ahvavs  re- 
fers to  culpability  of  conduct,  and  can- 
not, like  the  passion  of  horror,  be  ex- 
tended to  distress  either  of  body  or 
mind.  It  is  produced  by  acts  of  trea- 
chery, abuse  of  confidence,  base  ingi'a- 
titude,  &c.  which  we  cannot  contem- 
plate without  being  provoked  to  anger, 
and  feeling  a  generous  resentment. 

INDULGENCES,  in  the  Romish 
church,  are  a  remission  of  the  punish- 
ment due  to  sin,  gi-anted  by  the  church, 
and  supposed  to  save  the  sinner  from 
purgatory. 

According  to  the  doctme  of  the  Ro- 


mish church,  all  the  good  works  of  tho 
saints,  over  and  above  those  which 
were  necessary  towards  their  ov/n  jus- 
tification, are  deposited,  together  with 
the  infinite  merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  in 
one  inexhaustible  treasuiy.  The  keys 
of  this  were  committed  to  St.  Peter, 
and  to  his  successors,  the  popes,  who 
may  open  it  at  pleasure ;  and,  by  trans- 
ferring a  portion  of  this  superabundant 
merit  to  any  particular  person  for  a 
sum  of  money,  may  convey  to  him 
either  the  pardon  of  his  own  sins,  or  a 
release  for  any  one  in  whom  he  is  inter- 
ested from  the  pains  of  purgatory.  Such 
indulgences  were  first  invented  in  the 
eleventh  century,  by  Urban  II.  as  a  re- 
compence  for  those  who  went  in  per- 
son uj)on  the  glorious  entei-prise  of  con- 
quering the  Holy  Land.  They  were 
afterwards  granted  to  those  who  hired 
a  soldier  for  that  pui-pose ;  and  in  pro- 
cess of  time  were  bestowed  on  such  as 
gave  money  for  accomplishing  anypi- 
ous  work  enjoined  by  the  pope.  The 
power  of  gi-anting  indulgences  has  been 
gi'eatly  abused  in  the  church  of  Rome. 
Pope  Leo  X.,  in  order  to  cany  on  the 
magnificent  structure  of  St.  Peter's,  at 
Rome,  published  indulgences,  and  a 
plenary  remission  to  all  such  as  should 
contribute  money  towai-ds  it.  Finding 
the  project  take,  he  granted  to  Albert, 
elector  of  Mentz,  and  archbishop  of 
Magdeburg,  the  benefit  of  the  indul- 
gences of  Saxony,  and  the  neighbouring 
parts,  and  farmed  out  those  of  other 
countries  to  the  highest  bidders :  who, 
to  make  the  best  of  the  bargain,  pro- 
cured the  ablest  preachers  to  cry  up 
the  value  of  the  ware.  The  foiih  of 
these  indulgences  was  as  follows ; — 
"May  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  have 
mercy  upon  thee,  and  absolve  thee  by 
the  merits  of  his  most  holy  passion. 
And  I,  by  his  authority,  that  of  his 
blessed  apostles,  Peter  and  Paul,  and  of 
the  most  holy  pope,  granted  and  com- 
mitted to  me  in  these  parts,  do  absolve 
thee,  first  from  all  ecclesiastical  cen- 
sures, in  whatever  manner  they  have 
been  incurred  ;  then  from  all  thy  sins, 
transgi'essions,  and  excesses,  how  enor- 
mous soever  they  may  be:  even  from 
such  as  are  reserved  for  the  cogni- 
zance of  the  holy  see,  and  as  far  as  the 
keys  of  the  holy  church  extend.  I  re- 
mit to  you  all  punishment  which  you 
deserve  in  purgatoiy  on  their  account : 
and  I  restore  you  to  the  holy  saci-a- 
ments  of  the  church,  to  the  unity  of  the 
faithful,  and  to  that  innocence  and  puri- 
ty which  you  possessed  at  baptism  :  so 
that  when  you  die,  the  gates  of  punish- 
ment shall  be  shut,  and  the  gates  of  the 


IND 


262 


INF 


paradise  of  delight  shall  be  opened ;  and 
if  you  shall  not  die  at  present,  this 
grace  shall  remain  in  full  force  when 
you  are  at  the  point  of  death.  In  the 
name  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the 
Holy  Ghost."  According  to  a  book, 
called  the  Tax  of  the  sacred  Roman 
Chancery,  in  which  are  contained  the 
exact  sums  to  be  levied  for  the  pardon 
of  each  particular  sin,  we  find  some  of 
the  fees  to  be  thus  : 

s.  d. 

For  procuring  aboi'tion 7    6 

For  simony 10    6 

For  sacrilege 10    6 

For  taking  a  false  oath  in  a  crimi- 
nal case 9    0 

For  robbing 12    0 

For  burning  a  neighbour's  house  .  12    0 

For  defiling  a  virgin 9    0 

For  lying  with  a  mother,  sister,  8cc.  7    6 

For  murdering  a  layman 7    6 

tor  keeping  a  concubine 10    6 

For  laying  violent  hands  on  a  cler- 
gyman   10    6 

And  so  on. 

The  terms  in  which  the  retailers  of 
indulgences  described  their  benefits,  and 
the  necessity  of  purchasing  them,  were 
so  extravagant  that  they  appear  almost 
incredible.  If  any  man,  said  they,  pur- 
chase letters  of  indulgence,  his  soul  may 
rest  secure  with  respect  to  its  salvation. 
The  souls  confined  in  purgatory,  for 
whose  redemption  indulgences  are  pur- 
chased, as  soon  as  the  money  tinkles  in 
the  chest,  instantly  escape  from  that 
place  of  torment,  and  ascend  into  hea- 
ven. That  the  efficacy  of  indulgences 
was  so  great,  that  the  most  heinous  sins, 
even  if  one  should  violate  (which  was 
impossible)  the  Mother  of  God,  would 
be  remitted  and  expiated  by  them,  and 
the  person  be  freed  both  from  punish- 
ment and  guilt.  That  this  was  the  un- 
speakable gift  of  God,  in  order  to  recon- 
cile man  to  himself.  That  the  cross 
erected  by  the  preachers  of  uidulgences 
was  equally  efficacious  with  the  citiss 
of  Christ  itself."  «  Lo,"  said  they,  "the 
heavens  are  open:  if  you  enter  not  now, 
when  will  you  enter?  For  twelve  pence 
vou  may  I'edcem  the  so\il  of  your  mther 
out  of  piu'gatory ;  and  are  you  so  un- 
grateful that  you  will  not  rescue  the 
soul  of  your  parent  from  torment  i*  If 
you  had  but  one  coat,  you  ought  to  strip 
yourself  instantly,  and  sell  it,  in  order 
to  purchase  such  benefit,"  &c.  It  was 
tliis  great  abuse  of  indulgences  that 
contributed  not  a  little  to  the  reform- 
ation of  religion  in  Germany,  where 
Martin  Luther  began  first  to  declaim 
against  the  preachers  of  indulgences, 
and    afterwards    against    indulgencos 


themselves.  Since  that  time  the  popes 
have  been  more  sparing  in  the  exercise 
of  this  power ;  although  it  is  said,  they 
still  carry  on  a  great  trade  with  them  to 
the  Indies,  where  they  ai'e  purchased  at 
two  rials  a  piece,  and  sometimes  more. 
We  are  told  also  that  a  gentleman  not 
long  since  being  at  Naples,  in  order  that 
he  might  be  fully  ascertained  respecting 
indulgences,  went  to  the  oiTice,  and  for 
two  sequins  purchased  a  plena,ry  remis- 
sion of  all  sins  for  himself  and  any  two 
other  persons  of  his  friends  or  relations, 
whose  names  he  was  empowered  to  in- 
sert. Haweis's  C/wrc/i  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p. 
147;  Smithes  Errors  of  the  Church  of 
Rome;  TVatson^s  The'ol.  Tracts,  vol.  v. 
p.  274 ;  ]\Iosheim's  Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p. 
594,  quarto. 
INDUSTRY,  diligence,  constant  ap- 

Elication  of  the  mind,  or  exercise  of  the 
ody.  See  Diligence,  and  Idleness. 
INDWELLING  SCHEME,  a 
scheme  which  derives  its  name  from 
that  passage  in  Col.  ii.  9.  "In  him 
dwelleth  all  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead 
bodily,"  which,  according  to  some,  as- 
sei'ts  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  consisting 
of  two  beings;  one  the  self-existent 
Creator,  and  the  other  a  creature  made 
into  one  person  by  an  ineffable  union  and 
indwelling,  which  renders  the  same  at- 
tributes and  honours  equally  applicable 
to  both.  See  Pre-existence.  Dr. 
OwcTi's  Glorij  of  Christ,  p.  368,  369. 
Lond.  ed.  1679 ;  a  Sermon  entitled  "  The 
true  Christ  of  God  above  the  false  Christ 
q/"il/f«,"  Ipswich,  1799;  llatts's  Glory 
of  Christ,  p.  6-203 ;  Adams's  View  of 
Religions,  jr>.  267. 

INFALLIBILITY, the  quality  of  not 
being  able  to  be  deceived  or  mistaken. 

The  infallibility  of  the  church  of  Rome 
has  been  one  of  the  great  controversies 
between  the  Protestants  and  Papists. 
By  this  infallibility  it  is  understood, 
that  she  cannot  at  any  time  cease  to  be 
oithodox  in  her  doctrine,  or  fall  into 
any  pernicious  errors ;  but  that  she  is 
constituted,  by  divine  authority,  the 
judge  of  all  controversies  of  religion, 
and  that  all  Christians  ai'c  obliged  to 
acquiesce  in  her  decisions.  This  is  the 
chain  which  keeps  its  members  fast 
boimd  to  its  communion;  the  charm 
which  retains  them  within  its  magic 
circle  ;  the  opiate  which  lays  asleep  all 
their  doubts  and  diflicultics :  it  is  like- 
wise the  magnet  which  attracts  the  de- 
sultory and  unstable  in  other  persua- 
sions within  the  sphere  of  popery,  the 
foundation  of  its  whole  superstructure, 
the  cement  of  all  its  parts,  and  its  fence 
and  fbrtress  against  all  inroads  and 
attacks. 


INF 


263 


INF 


Under  the  idea  of  this  infallibility, 
the  church  of  Rome  chiims,  1.  To  de- 
termine what  books  are  and  what  are 
not  canonical,  and  to  obUge  all  Chris- 
tians to  receive  or  reject  them  accord- 
ingly.— 2.  To  communicate  authority  to 
the  Scrijiture  ;  or,  in  other  words,  that 
the  Scripture  (quoad  nos,)  as  to  us,  re- 
ceives its  .authority  from  her. — 3.  To 
assigji  and  fix  the  sense  of  Scripture, 
which  all  Christians  are  submissively 
to  receive. — 4.  To  decree  as  necessary 
to  salvation  whatever  she  judges  so, 
although  not  contained  in  Scripture. — 
5.  To  decide  all  contro^■ersies  respect- 
ing matters  of  faith.  These  are  the 
claims  to  which  the  church  of  Rome 
pretends,  but  wliich  we  shall  not  here 
attempt  to  refute,  because  any  man 
with  the  Bible  in  his  hand,  and  a  little 
common  sense,  will  easily  see  that  they 
are  all  fovuided  upon  ignorance,  super- 
stition, and  error.  It  is  not  a  little  re- 
maricable,  howexer,  that  the  Roman 
Catholics  themselves  p.re  much  divided 
as  to  the  seat  of  this  infallibility,  and 
which,  indeed,  may  be  considered  as  a 
satisfactory  proof  that  no  such  privi- 
lege exists  in  the  church.  For  is  it  con- 
sistent with  j-eason  to  think  that  God 
would  have  imparted  so  extraordinaiy 
a  gift  to  prevent  errors  and  dissensions  | 
in  the  church,  and  yet  have  left  an  ad- 
ditional cause  of  error  and  dissension,  j 
viz.  the  unceitainty  of  the  place  of  its  i 
abode  ?  No,  surely. — Some  place  this  j 
infallibility  in  the  pope  or  bishop  of 
Rome ;  some  m  a  general  council ; 
others  in  neither  pope  nor  council  sepa- 
rately, but  in  both  conjointly ;  whilst 
other.s  are  said  to  place  it  in  the  church 
diffusive,  or  in  all  churches  throughout 
the  world.  But  that  it  could  not  be  de- 
posited in  the  pope  is  evident,  for  many 
popes  have  been  heretics,  and  on  that 
account  censured,  and  deposed,  and 
therefore  could  not  have  been  infallible. 
That  it  could  not  be  placed  in  a  general 
council  is  as  evident ;  for  general  coun- 
cils have  actually  ei-red.  Neither  could 
it  be  placed  in  the  pope  and  council 
conjointly  ;  for  two  fjillibles  could  not 
make  one  infallible  anv  more  than  two 
ciphers  could  make  an'  integer.  To  s^ty 
that  it  is  lodged  in  the  church  univer- 
sal or  diffusive,  is  equallv  as  erroneous ; 
for  this  would  be  useless  and  insignifi- 
cant, because  it  could  never  be  exer- 
cised. I'he  whole  church  could  not 
meet  to  make  decrees,  or  to  choose 
representatives,  or  to  deliver  their  sen- 
timents on  any  question  started;  and, 
less  than  all  would  not  be  the  whole 
church,  and  so  could  not  claim  that 
privilege. 


The  most  general  opinion,  however, 
it  is  said,  is  that  of  its  being  seated  in  a 
pope  and  general  council.  The  advo- 
cates for  this  opinion  consider  the  pope 
as  the  vicar  of  Christy  head  of  the 
church,  and  centre  of  unity ;  and  there- 
fore conclude  that  his  concurrence  with 
and  approbation  of  the  decrees  of  a 
general  council  are  necessary,  and  suffi- 
cient to  afford  it  an  indispensable  sanc- 
tion and  plenary  authority.  A  general 
council  they  regard  as  the  church  repre- 
sentative, and  suppose  that  nothing  can 
be  wanting  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  any 
controversial  point,  when  the  pretended 
head  of  tlie  church  and  its  members,  as- 
sembled in  their  supposed  representa- 
tives, mutually  concur  and  coincide  in 
judicial  definitions  and  decrees,  but  that 
infallibility  attends  their  coalition  and 
conjunction  in  all  their  determinations. 

Every  impartial  person,  who  consi- 
ders this  subject  with  the  least  degree 
of  attention,  must  clearly  perceive  that 
neither  any  individual  nor  body  of 
Chrihi-ians  have  any  ground  from  rea- 
son or  Scripture  for  pi-etending  to  infal- 
libility. It  is  evidently  the  attribute  of 
the  Supreme  Being  alone,  which  we 
have  all  the  foundation  imaginable  to 
conclude  he  has  not  communicated  to 
any  mortal,  or  associations  of  moitals. 
The  human  being  who  challenges  infal- 
libility seems  to  imitate  the  pride  and 
presumption  of  Lucifer,  when  he  said, — 
I  will  ascend,  and  will  be  like  the  Most 
High.  A  claim  to  it  was  unheard  of  in 
tlie  primitive  and  purest  ages  of  the 
church  ;  but  became,  after  that  period, 
the  arrogant  pretension  of  papal  ambi- 
tion. History  plainly  informs  us,  that 
the  bishops  of  Rome,  on  the  declension 
of  the  western  Roman  empire,  began  to 
put  in  their  claim  of  being  the  supreme 
and  infallible  heads  of  the  Christian 
church ;  which  they  at  length  establish- 
ed by  their  deep  policy  and  unremitting 
efforts ;  by  the  concurrence  of  fortunate 
circumstances;  by  the  advantages  which 
they  reaped  from'  the  necessities  of  some 
princes,  and  the  superstition  of  others ; 
and  by  the  general  and  excessive  cre- 
dulity" of  the  people.  However,  when 
they  had  grossly  abused  this  absurd 
pi-e'tension,  and  committed  various  acts 
of  injustice,  tyranny,  and  cruelty ;  when 
the  blind  veneration  for  the  papal  dig- 
nity had  been  greatly  diminished  by  the 
lon.:^  and  scandalous  schism  occasioned 
by  contending  popes;  when  these  had 
been  for  a  considei-able  time  roaming 
about  Europe,  fawning  on  princes, 
squeezing  their  adherents,  and  cursing 
their  rivals ;  and  when  the  councils  of 
Constance  and  Basil  had  challenged  and 


IJNF 


'    264 


INF 


exercised  the  right  of  deposing  and  elect- 
ing the  bishops  of  Rome,  then  their  pre- 
tensions to  infalUbility  were  called  in 
question,  and  the  world  discovered  that 
councils  were  a  jurisdiction  superior  to 
that  of  the  towering  pontiffs.  Then  it 
was  that  this  infallibility  was  transferred 
by  many  divines  from  popes  to  general 
councils,  and  the  opinion  of  the  superior 
authority  of  a  council  above  tliat  of  a 
pope  spread  vastly,  especially  under 
the  profligate  pontificate  of  Alexander 
VI.  and  the  martial  one  of  Julius  II. 
The  popes  were  thought  by  numbers 
to  be  too  unwoi-thy  possessors  of  so  rich 
a  jewel ;  at  the  same  time  it  appeared 
to  be  of  too  great  a  value,  and  of  too 
extensive  consequence,  to  be  parted 
with  entirely.  It  was,  therefore,  tjy  the 
major  part  of  the  Roman  church,  de- 
posited with,  or  made  the  property  of 
general  councils,  either  solely  or  con- 
jomtly  with  the  pope.  See  Smith's  Er- 
rors of  the  Church  of  Rome  detected; 
and  a  list  of  writers  under  article 
Popery. 

INFANT  COMMUNION,  the  ad- 
mission of  infants  to  the  ordinance  of 
the  Lord's  supper.  It  has  been  debated 
by  some,  whether  or  no  infants  shoidd 
be  admitted  to  this  ordinance.  One 
of  the  greatest  advocates  for  this  prac- 
tice was  Mr.  Pierce.  He  pleads  the 
use  of  it  even  unto  this  day  among  the 
Greeks,  and  in  the  Bohemian  churches 
till  near  the  time  of  the  reformation ; 
but  especially  from  the  custom  of  the 
ancient  churches,  as  it  appears  from 
many  passages  in  Photius,  Augustin, 
and  Cyprian.  But  Dr.  Doddridge  ob- 
sei-x'es,  that  Mr.  Pierce's  proof  from 
the  more  ancient  fathers  is  veiy  defec- 
tive. His  arguments  from  Scripture 
chiefly  depend  upon  this  general  me- 
dium ;  that  Christians  succeeding  to  the 
Jews  as  God's  people,  and  being  graft- 
ed upon  that  stock,  their  infants  have 
a  right  to  all  the  privileges  of  which 
they  are  capable,  till  forfeited  bv  some 
immoralities:  and  consequently  have 
a  right  to  pai'take  of  this  ordinance,  as 
the  Jewish  children  had  to  eat  of  the 
passover  and  other  sacrifices ;  besides 
this,  he  pleads  those  texts  which  speak 
of  the  Lord's  supper  as  received  by  all 
Christians. 

The  most  obvious  answer  to  all  this, 
is  that  which  is  taken  from  the  incapa- 
city of  infants  to  examine  tliemselves, 
and  discern  tlie  Lord's  body;  but  he 
answers  that  this  precept  is  only  given 
to  persons  capable  of  understanding  and 
complying  with  it,  as  those  whicJi  re- 
quire faith  in  order  to  baptism  are  in- 
terpreted by  the  Pjedo-baptists.    As  for 


his  argument  from  the  Jewish  children 
eating  the  sacrifice,  it  is  to  be  consider- 
ed that  this  was  not  required  as  circum- 
cision was ;  the  males  were  not  neces- 
sarily brought  to  the  temple  till  they 
were  twelve  years  old,  Luke  ii.  42.  and 
the  sacrifices  they  ate  of  were  chiefly 
peace-offerings,  which  became  the  com- 
mon food  to  all  that  were  clean  in  the 
family,  and  were  not  looked  upon  as 
acts  of  devotion  to  such  a  degree  as  our 
eucharist  is ;  though,  indeed,  thev  were 
a  token  of  their  acknowledging  the  di- 
vinity of  that  God  to  whom  they  had 
been  ofilered,  1  Cor.  x.  18.  and  even  the 
passover  was  a  commemoration  of  a 
temporal  deliverance  ;  nor  is  there  any 
reason  to  believe  that  its  reference  to 
the  Messiah  was  generally  understood 
by  the  Jews. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  ceitain  there 
would  be  more  danger  of  a  contempt 
arising  to  the  Lord's  supper  from  the 
admission  of  infants,  and  of  confusion 
and  trouble  to  other  communicants ;  to 
that  not  being  required  in  Sci-ipture,  it 
is  much  the  best  to  omit  it.  When 
children  are  grown  up  to  a  capacity 
of  behaving  decently,  they  may  soon  be 
insti'ucted  in  the  nature  and  design  of 
the  ordinance ;  and  if  they  appear  to 
understand  it,  and  behave  for  some 
competent  time  of  trial  in  a  manner 
suitable  to  that  profession,  it  would 
probably  be  advisable  to  admit  them  to 
communion,  though  veiy  3'Oung;  which, 
by  the  way,  might  be  a  good  security 
against  many  of  the  snares  to  which 
youth  are  exposed.  Dodd7'idge\<i  Lec- 
tures, lee.  207 ;  Pierce's  Essay  on  the 
Eucharist,  p.  7&,  &c. ;  Witsius  on  Cov. 
b.  4.  c.  17.  §  30,  32;  J.  Frid.  Mayer 
Diss,  de  Eucharistia  Lifantum ;  Zor- 
nius  Hist.  Eucharist.  Lifantum,  p.  IS  ; 
Theol.  and  Bib  Mag.  Jan.  and  April, 
1806. 

INFANTS,  sah'ation  of.  "Various 
opinions,"  says  an  acute  writer,  "con- 
cerning the  future  state  of  infants  have 
been  adopted..  Some  think,  all  dying  in 
infancy  are  annihilate<l ;  for,  say  they, 
infants,  being  incapable  of  moral  good 
or  e\'il,  are  not  proper  objects  oi  re- 
ward or  punishment.  Others  think 
that  they  share  a  fate  similar  to  adults  ; 
a  part  saved,  and  a  pait  perish.  Others 
affirm  all  are  saved  because  all  are  im- 
mortal and  all  are  innocent.  Others, 
pcr])lexed  with  these  diverse  senti- 
ments, tliink  better  to  leave  the  subject 
untouched.  Cold  comfort  to  parents 
who  bury  their  families  in  infancy !  The 
most  probable  opinion  seems  to  be,  that 
they  are  all  saved,  through  the  merits 
of  the  Mediator,  witli   an  everlasting 


INF 


265 


INF 


salvation.  This  has  nothing  in  it  con- 
trary to  tl\e  perfections  of  God,  or  to 
any  declaratinn  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  ; 
and  it  is  highly  agreeable  to  all  tho«e 
passages  which  ailirm  where  sin  hath 
abounded,  grace  hath  much  more 
abounded.  On  these  principles,  tlie 
death  of  Christ  saves  more  than  the  fall 
of  Adam  lost."  If  the  reader  be  desi- 
rous of  examining  the  subject,  we  re- 
fer him  to  p.  415,  vol.  ii.  Robinson's 
Claudp;  Gillard  and  WiUiains's  Essays 
on  Infant  Salvation  ;  An  Attempt  to 
elucidate  Rom.  v.  12,  by  an  anonymous 
writer;  Watts's  Rniri  and  Recovery, 
p.  324,  327 ;  Ednvards  on  Original  Sin, 
p.  431,  434 ;  Doddridge's  Lect.  lect. 
168  ;  Ridgley's  Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  p. 
330  to  336. 

INFIDELITY,  want  of  faith  in  God, 
or  the  disbelief  of  the  ti-uths  of  revela- 
tion, and  the  great  principles  of  reli- 
gion.   If  we  enquire  into  the  rise  of  infi- 
delity, we  shall  find  it  does  not  take  its 
origin  from  the  result  of  sober  enquiry, 
close  investigation,  or  full   conviction ; 
but  it  is  rather,  as  one  observes,  "  The 
slow  production  of  a  careless  and  irre- 
ligious life,  operating  together  with  pre- 
judices and  erroneous  conceptions  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  the  leading  doc- 
trines of  Christianity.    It  may,  there- 
fore, be  laid  down  as  an  axiom,  that 
infidelity  is,  i?i  general,  a  disease  of  the 
heart  more  than  of  the  understanding  ; 
for  we   always  find  that  infidelity  m- 
creases  in  proportion   as   the    general 
morals  decline.    If  we  consider  the  na- 
ture and   effect  of   this  principle,   we 
shall  find  that  it  sub-\'erts  the  whole 
foundation  of  morals;  it  tends  directly 
to  the  destniction  of  a  taste  for  mora! 
excellence,  and  promotes  the  gi'owth  of 
those  vices  which  are  the  most  hostile 
to  social  happiness,   especially  vanity, 
ferocity,  and  unbridled  sensuality.    As 
to  the  progress  of  it,  it  is  certain  that, 
of  late  years,  it  has  made  rapid  strides. 
Lord  Herbert  did  not,  indeed,  so  much 
impugn  the  doctrine  or  the  morality  of 
the  Scriptures,  as  attempt  to  supersede 
their  necessity,  by  endeavouring  to  show 
that  the  great  principles  of  the  unity  of 
God,  a  moral  government,  and  a  future 
world,  are  taught  with  sufficient  clear- 
ness by  the  light  of  nature.  Bolingbroke, 
and  others  ot  his  successors,  advanced 
much  farther,  and  attempted  to  in\'ali- 
date  the  proofs  of  the  moral  character 
of  the  Deity,  and  consequently  all  ex- 
pectation of  rewards  and  punishments, 
leaving  the  Supreme   Being  no  other 
perfections  than  those  which  belong  to 
a  first  cause,  or  Almighty  contriver. 
After  him,  at  a  considei'able  distance, 


followed  Hume,  the  most  subtle  of  all, 
who  boldly  aimed  to  introduce  an  uni- 
\'ersal  scepticism,  and  to  pour  a  more 
than  Egvptian  darkness  into  the  whole 
region  of  morals.  Since  his  time,  scep- 
tical writers  have  sprung  up  in  abun- 
dance, and  infidelity  has  allured  multi- 
tudes to  its  standard;  the  young  and 
supei-ficial,  by  its  dexterous  sophistry  ; 
the  vain,  by  the  literary  fame  of  its 
cl\ampion ;  and  the  profligate,  by  the 
licentiousness  of  its  principles."  But  let 
us  ask.  What  will  be  its  end  ?  Is  there 
any  thing  in  the  genius  of  this  principle 
that  will  lead  us  to  suppose  it  will  reign 
triumphant  ?  So  far  from  it,  we  have 
reason  to  believe  that  it  will  be  banished 
from  the  earth.  Its  inconsistency  with 
reason  ;  its  incongruity  with  the  nature 
of  man ;  its  cloudy  and  obscure  pros- 
pects ;  its  unsatisfying  nature  ;  its  op- 
position to  the  dictates  of  conscience; 
Its  pernicious  tendency  to  eradicate 
every  just  principle  from  the  brea:it  of 
man,  and  to  lead  the  way  for  every  spe- 
cies of  vice  and  immorality,  show  us 
that  it  cannot  flourish,  but  must  finally 
fall.  And,  as  Mr.  Hall  justly  obsen-es, 
"  We  have  nothing  to  fear ;  for,  to  an 
attentive  oI)server  of  the  signs  of  the 
times,  it  will  a^ipear  one  of  the  most  ex- 
traordinary phenomena  of  this  eventful 
crisis,  that,  amidst -the  ravages  of  athe- 
ism and  infidelity,  real  religion  is  on  the 
increase  ;  for  while  infidelity  is  marking 
its  progress  by  devastation  and  ruin,  by 
the  prostration  of  thrones  and  concus- 
sion of  kingdoms,  thus  appalling  the  in- 
habitants of  the  world,  and  compelling 
them  to  take  refuge  in  the  church  of 
God,  the  true  sanctuary  ;  the  stream  of 
divine  knowledge,  unobserved,  is  flow- 
ing in  new  channels ;  winding  its  course 
among  humble  valleys,  refreshing  thirsty 
deserts,  and  enriching,  with  far  other 
and  higher  blessings  than  those  of  com- 
merce, the  most  distant  climes  and  na- 
tions ;  until,  agreeably  to  the  prediction 
of  prophecy,  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord 
shall  fill  and  cover  the  whole  earth." 
See  Hall's  admirable  Sermon  on  Infi- 
delity ;  Fuller's  Gospel  of  Christ  its 
oivn  Witness;  Bishop  iVatson's  Apo- 
logy for  the  Bible  ;  Wilberforce's  Prac-' 
tical  View,  §  3.  ch.  7  ;  Bp.  Home's  Let- 
ters on  Infidelity,  and  books  under  arti- 
cle Deism. 

INFIRMITY,  applied  to  the  mind, 
denotes  frailtv,  weakness.  It  has  been 
a  question  what  may  properly  be  deno- 
minated sins  of  infirmity. 

1.  Nothing,  it  is  said,  can  be  excused 

under  that  name  which  at  the  time  of 

its  commission  is  knonvn  to  be  a  sin. — 2. 

Nothing  can  be  called  a  sin  of  infirmity 

1.1 1 


INF 


266 


ING 


which  is  contran'  to  the  express  letter 
of  any  of  the  commandments. — 3.  No- 
thing will  admit  of  a  just  and  sufficient 
excuse  upon  the  account  of  infirmity 
which  a  mun  beforehand  considers  and 
deliberates  with  himself,  whether  it  be 
a  sin  or  no.  A  sin  of  infirmity  is,  1. 
Such  a  failing  as  proceeds  from  excusa- 
ble ignorance. — 2.  Or  luiavoidable  sur-  I 
prise. — 3.  Or  want  of  courage  and  i 
strength,  Rom.  xv.  1.  | 

B^- infirmity  also  we  understand  the  1 
corniptions  that  are  still  left  in  the  heart  j 
(notwithstanding  a  person  may  be  sane-  | 
tified  in  part,)  and  which  sometimes  i 
break  out.  These  may  be  peiTnitted  to  , 
humble  us  ;  to  animate  our  vigilance  ;  i 
perhaps  that  newly  convinced  sinners  i| 
might  not  be  discouraged  by  a  sight  of  J 
such  perfection  they  miglit  despair  of'| 


ever  attaining  to;  to  keep  us  prayerful  j. 
and  dependent ;  to  prevent  those  h'v 
nours  which  some  would  be  ready  to 
give  to  human  nature  rather  than  to 
God  ;  and,  lastly,  to  excite  in  us  a  con- 
tinual desire  for  heaven.  Let  us  be  cau- 
tious and  watchful,  however,  against  sin 
in  all  its  ft)rms  :  for  it  argues  a  deplora- 
ble state  of  mind  v.hen  men  love  to  prac- 
tise sin,  and  then  lay  it  upon  constitu- 
tion, the  infirmity  of  nature,  the  decree 
of  God,  the  influence  of  Satan,  and  thus 
attempt  to  excuse  themselves  by  say- 
ing they  could  not  avoid  it.  Clarke'n, 
Serm.  scr.  12,  vol.  ix.  MassUoii^s  Serm. 
vol.  ii.  p.  213,  Eng.  trans. 

INFINITY.    Infinity  is  taken  m  two  ;j 
senses  entirely  different,  i.  e.  in  a  posi-  l 
live  and  a  negative  one.    Positive  infi- 
nity  is  a  quality  of  being  perfect  in  itself,  j 
or  capable  of  receiving  no  addition.  JVe-  I 
gative  is  the  quality  of  being  boundless,  I 
unlimited,  or  endless.     That  God  is  in-  J 
finite  is  evident ;  for  as  Doddridge  ob- 
serves, 1.  If  he  be  limited,  it  must  either 
be  by  himself,  or  by  another;  but  no 
wise  being  would  abridge  himself,  and 
thei'e  could  be  no  other  being  to  limit  | 
God. — 2.  Infinity  follows  from  self-ex-  ' 
isteaice  ;  for  a  necessity  that  is  not  uni- 
versal must  depend  on  some  external  ! 
cause,  which  a  self-existent  Being  does  ; 
not. — 3.  Ci'eation  is  so  great  an  act  of  | 
power,  that  we  can  imagine  nothing  im-  l 
possible  to  that  Being  who  has  pei-form-  :' 
ed  it,  but  must  therefore  ascribe  to  him  |! 
infinite  powei-. — 4.  It  is  more  honoura-  J 
ble  to  the  Divine  Being  to  conceive  of  1 
him    as    infin'te,   than    finite. — 5.   The  j 
Scriptures  rejjresent  all  his  attributes  as  ^ 
infinite.     His  understanding  is  infinite,  i| 
Psal.  cxlvii.  5.    His  knowledge  and  wis-  ij 
dom,  Rom.  xi.  33.     His  power,  Rom.  i.  I 
20.  Ileb.  xi.  3.    His  goodness,  Psal.  xvi.  || 
2.    His  purity,  holiness,  and  justicQ,  Job  J; 


iv.  17,  18.  Isa.  vi.  2,  3. — 6.  His  omnipo- 
tence and  eternity  prove  his  infinity ; 
for  were  he  not  infinite,  he  would  be 
bounded  by  space  and  by  time,  which 
he  is  not.  Doddridge's  Led.  lee.  49 ; 
If'atts's  Ontologti,  ch.  17;  Locke  on  Un- 
dcrst.  vol.  i.  ch.  17 ;  Hoive'^s  Works,  vol. 
i.  p.  63,  64.  67. 

INFLUENCES,  DIVINE,  a  term 
made  use  of  to  denote  the  operations  of 
the  Divine  Being  upon  the  mind.  This 
doctrine  of  divine  influences  has  been 
much  called  in  question  of  late  ;  but  we 
may  ask,  1.  What  doctrine  can  be  more 
reasonable  ?  "  The  operations  Avhich 
the  power  of  God  can-ies  on  in  the. 
natural  world  are  no  less  mysterious 
than  those  which  the  Spirit  performs 
in  the  moral  world.  If  men,  by  their 
councils  and  suggestions,  can  influence 
the  minds  of  one  another,  must  not  di- 
vine suggestion  produce  a  much  greater 
effect  ^  Sui-ely  the  Father  of  spirits,  by 
a  thousand  ways,  has  access  to  the  spi- 
rits he  has  made,  so  as  to  give  them 
what  determination,  or  impart  to  them 
what  assistance  he  thinks  proper,  with- 
out injuring  their  frame  or  disturbing 
their  rational  powers." 

We  may  observe,  2.  Nothing  can  be 
more  scri/itural.  Eminent  men  from 
the  patriarchal  age  down  to  St.  John, 
the  latest  writer,  believed  in  this  doc- 
trine, and  ascribed  their  religious 'feel- 
ings to  this  source.  Our  Lord  strongly 
and  repeatedly  inculcated  this  truth  ; 
and  that  he  did  not  mean  miraculous, 
but  moral  influences  of  the  Spirit,  is  evi- 
dent, John  iii.  3.  Matt.  vii.  22,  23.  John 
vi.  44,  46.  See  also,  John  xii.  32,  40. 
Rom.  viii.  9.  1  Cor.  ii.  14. — 3.  And  we 
may  add,  nothing  can  be  more  necessari/, 
if  we  consider  the  natural  depravity  of 
the  heart,  and  the  insufficiency  of  all 
human  means  to  render  ourselves  either 
holy  or  happv  without  a  supernatural 
power.  See  JViUiams's  Historic  Defence 
of  E.v/ieri?}iental  Religion  ;  Williams^s 
^^nswer  to  Belsham,  let.  13  ;  Hurrion's 
Se7-mons  on  the  Spirit ;  Owen  on  the 
Spirit. 

INGHAMITES  ;  a  denomination  of  • 
Calvinistic  dissenters,  who  arc  tlie  fol- 
lowers of  B.  Ingham,  esq.  who  in  the 
last  century  was  a  character  of  gi-eat 
note  in  the  north  of  England.  About  the 
year  1735,  Mr.  Ingham  was  at  Queen's 
college  with  Mr.  Hervey  and  other 
friends,  but  soon  afterwards  adopted  the  • 
rcligicnis  opinions  and  zeal  of  V\'esley 
and  \\'hitheld.  We  do  not  know  the 
cause  of  his  .separation  fj"om  these  emi- 
nent men  ;  but  it  seems  in  a  h  w  years 
afterwards  he'  became  tlie  leader  of 
many  numerous  societies,  distinct  from 


INJ 


261 


INJ 


the  methodists.  They  received  then- 
members  by  lot,  and  required  them  to 
declare  before  the  church  their  c.7^/>e- 
riertce,  that  the  whole  society  might 
judge  of  the  gracious  change  which  had 
been  wrought  upon  their  hearts.  It 
ha})pened  in  a  few  years,  that  some  in- 
dividuals, who  were  much  respected, 
and  who  applied  for  admission,  instead 
of  speaking  t)f  their  own  attainmeuts,  or 
the  comfortable  impressions  on  their 
minds,  which  thev  only  considered  as 
productive  of  sti-ife  and  vain  glory,  de- 
clared their  onlv  hope  was  the  finished 
work  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  as  to  them- 
selves thev  were  sensible  of  their  own 
vikness.  Such  confessions  as  this  threw 
the  congregation  into  some  confusion, 
which  was  considerably  increased  when 
they  found,  that,  on  their  having  re- 
course as  usual  to  the  lot,  that  there 
were  votes  against  their  admission, 
which  was  considered  as  a  rejection 
from  the  Lord.  On  this  they  were  led 
to  examine  more  particularly  both  their 
church  order  and. doctrines.  After  this 
time,  Mr.  Ingham  became  much  more 
orthodox  in  his  sentiments,  and  new- 
modelled  his  churches.  The  book  which 
he  published  is  in  genei'al  well  thought 
of  by  the  Independents.  He  contends 
\  ery  strongly  for  salvation  by  the  impu- 
tation of  Christ's  righteousness ;  and  as 
to  doctrine,  the  chief  point  wherein  the 
Iiighamites  differ  from  the  Indepen- 
dents, is  respecting  the  Trinity.  The 
common  manner  of  sneaking  of  the  Di- 
vine Three  as  distinct  persons,  they  de- 
cisively condemn.  They  do  not  consider 
a  plurality  of  elders  as  necessary  in  a 
church  to'  administer  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per. In  other  respects  they  much  es- 
teem the  writings  of  Mr.  R.  Sandeman. 
Their  numbers  have  not  been  so  nume- 
rous since  they  became  more  strict  in 
their  public  worship. 

INGRATITUDE,  the  vice  of  being 
insensible  to  favours  received,  without 
any  endeavour  to  acknowledge  and  re- 
pay them.  It  is  sometimes  applied  to 
the  act  of  returning  evil  for  good.  In- 
gratitude, it  is  said,  is  no  passion :  foi- 
the  God  of  nature  has  appointed  no 
motion  of  the  spirits  whereby  it  might 
be  excited  ;  it  is,  therefore,  a  mere  vice, 
arising  from  pride,  stupidity,  or  nar- 
rowness of  soul. 

INIQUITY.    See  Sin. 

INJURY,  a  violation  of  the  rights  of 
another.  Some,  says  Grove,  distinguish 
between  injustitia  and  injuria.  Injus- 
tice is  opposed  to  justice  in  general, 
whether  negative  or  positive  ;  an  injury 
to  negative  justice  alone.  See  Justice. 
An  injury,  is  wilfully  doing  to  another 


what  ought  not  to  be  done.  Tills  is  in- 
justice, too,  but  not  the  whole  idea  of 
it ;  for  it  is  injustice,  also  to  refuse  or 
neglect  doing  what  ought  to  be  done. 
An  injury  must  be  wilfully  committed  ; 
whereas  it  is  enough  to  make  a  thing 
unjust,  that  it  happens  through  a  culpa- 
ble negligence.  1.  iVe  may  injure  a  per- 
son in  his  soul,  by  misleading  his  judg- 
ment ;  by  corrupting  the  imagination ; 
perverting  the  will ;  and  wounding  the 
soul  with  grief.  Persecutors  who  suc- 
ceed in  their  compulsive  measures, 
though  thev  cannot  alter  the  real  senti- 
ments by  external  violence,  yet  some- 
times injure  the  soul  by  making  the  man 
a  hypocrite. — 2.  IVe  ?nau  injure  ano- 
ther ill  his  body,  by  homicide,  murder, 
preventing  life,  dismembering  the  body 
by  wounds,  blows,  slavery,  and  impri- 
sonment, or  any  unjust  restraint  upon 
its  liberty ;  by  robbing  it  of  its  chastitj--, 
or  prejudicing  its  health. — 3.  IVe  may 
injure  another  in  his  name  and  charac- 
ter, by  our  own  false  and  rash  judg- 
ments' of  him  ;  by  false  witness ;  by 
charging  a  man  to  his  face  with  a  crime 
which  either  we  ourselves  have  forged, 
or  which  we  know  to  have  been  fot'ged 
bv  some  other  person  ;  by  detraction  or 
backbiting ;  bv  reproach,  or  exposing 
another  for  some  natural  imbecility  ei- 
thei-  in  hn&v  or  mind  ;  or  for  some  ca- 
lamity' into  which  he  is  faliert,  or  some 
miscarriage  of  which  he  has  been  guilty ; 
by  inueudos,  or  indirect  acci^sations  that 
are  not  true.  Now  if  we  consider  the 
value  of  character,  t\\crescnt7nen.t  which 
the  injurious  person  has  of  such  treat- 
ment when  it  comes  to  his  own  turn  to 
sufl'er  it,  the  consequence  of  a  man's 
losing  his  good  name,  and  finally,  the 
difficulty  of  making  reparation,  we 
must  at  once  see  the  injustice  of  lessen- 
ing another's  good  character.  There 
are  these  two  considerations  which 
should  sometimes  restrain  us  from 
speaking  the  whole  truth  of  our  neigh- 
bour, when  it  is  to  his  disadvantage. 
(1.)  That  he  may  possibly  live  to  see  his 
folly,  and  repent  and  grow  better. — (2.) 
Admitting  that  we  speak  the  truth,  yet 
it  is  a  thousand  to  one  but,  when  it  is 
handed  about  for  some  time,  it  will  con- 
tract a  deal  of  falsehood. — 4.  We  may 
injure  a  fierson  in  his  relatio?is  and  de- 
/lendencies.  In  his  servants,  by  corrupt- 
ing them ;  in  his  children,  by  drawing 
them  into  evil  courses  ;  in  his  wife,  by 
sowing  strife,  attempting  to  alienate  her 
affections. — 5.  JFe  may  be  s^uilty  of  in- 
juriiiff  another  in  his  worldly  g'oods  or 
'/wssessions.  1.  By  doing  him  a  mis- 
chief, without  any  advantage  to  ouiv 
selves,  through  envy  and  malice. — 2.  By 


INQ 


268 


INQ 


taking  what  is  another's,  which  is  theft. 
See  Grove's  Mori  Phil.  ch.  8,  p.  2; 
IVdUs's  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  ser.  33 ;  TU- 
lotson's  S(-rmo7is,  ser.  42. 

INJURIES,  Forgive72ess  of.  See 
Forgiveness. 

INJUSTICE.    See  Injury. 

INNOCENCE,  acting  in  perfect 
consonance  to  the  law,  without  incur- 
ring guilt  or  consequent  punishment. 
See  Man. 

INQUISITION,  in  the  church  of 
Rome,  a  tribunal,  in  several  Roman  ca- 
tholic countries,  erected  by  the  popes 
for  the  examination  and  punishment  of 
heretics.  This  court  was  founded  in  the 
twelfth  century,  under  the  patronage  of 
pope  Innocent,  who  issued  out  orders 
to  excite  the  catholic  princes  and  peo- 
ple to  extirpate  heretics,  to  search  into 
their  number  and  quality,  and  to  ti'ans- 
mit  a  faithful  account  thereof  to  Rome. 
Hence  they  were  called  inquisitors,  and 
gave  birth  to  this  formidable  tribunal, 
called  the  Inquisition.  That  nothing 
might  be  wanting  to  render  this  spiritual 
court  formidable  and  tremendous,  the 
Roman  pontiffs  persuaded  the  Euro- 
pean prmces,  and  more  especially  the 
empei'or  Frederick  II.  and  Lewis  IX. 
king  of  France,  not  only  to  enact  the 
most  barbarous  laws  against  heretics, 
and  to  commit  to  the  flames,  by  the  mi- 
nistry of  public  justice,  those  who  were 
pronounced  sucli  by  the  inquisitors,  but 
also  to  maintain  the  inquisitors  in  their 
office,  and  grant  them  their  protection 
in  the  most  open  and  solemn  manner. 
The  edicts  to  this  purpose  issued  out  by 
Frederick  II.  are  well  known ;  edicts 
sufficient  to  have-  excited  the  greatest 
horror,  and  whicti  rendered  the  most  il- 
lustrious piety  and  virtue  incapable  of 
sa\ing  from  the  cruellest  death  such  as 
had  the  misfortune  to  be  disagreeable  to 
the  inquisitors.  These  abominable  laws 
were  not,  however,  sufficient  to  restrain 
the  just  indignation  of  the  people  against 
those  inhuman  judges,  whose  barbarity 
was  accompanied  with  superstition  and 
arrogance,  with  a  spirit  of  suspicion  and 
pei-fidy ;  nay,  even  with  temerity  and 
imprudence.  Accordingly,  they  were 
insulted  by  the  multitude  in  many  places, 
were  driven  in  an  ignominious  manner 
out  of  some  cities,  and  were  put  to  death 
in  others ;  and  Conrad,  of  Marpurg, 
the  first  Gcman  inquisitor  who  derived 
his  commission  from  Gregmy  IX.  was 
one  of  the  many  victims  tnat  were  sa- 
crificed on  this  occasion  to  the  ven- 
geance of  the  public,  which  his  incredi- 
ble barbarities  ha\l  raised  to  a  dreadful 
degree  of  vehemence  and  fury. 
This  diabolical  ti"S((niial  takes  cogni- 


zance of  heresy,  Judaism,  Mahometan- 
ism,  sodomy,  and  polygamy ;  and  the 
people  stand  in  so  much  fear  of  it,  that 

Earents  deliver  up  their  children,  hus- 
ands  their  wives,  and  masters  their 
servants,  to  its  officers,  without  daring 
in  the  least  to  murmur.  The  prisoners 
are  kept  for  a  long  time,  till  they  them- 
selves turn  their  own  accusers,  and  de- 
clare fhe  cause  of  their  imprisonment, 
for  which  they  are  neither  told  their 
crime,  nor  confronted  with  witnesses. 
As  soon  as  they  are  imprisoned,  their 
friends  go  into  mourning,  and  speak  of 
them  as  dead,  not  daring  to  solicit  their 
pardon,  lest  they  should  be  brought  in 
as  accomplices.  When  there  is  no  sha- 
dow of  proof  against  the  pretended  cri- 
minal, he  is  discharged,  after  suffering 
the  most  cruel  tortures,  a  tedious  and 
dreadful  imprisonment,  and  the  loss  of 
the  greatest  part  of  his  effects.  The 
sentence  against  prisoners  is  pronounced 
publicly,  and  with  extraordinary  so- 
lemnity. In  Portugal  they  erect  a 
theatre  capable  of  holding  three  thou- 
sand persons,  in  which  they  place  a  rich 
altar,  and  raise  seats  on  each  side,  in 
the  form  of  an  amphitheatre.  There  the 
prisoners  are  placed,  and  over  against 
them  is  a  high  chair,  whither  they  are 
called  one  by  one  to  hear  their  doom 
from  one  of  the  inquisitors.  These  un- 
happy persons  know  what  they  are  to 
suffer  by  the  clothes  they  wear  that 
day :  those  who  appear  in  their  own 
clothes  are  discharged  on  paying  a  fine ; 
those  who  have  a  sa?ito  benito,  or  strait 
yellow  coat  without  sleeves,  charged 
with  St.  Andrew's  cross,  have  their 
lives,  but  forfeit  all  their  effects ;  those 
who  have  the  resemblance  of  flames 
made  of  red  serge  sewed  upon  their 
santo  benito,  without  any  cross,  are  par- 
doned, but  thi'eatened  to  be  burnt  if 
ever  they  relapse ;  but  those  who,  be- 
sides those  flames,  have  on  their  santo 
benito  their  own  picture  surrounded 
with  devils,  are  condemned  to  expire  in 
the  flames.  The  inquisitors,  who  are 
ecclesiasj;ics,  do  not  pronounce  the  sen- 
tence of  death,  but  form  and  read  aa 
act,  in  which  they  say,  that  the  crimi- 
nal, being  convicted  of  such  a  crime,  by 
his  own  confession,  is  with  much  re- 
luctance, delivered  to  the  secular  power, 
to  be  punished  according  to  his  de- 
merits :  and  this  writing  they  give  to 
the  seven  judges,  who  attend  at  the  right 
side  of  the  altar,  and  immediately  pass 
sentence.  For  the  conclusion  of  this 
horrid  scene,  see  Act  of  Faith.  We 
rejoice  however,  to  hear,  that  in  many 
Roman  Catholic  countries,  the  inquisi- 
tion is  now  shut.    May  the  God  of  mer- 


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cv  and  love  prevents  its  ever  being  em-  j 
ployed  again  !  See  Baker's  History  of 
the  Inquisition  ;  and  Limborch's  His- 
tory of  the  Inquisition,  translated  by  I 
Chandler;  a  View  of  the  Inquisition  in 
Portugal  in  Geddes^s  Tracts;  Lavalle's 
History  of  the  Inquisition. 

INSPIRATION,  the  conveying  of 
certain  extraordinary  and  supernatural 
notions  or  motions  into  the  soul ;  or  it 
denotes  any  supernatural  influence  of 
God  upon  the  mind  of  a  rational  crea- 
ture, whereby  he  is  formed  to  any  de- 
gree of  intellectual  improvement,  to 
which  he  could  not,  or  would  not,  in 
fact,  have  attained  in  his  present  cir- 
cumstances in  a  natural  way.  Thus  the 
prophets  are  said  to  have  spoken  by  di- 
vine inspiration.  1.  An  inspiration  of 
siifierintcndency,  in  which  God  does  so 
influence  and  "direct  the  mind  of  any 
person  as  to  keep  him  more  secure 
from  error  in  some  various  and  com- 
plex discourse,  than  he  would  have  been 
merely  by  the  use  of  his  natural  facul- 
ties.— 2.  Plenary  superintendent  insfii- 
ration,  which  excludes  any  mixture  of 
eiTor  at  all  from  the  performance  so  su- 
perintended.— 3.  Ins/iiratioii  of  eleva- 
tion, where  the  faculties  act  iii  a  regu- 
lar, and,  as  it  seems,  in  a  common  man- 
ner, yet.  are  raised  to  an  extraordinary 
degree,  so  that  the  composure  shall, 
upon  the  whole,  have  more  of  the  true 
sublime  or  pathetic  than  natural  genius 
could  have  given. — 4.  Inspiration  of 
suggestion,  where  tlie  use  of  the  facul- 
ties is  superseded,  and  God  does,  as  it 
■were,  speak  directly  to  the  mind,  ma- 
kuig  such  discoveries  to  it  as  it  could 
not  otherwise  have  obtained,  and  dicta- 
ting the  very  words  in  which  such  dis- 
coveries are  to  be  communicated,  if 
they  are  designed  as  a  message  to 
others.  It  is  generally  allowed  that  the 
Scriptures  were  written  by  divine  in- 
spiration. The  matter  of  them,  the  spi- 
rituality and  elevation  of  their  design, 
the  majesty  and  simplicity  of  their  style, 
the  agreement  of  their  various  parts; 
their  wonderful  efficacy  on  mankind ; 
the  candour,  disinterestedness,  and  up- 
rightness of  the  penmen;  their  asto- 
nishing preservation ;  the  multitude  of 
miracles  wrought  in  confirmation  of  tlie 
doctrines  they  contain,  and  the  exact 
fulfilment  of  their  predictions,  prove 
this.  It  has  been  disputed,  however, 
whether  this  inspiration  is  m  the  most 
absolute  sense,  plenary.  As  this  is  a 
subject  of  impoitance,  and  ought  to  be 
carefully  studied  by  every  Christian,  in 
order  that  he  may  render  a  reason  of 
the  hope  that  is  in  him,  I  shall  here  sub- 
join the  remarks  of  an  able  writer,  who, 


though  he  may  differ  from  some  others 
as  to  the  terms  made  use  of  above,  yet 
I  am  persuaded  his  arguments  will  be 
found  weighty  and  powerful.  "  There 
are  many  things  in  the  Scriptures," 
says  Mr.  Dick,  "which  the  writers 
might  have  known,  and  probably  did 
know,  by  ordinary  means.  As  persons 
possessed  of  memory,  judgment,  and 
other  intellectual  faculties,  which  are 
common  to  men,  they  were  able  to  re- 
late certain  events  in  which  they  had 
been  personally  concerned,  and  to  make 
such  occasional  reflections  as  were  sug- 
gested by  particular  subjects  and  oc- 
currences. In  these  cases  no  superna- 
tural influence  was  necessary  to  invigo- 
rate their  minds ;  it  was  only  necessary 
that  they  should  be  infallibly  preserved 
frorri  error.  It  is  with  respect  to  such 
passages  of  Scripture  alone,  as  did  not 
exceed  the  natural  ability  of  the  writers 
to  compose,  that  I  would  admit  the  no- 
tion of  superintendence,  if  it  should  be 
admitted'  at  all.  Perhaps  tliis  word, 
though  of  established  use  and  almost  un- 
disputed authority,  should  be  entirely 
laid  aside,  as  insufficient  to  express  even 
the  lowest  degree  of  hispiration.  In  the 
passages  of  Scripture  which  we  are  now 
consiclering,  I  concei\  e  the  writers  to 
have  been  not  merely  superintended, 
that  they  might  commit  no  eiTor,  but 
likewise  to  ha^  e  been  moved  or  excited 
by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  record  particular 
events,  and  set  down  particular  obser- 
vations. The  passages  written  in  con- 
sequence of  the  direction  and  under  the 
care  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  may  be  said, 
in  an  inferior  sense,  to  be  inspired ; 
whereas  if  the  men  had  written  them 
at  the  suggestion  of  their  own  spirit, 
they  would  not  have  possessed  any 
more  authority  though  they  had  been 
free  from  error,  than  those  parts  of 
profane  writings  which  are  agreeable 
to  tnith. 

2.  "There  are  other  parts  of  the 
Scriptures  in  which  the  faculties  of  the 
writers  were  supematurally  invigora- 
ted and  elevated.  It  is  impossible  for 
us,  and  perhaps  it  was  not  possible  for 
the  inspired  person  himself,  to  deter- 
mine where  nature  ended  and  inspira- 
tion began.  It  is  enough  to  know,  that 
there  are  many  parts  of  Scripture  in 
which,  though  the  unassisted  mind 
might  have  proceeded  some  steps,  a 
divine  impulse  was  necessaiy  to  enable 
it  to  advance.  I  think,  for  example,  that 
the  evangelists  could  not  ha\'e  writ- 
ten the  history  of  Christ  if  they  had 
not  enjoyed  miraculous  aid.  Two  of 
them,  Matthew  and  John,  accompanied 
oux'  Saviour  during  the  space  ot  three 


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X  fears  and  a  half.  At  the  cl(»?e  of  this 
period,  or  rather  several  years  after  it, 
when  they  wrote  their  Gospels,  we  may 
be  certain  that  they  had  forgotten  niany 
of  his  discourses  and  miracles ;  that  they 
recollected  others  indistinctly ;  and  that 
they  would  have  been  in  danger  of  pro- 
ducing an  inaccurate  and  mifair  account, 
by  confounding  one  thing  with  another. 
Besides,  from  so  lai-ge  a  mass  of  par- 
ticulai's,  men  of  uncultivated  mnids, 
■who  were  not  in  the  habit  of  distin- 
guishing and  classifying,  could  not  have 
made  a  proper  selection ;  nor  would 
persons  unskilled  in  the  art  of  compo- 
sition have  been  able  to  express  them- 
selves in  such  terms  as  should  insure  a 
f3.ithful  representation  of  doctrines  and 
facts,  and  with  such  dignity  as  the  na- 
ture of  the  subject  required.  A  divine 
influence,  therefore,  must  have  been 
exerted  on  their  minds,  by  which  their 
memories  and  judgments  were  strength- 
ened, and  they  were  enabled  to  relate 
the  doctrines  and  miracles  of  their  Mas- 
ter in  a  manner  the  best  fitted  to  im- 
press the  readers  of  their  histories.  The 
promise  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  bring  to 
their  remembrance  all  things  whatso- 
ever Christ  had  said  to  them,  proves, 
that,  in  writing  their  histories,  their 
mental  powers  were  endowed,  by  his 
agency,  with  more  than  usual  vigouf. 

"  Farther;  it  must  be  allowed  that  in 
several  passages  of  Scripture  there  is 
found  such  elevation  of  thought  and  of 
style,  as  clearly  shows  that  the  powers 
nf  the  writers  were  raised  above  their 
ordinary  pitch.  If  a  pei-son  of  moderate 
talents  should  give  as  elevated  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  majesty  and  attributes  of 
God,  or  I'eason  as  profoundly  on  the  mys- 
terious doctrines  of  religion,  as  a  man 
of  the  most  exalted  genius  and  exten- 
sive learning,  we  could  not  fail  to  be 
convinced  that  he  was  supernaturally 
assisted;  and  the  conviction  would  be 
still  stronger,  if  his  composition  shoyld 
far  transcend  the  highest  efforts  of  the 
human  mind.  Some  of  the  sacred  wri- 
ters were  taken  from  the  lowest  ranks 
of  life  ;  and  yet  sentiments  so  dignified, 
and  representations  of  divine  things  so 
grand  and  majestic,  occur  in  their  wri- 
tings, that  the  noblest  flights  of  human 
genius,  when  compared  with  them,  ap- 
pear cold  and  insipid. 

3.  "It  is  manifest,  with  respect  to 
many  passages  of  Scripture,  that  the 
subjects  of  Avhich  they  treat  must  have 
been  directly  revealed  to  the  writers. 
Tliey  could  not  have  been  known  by 
any  natural  means,  nor  was  the  know- 
ledge of  them  attainable  by  a  simple 
elevation  of  the  faculties.     With   the 


faculties  of  an  angel  we  could  not  dis- 
cover the  purposes  of  the  divine  mind. 
This  degree  of  inspiration  we  attribute 
to  those  who  were  empowered  to  reveal 
heavenly  mysteries, '  which  eye  had  not 
seen,  and  ear  had  not  heard,'  to  those 
who  were  sent  with  particular  messages 
from  God  to  his  people,  and  to  those 
who  were  employed  to  predict  future 
events.  Tlie  plan  of  redemption  being 
an  effect  of  the  sovereign  councils  of 
heaven,  it  could  not  have  been  known 
but  by  a  communication  from  the  Fa- 
ther of  Lights. 

"This  kind  of  inspiration  has  been 
called  the  inspiration  of  suggestion.  It 
is  needless  to  dispute  about  a  woi'd ; 
but  suggestion  seeming  to  express  an 
operation  on  the  mind,  by  which  ideas 
are  excited  in  it,  is  of  too  limited  signi- 
fication to  denote  the  various  modes  in 
which  the  prophets  and  apostles  were 
made  acquainted  with  supernatural 
truths.  God  revealed  himself  to  them 
not  only  by  suggestion,  but  by  dreams, 
visions,  voices,  and  the  ministry  of  an- 
gels. This  degree  of  inspiration,  in  strict 
propriety  of  speech  should  be  called 
revelation ;  a  word  preferable  to  sug- 
gestion, because  it  is  expi'essive  of  all 
the  ways  in  wiiich  God  communicated 
new  ideas  to  the  minds  of  his  servants. 
It  is  a  word,  too,  chosen  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  himself,  to  signify  the  discovery 
of  truths  fo!-merly  unknown  to  the  apos- 
tles. The  last  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, which  is  a  collection  of  prophe- 
cies, is  called  the  Revelation  of  Jesus 
Christ.  Paul  says,  that  he  received  the 
Gospel  by  revelation;  that  'by  revela- 
tion the  mystery  was  made  known  to 
him,  which  in  other  ages  was  not  made 
known  unto  the  sons  of  men,  as  it  was 
then  revealed  unto  his  holy  apostles  and 
prophets  by  the  Spirit :'  and  in  another 
place,  having  observed  that  'eye  had 
not  seen,  nor'ear  heard,  neither  had  en- 
tered into  the  heart  of  man  the  things 
which  God  had  prepared  for  them  that 
love  him,'  he  adds,  "  But  God  hath  re- 
vealed them  unto  us  by  his  Spirit,"  Rev. 
i.  1.  Gal.  i.  12.  Eph.  ii.  5.  1  Cor.  ii. 
9,  10. 

"I  have  not  names  to  designate  the 
other  two  kinds  of  inspiration.  The 
names  used  by  Doddridge,  and  others. 
Superintendence,  Elevation,  and  Sug- 
gestion, do  not  convey  the  ideas  stated 
In  the  three  preceding  particulars,  and 
are  liable  to  other  objections,  besides 
those  which  have  been  mentioned.  This 
account  of  tlie  inspiration  of  the  Scrip- 
tures has,  I  think,  these  two  recom- 
mendations:  that  there  is  no  part  of 
Scripture  which  does  not  fall  under  one 


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or  other  of  the  foregoing  heads;  anrl 
that  the  different  degrees  of  the  agency 
of  the  Divine  Spirit  on  the  minds  of  the 
different  writers  arc  carefully  discrinu- 
nated. 

"  Soine  men  have  adopted  very 
strange  and  dangerous  notions  respect- 
ing the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures. 
Dr.  Priestley  denies  that  they  were 
written  by  a  particular  divine  inspira- 
tion ;  and  asserts  that  the  writers,  tlunigli 
men  of  the  greatest  probity,  wei'c  falli- 
ble, and  have  act\ially  committed  mis- 
takes in  their  narrations  and  their  rea- 
sonings. But  this  man  and  his  follow- 
ers find  it  their  interest  to  weaken  and 
set  aside  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures, 
as  they  have  adopted  a  system  of  reli- 
gion from  which  all  the  distinguishing 
doctrines  of  revelation  are  excluded. 
Others  consider  the  Scriptures  as  in- 
spired in  those  places  where  they  pro- 
fess to  deliver  the  word  of  God  ;  but  in 
other  places,  especially  in  the  historical 
pai'ts,  they  ascribe  to  them  only  the 
same  authority  which  is  due  to  the 
writings  of  well  informed  and  upright 
men.  But  as  this  distinction  is  perfectly 
arbitrary,  having  no  foundation  in  any 
thing  said  by  the  sacred  writers  them- 
selves, so  it  is  liable  to  very  material 
objections.  It  represents  our  Lord  and 
his  apostles,  when  tliey  speak  of  the  Old 
Testament,  as  having  attested,  without 
any  exception  or  limitation,  a  number  of 
books  as  divinely  inspired,  while  some 
of  them  were  partly,  and  some  were 
almost  entii-el)', human  compositions:  it 
supposes  the  writers  of  both  Testaments 
to  have  profanely  mixed  their  own  pro- 
ductions with  the  dictates  of  the  Spirit, 
and  to  have  passed  the  unhallowed  com- 

Eound  on  the  world  as  genuine.  In  fact, 
y  denying  that  they  were  constantly 
under  infallible  guidance,  it  leaves  us 
utterly  at  a  loss  to  know  when  we  should 
or  should  not  believe  them.  If  they 
could  blend  their  own  stories  with  the 
revelations  made  to  them,  hpvv^  can  I  be 
certain  that  they  have  not,  on  some  oc- 
casions, published,  in  the  name  of  God, 
sentiments  of  their  own,  to  which  they 
were  desirous  to  gain  credit  and  au- 
thority *  Who  will  assure  me  of  their 
perfect  fidelity  in  drawing  a  line  of  dis- 
tinction between  the  divine  and  the  hu- 
man parts  of  their  writings  ?  The  de- 
nial of  the  plenary  inspiration  of  the 
Scripture  tenrls  to  unsettle  the  founda- 
tions of  our  faith,  involves  us  in  doubt 
and  perplexity,  and  leaves  us  no  other 
method  of  ascertaining  how  much  we 
should  believe,  but  by  an  appeal  to  rea- 
son. But  when  reason  is  invested  with 
the  authority  of  a  judge,  not  only  is  re- 


velation dishonoured  and  its  author  in- 
sulted, but  the  end  for  which  it  was 
given  is  completely  defeated. 

"  A  question  of  very  great  importance 
demands  our  attention,  while  we  are  en- 
deavouring to  settle,  with  precision,  the 
notion  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Scrip- 
tures :  it  relates  to  the  words  in  which 
the  sacred  writers  have  expressed  tlieir 
ideas.  Some  think,  that  in  the  choice  of 
words  they  were  left  to  their  own  dis- 
cretion, and  that  the  language  is  human, 
though  the  matter  be  divine ;  Avhile 
others  believe,  that  in  their  expi'essions, 
as  well  as  in  their  sentiments,  they  were 
under  the  infallible  direction  of  the 
Spirit.  It  is  the  last  opinion  which  ap- 
pears to  be  most  conformable  to  truth, 
and  it  may  be  supported  by  the  follow- 
ing reasoning. 

"  Eveiy  man  who  hath  attended  to 
the  operations  of  his  own  mind,  knows 
that  we  think  in  words,  or  that,  when 
we  form  a  train  or  combination  of  ideas, 
we  clothe  them  with  words ;  and  that 
the  ideas  which  are  not  thus  clothed, 
are  indistinct  and  confused.  '  Let  a  man 
try  to  think  upon  any  subject,  moral  or 
religious,  Avithout  the  aid  of  language, 
and  he  will  either  experience  a  total 
cessation  of  thought,  or,  as  this  sdems 
impossible,  at  least  while  we  are  awake, 
he  will  feel  himself  constrained,  not- 
withstanding his  utmost  endeavours,  to 
have  recourse  to  words  as  the  instru- 
ment of  his  mental  operations.  As  a 
great  part  of  the  Scriptures  was  sug- 
gested or  revealed  to  the  writers;  as 
the  thoughts  or  sentiments,  which  were 
perfectly  new  to  them,  were  conveyed 
into  their  minds  by  the  Spirit,  it  is  plain 
that  they  must  have  been  accompanied 
with  words  proper  to  express  them  ; 
and,  consequently,  that  the  words  were 
dictated  by  the  same  influences  on  the 
mmd  which  communicated  the  ideas. 
The  ideas  coidd  not  have  come  without 
the  words,  because  without  then\  they 
could  not  have  been  conceived.  A  no- 
tion of  the  form  and  qualities  of  a  ma- 
terial object  may  be  produced  by  sub- 
jecting it  to  our  senses  ;  but  there  is  no 
conceivable  method  of  making  us  ac- 
quainted with  new  abstract  truths,  or 
with  things  which  do  not  lie  within  the 
sphere  of  sensation,  but  by  conveying  to 
the  mind,  in  some  way  or  other,  the 
words  significant  of  them. — In  all  those 
passages  of  Scripture,  therefore,  which 
were  written  by  revelation,  it  is  mani- 
fest that  the  words  were  inspired  ;  and 
this  is  still  more  evident  with  respect  to 
those  passages  which  the  writers  them- 
selves did  not  understand.  No  man 
could  write  an  intelligible  discourse  on 


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a  subject  which  he  does  not  understand,  ] 
unlessiie  were  furnished  with  the  words  I 
as  well  as  the  sentiments ;  and  that  the  j 
penmen  of  the   Scriptures  did  not  al-  I 
ways    understand    what    they    wrote, 
might  be  safely  inferred  from  the  com- 
parative  darkness  of  the  dispensation 
under  which  some  of  them  lived ;  and 
is  intimated  by  Peter,  when   he   says, 
that  the  prophets  'enquired  and  search- 
ed diligently  what,  and  what  manner. of  i 
time  the  Spirit  of  Christ  wnich  was  in 
them  did  signify,  when  it  testified  be- 
foi-ehand  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  and 
the  glory  that  should  follow.'    1  Pet.  i. 
10,  11. 

"  In  other  passages  of  Scripture, 
those  not  excepted  in  which  the  writers 
relate  such  things  as  had  fallen  within 
the  compass  of  their  own  knowledge, 
we  shall  be  disposed  to  believe  that 
the  words  are  inspired,  if  we  calmly  i 
and  seriously  weigh  the  following  con-  j 
siderations.  If  Christ  promised  to  his  \ 
disciples,  that,  when  they  were  brought 
Ijefore  kings  and  goveiTiors  for  his  sake, 
*it  should  be  given  them  in  that  same 
hour  what  they  should  speak,  and  that 
the  Spirit  of  the  Father  should  speak  in 
them/  Matt.  x.  19,  20.  Luke  xii.  11,  12. 
a  promise  which  cannot  be  reasonably 
understood  to  signify  less  than  that  both 
words  and  sentiments  should  be  dictated 
to  them,  it  is  fully  as  credible  that  they 
should  be  assisted  in  the  same  manner 
when  they  wrote,  especially  as  the  re- 
cord was  to  last  through  all  ages,  and 
to  be  a  rule  of  faith  to  all  the  nations  cf 
the  earth.  Paul  affirms  that  he  and  the 
other  apostles  spoke  '  not  in  the  words 
which  man's  wisdom  teacheth,  but 
which  the  Holy  Ghost  taught,'  1  Cor. 
ii.  13.  and  this  general  assertion  may  be 
applied  to  their  writings  as  well  as  to 
their  sermons.  Besides,  every  person 
who  hath  reflected  upon  the  subject,  is 
aware  of  the  importance  of  a  proper  se- 
lection of  words  in  expressing  our  senti- 
ments ;  and  knows  how  easy  it  is  for  a 
heedless  or  unskilful  person  not  only  to 
injure  the  beauty  and  weaken  the  effi- 
cacy of  a  discourse  by  the  impropriety 
of  his  language,  but  by  sul^stituting  one 
word  for  another,  to  which  it  seems  to 
be  equivalent,  to  alter  the  meaning,  and 
perhaps  render  it  totally  different.  If, 
then,  the  sacred  writers  had  not  been 
directed  in  the  choice  of  words,  how 
could  we  have  been  assured  tliat  those 
which  they  have  chosen  were,  the  most 
proper?  Is  it  not  possible,  nay,  is  it  not 
certain,  that  they  would  have  some- 
times expressed  themselves  inaccurate- 
ly, as  many  of  them  were  illltei-ate;  and 
by  consequence  would  have  obscured 


and  misrepresented  the  trath  ?  In  this 
case,  how  could  our  faith  have  secui-ely 
rested  on  their  testimony  ?  Would  not 
the  suspicion  of  error  in  their  writings 
have  rendered  it  necessary,  before  we 
received  them,  to  try  them  by  the  stan- 
dard of  i-eason  ?  and  would  not  the  au- 
thority and  the  design  of  revelation  have 
thus  been  overthrown  ?  We  must  con- 
clude, therefore,  that  the  words  of 
Scripture  are  from  God,  as  well  as  the 
matter;  or  we  shall  charge  him  with  a 
want  of  wisdom  in  transmitting  his 
tniths  through  a  channel  by  which  they 
might  have  been,  and  most  probably 
have  been,  polluted. 

"  To  the  mspiration  of  the  words,  the 
difference  in  the  style  of  the  sacred 
writers  seems. to  be  an  objection;  be- 
cause, if  the  Holy  Ghost  were  the  au- 
thor of  the  words,  the  style  might  be 
expected  to  be  uniformly  the  same. 
But  in  answer  to  this  objection  it  may  be 
obser\'ed,  that  the  Divine  Spirit,  whose 
operations  are  various,  might  act  differ- 
ently on  different  persons,  according  to 
the  natural  turn  of  their  minds.  He 
might  enable  one  man,  for  instance,  to 
write  more  sublimely  than  another, 
because  he  was  naturally  of  a  more  ex- 
alted genius  than  the  other,  and  the 
subject  assigned  to  him  demanded  more 
elevated  language ;  or  he  might  pro- 
duce a  difference  in  the  style  of  the 
same  man,  by  raising,  at  one  time,  his 
faculties  above  their  ordinarj^  state  ;  and 
by  leaving  them  at  another,  to  act  ac- 
cording to  their  native  energy  under  his 
inspection  and  control.  We  should  not 
suppose  that  inspiration,  even  in  its 
higher  degrees,  deprived  those  who 
were  the  subjects  of  it,  of  the  use  of 
their  faculties.  They  were,  indeed,  the 
organs  of  the  Spirit ;  but  they  were 
conscious,  intelligent  organs.  They 
were  dependent,  but  distinct  agents ; 
and  the  operation  of  their  mental 
powers,  though  elevated  and  directed 
by  superior  uifluence,  was  analogous  to 
their  ordinary  mode  of  procedure.  It 
is  easy,  therefore,  to  conceive  that  the 
style  of  the  writers  of  the  Scriptures 
should  differ,  just  as  it  would  have  dif- 
fered if  they  had  not  been  inspired.  A 
perfect  uniformity  of  style  could  not 
have  taken  place,  unless  they  had  all 
been  inspired  in  the  same  degree,  and 
b}-  inspiration  their  faculties  had  ht:en 
completely  suspended,  so  that  div'me 
truths  wei"e  conveyed  by  them  in  the 
same  passive  manner  in  which  a  pipe 
affords  a  passage  to  water,  or  a  tnimpet 
to  the  breath."  See  Dick's  Essay  on 
the  Inajtirarion  of  the  Scriptures  f  Haw- 
ker on   Plenary  Inspiration ;  Afifxer^- 


INT 


273 


INT 


dix  to  3d  vol.  of  Doddridge's  Ex/io- 
sitor;  Calamy  and  Bennett  on  IiiKpi- 
ration  ;  Dr.  ^tennett  on  the  Authority 
ajid  Use  of  Scri/iture;  Parry's  Enc/uiry 
into  the  Alutitre  a?id  Extent  of  the  In- 
sjiiration  of  the  Afxoatles ;  Bronvn's 
Mat.  and  Rev.  Relig.  p.  78  ;  and  article 
Christianity  and  Scripture,  in  this 
work. 

INSTINCT,  that  power  which  acts 
on  and  impels  any  creature  to  any  par- 
ticular manner  of  conduct,  not  by  a 
view  of  the  beneficial  consequences, 
but  merely  from  a  strong  impulse  sup- 
posed necessary  in  its  effects,  and  to  be 
given  them  to  supply  the  place  of  rea- 
son. 

INSTITUTE,  INSTITUTION;  an 
established  custom  or  law ;  a  precept, 
maxim,  or  prmciple.  Institutions  may 
be  considered  as  positive,  moral,  and 
human.  1.  Those  are  called  positive  in- 
stitutions or  precepts  wliich  are  not 
founded  upon  any  reasons  known  to 
those  to  whom  they  are  given,  or  disco- 
verable by  them,  but  which  are  observ- 
ed merely  because  some  superior  has 
commanded  them. — 2.  Moral  are  those, 
the  reasons  of  which  we  see,  and  the 
duties  of  which  arise  out  of  the  nature 
of  the  case  itself,  prior  to  external  com- 
mand.— 3.  Human,  are  generally  appli- 
ed to  those  inventions  of  men,  or  means 
of  honouring  God,  which  are  not  ap- 
pohited  by  him,  and  which  are  nume- 
rous in  the  church  of  Rome,  and  too 
many  of  them  in  Protestant  churches. — 
Butler's  Analogy,  p.  214;  Doddridge's 
Lee.  lect.  158  ;  Robinson's  Claude,  217, 
vol.  i.  and  258,  vol.  ii;  Burrough's  Two 
Dis.  on  Positive  Institutions  j  Bfi. 
Hoad ley's  Plain  Account,  p.  3. 

INTEGRITY,  purity  of  mind,  free 
from  any  undue  bias  oi'  principle,  Prov. 
xi.  3.  Many  hold,  that  a  certain  artful 
sagacity,  founded  upon  knowledge  of 
the  world,  is  the  l)est  conductor  of  every 
one  who  would  be  a  successful  adven- 
turer in  life,  and  that  a  strict  attention 
to  integi-ity  would  lead  them  into  dan- 
ger and  distress.  But,  in  answer  to  this 
it  is  justly  observed,  1.  That  the  guid- 
ance of  integrity  is  the  safest  under 
which  we  can  be  placed ;  that  the  road 
in  which  it  leads  us  is,  upon  the  whole, 
the  freest  from  dangers,  Prov.  iii.  21, 
&c. — 2.  It  is  unquestionably  the  most 
honourable ;  for  integrity  is'the  founda- 
tion of  all  that  is  high  in  character 
among  mankind,  Prov.  iv.  8. — 3.  It  is 
the  most  conducive  to  felicity,  Phil.  iv. 
6,  7.  Prov.  iii.  17. — 4.  Such  a  character 
can  look  forward  to  eternity  without 
dismay,  Rom.  ii.  7. 
INTEMPERANCE,  excess  in  eat- 


ing or  drinking.  This  is  the  general 
idea  of  it ;  hut  we  may  observe,  that 
whatever  indulgence  undermines  the 
health,  impairs  the  senses,  inflames  the 
passions,  clouds  and  sullies  the  reason, 
perverts  the  judgment,  enslaves  the  will, 
oV  in  any  way  disorders  or  debilitates 
the  faculties,  may  be  ranked  under  thi.s 
vice.    See  article  Tkmpf.ranck. 

INTERCESSION  OF  CHRIST, his 
interposing  for  sinners  by  virtue  of  the 
satisfaction  he  made  to  divine  justice.  1. 
As  to  the  fact  itself,  it  is  evident,  from 
many  pl.aces  of  Scripture,  that  Christ 
pleads  with  Ciod  in  favour  of  his  peo- 
ple, Rom.  viii.  34.  Hcb.  vii.  25.  1  John 
ii.  1. — 2.  As  to  the  manjier  of  it:  the 
appearanceof  the  high  spriest  among  the 
Jews,  in  the  presence  of  God,  on  the  day 
of  atonement,  when  he  offered  before 
him  the  blood  of  the  sin-offering,  is  at 
large  referred  to  by  St.  Paul,  as  illus- 
trating the  intercession  of  Christ,  Heb. 
ix.  11,  14,  22,  26.  Heb.  x.  19,  21.  Christ 
appears  before  God  with  his  own  body; 
but  whether  he  intercedes  vocally  or  not, 
cannot  be  known :  though  it  is  most  pro- 
bable, I  think,  that  he  does  not :  how- 
ever, it  is  certain  that  he  does  not  inter- 
cede in  like  manner  as  when  on  earth, 
with  prostration  of  bodv,  cries  and  tears, 
which  would  be  quite  inconsistent  with 
his  state  of  exaltation  and  glory  ;  nor  as 
supplicating  an  angry  judge,  for  peace 
is  made  by  the  blood  of  the  cross ;  nor 
as  litigating  a  point  in  a  court  of  judica- 
ture ;  but  his  intercession  is  earned  on 
by  showing  himself  as  ha\ing  done,  as 
their  suretv,  all  tliat  law  and  justice 
coidd  recjufre,  by  representing  his  blood 
and  sacrifice  as  the  ground  of  his  peo- 
ple's acceptance  with  the  Father,  Rev. 
V.  6.  John  xvii.  24. — 3.  The  end  of 
Christ's  intercession  is  not  to  remind 
the  Divine  Being  of  any  thing  which  he 
would  otherwise  forget,  nor  to  persuade 
him  to  any  thing  which  he  is  not  dis- 
posed to  do  ;  but  it  may  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  holiness  and  majesty  of  the 
1  Father,  and  the  wisdom  and  grace  of 
the  Son  ;  not  to  say  that  it  may  have 
1  other  unknown  uses  with  respect  to  the 
I  inhabitants  of  the  invisible  world.  He 
i  is  represented,  also,  as  offering  up  the 
prayers  and  praises  of  hi.s  people,  which 
become  acceptable  to  God  through  him, 
I  Rev.  viii.  3,  4.  Heb.  xiii.  15.  1  Pet.  ii.  5. 
i  He  there  pleads  for  the  conversion  of 
i  his  unconverted  ones ;  and  for  the  con- 
solation, preservation,  and  elorification 
of  his  people,  John  xvii.  i  John  ii.  1,  2. 
— 4.  Of  the  properties  of  Christ's  inter- 
cession we  may  observe,  1.  That  it  is 
authoritative.  He  intercedes  not  with- 
out Tight,  John  xvii.  24.  Ps.  ii.  8. — 2. 
ls\  m 


INT 


274 


INT 


\\'ise :  he  understands  the  natui-e  of  liis 
■svojk,  and  the  wants  of  his  people,  Jolin 
ii.  25. — 3.  R'ghtcons :  for  it  is  founded 
upon  justice  and  truth,  1  John  iii.  5. 
Heb.  vii.  26. — 4.  Compassionate,  Heb. 
ii.  17.  V.  8.  Is.  Ixiii.  9. — 5.  He  is  the  soje 
advocate,  1  Tim.  ii.  5. — 6.  It  is  per- 
petual, Heb.  vii.  25. — 7.  Efficacious,  1 
John  ii.  1,  2. — 8.  The  use  we  should 
make  of  Christ's  intercession  is  this  :  1. 
\Vg  may  learn  the  wonderful  love  of 
God  to  man,  Rom.  v.  10. — 2.  The  dura- 
bility and  safety  of  the  church,  Luke 
xxii.  31,  32.  Is.  xvii.  24. — 3.  The  ground 
we  have  for  comfort,  Heb.  ix.  24  Rom. 
viii.  34. — 4.  It  should  excite  us  to  offer 
up  prayers  to  (iod  as  thej-  are  accepta- 
ble through  him,  Re^'.  viii.  3,  4.  See 
C/iamock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  1109; 
Flavel's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  72 ;  Dod- 
dridge's Lee.  vol.  ii.  p.  294,  8vo ;  GilPs 
Body  of  Dm.  vol.  ii.  p.  126,  8vo.  edit. 
Bronvn  s  A''at.  and  Rev.  Rel.  p.  348 ; 
Berry  Street  Lee.  No.  18 ;  Ridgley's 
Bodv  of  Div.  ques.  55. 

INTERDICT,  an  ecclesiastical  cen- 
sure, by  which  the  church  of  Rome  for- 
bids the  performance  of  divine  service 
in  a  kingdom,  province,  town,  &c.  This 
censui'e  has  been  frequently  executed  in 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany;  and  in 
the  vear  1 170,  Pope  Alexander  III.  put 
ail  England  under  an  interdict,  forbid- 
ding the  clergy  to  perform  anv  part  of 
divine  service,  except  baptizing  mfants, 
taking  confessions,  and  giving  absolution 
to  dying  penitents ;  but  this  censure 
being  liable  to  ill  consequences,  of  pro- 
moting libertinism  and  a  neglect  or  re- 
ligion, the  succeeding  pc^es  have  very 
seldom  made  use  of  it.  There  was  also 
an  interdict  of  persons,  who  were  de- 
prived of  the  benefit  of  attending  on  di- 
vine service.  Paiticular  persons  were 
also  anciently  interdicted  of  fire  and  wa- 
ter, which  signifies  a  banishment  for  [ 
some  particular  offence:  by  this  censure 
no  person  was  permitted  to  receive 
them,  or  allow  thein  fire  or  water ;  and, 
being  thus  wholly  deprived  of  the  two 
necessary  elements  of  life,  they  were, 
doubtless,  under  a  kind  of  civil  death. 

INTEUEST  IN  CHRIST,  a  term 
often  made  use  of  in  the  religious  world ; 
and  implies  our  having  a  right  to  claim 
him  as  our  mediator,  surety,  advocate, 
and  saviour,  and  with  him  all  those  spi- 
ritual blessings  which  are  purchased  and 
applied  by  him  to  those  whom  he  has 
redeemed.  The  term,  "/iavi?ig-  a 
rigfit  to  claim  him"  pcrliaps,  is  prc- 
fcraljlc  to  that  often  used,  "  being  ena- 
bled to  elaim  him"  as  many  have  an 
interest  in  Christ  who  are  destitute  of 
that  assurance  which  gives  them  a  com- 


fortaMc  sense  thereof.  Ridi^ley's  Div 
228.  .3d.  edit.  Pike's  Cases  ofCo?isciencc, 
p.  130. 

INTERIM,  the  name  of  a  formulary, 
oi-  confession  of  faith,  obtruded  upon  the 
Protestants,  after  the  death  of  Luther, 
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  when  he  had 
defeated  tlieir  forces.  It  Avas  so  called, 
because  it  was  only  to  take  place  in  the 
ititerim,  till  a  general  council  should  de- 
cide all  the  points  in  question  between 
the  Protestants  and  CathoUcs.  The  (K- 
casion  of  it  was  this :  The  emperor  had 
made  choice  of  three  divines,  viz.  Julius 
Phlug,  bishop  of  Naumberg;  Michael 
Helding,  titular  bishop  of  Sidon ;  and 
John  Agricola,  preacher  to  the  elector 
of  Brandenburgh  ;  who  drew  up  a  pro- 
ject, consisting  of  26  articles,  concerning 
the  points  of  religion  in  dispute  between 
the  Catholics  and  Protestants.  The 
controverted  points  were,  the  state  of 
Adam  before  and  after  his  fall ;  the  re- 
demption of  mankind  bv  Jesus  Christ ; 
the  justification  of  sinners  ;  charity  and 
good  works;  the  confidence  we  ought 
to  have  in  God ;  that  our  sins  are  re- 
mitted ;  the  church  and  its  tme  marks, 
its  power,  its  authority,  and  ministers ; 
the  pope  and  bishops ;  the  sacraments ; 
the  mass ;  the  commemoration  of  saints ; 
their  intercession ;  and  praj'ers  foi-  the 
dead. 

The  emperor  sent  this  project  to  the 

fjope  for  his  approbation,  which  he  re- 
used: whereupon  Charles  V.  publislicd 
the  imperial  constitution,  called  the  In- 
terim, wherein  he  declared,  that  "it 
was  his  will,  that  all  his  Catholic  domi- 
nions should,  for  the' future,  inviolably 
observe  the  customs,  statutes,  and  ordi- 
nances of  the  universal  church ;  and 
that  those  who  had  separated  them- 
selves from  it,  should  either  reunite 
themselves  to  it,  or  at  least  conform  to 
I  this  constitution ;  and  that  all  shoidd 
quietly  e>;])ect  the  decisions  of  the  gene- 
ral council."  This  ordinance  was  puh- 
hshcd  in  the  diet  of  Augsburgh,  May  15, 
1548 ;  but  this  device  neither  pleased 
the  pope  nor  the  Protestants:  tne  I..U- 
theran  preachers  openly  declared  they 
wruld  not  receive  it,  alleging  that  it  re- 
established pojjery  :  some  chose  rather 
to  quit  their  chairs  and  livings  than  to 
subscribe  it;  nor  Avould  the  duke  of 
Saxony  receive  it.  Calvin,  and  several 
others  wrote  against  it.  On  the  other 
side,  the  emperor  was  so  severe  against 
those  who  refused  to  accept  it,  tlrat  he 
disfrancliiscd  the  cities  ot  Magdeburg 
and  Constance  for  their  opposition. 

INTERMEDIATE  ST  A  IE,  a  term 
made  use  of  to  denote  the  state  of  the 
soul  between  death  and  the  resuirection 


INT 


275 


INV 


From  the  Scriptures  speaking  frequent- 
ly of  the  dead  as  sleeping  in  their  graves, 
many  have  supposed  that  the  soul  sleeps 
till  the  resurrection,  i.  e.  is  in  a  state  of 
entire  insensibility.  But  against  this 
opinion,  and  that  the  soul,  atter  death, 
enters  immedi;itely  into  a  state  of  re- 
ward or  punishment,  tlic  following  pas- 
sages seem  to  be  conclusive.  Matt.  xvii. 
3.  Luke  xxiii.  42.  2  Cor.  v.  6.  Phil.  i.  21. 
Luke  xvi.  22,  23.  Rev.  vi.  9.  See  arti- 
cles Resurrection,  Soul,  and  Fu- 
ture State;  Bishop  Law's  Ajificn- 
dix  to  his  Theory  of  Religion  ;  Search's 
Light  of  A'ature  Jiursued ;  Bennett's 
Olam  naneshamoth,  or  View  of  the  Li- 
termediate  State;  Archibald  Cam/ibeirs 
View  of  the  Middle  State;  Archdeacon 
Blackburne's  Historical  View  of  the 
Controversif  concerning  an  Intermedi- 
ate State,  and  the  separate  Existence  of 
the  Soul  between  Death  and  the  general 
Resurrection  ;  in  which  last  tlie  reader 
will  find  a  large  account  of  the  writings 
on  this  subject,  n'om  the  beginning  of 
tlie  Reformation  to  almost  the  present 
time.  See  also  Doddridge's  I^ectures, 
lect  219 

INTERPRETING  OF  TONGUES, 
a  gift  bestowed  on  the  apostles  and  pri- 
mitive Christians,  so  that  in  a  mixed  as- 
sembly, consisting  of  persons  of  ditfevent 
nations,  if  one  spoke  in  a  language,  un- 
derstood by  one  part,  another  could  re- 
peat and.  translate  what  he  said  into  dif- 
ferent languages  understood  by  others, 
1  Cor.  xii.  10.  1  Cor.  xiv.  5,  6,  iS. 

INTOLERANCE  is  a  word  chiefly 
used  in  reference  to  those  persons-, 
churches,  or  societies,  who  do  not  allow 
men  to  think  for  themselves,  but  impose 
on  them  articles,  creeds,  ceremonies, 
&c.  of  their  own  devising.  See  Tole- 
ration. Nothing  is  more  abhorrent 
from  the  genius  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion than  an  intolcraiit  spirit,  or  an  in- 
tolerant church.  "It  has  inspired  its 
votaries  with  a  savage  ferocitj' ;  has 
plunged  the  fatal  dagger  into  innocent 
ulood ;  depopulated  towns  and  king- 
doms ;  overthi'own  states  and  empires, 
and  brought  do^vn  the  rigliteous  ven- 
gt^ance  of  heaven  upon  a  guilty  world. 

The  pretence  of  superior  knowledge, 
sanctity,  and  authority  for  its  support, 
is  the  disgrace  of  reason,  the  grief  of 
wisdom,  and  the  paroxysm  of  follv. 
To  fetter  the  conscience,  is  injustice ; 
to  ensnare  it,  is  an  act  of  sacrilege ; 
but  to  torture  it,  by  an  attempt  to 
force  its  feelings,  is  horrible  intolerance  ; 
it  is  the  most  aljandoned  violation  of  all 
the  maxims  of  religion  and  morality. 
Jesus  Christ  formed  a  kingdom  purely 
spiritual :  the  apostles  exercised  only  "a 


spiritual  authority  under  the  direction 
of  Jesus  Christ ;  particular  cluirches 
were  united  only  by  faith  and  lo\  e ;  in 
all  civil  affairs  they  submitted  to  civil 
magistracy ;  and  in  religious  concerns 
they  were  governed  by  the  reasoning, 
ad\"icc,  and  exhortations  of  their  own 
officers :  their  censures  were  only  honest 
reproofs ;  and  their  excommunications 
were  only  declarations  that  such  of- 
fenders, being  incon-igible,  were  no 
longer  accounted  members  of  their 
communities."  Let  it  ever  be  remem- 
bered, therefore,  that  no  man  or  men 
ha\'e  any  authority  whatever  from 
Christ  o\er  the  consciences  of  others, 
or  to  persecute  the  persons  of  any 
whose  religious  principles  agree  not 
with  their  own.  See  Lowell's  Sermons, 
ser.  6 ;  Robinson's  Claude,  vol.  ii.  p. 
227,  299;  Saurin's  Ser.  3d.  vol.  p.  30, 
preface ;  Locke  on  Government  and 
Toleration. 

INTREPIDITY,  a  disposition  of 
mind  unaffected  with  fear  at  the  ap- 
proach of  danger.  Resolution  either 
banishes  fear  or  surmounts  it,  and  is 
firm  on  all  occasions.  Courage  is  impa- 
tient to  attack,  undertakes  boldly,  and 
is  not  lessened  by  difficulty.  Valour  acts 
with  vigoui",  gives  no  way  to  resistance, 
but  pursues  an  enterprise  in  spite  of  op- 
position. Bravery  knows  no  fear ;  it 
runs  nobly  into  danger,  and  prefers 
honour  to  life  itself  Intrepidity  en- 
counters the  .greatest  points  with  the 
utmost  coolness,  and  dares  even  pi-esent 
death.    See  Courage,  Fortitude. 

INVESTITURE,  in  ecclesiastical 
policy,  is  the  act  of  conferring  any  be- 
nefice on  another.  It  was  customary  for 
princes  to  make  investiture  of  ecclesi- 
astical benefices,  by  dclivei'ing  to  the 
person  they  had  chosen  a  pastoral  staff 
and  a  ring.  The  account  of  this  cere- 
mony may  be  seen  at  large  in  Mosheim's 
Lcciesicistical  History,  cent.  xi.  part  ii. 
chap.  2. 

INVISIBLES,  a  name  of  distinction 
given  to  the  disciples  of  Osiander,  Fla- 
cius,  Illyricus,  Swenkfeld,  &c.  because 
they  denied  the  perpetual  visibilitj^  of 
the  church. 

INVOCATION,  a  calling  upon  God 
in  praver.  It  is  generally  considr-red  a*; 
the  first  part  of  that  necessary  duty,  and 
includes,  1.  A  making  mention  of  one  or 
more  of  the  names  or  titles  of  God,  in- 
dicative of  the  object  to  whom  we  pray. 
— 2.  A  declaration  of  our  desire  and  de- 
sign to  worship  him.  And,  3.  A  desire 
of  his  assistance  and  acceptance,  under 
a  sense  of  our  own  unworthiness.  In  tb" 
church  of  Rome,  invocation  also  signi- 
fies adoration  of,  and  prayers  to  the 


JOA 


276 


IRR 


saints.  The  council  of  Trent  expressly 
teaches,  that  the  saints  who  reign  with 
Jesus  Christ  offer  up  their  prayers  to 
God  for  men,  and  condemn  those  who 
maintain  tlie  contrary  doctrine.  The 
Protestants  censure  and  reject  this  opi- 
nion, as  contrary  to  Scripture ;  deny  the 
truth  of  the  fact;  and  think  it  higlily 
unreasonable  to  suppose  that  a  limited, 
finite  being,  should  be  in  a  manner  om- 
nipresent, and,  at  one  and  the  same  time, 
hear  and  attend  to  the  prayers  that  are 
offered  up  to  him  in  England,  China, 
and  Peru  ;  and  from  hence  infer,  that,  if 
the  saints  cannot  hear  their  request,  it  is 
inconsistent  with  common  sense  to  ad- 
dress any  kind  of  praver  to  them. 

JOACHIMITES,the  disciples  of  Joa- 
chim, abbot  of  Flora,  in  Calabria.  Joa- 
chim was  a  Cistercian  monk,  and  a  great 
Eretender  to  inspiration.  He  relates  of 
imself,  that,  being  very  young,  he  went 
to  Jerusalem  in  the  dress  of  a  hermit  to 
visit  the  holy  places :  and  that,  while  he 
was  in  prayer  to  God  in  the  church  of 
that  city,  God  communicated  to  him,  by 
infusion,  the  knowledge  of  divine  mys- 
teries, and  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  He 
wrote  against  Lombard,  the  master  of 
the  sentences,  who  had  maintained  that 
there  was  but  one  essence  in  God, 
though  there  were  three  persons ;  and 
he  pretended,  that,  since  there  were 
three  persons  there  must  be  three  es- 
sences. This  dispute  was  in  the  year 
1195.  Joachim's  writings  were  con- 
demned by  the  fouith  Lateran  council. 
His  followers,  the  Joachimites,  were 
particularly  fond  of  certain  ternaries. 
The  Father  they  said  operated  from 
the  beginning  until  the  coming  of  the 
Son :  the  Son  fi-om  that  time  to  theirs, 
viz.  the  year  1260 ;  and  the  Holy  Spirit 
then  took  it  up,  and  was  to  operate  in 
his  turn.  They  likewise  divided  every 
thing  relating  to  men,  doctrine,  and 
manner  of  living,  into  three  classes,  ac- 
cording to  the  three  persons  of  theTri- 
nity.  The  Jirst  ternary  was  that  of 
men ;  of  whom,  the  first  class  was  that 
of  married  men,  which  had  lasted  during 
the  whole  period  of  the  Father ;  the  se- 
cond was  that  of  clerks,  which  lasted 
during  the  time  of  the  Son  ;  and  the  last 
was  that  of  monks,  wherein  was  to  be 
an  uncommon  effusion  of  grace  by  the 
Holy  Spirit.  The  second  ternarii  was 
that  of  doctrine,  viz.  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  New,  and  the  everlasting 
Gospel ;  the  first  they  ascribed  to  the 
Father,  the  second  to  the  Son,  and  the 
third  to  the  Holy  Sjiirit.  A  third  ternurij 
consisted  in  the  manner  of  living,  viz. 
vmder  the  Father,  men  lived  according 
to  the  flesh ;  under  the  Son,  they  lived 


according  to  the  flesh  and  the  spirit; 
and  under  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  were 
to  live  according  to  the  spirit  only. 

JOHN,  ST.  Christians  of.  See  Chris- 
tians. 

Joy,  a  delight  of  the  mind  arising 
from  the  consideration  of  a  present  or 
assured  approaching  possession  of  a  fii- 
ture  good.  When  it  is  moderate,  it  is 
called  gladness  ;  when  raised  on  a  sud- 
den to  the  highest  degree,  it  is  then 
exultation  or  transjiort;  when  we  limit 
our  desires  by  our  possessions,  it  is  con- 
tentment;  when  our  desires  are  raised 
high,  and  yet  accomplished,  this  is  called 
satisfaction;  when  our  joy  is  derived 
from  some  comical  occasion  or  amuse- 
ment, it  is  mirth  ;  if  it  arise  from  consi- 
derable opposition  that  is  vanquished  in 
the  pursuit  of  the  good  we  desire,  it  is 
then  called  triumfih  ;  when  joy  has  so 
long  possessed  the  mind  that  it  is  settled 
into  a  temper,  we  call  it  cheerfulness ; 
when  we  rejoice  upon  the  account  of  any 
good  which  others  obtain,  it  may  be 
called  sympathy  or  congratulation. 
This  is  natural  Joy ;  but  there  is, — 2.  A 
moral  joy,  which  is  a  self-approbation, 
or  that  which  arises  from  the  perform- 
ance of  anj'  good  actions  ;  this  is  called 
peace,  or  serenity  of  conscience :  if  the 
action  be  honourable,  and  the  joy  rise 
high,  it  may  be  called  glory. — 3.  There 
is  also  a  spiritual  joy,  which  the  Scrip- 
ture calls  a  "  fruit  of  the  Spirit,"  Gal. 
V.  22.  "  the  joy  of  faith."  Phil.  i.  25.  and 
"  the  rejoicing  of  hope,"  Heb.  iii.  6.  The 
objects  of  it  are,  1.  God  himself,  Ps.  xliii. 
4.  Is.  xli.  10.— 2.  Christ,  Phil.  iii.  3.  1 
Pet.  i.  8. — 3.  The  promises,  Ps.  cxix. 
162. — 4.  The  administi'ation  of  the  Gos- 
pel, and  Gospel  ordinances,  Ps.  Ixxxix. 
15. — 5.  The  prospei'ity  of  the  interest  of 
Christ,  Acts  XV.  3.  Rev.  xi.  15,  17. — 6. 
The  happiness  of  a  future  state,  Rom. 
V.  2.  Matt.  XXV.  The  nature  and  firo- 
fierties  of  this  joy :  1.  It  is  or  should  be 
constant,  Phil.  \\.  4. — 2.  It  is  unknown 
to  the  men  of  the  world,  1  Cor.  ii.  14. — 
3.  It  is  unspeakable,  1  Pet.  i.  8. — 4.  It  is 
permanent,  John  xvi.  22.  Watts  on  the 
Pass.  sect.  11;  GiWs  Body  of  Din.  p. 
111.  .3d.  vol.  8vo.  edit.;  Qro-uc's  Mor. 
Phil.  vol.  i.  p.  356. 

JOY  OF  GOD  relates,  1.  To  the  de- 
light and  complacency  he  has  in  him- 
self, his  own  nature,  and  perfections. — 
2.  He  rejoices  in  his  own  works,  Ps.  civ. 
31. — 3.  In  his  Son  Christ  Jesus,  Matt, 
iii.  17. — 1.  In  the  work  of  redemption, 
John  iii.  15. — 5.  In  the  subjects  of  his 
grace,  Ps.  cxlvii.  11.  Zeph.  iii.  17.  Ps. 

'  IRRESISTIBLE     GRACE.      See 
Grace. 


ITI 


277 


JUB 


ISBRANIKI,  a  denomination  which 
appeared  in  Russia  about  tlie  year  1666, 
aiid  assumed  this  name,  which  signifies 
the  multitude  of  the  elect.  But  they 
Avere  called  by  their  adversaries  Rols- 
kolsnika,  or  the  seditious  faction.  They 
professed  a  rigorous  zeal  for  the  letter 
of  tlie  Holy  Scriptures.  They  main- 
tained that  there  is  no  subordination  of 
rank  among  the  faithful,  and  that  a 
Christian  may  kill  himself  for  the  love 
of  Christ. 

ISRAELITES,  the  descendants  of  Is- 
rael, who  wei'e  at  first  called  Hebrews, 
by  reason  of  Abraham,  who  came  from 
the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates  ;  and 
afterwards  Israelites,  from  Israel,  the 
father  of  the  twelve  patriarchs;  and, 
lastly,  Jews,  particularly  after  their  re- 
turn from  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  be- 
cause the  tribe  of  Judah  was  then  much 
stronger  and  moi'e  numerous  than  the 
other  tribes,  and  foreigners  had  scarce 
any  knowledge  of  this  tribe.  For  the 
history  of  this  people,  see  article  Jews. 

ITrNERANT  PREACHERS,  those 
who  are  not  settled  over  any  particular 
congregation,  but  go  from  place  to  place 
for  the  purjDOse  of  preachmg  to,  and  in- 
sti-ucting  the  ignorant.  A  great  deal 
has  been  said  against  persons  of  this  de- 
scription ;  and,  it  must  be  acknowledged, 
that  there  would  not  be  so  much  neces- 
sity for  them,  were  every  minister  of  his 
parish  to  do  his  duty.  But  the  sad  de- 
clension of  morals  in  many  places  ;  the 
awful  ignorance  that  prevails  as  to  God 
and  real  religion  ;  the  little  or  no  exer- 
tion of  those  who  are  the  guides  of  the 
people ;  "  villages  made  up  of  a  train 
of  idle,  profligate,  and  miserable  poor, 
and  where  the  barbarous  rhymes  in 
their  church-yards  inform  us  that  they 
are  all  either  gone  or  going  to  heaven  : 
these  thiiigs,  with  a  variety  of  others, 
form  a  sufficient  reason  for  every  able 
and  benevolent  person  to  step  forward, 
and  to  do  all  that  he  can  to  enlighten 
the  minds,  lessen  the  miseries,  and  pro- 
mote the  welfai-e  of  his  fellow-crea- 
tures. A  clergyman  of  the  church  of 
Eiigland,  of  respectable  talents,  very 
judiciously  observes,  that,  "Notwith- 
standing the  prejudices  of  mankind,  and 
the  indiscretions  of  some  individuals,  an 
itinerant  teacher  is  one  of  the  most  ho- 
nourable and  useful  characters  that  can 
l)e  found  upon  earth ;  and  there  needs 
no  other  proof  than  the  experience  of 
the  church  in  all  ages,  that,  when  this 
work  is  done  properly  and  with  perse- 
verance, it  forms  the  grand  method  of 
spreading  wide,  and  rendering  effica- 
cious religious  knowledge,  for  .^reat  re- 
formations and  revivals  of  religion  have 


uniformly  been  thus  effected  ;  and  it  is 
esi)ecially  sanctioned  by  the  example  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  recommend- 
ed as  the  divine  method  of  spreading  the 
Gospel  through  the  nations  of  the  earth ; 
itinerant  preaching  having  almost  al- 
ways preceded  and  made  way  for  the 
solid  ministry  of  regular  pastors.  But  it 
is  a  work  which  requires  peculiar  ta- 
lents and  dispositions,  and  a  peculiar 
call  in  God's  providence ;  and  is  not 
rashly  and  hastily  to  be  ventured  upon 
by  every  novice  who  has  learned  to 
speak  about  the  Gospel,  and  has  more 
zeal  than  knowledge,  prudence,  hu- 
mility, or  experience.  An  unblemished 
character,  a  disinterested  spirit,  an  ex- 
emplary deadness  to  the  world,  unaf- 
fected humility,  deep  acquaintance  with 
the  human  heart,  and  preparation  for 
enduring  the  cross  not  only  with  bold- 
ness, but  with  meekness,  patience,  and 
sweetness  of  temper,  are  indispensably 
necessary  for  such  a  sei'\'ice." 

JUBILEE,  a  public  festivity. — Among 
the  Jews  it  was  held  every  49th  or  50th 
year.  It  was  proclaimed  with  the  sound 
of  rams'  horns :  no  servile  work  was 
done  on  it ;  the  land  lay  untitled  ;  what 
grew  of  itself  belonged  to  the  poor  and 
needy ;  whatever  debts  the  Hebrews 
owed  to  one  another  were  wholly  re- 
mitted ;  hired  as  well  as  bond-servants 
of  the  Hebrew  race  obtained  their  liber- 
ty ;  inheritances  reverted  to  their  ori- 
ginal proprietoi's.  See  25th  chap.  Levi- 
ticus. Jubilee,  in  a  more  modern  sense, 
denotes  a  grand  church  solemnity  or 
ceremony,  celebrated  at  Rome,  where- 
in the  pope  grants  a  plenary  indulgence 
to  all  sinners;  at  least  to  as  many  as 
visit  the  churches  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul,  at  Rome.  The  jubilee  was  first 
established  by  Boniface  VII.  in  1300, 
which  was  only  to  return  every  hundred 
years  ;  but  the  first  celebration  brought 
m  such  store  of  wealth,  that  Clement 
VI.  in  1343,  reduced  it  to  the  period  of 
fifty  years.  Urban  VI.  in  1389,  appoint- 
ed it  to  be  held  every  thirty-five  years, 
that  being  the  age  of  our  Saviour ;  and 
Paul  II.  and  Sixtus  IV.  in  1475,  brought 
it  down  to  every  twenty-five,  that  every 
person  might  have  the  benefit  of  it  once 
in  his  life.  Boniface  IX.  granted  the 
privilege  of  holding  jubilees  to  several 
princes  and  monasteries ;  for  instance, 
to  the  monks  of  Canterbury,  who  had  a 
jubilee  every  fifty  years,  when  people 
flocked  from  all  parts  to  visit  the  tomb 
of  Thomas-a-Becket.  Afterwards  jubi- 
lees became  more  frequent :  there  is 
generally  one  at  the  inauguration  of  a 
new  pope ;  and  the  pope  grants  them 
as  often  as  the  church  or  himself  have 


JUD 


27S 


JUD 


occasion  for  them.  To  be  entitled  to  the 
privileges  of  the  jubilee,  the  bull  enjoins 
fasting,  alms,  and  prayers.  It  gives  the 
priests  a  full  power  to  absolve  in  all 
cases,  even  those  otherwise  reserved  to 
the  pope ;  to  make  commutations  of 
vows,  Sec.  in  which  it  differs  from  a 
plenary  indulgence.  During  the  time  of 
juliilee,  all  other  indulgences  are  sus- 
pended. One  of  our  kings,  viz.  Edward 
III.  caused  his  birth-day  to  be  observed 
in  the  manner  of  a  jubilee,  when  he  be- 
came fifty  years  of  age,  in  1362,  but 
never  before  nor  after.  This  he  did  by 
releasing  prisoners,  pardoning  all  offen- 
ces, except  treason,  making  good  laws, 
and  gi-antijig  many  privileges  to  the  peo- 
ple. In  1640,  the  Jesuits  celebi-ated  a 
solemn  jubilee  at  Rome,  that  being  the 
centenary,  or  hundredth  year  from  their 
institution;  and  the  same  ceremony  was 
obser\  ed  in  all  their  houses  throughout 
the  world. 

JUDAISING  CHRISTIANS:  the 
first  rise  of  this  denomination  is  placed 
under  the  I'eign  of  Adrian.  For  when 
this  emperor  had  at  length  razed  Jeru- 
salem, entirely  destroyed  its  veiy  foun- 
dations, and  enacted  laws  of  the  seve- 
rest kind  against  the  whole  body  of  the 
Jewish  people,  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Christians  who  lived  in  Palestine,  to 
prevent  their  being  confounded  with  the 
Jews,  abandoned  entirely  the  Mosaic 
rites,  and  chose  a  bishop,  namely,  Mark, 
a  foreigner  by  nation,  and  an  alien  from 
tlie  commonwealth  of  Israel.  Those 
who  were  strongly  attached  to  the  Mo- 
saic rites,  separated  from  their  brethren, 
and  founded  at  Pera,  a  country  of  Pales- 
tine, and  in  the  neighbouring  parts,  par- 
ticular assemblies,  in  which  the  law  of 
INToses  maintained  its  primitive  dignit}^, 
authority,  and  lustre.  The  body  of  Ju- 
daising  Christians,  which  set  Moses  and 
Christ  iipon  an  equal  footing  in  point  of 
authority,  were  afterwards  divided  into 
two  sects,  extremely  different  both  in 
their  rites  and  opinions,  and  distinguish- 
ed by  the  names  of  Nazarenes  and  Ebi- 
onites ;  Avhich  see. 

Jl'UAISM,  the  religious  doctrines 
;ind  rites  of  the  Jews,  the  descendants  of 
Abraham.  Judaism  was  but  a  tempora- 
j-v  dispensation,  and  was  to  give  way,  at 
least  the  ceremonial  part  of  it,  at  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah.  The  principal 
sects  among  the  Jews  were  the  Phai-i- 
sees,  who  placed  religion  in  external  j 
ceremony;  the  Sadducecs,  who  were 
remarkable  for  their  incredulity;  and 
the  Essenes,  who  were  distinguished  for 
their  austere  sanctity.  At  present,  the 
.fews  have  two  sects;  the  Caraites,  v/\io 
admit  no  rule  of  religion  but  the  law  of 


Moses;  and  the  Rahbinists,  who  add  to 
the  law  the  ti*aditions  of  the  Talmud. 
See  those  aiticlcs,  and  books  recom- 
mended under  article  Jews,  in  this 
work. 

JUDGING  RASH,  the  act  of  care- 
lessly, precipitately,  wantonlv,  or  ma- 
liciously censuring  others.  This  is  an 
evil  which  abounds  too  much  among  al- 
most all  classes  of  men.  "  Not  contented 
with  being  in  the  right  ourselves,  we 
must  find  all  others  in  the  wrong.  We 
claim  an  exclusive  possession  of  good- 
ness and  wisdom  ;  and  from  approving 
wamily  of  those  who  join  us,  we  pro- 
ceed to  condemn,  with  much  acrimony, 
not  only  the  principles,  but  the  cha- 
racters of  those  from  whom  we  differ. 
We  rashly  extend  to  every  individual 
the  severe  opinion  which  we  have  un- 
warrantably conceived  of  a  whole  body. 
This  man  is  of  a  party  whose  principles 
we  reckon  slavish ;  and  therefore  his 
whole  sentimjents  are  coiTupted.  That 
man  belongs  to  a  religious  sect,  which 
we  are  accustomed  to  deem  bigoted, 
and  therefore  he  is  incapable  of  any 
generous  and  liberal  thought.  Another 
is  connected  with  a  sect,  which  Ave  have 
been  taught  to  account  relaxed,  and 
therefore  he  can  have  no  sanctity.  'We. 
should  do  well  to  consider,  1.  That  this 
practice  of  rash  judging  is  absolutely 
forbidden  in  the  sacred  Scriptures,  Mat. 
vii.  1. — 2.  We  thereby  authorize  others 
to  requite  us  in  the  same  kind. — 3.  It 
often  evidences  our  pride,  envy,  and  bi- 
gotry.— 4'.  It  argues  a  want  of  charity, 
the  distinguishing  featui'e  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion. — 5.  They  who  are  most 
forward  in  censuring  others  are  often 
most  defective  themselves.  Barrow's 
Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  20  ;  Blair's  Ser.  ser. 
10.  vol.  ii ;  Saurin's  Ser.  ser.  4.  vol.  v. 

JUDGMENT  is  that  act  of  the  mind 
whereby  one  thing  is  affirmed  or  denied 
of  another;  or  that  power  of  the  soul 
which  passes  sentence  on  things  propos- 
ed to  its  examination,  and  determines 
what  is  right  or  wrong :  anrl  thus  it  ap- 
proves or  disapproves  of  an  action,  or  an 
oloject  considered  as  true  or  false,  fit  or 
unfit,  good  or  evil.  Dr.  Watts  gives  us 
the  following  directions  to  assist  us  in 
judging  riglit.  1.  We  should  examine  all 
ourold  opinions  afresh, and  enquire  what 
was  the  ground  of  them,  and  whether 
our  assent  were  built  on  just  evidence  ; 
and  then  we  should  cast  off  all  tho.se 
judgments  which  were  formed  hereto- 
fore without  due  examination. — 2.  All 
our  ideas  of  ol)jects,  concerning  which 
we  pass  judgment,  should  be  clear,  dis- 
tinct, complete,  comprehensive,  exten- 
sive, and  orderly. — 3.  When  we  have 


JUD 


279 


JUD 


obtained  as  clear  ideas  as  we  can,  both  j 
of  the  subject  and  predicate  of  a  propo-  j 
sition,  then  we  nmst  compare  those  ideas  i 
of  the  subject  and  predicate  together 
with  the  utmost  attention,  and  oi)serve 
how  far  thev  agree,  and  wherein  tiiey 
difter. — 4.  We  must  search  for  evidence 
of  truth,  with  dihgence  and  honesty;  and 
be  heartily  ready  to  receive  evidence, 
whether  for  the  agreement  or  disagree- 
ment of  ideas. — 5.  We  must  suspend 
our  judgment,  and  neither  aflirm  nor 
deny  untd  this  evidence  appear. — 6.  We 
must  judge  of  every  proposition  by  tliose 
proper  and  peculiar  means  or  mediume, 
whereby  the  evidence  of  it  is  to  be  ob- 
tained, whether  it  be  sense,  conscious- 
ness, intelligence,  reason,  or  testimony. 
— 7.  It  is  very  useful  to  have  some  ge- 
neral principles  of  truth  settled  »in  the 
mind,  whose  evidence  is  gi-eat  and  ob- 
vious, that  they  may  be  always  ready  at 
hand  to  assist  us  in"  judging  of  the  gi-eat 
variety  of  things  which  occur. — 8.  Let 
the  degrees  of  our  assent  to  every  pro- 
position bear  an  p xact  proportion  to  the 
aifferent  degrees  of  evidence. — 9.  We 
should  keep  our  minds  always  open  to 
receive  truth,  and  never  set  limits  to  our 
own  improvements.  JVatts's  Lottie,  ch. 
4.  p.  231 ;  Locke  on  the  Uiidprstanding, 
p.  222,  256.  vol.  i.  p.  271,  278.  vol.  ii" ; 
Diwcan's  Lo^'ic,  p.  145  ;  Keid  on  the 
Litellectiial  Fowers,  p.  497,  &:c. 

JUDGMENT,  LAST,  the  sentence 
that  will  be  passed  on  our  actions  at  the 
last  day. 

I.  The  firoofs  of  a  general  judp^vient 
are  these :  1.  The  justice  of  God  re- 
quires it ;  for  it  is  evident  that  this  at- 
triljute  is  not  clearly  displayed  in  the 
dispen^tion  of  things  in  the  present 
state,  2  Thess.  i.  6,  7.  Luke  xiv.  26. — 
2.  The  accusations  of  natural  con- 
science are  testimonies  in  favoyr  of  this 
belief,  Rom.  ii.  15.  Dan.  v.  5,  6.  Acts 
xxiv.  25. — 3.  It  may  be  concluded  from 
the  relation  men  stand  in  to  God,  as 
creatures  to  a  Creator.  He  has  a  right 
to  give  them  a  law,  and  to  make  them 
accountable  for  the  breitch  of  it,  R,om. 
xiv.  12. — 4.  The  resurrection  of  Christ 
is  a  certain  proof  of  it.  See  Acts  xvii. 
31.  Rom.  xiv.  9. — 5.  The  Scripture,  in 
a  variety  of  places,  sets  it  beyond  all 
doubt,  Jude  14,  15.  2  Cor.  v.  10.  Matt. 
XXV.  Rom.  xiv.  10,  11.  2  Thess.  i.  7,  10. 
1  Thess.  iv.  16,  17. 

II.  As  to  the  Judge:  the  Bible  de- 
clares that  God  will  judge  the  world  bv 
Jesus  Christ,  Acts  xvii.  3l.  The  triune 
God  will  be  the  Judge,  as  to  original  au- 
thority, power,  and  right  of  judgment ; 
but,  according  to  the  economv  settled 
between  the  three  divine  persons,  the 


I  work  is  assigned  to  the  Son,  Romans 
!  xiv.  9  and  10,  who  will  appear  in  his 
I  human  nature,  John  v.  27.  Acts  xvii.  31. 
i  with  great  power  and  glory,  1  Thess. 
iv.  16,  17.  visible  to  every  eye.  Rev.  i.  7. 
penetrating  every  heart,  1  Cor.  iv.  5. 
Rom.  ii.  16.  with  "full  authoi-ity  over  all, 
Matt,  xxviii.  18.  and  acting  with  strict 
justice,  2  Tim.  iv.  8.  As  for  the  concern 
of  others  in  the  judgment ;  angels  will 
be  no  otherwise  concerned  than  as  at- 
tendants, gathering  the  elect,  raising 
the  dead,  &c.  but  not  as  advising  or 
judging.  Saints  are  said  to  judge  the 
world ;  not  as  co-judgers  with  Christ, 
but  as  approvers  of  his  sentence,  and  as 
their  holy  lives  and  conversations  will 
rise  up  in  judgment  against  their  wicked 
neighbours. 

III.  As  to  the  persons  that  will  hr 
judged ;  these  will  be  men  and  devils. 
The  righteous,  probably,  will  be  tried 
first,  as  represented  in  Matt.  xxv.  They 
will  be  raised  first,  though  perhaps  not 
a  thousand  years  before  the  rest,  as  Dr. 
Gill  supposes ;  since  the  resurrection  of 
all  the  bodies  of  the  saints  is  spoken  of 
as  in  a  moment,  in  the  twinkhng  of  an 
eye,  at  the  last  trump,  in  order  to  their 
meeting  the  Lord  in  the  air,  and  being 
with  him  not  on  earth,  but  for  ever  in 
heaven,  1  Cor.  xv.  52.  1  Thess,  iv. 
16,  17. 

Here  we  may  take  notice  of  a  diffi- 
cult question  which  is  proposed  by 
some,  namely,  Whether  the  sins  of  God's 
people  shall  be  published  in  the  great 
day,  though  it  is  certain  they  shall  not 
be  alleged  against  them  to  their  con- 
demnation ?  "This,"  says  Dr.  Ridgley:, 
"  is  one  of  the  secret  things  which  he- 
long  to  God,  which  he  has  not  so  fully 
or  clearly  revealed  to  us  in  his  word  ; 
and  therefore  we  can  say  little  more 
than  what  is  matter  of  conjecture  about 
it.  Some  have  thought  that  the  sins  of 
the  godly,  though  foi'given,  shall  be 
made  manifest,  that  so  the  glory  of  that 
grace  which  has  pardoned  them  may 
appear  more  illustrious,  and  their  obli- 
gation to  God  for  this  farther  enhanced. 
They  also  think,  that  the  justice  of  tlie 
proceedings  of  th.at  diiy  requiiv's  it, 
since  it  is  presumed  and  known  by  the 
whole  world  that  they  were  prone  to 
sin,  as  well  as  others ;  and,  before  con- 
version, as  great  sinners  as  any,  and  af- 
ter it  their  sins  had  a  peculiar  aggrava- 
tion. Therefore,  why  should  not  they 
be  made  pu))lic,  as  a  glory  due  to  the 
justice  and  holiriess  of  God,  whose  na- 
ture is  opposite  to  all  sin  ?  And  this  they 
fartlier  suppose  to  be  necessary,  that  so 
the  impartiality  of  divine  justice  may 
appear     Moreover,  since  God,  by  re- 


JUD 


2S0 


JUB 


rording  the  sins  of  his  saints  in  Scripture, 
has  perpetuated  the  knoAvledge  there- 
of; and  if  it  is  to  their  honour  that  the 
sins  there  mentioned  Avere  repented  of, 
as  well  as  forgiven,  why  may  it  not  be 
supposed  that  the  sins  of  believers  shall 
be  made  known  in  the  great  day  ?  And, 
besides,  this  seems  agreeable  to  those 
expressions  of  e\ery  word,  and  eveiy 
action,  as  being  to  be  brought  into  judg- 
ment, whether  it  be  good,  or  whether  it 
be  bad. 

"But  it  is  supposed  by  others,  that 
though  the  making  known  of  sin  that  is 
subdued  and  forgiven,  tends  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  divine  grace,  yet  it  is 
sufficient  to  answer  this  end,  as  far  as 
God  designs  it  shall  be  answered,  that 
the  sins  which  have  been  subdued  and 
forgiven,  should  be  known  to  themselves, 
and  thus  forgiveness  afford  matter  of 
praise  to  God.  Again  ;  the  expressions 
of  Scripture,  whereby  forgiveness  of 
sin  is  set  forth,  are  such  as  seem  to  ar- 
gue that  those  sins  which  were  forgiven 
shall  not  be  made  manifest:  thus  they 
are  said  to  be  blotted  out,  Isa.  xliii.  25. 
covered,  Ps.  xxxii.  1.  subdued  and  cast 
into  the  de/iths  of  the  sea,  Micah  vii.  19. 
and  remejnbered  no  more,  &c.  Jer.  xxxi. 
34.  Besides,  Christ's  being  a  judge,  doth 
not  divest  him  of  the  character  of  an 
advocate,  whose  part  is  rather  to  con- 
ceal the  crimes  of  those  whose  cause  he 
pleads,  than  to  divulge  them  ;  and  to 
this  we  may  add,  that  the  law  which 
requires  duty,  and  forbids  the  contrary 
sins,  is  not  the  rule  by  which  they  who 
are  in  Christ  are  to  be  proceeded 
against,  for  then  they  could  not  stand  in 
judgment ;  but  they  are  dealt  with  ac- 
cording to  the  tenor  of  the  Gospel,which 
forgives  and  covers  all  sin.  And,  farther, 
it  is  argued  that  the  pul^lic  declaring  of 
all  then-  sins  before  the  whole  world, 
notwithstanding  their  interest  in  for- 
giving grace,  would  fill  them  with  such 
shame  as  is  hardly  consistent  with  a  state 
of  perfect  blessedness.  And,  lastly,  the 
principal  argument  insisted  on  is,  that 
oar  Saviour,  in  Matt.  xxv.  in  which  he 
gives  a  particular  account  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  that  day,  makes  no  mention 
of  the  sins,  but  only  commends  the  gra- 
ces of  his  saints." 

As  to  the  wicked,  they  shall  be  judg- 
ed, and  all  their  thoughts,  words,  and 
deeds,  ha  brought  into  judgment,  Ecc. 
xii.  14.  The  fallen  angels,  also,  are  said 
to  be  reserved  unto  the  judgment  of  the 
great  day,  Jude  6.  They  sl»all  receive 
their  final  sentence,  and  be  shut  uji  in 
the  prison  of  hell,  Rev.  xx.  10.  Matt. 
viii.  29. 

IV.  Auto  the  rule  of  judgment:  we 


are  informed  the  books  will  be  opened. 
Rev.  XX.  12. — 1.  The  hook  of  divine  om- 
niscience, Mai.  iii.  5.  or  remembrance, 
Mai.  iii.  16. — 2.  The  book  of  conscience, 
Rom.  i.  15. — 3.  The  book  of  providence, 
Rom.  ii.  4, 5. — 4.  The  book  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, Law,  and  Gospel,  John  xii.  48. 
Rom.  ii.  16.  ii.  12 — 5.  The  book  of  life, 
Luke  X.  20.  Rev.  iii.  5.  xx.  12,  15. 

V.  As  to  the  time  of  judgment :  the 
soul  will  either  be  ha])py  or  miserable 
immediately  after  death,  "but  the  gene- 
ral judgment  will  not  be  till  after  the 
resurrection,  Heb.  ix.  27.  There  is  a 
day  appointed.  Acts  xvii.  31.  but  it  is 
unknown  to  men. 

VL  As  to  the  place:  this  also  is  un- 
certain. Some  suppose  it  will  be  in  the 
air,  because  the  Judge  will  come  in  the 
clouds  of  heaven,  and  the  living  saints 
will  then  be  changed,  and  tlie  dead 
saints  raised,  and  both  be  caught  up  to 
I  meet  the  Lord  in  the  air,  1  Thcss.  iv. 
'  16,  17.  Others  think  it  will  be  on  the 
earth,  on  the  new  earth,  on  which  they 
will  descend  from  the  air  with  Christ. 
The  ])lace  ivhere,  however,  is  of  no 
consecjuence,  when  compared  with  the 
state  in  which  we  shall  ajipear.  And  as 
the  Scriptures  represent  it  as  certain, 
Eccl.  xi.  9.  universal,  2  Cor.  v.  11. 
righteous,  Rom.  ii.  5.  decisive,  1  Cor.  xv. 
52.  and  eternal  as  to  its  consequences, 
Heb.  vi.  2.  let  us  be  concerned  for  the 
welfare  of  our  immortal  interests,  flee 
to  the  refuge  set  before  us,  improve  our 
precious  time,  depend  on  the  merits  of 
the  Redeemer,  and  adhere  to  the  dic- 
tates of  the  divine  word,  that  we  may 
be  found  of  him  in  peace.  Bates's 
Works,  p.  449 ;  Bishofi  Hopkins  and 
Stoddard  on  the  Last  Judgment^  Gill's 
Body  of  Dix'inity,  467,  vol.  ii.  8vo.  Bos- 
ion's  Jhourfold  State  ;  Hemey's  Works, 
new  edition,  p.  72,  75,  vol.  i.  155,  vol.  iv. 
82,  233,  "vol.  iii. 

JUDGMENTS  OF  GOD,  are  the 
punishments  inflicted  by  him  for  par- 
ticular crimes.  The  Scriptures  give  us 
many  awful  instances  of  the  disi)lay  of 
divine  justice  in  the  pimishment  of  na- 
tions, families,  and  individuals,  for  their 
iniquities.  See  Gen.  vii.  xix.  25.  Exod. 
XV.  Judges  i.  6,  7.  Acts  xii.  23.  Esther 
V.  14.  with  chap.  vii.  10.  2  Kings  xi. 
Lev.  X.  1,  2.  Acts  v.  1  to  10.  Is.  xxx. 
1  to  5.  1  Sam.  xv.  9.  1  Kings  xii.  25,  33. 
It  becomes  us,  however,  to  be  exceed- 
ingly cautious  how  we  hiteri)ret  the 
se\cre  and  afflictive  dispensations  ot 
Providence.  Dr.  Jortin  justly  observes, 
that  tliere  is  usually  much  rashness  and 
])resuni)jtion  in  j)ronoancing  that  the 
calamities  of  sinners  are  particular  judg- 
ments of  God;  yet,  saith  he,  if  iroiu  sa- 


JUD 


281 


JUD 


cred  and  profane,  from  ancient  and  mo- 
dern historians,  a  collection  were  made 
of  all  the  cruel  persecuting  tyrants  who 
delighted  in  tormenting  their  fellow- 
creatures,  and  who  died  not  the  common 
death  of  all  men,  nor  were  visited  after 
the  visitation  of  -all  men,  but  whose 
plagues  were  horrible  and  sti-ange,  even 
a  sceptic  would  be  moved  at  the  evi- 
dence, and  would  be  apt  to  suspect  that 
it  was  SfTov  +1,  that  the  hand  of  God  was 
in  it.  As  Dr.  Jortin  was  no  enthusiast, 
and  one  who  would  not  overstrain  the 
point,  we  shall  here  principaUy  follow 
him  in  his  enumeration  of  some  of  the 
most  remarkable  instances. 

Herod  the  Great  was  the  first  perse- 
cutor of  Christianity.  He  attempted 
to  destroy  Jesus  Christ  himself,  while 
he  was  yet  but  a  child,  and  for  that 
wicked  purpose  slew  aU  the  male  chil- 
dren that  were  in  and  about  Bethlehem. 
What  was  the  consequence  ?  Josephus 
hath  told  us :  he  had  long  and  grievous 
sufferings,  a  burning  fever,  a  voracious 
appetite,  a  difficulty  of  breathing,  swell- 
ings of  his  limbs,  loathsome  ulcers  Avith- 
in  and  without,  breeding  vermin,  violent 
torments  and  convulsions,  so  that  he  en- 
deavoured to  kiU  himself,  but  was  re- 
strained by  his  friends.  The  Jews 
thought  these  evils  to  be  divine  judg- 
ments upon  him  for  his  wickedness. 
And  what  is  still  more  remarkable  in 
}iis  case  is,  he  left  a  numerous  family  of 
children  and  grand-children,  though  he 
had  put  some  to  death,  and  yet  in  about 
the  space  of  one  hundred  years  the 
whole  family  was  extinct. 

Herod  Ahtipas,  who  beheaded  John 
the  Baptist,  and  treated  Christ  con- 
temptuously when  he  was  brought  be- 
fore him,  was  defeated  by  Aretas,  an 
Arabian  king,  and  afterwards  had  his 
dominions  taken  from  him,  and  was 
sent  into  banishment  along  with  his  in- 
famous wife  Herodias,  by  the  emperor 
Caius. 

Herod  Agrippa  killed  James  the  bro- 
ther of  John,  and  put  Peter  in  prison. 
The  angel  of  the  Lord  soon  after  smote 
him,  and  he  was  eaten  of  worms,  and 
gave  up  the  ghost. 

Judas,  that  betrayed  our  Lord,  died, 
by  his  own  hands,  the  most  ignominious 
of  all  deaths. 

Pontius  Pilate,  who  condemned  our 
blessed  Saviour  to  death,  was  not  long 
afterwards  deposed  from  his  office,  ba- 
nished from  his  country,  and  died  by  his 
own  hands  ;  the  divine  vengeance  over- 
taking him  soon  after  his  crime. 

The  high  priest  Caiaphas,  was  depo- 
sed by  Yitelhus,  three  years  after  the 
death  of  Christ,  Thus  this  wicked  man. 


who  condemned  Christ  for  fear  of  dis- 
obliging the  Romans,  was  i^eminiously 
turned  out  of  his  office  by  the  Roman  go- 
venioi',  whom  he  had  sought  to  oblige. 

Ananias,  the  high-priest,  persecuted 
St.  Paul,  and  insolently  ordered  the  by- 
standei's  to  smite  him  on  the  mouth. 
Upon  which  the  apostle  said,  God  shall 
smite  t/ite,  thou  whited  wall.  Whether 
he  spake  this  prophetically  or  not,  may 
be  difficult  to  say  ;  but  certain  it  is,  that 
sometime  after  he  was  slain,  together 
with  his  brother,  by  his  own  son. 

Ananus,  the  high  priest,  slew  St. 
James  the  Less ;  lor  which  and  other 
outrages  lie  was  deposed  by  king  Agrip- 
pa tlie  younger,  and  probably  perished 
in  the  last  destniction  of  Jera'salem. 

Nero,  in  the  year  sixty-four,  turned 
his  rage  upon  the  Christians,  and  put  to 
death  Peter  and  Paul,  with  many  others. 
Four  years  after,  in  his  great  distress, 
he  attempted  to  kill  himself;  but  being 
as  mean-spirited  and  dastardly  as  he  was 
wicked  and  cruel,  he  had  not  the  reso- 
lution to  do  that  piece  cf  justice  to  the 
world,  and  was  forced  to  beg  assistance. 

Domitian  persecuted  the  Christians 
also.  It  is  said  he  threw  St.  John  into  a 
caldron  of  boiling  oil,  and  afterwards 
banished  him  into  the  isle  of  Patmos. 
In  the  following  year  this  monster  of 
wickedness  was  murdered  by  his  own 
people. 

The  Jewish  nation  persecuted,  reject- 
ed, and  ciiicified  the  Lord  of  gloiy. 
Within  a  few  years  after,  their  nation 
was  destroyed,  and  the  Loid  made  their 
plagues  wonderful. 

Flaccus  was  governor  of  Egj'pt  near 
the  time  of  our  Saviour's  death,  and  a 
violent  persecutor  of  the  Jews.  The 
wrath  of  God,  however,  ere  long  over- 
took him,  and  he  died  by  the  hands  of 
violence. 

Catullus  was  governor  of  Libya  about 
the  year  seventy-three.  He  was  also 
a  ciniel  persecutor  of  the  Jews,  and  he 
died  miserably.  For  though  he  was 
only  turned  out  of  his  office  by  the  Ro- 
mans, yet  he  fell  into  a  comphcated  and 
incurable  disease,  being  sorely  tomient- 
ed  both  in  body  and  mind.  He  was 
dreadfully  ten-ihed,  and  continually  cry- 
ing out  that  he  was  haunted  by  the 
ghosts  of  those  whom  he  had  murdered; 
and,  not  being  able  to  contain  himself^ 
he  leaped  out  of  his  bed,  as  if  he  were 
tortured  with  fire  and  put  to  the  rack. 
His  distemper  increasai  till  his  entrails 
were  all  coiTupted,  and  came  out  of 
his  body  ;  and  thus  he  perished,  as  sig- 
nal an  example  as  ever  was  known  of 
the  divine  justice  rendering  to  the  wick- 
ed according  to  their  deeds, 
>'  a 


JUD 


28,2 


JUD 


Caius,  the  Roman  emperor,  was  a 
great  persecutor  of  the  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians, and  a  blasphemer  of  tl\e  God  of 
heaven.  Soon  alter  his  atrocities,  how- 
ever, he  was  murdered  by  one  of  his 
own  people. 

Seveinis,  emperor  of  Rome,  was  a  vio- 
lent and  cruel  persecutor  of  the  follow- 
ers of  Christ.  He  also,  and  all  his  fami- 
ly, perished  miserably,  about  the  year 
two  hundred  after  our  Saviour. 

About  the  same  time,  Saturnius,  go- 
vernor of  Africa,  persecuted  the  Chris- 
tians and  put  seveVal  of  them  to  death. 
Soon  after,  he  went  blind. 

Heliogabalus,  the  emperor,  brought  a 
new  god  to  Rome,  and  would  needs  com- 
pel all  his  subjects  to  worship  him. 
This  was  sure  to  have  ended  in  a  per- 
secution of  the  Christians.  But,  soon 
after,  this  vile  monster  was  slain  by  his 
own  soldiers,  about  the  year  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty-two. 

Claudius  Herminianus  was  a  cruel 
persecutor  of  the  Christians  in  the 
second  century,  and  he  was  eaten  of 
■worms  while  he  lived. 

Decius  persecuted  the  church  about 
the  year  two  hundred  and  fifty ;  he  was 
soon  after  killed  in  battle. 

Gall  us  succeeded,  and  continued  the 
persecution.  He,  too,  was  killed  the 
year  following. 

Valerian,  the  emperor,  had  many 
good  qualities  ;  but  yet  he  was  an  impla- 
cable enemy  to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
and  his  gospel.  Some  time  after  he 
came  to  the  throne,  he  was  taken  pri- 
soner by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  and  used 
like  a  slave  and  a  dog ;  for  the  Persian 
monarch,  from  time  to  time,  obliged 
this  unhappy  emperor  to  bow  himself 
dov/n,  and  offer  him  his  back,  on  which 
to  set  his  foot,  in  order  to  mount  his 
chariot  or  his  horse.  He  died  in  this 
miserable  state  of  captivity. 

/Emilian,  governor  of  Egypt,  about 
two  hundred  and  sixty-three,  was  a 
virulent  persecutor  of  the  church  of 
Christ.  He  was  soon  after  strangled  by 
oi'dcr  of  the  emperor. 

Aurelian,  tlic  emperor,  just  intending 
to  begin  a  ])ersecution  against  the  fol- 
lowers of  Christ,  was  killed  in  the  year 
two  hundred  and  seventy-four. 

Maximin>is  was  a  persecutor  of  the 
church.  He  reigned  only  three  years, 
and  then  fell  under  the  hands  of  vio- 
lence. 

About  the  year  three  hundred  was 
the  greatest  possible  contest  between 
Christ  and  the  Roman  emperors,  which 
should  have  the  dominion.  These  illus- 
trious wretches  seemed  detei-mined  to 
blot  out  the  Chi-istian  race  and  name 


from  under  heaven.  The  persecutioti 
was  far  more  fierce  and  bnital  than  it 
had  ever  been.  It  was  time,  therefore, 
for  the  Lord  Jesus  Chnst,  the  great 
head  of  the  church,  to  arise  and  plead 
his  own  cause :  and  so,  indeed,  he  did. 
The  examples  we  have  mentioned  are 
dreadful :  these  that  follow  are  not  less 
astonishing,  and  they  are  all  delivered 
upon  the  best  authorities. 

Dioclesian  persecuted  the  church  in 
three  hundred  and  three.  After  this 
nothing  ever  prospei'ed  with  him.  He 
underwent  many  troubles:  his  senses 
became  impaired ;  and  he  quitted  the 
empire. 

Sevei-us,  another  persecuting  empe- 
I'or,  was  overthrown  and  put  to  death 
in  the  year  three  hundred  and  seven. 

About  the  same  time,  Urbanus,  go- 
vernor of  Palestine,  who  had  signalized 
himself  by  tormenting  and  destroying 
the  disciples  of  Jesus,  met  with  his  due 
reward ;  for  almost  immediately  after 
the  cruelties  committed,  the  divine  ven- 
geance overtook  him.  He  was  unex- 
pectedly degraded  and  deprived  of  all 
his  honours ;  and,  dejected,  dispirited, 
and  meanly  begging  for  mercy,  was  put 
to  death  by  the  same  hand  that  raised 
him. 

Firmilianus,  another  persecuting  go- 
vernor, met  with  the  same  fate. 

Maximianus  Herculus,  another  of  the 
wretched  persecuting  emperors,  was 
compelled  to  hang  himself,  in  the  year 
three  hundred  and  ten. 

Maximianus  Galerius,  of  all  the  ty- 
rants of  his  time  the  most  cniel,  was 
seized  with  a  grievous  and  horrible  dis- 
ease, and  tormented  Avith  worms  and 
ulcers  to  such  a  degree,  that  they  who 
were  ordered  to  attend  him  could  not 
bear  the  stench.  Worms  proceeded 
from  his  body  in  a  most  fearful  manner ; 
and  several  of  his  physicians  were  put 
to  death  because  they  could  not  endure 
the  smell,  and  others  because  the^  could 
not  cure  him.  This  happened  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  three  hundred  and 
eleven. 

Maxentius,  another  of  the  inhuman 
monsters,  was  overthi'own  in  battle  by 
Constantine ;  and  in  his  flight  he  fell  in- 
to the  Tiber,  and  was  drowned  in  the 
year  three  hundred  and  twelve. 

Maximinus  put  out  the  eyes  of  many 
thousands  of  Christians.  Soon  after  the 
commission  of  his  cruelties,  a  disease 
arose  among  his  own  people,  which 
greatly  affected  their  eyes,  and  took 
away  their  sight.  He  himself  died  mi- 
serably, and  upon  the  rack,  his  eyes 
starting  out  of  his  head  through  the  vio- 
lence of  his  distemper,  in  the  year  thre** 


JUD 


JS3 


JUD 


hundred  and  thirteen.  All  his  family 
likewise  were  destroyed,  his  wife  and 
children  put  to  death,  together  with 
most  of  his  friends  and  dependents,  who 
had  been  the  instruments  of  his  cruelty. 

A  Roman  officer,  to  oljlige  this  Maxi- 
minus,  greatly  oppressed  the  church  at 
Damascus :  not  long  after,  he  destroyed 
himself 

Licinius,  the  last  of  these  persecuting 
emperors  before  Constantine,  was  con- 
quered iuid  put  to  death  in  the  year 
three  hundred  and.  twenty-three.  He 
was  equally  an  enemy  to  religion,  liber- 
ty, and  leai-ning. 

Cyril,  the  deacon,  was  murdered  by 
some  Pagans,  at  Heliopolis,  for  his  op- 
position to  their  images.  They  ripped 
open  his  belly,  and  ate  his  liver :  the  di- 
vme  vengeance,  however,  pursued  all 
those  who  had  been  guilty  of  this  crime ; 
their  teeth  came  out,  their  tongues  rot- 
ted, and  they  lost  their  sight. 

Valens  was  made  emperor  in  364; 
and  though  a  Christian  himself,  he  is 
said  to  have  caused  fourscore  presby- 
ters, who  differed  from  him  in  opinion, 
to  be  put  to  sea,  and  burnt  alive  in  the 
ship.  Afterwards,  in  a  battle  with  the 
Goths,  he  was  defeated  and  wounded, 
and  fled  to  a  cottage,  where  he  was 
burnt  alive,  as  most  histoi'ians  relate : 
all  agree  that  he  perished. 

The  last  Pagan  prince,  who  was  a 
formidable  enemy  to  Christianity,  was 
JRadagaisus,  a  king  of  the  Goths.  He 
invaded  the  Roman  empire  with  an  ar- 
my of  400,000  men,  about  the  year  405, 
and  vowed  to  sacrifice  all  the  Romans, 
to  his  gods.  The  Romans,  however, 
fought  liim,  and  obtained  a  complete 
victoiy,  taking  him  and  his  sons  prison- 
ers, whom  they  put  to  death. 

Hunneric,  the  Vandal,  though  a 
Christian,  was  a  most  cruel  persecutor 
of  those  who  differed  from  him  in  opi- 
nion, about  the  year  of  our  Lord  484.  He 
spared  not  even  those  of  his  own  per- 
suasion, neither  his  friends  nor  his  kin- 
dred. He  reigned,  however,  not  quite 
eight  years,  and  died  with  all  the  marks 
of  divme  indignation  upon  him. 

Julian  the  apostate  greatly  oppressed 
the  Christians :  and  he  perished  soon 
after,  m  his  rash  expedition  against  the 
Persians. 

Several  of  those  who  were  employed 
or  permitted  by  Julian  to  persecute  the 
Christians,  are  said  to  have  perished 
miserably  and  remarkably.  I  will  here 
I'elate  the  fate  of  a  few  of  those  unhap- 
py wretches  in  the  words  of  Tillemont, 
■who  faithfully  collected  the  account  from  jj 
the  ancients.  We  have  observed,  says  |i 
that  learned  man,  that  count  Julian,  [j 


with  Felix,  superintendent  ot  the  finan- 
ces, and  Elpidius,  ti'casurer  to  the  em- 
peror, apostates  all  three,  had  received 
orders  to  go  and  seize  the  effects  of  the 
church  at  Antioch,  and  carry  them  to 
the  treasury.  They  did  it  on  the  day 
of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Theodoret,  and 
drew  up  an  account  of  what  they  had 
seized.  But  ccunt  Julian  was  not  con- 
tent with  taking  away  the  sacred  vessels 
of  the  church,  and  profaning  them  by 
his  impure  hands :  carrying  to  greater 
lengths  the  outrage  he  was  doing  to 
Jesus  Christ,  he  overturned  and  flung 
them  down  on  the  ground,  and  sat  upon 
them  in  a  most  criminal  manner ;  add- 
ing to  this  all  the  banters  and  blasphe- 
mies that  he  could  devise  against  Christ, 
and  against  the  Christians,  who,  he  said, 
were  abandoned  of  God. 

Felix,  the  superintendent,  signalized 
himself  also  by  another  impiety  ;  for  as 
he  was  viewing  the  rich  and  magnificent 
vessels  which  the  emperors  Constar.tine 
and  Constantius  had  given  to  the  church, 
"  Behold"  said  he,  "  with  what  plate 
the  son  of  Mary  is  served !"  It  is  said, 
too,  that  count  Julian  and  he  made  it 
the  subject  of  banter,  that  God  should, 
let  them  thus  profane  his  temple,  with- 
out intei^posing  by  visible  miracles. 

But  these  impieties  remained  not  long 
unpunished,  and  Julian  had  no  sooner 
profaned  the  sacred  utensils,  than  he 
felt  the  effects  of  divine  vengeance.  He 
fell  into  a  grie^'ous  and  imknown  dis- 
ease ;  and  his  inward  parts  being  cor- 
rupted, he  cast  out  his  liver  and  his  ex- 
crements, not  from  the  ordinary  pas- 
sages, but  from  his  miserable  mouth, 
which  had  uttered  so  many  blasphemies. 
His  secret  parts,  and  all  the  flesh  round 
about  them,  cornipted  also,  and  bred 
worms ;  and  to  show  that  it  was  a  di- 
vine punishment,  all  the  ai"t  of  physi- 
cians could  give  him  no  relief.  In  this 
condition  he  continued  forty  days,  with- 
out speech  or  sense,  preyed  on  by 
worms.  At  length  he  came  to  himself 
again.  The  imposthunies,  however, 
all  over  his  body,  and  the  worms  wliich 
gnawed  him  continually,  reduced  him 
to  the  utmost  extremity.  He  tlirew 
them  up,  without  ceasing,  the  last  three 
days  of  his  life,  with  a  stench  which  he 
himself  could  not  bear. 

The  disease  with  which  God  visited 
Felix  wa.s  not  so  long.     He  burst  sud- 
denly in  the  middle  of  his  body,  and  died 
I  of  an  effusion  of  blood  in  the  course  of 
I  one  day. 

I     Eipidius  was  stripped  of  his  effects  in 

j  366,  and  shut  up  in  prison,  where,  after 

i  having  continued  for  some  time,  he  died 

without  reputation  and  honour,  cursed 


;yuM 


284 


JUS 


of  all  the  world,  and  surnamed  the  apos- 
tate. 

To  these  instances  many  more  might 
be  added  nearer  our  own  times,  did  our 
room  permit.  These,  howe^'er,  are  suf- 
ficient to  show  us  what  a  fearful  thing  it 
is  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  living 
God,  and  how  fmitless  and  awful  it  is  to 
oppose  his  designs,  and  to  attempt  to 
stop  the  progress  of  his  Gospel.  "  v^'^hy 
do  the  heathen  rage,  and  the  people 
imagine  a  vain  thing  ?  He  that  sitteth  in  j 
the  heavens  shall  laugh  ;  the  Lord  shall 
have  them  in  dei'ision.  Thou  shalt  break 
them  with  a  rod  of  iron  ;  thou  shalt  dash 
them  to  pieces  as  a  potter's  vessel.  Be 
■wise  uQw,  therefore,  O  ye  kings ;  be  in- 
structed, ye  judges  of  the  earth.  Serve 
the  Lord"  with  fear,  and  rejoice  with 
trembling."  Ps.  ii.  Jortin's  Remarks 
on  Ecclesiastical  History,  vol.  iii.  p.  246, 
Sec.  SimfisoTi^s  Key  to' the  Prophecies, 
29 ;  J^etvton  on  the  Prophecies,  dis.  24  ; 
Hryant^s  Obserxmtions  on  the  Plagues 
of'Epupt;  Tillemont,  Histoire  cles  Kmp. 
'  JUDICIUM  DEI,  or  Judgment  of 
God,  was  a  term  anciently  applied  to  all 
extraordinary  trials  of  secret  crimes  ;  as 
those  by  arms  and,  single  combat ;  and 
the  ordeals,  or  those  by  fire,  or  red  hot 

Eloughshares,  by  plunging  the  arm  in 
oiling  water,  or  the  whole  body  in  cold 
water,  in  hopes  that  God  would  work  a 
miracle,  rather  than  suffer  truth  and  in- 
nocence to  perish.  These  customs  were 
a  long  time  kept  up  even  amon§  Chris- 
tians, and  they  are  still  in  use  in  some 
nations.  Trials  of  this  sort  were  usually 
held  in  churches,  in  the  presence  of  the 
bishop,  priest,  and  secular  judges,  after 
three  days  fasting,  confession,  commu- 
nion, and  many  adjurations  and  cere- 
monies, described  at  large  by  Du 
Cangc. 

JUMPERS,  persons  so  called  from 
the  practice  of  jumping  during  the  time 
allotted  for  religious  worship.  This 
singular  practice  began,  it  is  said,  m  the 
western  part  of  Wales,  about  the  year 
1760.  It  was  soon  after  defended  by 
Mr.  William  Williams  (the  Welch 
poet,  as  he  is  sometimes  called)  in  a 
pamphlet,  which  was  patronized  by  the 
abettors  of  jumping  in  i-eligious  assem- 
blies. Several  of  the  moi-e  zealous  itine- 
rant preachers  encouraged  the  people 
to  ci"y  out  gogoniant  (the  Welch  word 
for  glory,)  amen,  &c.  Sec.  to  put  them- 
selves in  violent  agitations  :  and,  finally, 
to  jump  until  they  were  quite  exhaust- 
ed, so  as  often  to  be  obliged  to  fall  down 
on  the  floor  or  the  field,  where  this  kind 
of  worship  was  held. 

JUSTICE  consists  in  an  exact  and 
scruoulous  regard  to  the  rights  of  others. 


with  a  deliberate  purpose  to  preserve 
them  on  all  occasions  sacred  and  invio- 
late. It  is  often  divided  into  commufa' 
tive  and  distrihutative  justice.  The 
former  consists  in  an  equal  exchange 
of  benefits ;  the  latter  in  an  equal  dis- 
tribution of  rewards  and  punishments. 
Dr.  W'atts  gives  the  following  i-ules  re- 
specting justice. — "  1.  It  is  just  that  we 
honour,  reverence,  and  respect  those 
who  are  superiors  in  anv  kind,  Eph.  \\. 
1,  3.  1  Pet.  ii.  17.  1  Tim.  v.  17— 2. 
That  we  show  particular  kindness  to 
near  relations,  Prov.  xvii.  17. — 3.  That 
we  love  those  who  love  us,  and  show 
gratitude  to  those  who  have  done  us 
good,  Gal.  iv.  15. — 4.  That  we  pay  the 
full  due  to  those  whom  we  bai'gam  or 
deal  with,  Rom.  xiii.  Dent.  xxiv.  14. — 5. 
That  we  help  our  fellow-creatures  in 
cases  of  great  necessity,  Ex.  xxiii.  4.— 
6.  Reparation  to  those  whom  we  have 
wilftilly  injured."  TVatts's  Serm.  ser. 
24,  25,  vol.  ii.    Berry  Street  Lect.  ser. 

4.  Grove's  Mor.  Phil.  p.  332,  vol.  ii. 
Wollastori's  Relig.  of  A'ature,  p.  137, 
141 ;  Jay's  Ser.  vol.  h.  p.  131. 

JUSTICE  OF  GODisthatpeifection 
whereby  he  is  infinitely  righteous  and 
just,  both  in  himself  and  in  all  his  pro- 
ceedings with  his  creatures.  Mr.  Ry- 
land  defines  it  thus:  "The  ardent  in- 
clination of  his  will  to  prescribe  equal 
laws  as  the  supreme  governor,  and  to 
dispense  equal  rewards  and  punish- 
ments as  the  supi-eme  judge."  Rev.  xvi. 

5.  Psal.  cxlv.  7.  Psal.  xcvii.  1. — 2.  It  is 
distinguished  into  remunerative  andpu- 
nitive  justice.  Remunerative  justice  is 
a  distribution  of  rewards,  the  inile  of 
which  is  not  the  merit  of  the  creature, 
but  his  own  gracious  promise,  James  i. 
12.  2Tim.  iv.  8.  Punitive  or  vindictive 
justice,  is  the  infliction  of  punishment 
for  any  sin  committed  by  men,  2  Thess. 
i.  6.  That  God  wiU  not  let  sin  go  un- 
punished is  evident,  1.  From  the  word 
of  God,  Ex.  xxxiv.  6,  7.  Numb.  xiv.  18. 
Neh.  i.  3. — 2.  From  the  nature  of  God, 
Isa.  i.  13,  14.  Psal.  v.  5,  6.  Heb.  xii.  29. 
— 3.  From  sin  being  punished  in  Christ, 
the  surety  of  his  people,  1  Pet.  iii.  18. — 
4.  From  all  the  various  natural  evils 
which  men  bear  in  the  present  state. 
The  use  we  should  make  of  this  doc- 
trine is  this :  1.  We  should  learn  the 
dreadful  nature  of  sin,  and  the  inevita- 
ble ruin  of  im]Mnitcnt  sinners,  Ps.  ix. 
17. — 2.  We  should  highly  appreciate  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  m  whom  justice  is 
satisfied.  1  Pet.  iii.  18.— 3.  We  should 
imitate  the  jvistice  of  God,  by  cherishing 
an  ardent  regard  to  the  lights  of  Gbd, 
and  to  the  rights  of  mankuid. — 4.  We 
should  abhor  all  sin,  as  it  strikes  directly 


JUS 


285 


JUS 


at  the  justice  of  God. — 5.  We  should 
derive  comfoit  from  the  consideration 
that  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  will  do 
right,  as  it  regatxls  ourselves,  the 
church,  and  the  world  at  large,  Psal. 
xcvii.  1,  2.  RylaTid's  Conte?n.  vol.  ii.  p. 
439  ;  JFitsiits's  Economy,  lib.  11.  ch.  8. 
§  11 ;  Dr.  Oiven  on  the  Justice  of  God ; 
GiWs  Body  of  Divinity,  p.  155,  vol.  i. 
8vo. ;  FJinha  Cole  on  the  Righteousness 
of  God. 

■  JUSTIFICATION,  a  forensic  tei-m, 
and  signifies  the  declainng  or  the  pre- ; 
nouncing  a  person  righteous  accoi-ding 
to  law.  It  stands  opposed  to  condem- 
nation ;  and  this  is  the  idea  of  the  word 
whenever  it  is  used  in  an  evangelical 
sense,  Rom.  v.  18.  Deut.  xxv.  1.  Prov. 
xvii.  15.  Matt.  xii.  37.  It  does  not  sig- 
nify to  make  men  holy,  but  the  holding 
and  declaring  them  so.  It  is  defined  by 
the  assembly  thus :  "  An  act  of  God's 
free  grace,  in  which  he  pardoneth  all 
our  sms,  and  accepteth  us  as  righteous 
in  his  sight  only  for  the  righteousness 
of  Christ  imputed  to  us,  and  received 
by  faith  alone." 

The  doctrine  of  justification,  says  Mr. 
Booth,  makes  a  veij  distinguished  figure 
in  that  religion  which  is  from  above,  and 
is  a  capital  article  of  that  faith  which 
was  once  delivered  to  the  saints.  Far 
from  being  a  merely  speculative  point, 
it  spreads  its  influence  through  the 
whole  body  of  divinity,  injns  through  all 
Christian  experience,  and  operates  m 
every  part  of^practical  godliness.  Such 
is  its  grand  importance,  that  a  mistake 
about  it  has  a  malignant  efiicacy,  and  is 
attended  with  a  long  train  of  dangerous 
consequences.  Nor  can  this  appear 
strange,  when  it  is  considered,  that  the 
doctnne  of  justification  is  no  other  than 
the  ivay  of  a  sinner's  acceptance  luith 
God.  Being  of  such  peculiar  moment, 
it  is  inseparably  connected  Avith  many 
other  evangelical  truths,  the  harmony 
and  beauty  of  which  we  cannot  behold 
while  this  is  misunderstood.  It  is,  if 
any  thing  may  be  so  called,  an  essential 
article,  and  certainly  requires  our  most 
serious  consideration. 

Justification,  in  a  theological  sense,  is 
either  legal  or  evangelical.  If  any  per- 
son could  be  found  that  had  never 
broken  the  divine  law,  he  might  be  jus- 
tified by  it  in  a  manner  strictly  legal. 
But  in  this  way  none  of  the  human  race 
can  be  justified,  or  stand  acquitted  be- 
fore God.  For  all  have  smned  ;  there 
is  none  righteous  ;  no,  not  one,  Rom.  iii. 
As  sinners,  they  are  under  the  sentence 
of  death  by  his  righteous  law,  and  ex- 
cluded from  all  hope  and  mercy.  That 
justification,  therefore,  about  which  the 


Scriptures  principally  treat,  and  which 
reaches  the  case  of  a  sinner,  is  not  by 
a  personal,  but  an  imputed  righteous- 
ness ;  a  righteolisness  without  the  law, 
Rom.  iii.  21.  provided  by  grace,  and  re- 
vealed in  the  Gospel ;  for  which  reason, 
that  obedience  by  which  a  suuier  is  jus- 
tified, and  his  justification  itself,  are 
called  evangelical.  In  this  affair  there 
is  the  most  wonderful  display  of  divine 
justice  and  boundless  gi-ace.  Of  divine 
justice,  if  we  regard  the  meritorious 
cause  and  ground  on  which  the  Justifier 
proceeds  in  absolving  the  condemned 
sinner,  and  in  pronounciiig  him  righ- 
teous. Of  boundless  grace,  if  we  consi- 
der the  state  and  character  of  those  per- 
sons to  whom  the  blessing  is  granted. 
Justification  may  be  farther  distinguish- 
ed as  being  either  at  the  bar  of  God,  and 
in  the  court  of  conscience  ;  or  in  the 
sight  of  the  world,  and  before  our  fellow- 
creatures.  The  former  is  by  mere  grace 
through  faith ;  and  the  latter  is  by- 
works. 

To  justify  is  evidently  a  divine  prero- 
gative.    It  is  God  that  justifieth,  Rom. 
viii.  33.    That  sovereign  Being,  against 
whom   we  have    so    greatly   offended, 
whose  law  we  have  broken  by  ten  thou- 
sand acts  of  rebellion  against  him,  has, 
in  the  way  of  his  own  appointment,  the 
sole  right  of  acquitting  the  guilty,  and 
I  of  pronouncing  them  righteous.  He  ap- 
I  points  the  way,  provides  the  means,  and 
;  imputes  the  righteousness ;  and  all  in 
[  perfect  agi-eement  with  the  demands  of 
1  his  offended  law,  and  the  rights  of  his 
j  violated  justice.     But  although  this  act 
j  is  in  some  places  of  the  infallible  word 
more  particularly  appropriated  person- 
ally to  the  Father,  yet  it  is  manifest  that 
all  the  Three  Persons  are  concerned  in 
this  grand  affaii',  and  each  perfoi-ms  a 
distinct  pait  in  this  particular,  as  also 
in  the  whole  economy  of  salvation.  The 
eternal  Father  is  represented    as  ap- 
pointing the  way,  and  as  giving  his  own 
Son  to  perform  the  conditions  of  our  ac- 
ceptance before  him,  Rom.  viii.  32 :  the 
j  di\'Lne  Son  as  engaged  to  sustain  the 
curse,  and  make  the  atonement ;  to  fulfil 
the  terms,  and  provide  the  righteous- 
ness by  which  we  are  justified.  Tit.  ii. 
14:  and  the  Holy  Spirit  as  revealing  to 
sinners  the  perfection,  suitableness,  and 
freeness  of  the  Saviour's  work,  enabling 
j  them  to  receive  it  as  exhibited  m  the 
I  Gospel  of  sovereign  gi-ace  ;  and  testify- 
j  ing  to  their  consciences  complete  justi- 
'  fi  cation  by  it  in  the  court  of  heaven, 
i  John  xvi.  8,  14. 

I  As  to  the  objects  of  justification,  the 
Scripture  says,  they  are  sinners,  and 
um^odly.    For  thus  nms  the  divine  de- 


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286 


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claration:  To  him  that  worketh  is  the 
reward  of  justification,  and  of  eternal 
life  as  connected  with  it ;  Jiot  reckoned 
of  grace,  but  of  debt.  But  to  him  that 
ivorketh  not,  but  believeth  on  Him  that 
justifieth — whom  }  the  righteous  ?  the 
holy  :*  the  eminently  pious  ?  nay,  verily, 
but  the  ungodly ;  his  faith,  or  that  m 
which  he  believes,  is  counted  unto  him 
for  righteousness,  Rom.  iv.  4,  5.  Gal.  ii. 
- 17.  Here,  then,  we  learn,  that  the  sub- 
jects of  justification,  considered  in  them- 
selves, are  not  only  destitute  of  a  per- 
fect righteousness,  but  have  performed 
no  good  works  at  all.  They  are  deno- 
minated and  considered  as  the  ungodly, 
■when  the  blessing  is  bestowed  upon 
them.  Not  that  we  are  to  understand 
that  such  remain  ungodly.  "  All,"  says 
Dr.  Owen,  "that  are  justified,  were  be- 
fore ungodly:  but  all  that  are  justified, 
are,  at  the  same  instant,  made  godly." 
That  the  mere  sinner,  however,  is  the 
subject  of  justification,  appears  from 
hence.  The  Spirit  of  God,  speaking 
in  the  Scripture,  repeatedly  declares 
that  we  are  justified  by^^racei.  _  But 
^|race  stands  in  direct  oppositTon'tb 
woj^s.  Whoever,  therefore,  is  justified 
\y  grace,  is  considered  as  absolutely  un- 
wortliy  in  that  very  instant  when  the 
blessing  is  vouchsafed  to  him,  Rom.  iii. 
24.  The  person,  therefore,  that  is  jus- 
tified, is  accepted  ivithout  any  cause  in 
liimself.  Hence  it  appears,  that  if  we 
regard  the  pei'sons  who  ai-e  justified, 
and  their  state  prior  to  the  enjoyment 
of  the  immensely  glorious  privilege,  di- 
^'ine  grace  appears,  and  reigns  in  all  its 
glory. 

As  to  the  way  and  manner  in  which 
sinners  are  justified,  it  may  be  observed 
that  the  Divine  Being  can  acquit  none 
without  a  complete  righteousness.  Jus- 
tification, as  before  observed,  is  evidently 
a  forensic  term,  and  the  thing  intended 
by  it  a  judicial  act.  So  that,  were  a  per- 
son to  be Jiistifiedwithout  a  righteous- 
ness, the"  pidgment  would  riot  be  ac- 
cordingtq truth  ;  it  would  be  a  false  and 
unrighteous  sentence.  That  righteous- 
ness by  which  we  ai'e  justified  must  be 
equal  to  the  demands  of  that  law  ac- 
cording to  which  the  Sovereign  Judge 
proceeds  in  our  justification.  Many  per- 
sons talk  of  conditions  of  justification 
(see  article  Condition  ;)  but  the  only 
condition  is  that  oificrfccl  righteousness : 
this  the  law  requires,  nor  does  the  Gos- 
pel substitute  another.  But  where  shall 
we  find,  or  how  shall  we  obtain  a  justi- 
fying i-ighteousness  ?  Shall  we  flee  to  the 
law  fin-  relief:'  Shall  we  apply  with  dili- 
gence and  zeal  to  the  performance  of 
duty,  in  order  to  attain  the  desired  end  ^ 


The  apostle  positively  affirms,  that  there 
is  no  acceptance  with  God  by  the  works 
of  the  law  ;  and  the  reasons  are  evident. 
Our  righteousness  is  imperfect,  and 
consequently  cannot  justify.  If  justifica- 
tion were  by  the  works  oi  men,  it  could 
not  be  by  grace  :  it  Avould  not  be  a  righ- 
teousness without  works. — There  would 
be  no  need  of  the  righteousness  of 
Christ ;  and,  lastly,  if  justification  were 
by  the  law,  then  boasting  would  be  en- 
couraged ;  whereas  God's  design,  in  the 
whole  scheme  of  salvation,  is  to  exclude 
it,  Rom.  iii.  27.  Eph.  ii.  8,  9.  Nor  is 
faith  itself  our  righteousness,  or  that 
for  the  sake  of  which  we  are  justified  .- 
for,  though  believers  are  said  to  be  jus- 
tified by  faith,  yet  not  for  faith:  faith 
can  only  be  considered  as  the  instru- 
ment, and  not  the  cause.  That  faith  is 
not  our  righteousness,  is  evident  from  the 
following  considerations:  No  man's  faith 
is  perfect ;  and,  if  it  were,  it  would  not 
be  equal  to  the  dema.nds  of  the  divine 
law.  It  could  not,  therefore,  without  an 
error  in  judgment,  be  accounted  a  com- 
plete righteousness.  But  the  judgment 
of  God,  as  before  proved,  is  according 
to  truth,  and  according  to  the  rights  of 
his  law.  That  obedience  by  which  a 
sinner  is  justified  is  called  the  righ- 
teousness of  faith,  righteousness  by 
faith,  and  is  represented  as  revealed  to 
faith ;  consequently  it  cannot  be  faith 
itself.  Faith,  in  the  business  of  justifi- 
cation, stands  opposed  to  all  works ;  to 
him  that  worketh  not,  but  believeth. 
Now,  if  it  were  our  justifying  righteous- 
ness, to  consider  it  in  such  a  light  would 
be  highly  improper.  For  in  such  a  con- 
nection it  falls  under  the  consideration 
of  a  work  ;  a  condition,  on  the  perform- 
ance of  which  our  acceptance  with  God 
is  manifestly  suspended.  If  faith  itself 
be  that  on  account  of  which  we  are  ac- 
cepted, then  some  believers  are  justified 
by  a  more,  and  some  by  a  less  perfect 
righteousness,  in  exact  proportion  to  the 
sti-ength  or  weakness  of  their  faith. 
That  which  is  the  end  of  the  law  is  our 
righteousness,  which  certainly  is  not 
faith,  but  the  obedience  of  our  exalted 
substitute,  Rom.  x.  4.  Were  faith  itself 
our  justifying  righteousness,  we  might 
depend  upon  it  before  God,  and  rejoice 
in  it.  So  that  according  to  this  hypothe- 
sis, not  Christ,  but  faith,  is  the  capital 
thing;  the  object  to  which  we  must 
look,  which  is  absurd.  When  the  apos- 
tle says,  "  faith  was  imputed  to  him  for 
righteousness,"  his  mam  design  was  to 
prove  that  the  eternal  Sovereign  justi- 
fies freely,  without  any  cause  in  the 
creature. 
Nor  is  man's  obedience  to  the  Gospel 


JUS 


287 


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as  to  a  new  and  milder  law  the  matter 
of  his  justification  before  God.  It  was 
a  notion  that  some  years  ago  obtained, 
that  a  relaxation  of  the  law,  and  the 
severities  of  it,  has  been  obtained  by 
Christ;  and  a  new  law,  a  remedial  law, 
a  law  of  milder  terms,  has  been  intro- 
duced by  him,  which  is  the  Gospel ;  the 
terms  of  which  are  faith,  repentance, 
and  obedience ;  and  though  these  are 
imperfect,  yet,  being  sincere,  they  are 
accepted  of  by  God  in  the  room  of  a  pei'- 
fect  righteousness.  But  every  part  of  tliis 
scheme  is  wrong,  for  the  law  is  not  i-e- 
laxed,  nor  any  of  its  severities  abated ; 
there  is  no  alteration  made  in  it,  either 
with  respect  to  its  precepts  or  penalty  : 
besides,  the  scheme  is  absurd,  for  it  sup- 
poses that  the  law  which  a  man  is  now 
under  requii-es  only  an  imfierfect  obedi- 
ence :  but  an  imperfect  righteousness 
cannot  answer  its  demands ;  for  every 
law  requires  perfect  obedience  to  its 
own  precepts  and  prohibitions. 

Nor  is  a  profession  of  religion,  nor  sin- 
cerity, nor  good  works,  at  all  the  gi'ound 
of  our  acceptance  with  God,  for  all  our 
righteousness  is  imperfect,  and  must 
therefore  be  entirely  excluded.  By 
grace,  saith  the  apostle,  ye  are  saved, 
not  of  works,  lest  any  man  should  boast, 
Eph.  ii.  8, 9.  Besides,  the  works  of  sanc- 
tincation  and  justification  are  two  dis- 
tinct things :  the  one  is  a  work  of  grace 
within  men ;  the  other  an  act  of  grace 
for  or  towards  men  :  the  one  is  imper- 
fect, the  other  complete  ;  the  one  carri- 
ed on  gradually,  the  other  done  at  once. 
See  Sanctification. 

If,  then,  we  cannot  possibly  be  justified 
by  any  of  our  own  performances,  nor  by 
faith  Itself,  nor  even  by  the  graces  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  where  then  shall  we 
find  a  righteousness  by  which  we  can 
be  justified?  The  Scripture  furnishes  us 
with  an  answer — "  By  Jesus  Christ  all 
that  believe  SiVe  justified  {vom  all  things 
from  which  they  could  not  be  justified 
by  the  law  of  Moses,"*  Acts  xiii.  38,  39. 
"  He  was  delivered  for  our  offences,  and 
raised  again  for  our  justification,"  Rom. 
iv.  25.  "Being  justified  by  his  blood, 
we  shall  be  saved  from  wrath  through 
him,"  Rom.  v.  9.  The  spotless  obedi- 
ence, therefore,  the  bitter  sufferings, 
and  the  accursed  death  of  our  heavenly 
Surety,  constitute  that  very  righteous- 
ness by  which  sinners  are  justified  be- 
fore God.  That  this  righteousness  is 
imputed  to  us,  and  that  we  are  not  jus- 
tified by  a  personal  righteousness,  ap- 
pears from  the  Scripture  with  superior 
evidence.  "By  the  obedience  of  one 
shall  many  be  made  righteous,"  Rom. 
v.,  19.    «  He  hath  made  him  to  be  sin 


for  us  who  knew  no  sin,  that  we  might 
be  made  the  righteousness  of  God  in 
him,"  2  Cor.  v.  21.  "And  be  found  m 
him,  not  having  mine  own  righteousness 
which  is  r»f  tlie  law,  but  that  which  i'? 
through  tlie  faith  of  Christ ;  the  righ- 
teousness which  is  of  God  by  faith," 
Phil.  iii.  8.  See  also  Jer.  xxiii.  6.  Dan. 
ix.  24.  the  whole  of  the  2nd  chapter  of 
Galatians.  See  articles  Reconcilia- 
tion, Righteousness. 

As  to  the  properties  of  justification: 
1.  It  is  an  act  of  God's  fi-ee  grace,  with- 
out any  merit  Avhatever  in  the  creature, 
Rom.  iii.  24. — 2.  It  is  an  act  of  justice  as 
well  as  grace  :  the  law  being  perfectly 
fulfilled  in  Christ,  and  divine  justice  sa- 
tisfied, Rom.  iii.  26.  Ps.  Ixxxv.  10. — 3. 
It  is  an  individual  and  instantaneous  act 
done  at  once,  admitting  of  no  degi'ees, 
John  xix.  30. — 4.  It  is  irreversible,  and 
an  unalterable  act,  Mai.  iii.  6. 

As  to  the  time  of  justification,  divines 
are  not  agreed.  Some  have  distinguish- 
ed it  into  decretive,  virtual,  and  actual 
1.  Decretive,  is  God's  eternal  purpose 
to  justify  sinners  in  time  by  Jesus  Christ. 
— 2.  Virtual  justification  has  a  refer- 
ence to  the  satisfaction  made  by  Christ. 
— 3.  Actual,  is  when  wc  ai-e  enabled  to 
believe  in  Christ,  and  by  faith  are  united 
to  him.  Others  say  it  is  eternal,  because 
his  purpose  respecting  it  was  from  ever- 
lasting: and  that,  as  the  Almighty  viev/- 
ed  his  people  in  Christ,  they  were,  of 
consequence,  justified  in  his  sight.  But 
it  appears  to  me,  that  the  principle  on 
which  the  advocates  for  this  doctrine 
have  proceeded  is  wrong.  They  have 
confounded  the  design  with  the  execu- 
tion ;  for  if  this  distinction  be  not  kept 
up,  the  utmost  perplexity  will  follow  the 
consideration  of  every  subject  which 
relates  to  the  deci'ees  of  God  ;  nor  shall 
we  be  able  to  form  any  clear  ideas  of 
his  moral  government  whatever.  To 
say,  as  one  does,  that  the  eternal  will  of 
God  to  justify  men  is  the  justification  of 
them,  is  not  to  the  purpose ;  for,  upon 
tlie  same  ground,  we  might  as  well  say 
that  the  eternal  will  of  God  to  convert 
and  glorify  his  people  is  the  real  con- 
version and  glorification  of  them.  That 
it  was  eternally  determined  that  there 
should  be  a  people  who  should  believe 
in  Christ,  and  that  his  righteousness 
should  be  imputed  to  them,  is  not  to  be 
disputed ;  but  to  say  that  these  things 
were  really  done  from  eteiTiity  (whic!i 
we  must  say  if  we  believe  eternal  justi- 
fication,) this  would  be  absurd.  It  is 
more  consistent  to  believe,  that  God 
from  eternity  laid  the  plan  of  justifica- 
tion ;  that  this  plan  was  executed  by  the 
life  and  deatli  of  Christ ;  and  that  the 


KEY 


288 


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blessing  is  only  manifested,  received, 
and  enjoyed,  when  we  are  regenerated ; 
so  that  no  man  can  say  or  has  any  rea- 
son to  conclude,  he  is  justified,  until  he 
believes  in  Christ,  Rom.  v.  1. 

The  effects  or  blessings  of  justifica- 
tion, are,  1.  An  entire  freedom  from  all 
penal  evils  in  this  life,  and  that  which  is 
to  come,  1  Cor.  iii.  22. — 2.  Peace  with 
God,  Rom.  V.  1. — 3.  Access  to  God 
through  Christ,  Eph.  iii.  12. — 4.  Accep- 
tance with  God,  Eph.  v.  27. — 5.  Holy 
confidence  and  security  under  all  the 
difficulties  and  troubles  of  the  present 
state,  2  Tim.  i.  12.— 7.  Finally,  eternal 
salvation,  Rom.  viii.  30.  Rom.  v.  18. 

Thus  we  have  given  as  comprehen- 
sive a  view  of  the  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion as  the  nature  of  this  work  will  ad- 
mit ;  a  doctrine  which  is  founded  upon 
the  sacred  Scriptures ;  and  which,  so 
far  from  leading  to  licentiousness,  as 


some  suppose,  is  of  all  others  the  most 
replete  with  motives  to  lo^'e,  depen- 
dence, and  obedience,  Rom.  vi.  1,  2.  A 
doctrine  which  the  primitive  Christians 
held  as  constituting  the  verv  essence  of 
their  system ;  which  our  reformers  con- 
sidered as  the  most  important  point ; 
which  our  venerable  martyrs  gloried  in, 
and  sealed  with  their  blood ;  and  which, 
as  the  church  of  England  observes,  is  a 
"  very  wholesome  doctrine,  and  full  of 
comfort."  See  Dr.  Owen  on  Justifica- 
tio7i ;  Raivliyis  on  Justification;  Ed- 
wards's Sermons  on  ditto  ;  Lime  Street 
Led.  p.  350;  Hervey's  Theron  and 
Asfiasio,  and  Eleven  Letters ;  IVither- 
s/ioon's  Connexio7i  hetweeyi  Justification 
and  Holiness ;  Gill  and  Ridgley^s  Div. 
but  especially  Bootli's  Reign  of  Grace, 
to  which  I  am  indebted  for  gi-eat  part 
of  the  above  article. 


K. 


KEITHIANS,  a  party  which  sepa- 
rated from  the  Quakers  in  Pennsylva- 
nia, in  the  year  1691.  They  were  liead- 
ed  by  the  famous  George  Keith,  from 
whom  they  derived  their  name.  Those 
who  persisted  in  their  separation,  after 
their  leader  deserted  them,  practised 
baptism,  and  received  the  Lord's  sup- 
per. This  party  were  also  called 
Quaker  Baptists,  because  they  retain- 
ed the  language,  dress,  and  manner  of 
the  Quakers. 

KEYS,  power  of  the,  a  term  made 
use  of  hi  reference  to  ecclesiastical  ju- 
risdiction, denoting  the  power  of  ex- 
communicating and  absolving.  The 
Romanists  say  that  the  pope  has  the 
power  of  the  keys,  and  can  open  and 
shut  paradise  as  he  pleases ;  grounding 
their  opinion  on  that  expression  of  Jesus 
Christ  to  Peter — "  I  will  give  thee  the 
keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  Matt. 
XVI.  19.  But  every  one  must  see  that 
this  is  an  absolute  pen'ersion  of  Scrip- 
ture; for  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  most  probably  refer  to  the  Gos- 
pel dispensation,  and  denote  the  power 
and  authority  of  e\ery  faithful  minister 
to  preach  tfie  Gospel,  administer  the 
sacraments,  and  exercise  govern  mcnt, 
that  men  may  be  admitted  to  or  ex- 
cluded from  the  church,  as  is  proper. 
See  Absolution. 

In  St.  Gregory  we  read  that  it  was 
the  custom  for  the  popes  to  send  a 
golden  key  to  princes,  wnei-ein  tjiiey  in- 


closed a  little  of  the  filings  of  St.  Peter's 
chain, kept  with  such  devotion  at  Rome; 
and  that  these  keys  were  worn  in  the 
bosom,  as  being  supposed  to  contain 
some  wonderful  virtues !  Such  has  been 
the  superstition  of  past  ages ! ! 

KIRK  SESSIONS,  the  name  of  a 
petty  ecclesiastical  judicatory  in  Scot- 
land. Each  parish  according  to  its  ex- 
tent is  divided  into  several  particular 
districts,  every  one  of  which  has  its  own 
elder  and  deacons  to  oversee  it.  A  con- 
sistory of  the  ministers,  elders,  and  dea- 
cons of  a  parish  form  a  kirk  session. 
These  meet  once  a  week,  the  minister 
being  their  moderator,  but  without  a 
negative  voice.  It  regulates  matters  re- 
lative to  public  worship,  elections,  cate- 
chising, visitations,  &c.  It  judges  in 
matters  of  less  scandal ;  but  greater,  as 
adultery,  are  left  to  the  presbyteiy,  and 
in  all  cases  an  appeal  lies  from  it  to  the 
presbytery. — Kirk  sessions  have  like- 
wise the  care  of  the  p(x>r,  and  pocjr's 
funds.    See  Prksbyterians. 

KINDNESS,  civil  behaA  iour,  favour- 
able treatment,  or  a  constant  and  habi- 
tual practice  of  friendly  offices  and  be- 
nevolent actions.    See  Charity,  Gek- 

TI.KNKSS. 

KNIPPERDOLINGS,  a  denomina- 
tion in  the  16th  century;  so  called  from 
Bertrand  Knippcrdoling,  who  taught 
that  the  righteous  before  the  day  of 
judgment  shall  have  a  monarchy  on 
earth,  and  the  vicked  be  destroyed ; 


KNO 


289 


KNO 


that  men  are  not  justified  by  their  faith 
in  Christ  Jesus ;  that  there'  is  no  origi- 
nal sin  ;  that  infants  ou,^ht  not  to  be 
baptized,  and  that  immersion  is  the  only- 
mode  of  baptism;  that  every  one  has 
authority  to  preach  and  administer  the 
sacraments;  that  men  are  not  obliged 
to  pay  respect  to  magistrates ;  that  all 
things  ought  to  be  in  common,  and  that 
it  is  lawful  to  marry  many  wives. 

KNOWLEDGE  is  defined  by  Mr. 
Locke  to  be  the  perception  of  the  con- 
nexion and  agreement,  or  disagreement 
and  repugnancy  of  our  ideas.  It  also 
denotes  learning,  or  the  improvement  of 
our  faculties  by  reading  ;  experience,  or 
the  acquiring  new  ideas  or  truths,  by 
seeing  a  variety  of  objects,  and  making 
observations  upon  them  in  our  own 
minds.  No  man,  says  the  admirable 
Dr.  Watts,  is  obliged  to  learn  and  know 
every  thing  ;  this  can  neither  be  sought 
nor  required,  for  it  is  utterly  impossil:)le : 
yet  all  persons  are  under  some  obliga- 
tion to  improve  their  own  understand- 
ing, otherwise  it  will  be  a  barren  desert, 
or  a  forest  overgrown  with  weeds  and 
brambles.  Universal  ignorance,  or  infi- 
nite error,  will  overspread  the  mind 
which  is  utterly  neglected  and  lies  with- 
out any  cultivation.  The  following  rules, 
therefore,  should  be  attended  to  for  the 
improvement  of  knowledge.  1.  Deeply 
possess  your  mind  with  the  vast  im- 
portance of  a  good  judgment,  and  the 
rich  and  inestimable  advantage  of  right 
reasoning. — 2.  Consider  the  weaknesses, 
failings,  and  mistakes  of  human  nature 
in  general. — 3.  Be  not  satisfied  witli  a 
slight  view  of  things,  but  to  take  a  wide 
survey  now  and  then  of  the  vast  and  un- 
limited regions  of  learning,  the  variety 
of  questions  and  difficulties  belonging  to 
every  science. — 4.  Presume  not  too 
much  upon  a  bright  genius,  a  ready  Avit, 
and  good  parts  ;  for  this,  without  study, 
will  never  make  a  man  of  knowledge. — 
5.  Do  not  imagine  that  large  and  labo- 
rious reading,  and  a  strong  memory, 
can  denominate  you  truly  wise,  without 
meditation  and  studious  thought. — 6.  Be 
not  so  weak  as  to  imagine  that  a  life  of 
learning  is  a  life  of  laziness. — 7.  Let  the 
hope  of  new  discoveries,  as  well  as 
the  satisfaction  and  pleasure  of  known 
truths,  animate  your  daily  industry. — 8. 
Do  not  hover  always  on  the  surface  of 
things,  nor  take  up  suddenly  with  mere 
appearances. — 9.  Once  a  day,  especially 
in  the  early  years  of  life  and  study,  call 
yourselves  to  an  account  what  new  ideas 
you  have  gained. — 10.  Maintain  a  con- 
stant watch,  at  all  times,  against  a  dog- 
matical spirit. — 11.  Be  humble  and  cou- 
X'ageous  enough  to  retract  any  mistake, 


and  confess  an  ^rror. — 12.  Beware  of  a 
fanciful  temper  of  mind,  and  a  humorous 
conduct. — 13.  Have  a  care  of  trifling 
with  things  important  and  momentous, 
or  of  sporting  with  things  awful  and 
sacred. — 14.  Ever  maintain  a  virtuous 
and  pious  frame  of  spirit. — 15.  Watch 
against  the  pride  of  your  own  reason, 
and  a  vain  conceit  of  your  own  intellec- 
tual powers,  with  the  neglect  of  divine 
aid  and  blessing. — 16.  Offer  up,  there- 
fore, your  daily  requests  to  God,  the 
Father  of  Lights,  that  he  would  bless 
all  your  attempts  and  labours  in  reading, 
study,  and  con\'ersation.  Watts  on  the 
Mind,  chap,  i.;  Dr.  John  Edwards's 
Uncertainty,  Dfjiciency,  and  Corruji- 
tion  of  Human  Knowledge ;  Reid's 
Intellectual  Powers  of  Man  ;  StennetCs 
Sermon  on  Acts  xxvi.  24,  25. 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  GOD  is  often 
taken  for  the  fear  of  God  and  the  whole 
of  religion.  There  is,  indeed,  a  specu- 
lative knowledge,  which  consists  only  in 
the  belief  of  his  existence,  and  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  perfections,  but 
has  no  influence  on  the  heart  and  con- 
duct. A  spiritual  saving  knowledge 
consists  in  veneration  for  the.  Divine 
Being,  Psal.  Ixxxix.  7.  love  to  him  as 
an  object  of  beauty  and  goodness,  Zech. 
ix.  17.  humble  confidence  in  his  mercy 
and  promise,  Psal.  ix.  10.  and  sincere, 
uniform,  and  persevering  obedience  to 
liis  word,  1  John  ii.  3.  It  may  farther  be 
considered  as  a  knowledge  of  God,  the 
Father ;  of  his  love,  faithfulness,  power, 
8vC.  Of  the  Son,  as  it  relates  to  the 
dignity  of  his  nature,  1  John  v.  20.  the 
suitability  of  his  offices,  Heb.  ix.  the 
perfection  of  his  Avork,  Psalm  Ixviii.  18. 
the  brightness  of  his  example.  Acts  x. 
38.  and  the  prevalency  of  his  interces- 
sion, Heb.  vh.  25.  Of  the  Holy  Ghost,  as 
equal  with  the  Father  and  the  Son  ;  of 
his  agency  as  enlightener  and  comforter ; 
as  also  in  his  work  of  Avitnessin^,  sancti- 
fying, and  directing  his  people,  John  xv. 
xvi.  2  Cor.  iii.  17, 18.  Johniii.5,  6.  Rom, 
viii.  16.  Tliis  knoAvledge  may  be  con- 
sidered as  experimental,  2  Tim.  i.  12, 
fiducial,  Job  xiii.  15,  16.  affectionate,  1 
John  iii.  19.  influential,  Ps.  ix.  10.  Matt. 
V.  16.  humiliating,  Isa.  vi.  Job  xlii.  5,  6. 
satisfying,  Psal.  xxxvi.  7.  ProA'.  iii.  17. 
and  superior  to  all  other  knoAvledge/ 
Phil.  iii.  8.  The  advantages  of  religious, 
knowledge  are  every  Avay  great.  It 
forms  the  basis  of  true  honour  and  feli-- 
city.  "  Not  all  the  kistre  of  a  noble 
birth,  not  all  the  influence  of  wealth,  not 
all  the  pomp  of  titles,  not  all  the  splen- 
dour  of  power,  can  give  dignity  to  the 
soul  that  is  destitute  of  inAvard  improve- 
ment.   By  this  we  are  allied  to  angels,, 

n  o 


KNO 


290 


KOR 


and  are  capable  of  vising  for  ever  in  tlie 
scale  of  being.  Such  is  its  inherent 
worth,  that  it  hath  always  been  repi-e- 
sented  under  the  most  pleasing  images. 
In  particular,  it  hath  been  compared  to 
light,  the  most  valuable  and  reviving 
part  of  nature's  works,  and  to  that  glo- 
rious luminary  which  is  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  transporting  object  our  eyes 
behold.  If  we  entertain  any  doubts  con- 
cerning the  inti'insic  value  of  ix^ligious 
knowledge,  let  us  look  around  us,  and 
we  shall  be  convinced  how  desirable  it 
is  to  be  acquainted  with  God,  with 
spiritual,  with  etei-nal  things.  Observe 
the  difference  between  a  cultivated  and 
a  barren  country.  While  the  former  is 
a  lovely,  cheerful,  and  delightful  sight, 
the  other  administers  a  spectacle  of 
horror.  There  is  an  equal  difference  be- 
tween the  nations  among  whom  the 
principles  of  piety  prevail,  and  the  na- 
tions that  are  overrun  with  idolatry,  su- 
perstition, and  error.  Knowledge,  also, 
IS  of  great  impoi-tance  to  our  personal 
and  private  felicity :  it  furnishes  a  plea- 
sure that  cannot  be  met  with  in  the  pos- 
session of  inferior  enjoyments;  a  fine 
entertainment,  which  adds  a  relish  to 
prospeinty,  and  alleviates  the  hour  of 
distress.  It  throws  a  lustre  upon  great- 
ness, and  reflects  an  honour  upon  pover- 
ty. Knowledge  will  also  instract  us  how 
to  apply  our  several  talents  for  the 
bencht  of  mankind.  It  will  make  us  ca- 
pable of  advising  and  regulating  others. 
Hence  we  may  become  the  lights  of  the 
world,  and  diflfuse  those  beneficent  beams 
around  us,  which  shall  shine  on  benight- 
ed travellers,  and  discover  the  path  of 
rectitude  and  bliss.  This  knowledge, 
also,  tends  to  destroy  bigotry  and  en- 
thusiasm. To  this  we  are  indebted  for 
the  important  change  which  hath  been 
made  since  the  beginning  of  the  refor- 
mation. To  this  we  are  indebted  for  the 
general  cultivation  and  refinement  of  the 
understandings  of  men.  It  is  owing  to 
this  state  that  even  arlsitrary  govern- 
ments seem  to  have  lost  something  of 
their  orieinal  ferocity,  and  that  tliere  is  a 
source  oiT improvement  in  Europe  which 
will,  we  hope,  in  future  times,  shed  the 
roost  delightful  influences  on  societ}^, 
and  unite  its  members  in  harmony, 
peace,  and  love.  But  the  advantages  of 
knowledge  are  still  greater,  for  it  points 
out  to  us  an  eternal  felicity.  The  seve- 
ral branches  of  human  science  are  in- 
tended only  to  bless  and  adorn  our  jjre- 
sent  existence  ;  but  religious  knowledge 
bids  us  jjrovide  for  an  immortal  being, 
sets  the  path  of  salvation  before  us,  and 
is  our  inseparable  companion  in  the 
road  to  gloiy.    As  it  mstinicts  in  the  way 


to  endless  bliss,  so  it  will  survive  that 
mighty  day  when  all  worldly  literature 
and  accomplishments  shall  for  ever 
cease.  At  that  solemn  period,  in  which 
the  records  and  registers  of  men  shall 
be  destroyed,  the  systems  of  human 
policy  be  dissolved,  and  the  grandest 
works  of  genius  die,  the  wisdom  which 
is  spiritual  and  heavenly  shall  not  only 
subsist,  but  be  increased  to  an  extent 
that  human  nature  cannot  in  this  life  ad- 
mit. Our  views  of  things,  at  present,  are 
obscure,  imperfect,  partial,  and  liable  to 
error;  but  when  we  arrive  to  the  realms 
of  everlasting  light,  the  clouds  that 
shadowed  our  understanding  will  be 
removed ;  we  shall  behold  with  amaz- 
ing clearness  the  attributes,  Avays,  and 
works  of  God  ;  shall  perceive  more  dis- 
tinctly the  design  of  his  dispensations ; 
shall  trace  with  rapture  the  wonders  of 
nature  and  grace,  and  become  acquaint- 
ed with  a  thousand  glorious  objects,  of 
which  the  imagination  can  as  yet  have 
no  conception." 

In  order  to  increase  in  the  knowledge 
of  God,  there  must  be  dependence  on 
Him  from  whom  all  light  proceeds, 
James  i.  6.  attention  to  his  revealed 
will,  John  V.  39.  a  watchful  spirit  against 
corrupt  affections,  Luke  xxi.  34.  a  hum- 
ble frame  of  mind,  Ps.  xxv.  9.  frequent 
meditation,  Ps.  civ.  34.  a  pei'severing 
design  for  conformity  to  the  divine 
image,  Hos.  vi.  3.  C/iaj'noc/c's  Works, 
vol.  ii.  p.  381;  Saurin's  Serm.  vol.  i. 
ser.  1 ;  Giirs  Body  of  Div.  vol.  iii.  p. 
12.  Oct.;  Tillotson^s  Serm.  ser.  113; 
Watts's  Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  45 ;  Hall's 
Scrinon  on  the  Adxmntages  of  Knonv- 
ledi^e  to  the  Lower  Classes. 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  GOD.  See 
Omniscience. 

KORAN,  or  Alcoran,  the  Scrip- 
ture or  Bible  of  the  Mahometans,  con- 
taining the  re\elations  and  doctrines  of 
their  pretended  prophet. 

1.  Koran,  division  of  the.  The  Ko- 
ran is  divided  into  one  hundi-ed  and  four- 
teen larger  portions  of  very  unequal 
length,  which  we  call  chapters,  but  the 
Arabians  Sowar,  in  the  singular  Sura; 
a  word  rarely  used  on  any  other  occa- 
sion, and  properly  signifying  a  i"ow,  or 
a  regular  series ;  as  a  course  of  bricks 
in  building,  or  a  rank  of  soldiers  in  an 
army,  and  is  the  same  in  use  and  im- 
port with  the  Sura,  or  Tora,  of  the 
Jews ;  who  also  call  the  fift)^  three  sec- 
tions of  the  Pentateuch  Sedarim,  a  word 
of  the  same  signification.  These  chap- 
ters are  not,  in  the  manuscript  copies, 
distinguished  Ijy  their  numerical  order, 
but  by  particular  titles,  which  are  ta- 
ken sometimes  from  a  peculiar  subject 


KOR 


291 


KOR 


treated  of,  or  person  mentioned  therein  ; 
usually  from  the  first  word  of  note, 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Jews 
have  named  their  Sedarim ;  though  the 
word  from  which  some  chapters  are 
denominated  be  very  distant  towards 
the  middle,  or  perhaps  the  end,  cf  the 
chapter;  which  seems  ridiculous.  But 
the  occasion  of  this  appears  to  have 
been,  that  the  verse  or  passage  wherein 
such  word  occurs,  was,  m  point  of  time, 
revealed  and  committed  to  writing  be- 
fore the  other  verses  of  the  same  chap- 
ter which  precede  it  in  order ;  and  the 
title  being  to  the  chapter  before  it  was 
completed,  or  the  passages  reduced  to 
theh-  present  oi'der,  the  vei-se  from 
whence  such  title  was  taken  did  not 
always  happen  to  begin  the  chapter. 
Some  chapters  have  two  or  more  titles, 
occasioned  by  the  difference  of  the  co- 
pies. Some  of  them  being  pretended 
to  have  been  revealed  at  Mecca,  and 
others  at  Medina,  the  noting  this  dif- 
ference makes  a  part  of  the  title.  Evci'v 
chapter  is  divided  into  smaller  portions, 
of  very  unequal  length  also,  which  we 
customarily  call  ver  es ;  but  the  Ara- 
bic word  IS  Ay  at,  the  same  with  the 
Hebrew  Ototh,  and  signifies  signs  or 
TJonders ;  such  as  the  secrets  of  God, 
his  attributes,  works,  judgments,  and 
ordinances,  delivered  in  those  verses ; 
many  of  which  have  their  particular 
titles,  also,  imposed  in  the  same  manner 
as  those  of  the  chapters.  Besides  these 
unequal  divisions,  the  Mahometans 
have  also  divided  their  Koran  into  sixty 
equal  portions,  which  thev  call  Anzab, 
in  the  singular  Hizb,  each  subdivided 
into  four  equal  parts  ;  which  is  likewise 
an  imitation  of  the  Jews,  who  have 
an  ancient  di\ision  of  their  Mishna  into 
sixty  portions,  called  Massictoth.  But 
the  Koran  is  more  usually  divided  into 
thirty  sections  only,  named  Ajaza,  from 
the  singular  Joz,  each  of  twice  the 
length  of  the  fornier,  and  in  like  man- 
ner subdivided  into  four  parts.  These 
divisions  are  for  the  use  of  the  readers 
of  the  Koran  in  the  roval  temples,  or  in 
the  adjoining  chapels'  where  the  em- 
perors and  great  men  are  interred  ;  of 
whom  there  are  thirty  belonging  to 
eveiy  chapel,  and  each  reads  his  "sec- 
tion every  day ;  so  that  the  whole  Koran 
is  read  over  once  a  day.  Next  after 
the  title,  at  tlie  name  of  eveiy  chapter 
except  only  the  ninth,  is  prefixed  the 
following  solemn  form,  by  the  Mahome- 
tans, called  the  Bismdllah. — ^"In  the 
name  of  the  most  merciful  God ;" 
which  form  thev  constantly  place  at 
the  beginning  of  all  their  "books  and 
writings  in  general,  as  a  peculiar  mark  ,; 


and  distmguishing  characteristic  of  their 
religion,  it  being  counted  a  sort  of  im- 
piety to  omit  it.  The  Jews,  and  eastern 
Christians,  for  the  same  purpose,  make 
use  of  similar  forms.  But  Mahomet 
probably  took  this  form  from  the  Per- 
sian Magi,  Avho  began  their  books  in 
these  words,  Benain  Yezdam  bak- 
shaishgher  dadar ;  that  is,  In  the  name 
of  the  most  merciful  just  God.  There 
are  twentv-nine  chapters  of  the  Koran 
which  have  ihis  peculiarity,  that  they 
begin  with  certain  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, some  with  single  ones,  others  with 
more.  These  letters  the  Mahometans 
believe  to  be  the  peculiar  marks  of  the 
Koi-an,  and  to  conceal  several  profound 
mysteries ;  the  certain  understanding 
of  which,  the  more  intelligent  confess, 
has  not  been  communicated  to  any 
mortal,  their  prophet  only  excepted: 
notwithstanding  which,  some  take  the 
liberty  of  guessing  at  their  meaning  by 
that  species  of  cabala  called  by  the 
Jews  .ATotarikon. 

2.  Koran,  general  design  of  the.  The 
general  design  of  the  Koran  was  to  unite 
tlie  professors  of  the  thi'ee  different  re- 
ligions, then  followed  in  the  populous 
countiy  of  Ai-abia,  (who,  for  the  most 
part,  wandered  without  guides,  the  far 
greater  number  being  idolatei's,  and  the 
rest  Jews  and  Christians,  mostly  of  er- 
roneous opinion,)  in  the  knowledge  and 
worship  of  one  God,  under  the  sanction 
of  certain  laws  and  ceremonies,  partly 
of  ancient,  and  partly  of  novel  institu- 
tion, enforced  by  the  consideration  of 
rewai'ds  and  punishments  both  temporal 
and  eternal ;  and  to  bring  them  all  to 
the  obedience  of  Mahomet,  as  the  pro- 
phet and  ambassador  of  God ;  who, 
after  the  repeated  admonitions,  pro- 
mises, and  threats  of  former  ages,  was 
sent  at  last  to  establish  and  propagate 
God's  religion  on  earth  ;  and  to  be  ac- 
knowledged chief  pontiff  in  spiritual 
matters,  as  w^ell  as  supreme  prince  in 
temporal.  The  great  doctrine,  then, 
of  the  Koran  is  the  unity  of  God,  to 
restore  which,  Mahomet  pretended, 
was  tlie  chief  end  of  his  mission ;  it 
being  laid  down  by  him  as  a  fundamen- 
tal truth.  That  there  never  was,  nor 
ever  can  be,  more  than  one  tiiie  ortho- 
dox, religion  :  that,  thouj^h  the  particu- 
lar laws  or  cei'emonies  are  only  tem- 
poi-arv  and  subject  to  alteration,  accord- 
ing to' the  divine  direction;  yet  the  sub- 
stance of  it,  being  eternal  truth,  is  net 
liable  to  changef,  but  continues  immuta- 
blv  the  same  ;  and  that,  whenever  this 
religion  became  neglected  or  coiTupted 
in  essentials,  God  had  the  goodness  to 
re-inform    and    re-admoni.sh    mankind 


KOR 


292 


KOR 


tliereof  by  several  prophets,  of  whom  I 
Moses  and  Jesus  were  the  most  distin- 
guished, till  the  appearance  of  Ma- 
homet, who  is  their  seal,  and  no  other 
to  be  expected  after  him.  The  moi-e 
effectually  to  engage  people  to  hearken 
to  him,  great  pai't  of  the  Koran  is  em- 
ployed in  relating  examples  of  dread- 
ful punishments  formerly  inflicted  by 
God  on  those  who  rejected  and  abused 
his  messengers;  several  of  which  stories, 
or  some  circumstances  of  them,  are  ta' 
ken  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
but  many  more  from  the  apocn^jDhal 
books  and  traditions  of  the  Jews  and 
Christians  of  those  ages,  set  up  in  the 
Koran  as  truths,  in  opposition  to  the 
Scriptures,  which  the  Jews  and  Chris- 
tiaijs  are  charged  with  having  altered  ; 
and,  indeed,  few  or  none  of  the  relations 
of  circumstances  in  the  Koran  were  in- 
vented by  Mahomet,  as  is  generally 
supposed ;  it  being  easy  to  trace  the 
greatest  part  of  them  much  higher,  as 
the  rest  might  be,  were  more  of  these 
books  extant,  and  were  it  worth  while 
to  make  the  inquiry.  The  rest  of  the 
Alcoran  is  taken  up  in  prescribing  ne- 
cessary laws  and  directions,  frequent 
admonitions  to  moral  and  divine  virtues, 
the  worship  and  reverence  of  the  Su- 
preme Being,  and  resignation  to  his 
will.  One  of  their  most  learned  com- 
mentators distinguishes  the  contents  of 
the  Alcoran  into  allegorical  and  literal  : 
under  the  former  are  comprehended  all 
the  obscure,  parabolical,  and  enigmati- 
cal passages,  with  such  laws  as  are  re- 
pealed or  abrogated ;  the  latter,  such  as 
are  clear,  and  in  full  force.  The  most 
excellent  moral  in  the  whole  Alcoran, 
intei-preters  say,  is  that  in  the  chapter 
jil  alraf,  viz.  "  Show  mercy,  do  good  to 
all,  and  dispute  not  with  the  ignorant ;" 
or,  as  Mr.  Sale  renders  it,  Use  indul- 
gence, command  that  which  is  just,  and 
withdraw  far  from  the  ignorant.  Ma- 
homet, according  to  the  authors  of  the 
Keschaf,  having  begged  of  the  angel 
Gabriel  a  more  ample  explication  of 
this  passage,  received  it  in  the  follow- 
ing terms:  "Seek  him  who  tur-.s  thee 
out,  give  to  him  who  takes  from  thee, 
pardon  him  who  injures  thee  ;  for  God 
will  have  you  plant  in  your  souls  the 
roots  of  his  chief  perfections."  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  this  commentary  is 
borrowed  from  the  Gospel.  In  reality, 
the  necessity  of  forgiving  enemies, 
though  frequently  inculcated  in  the  Al- 
coran, is  of  a  later  date  among  the  Ma- 
hometans, than  among  the  Christians ; 
among  those  later  than  among  the 
heathens ;  and  to  be  traced  originally 
among  the  Jews,  (See  Exodus,  xxxiii. 


4,  5.)  But  it  matters  not  so  much  who 
had  it  first  as  who  observes  it  best. 
The  caliph  Hassan, "son  of  Hali,  being 
at  table,  a  slave  let  fall  a  dish  of  meat 
reeking  hot,  which  scalded  him  severe- 
ly. The  slave  fell  on  his  knees,  rehears- 
ing these  words  of  the  Alcoran ;  "  Para- 
dise is  for  those  who  restrain  their  an- 
ger." "I  am  not  angry  with  thee," 
answered  the  caliph.  "And  for  those 
who  forgive  offences  against  them," 
continues  the  slave,  "I  forgive  thee 
thine,"  replies  the  caliph.  "  But,  above 
all,  for  those  who  return  good  for  evil," 
adds  the  slave.  "  I  set  thee  at  liberty," 
rejoined  the  caliph ;  "  and  I  give  thee 
ten  dinars."  There  are  also  a  great 
number  of  occasional  passages  in  the 
Alcoran  relating  only  to  particular 
emergencies.  For  this  advantage  Ma- 
homet had,  by  his  piecemeal  method 
of  receiving  and  delivering  his  revela- 
tions, that,  whenever  he  happened  to 
be  peiplexed  with  any  thing,  he  had  a 
certain  resource  in  some  new  morsel  of 
revelation.  It  was  an  admirable  con- 
trivance to  bring  down  the  whole  Al- 
coran only  to  the  lowest  heaven,  not  to 
earth  ;  since,  had  the  whole  been  pub- 
lished at  once,  innumerable  objections 
would  have  been  made,  which  it  would 
have  been  impossible  for  him  to  have 
solved;  but  as  he  received  it  by  parcels, 
as  God  saw  fit  they  should  be  published 
for  the  conversion  and  instiniction  of 
the  people,  he  had  a  sure  way  to  an- 
swer all  emergencies,  and  to  extricate 
himself  with  honour  from  any  difficulty 
which  might  occur. 

3.  Koran,  history  of  the.  It  is  the 
common  opinion,  that  Mahomet,  as- 
sisted by  one  Sergius,  a  monk,  compo- 
sed this  book ;  but  the  Mussulmans  be- 
lieve it  as  an  article  of  their  faith,  that 
the  prophet,  who,  they  say,  was  an 
illiterate  man,  had  no  concern  in  indi- 
ting it;  but  that  it  was  given  him  by 
God,  who,  to  that  end,  made  use  of  the 
ministry  of  the  angel  Gabriel;  that, 
however,  it  was  communicated  to  him 
by  little  and  little,  a  verse  at  a  time, 
and  in  different  places,  during  the  course 
of  23  years. — "And  hence,"  say  they, 
"  proceed  that  disorder  and  confusion 
visible  in  the  work  ;"  which,  in  truth, 
are  so  great,  that  all  their  doctors  have 
never  been  able  to  adjust  them  ;  for 
Mahomet,  or  rather  his  copyist,  having 
put  all  the  loose  verses  pi*omiscuously 
in  a  book  together,  it  was  impossible 
ever  to  retrieve  the  order  wherein  they 
were  delivered.  These  23  years  which 
the  angel  employed  in  conveying  the 
Alcoran  to  Mahomet,  are  of  wonderful 
service  to  his  followers;    inasmuch  as 


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thev  furnish  them  with  an  answer  to 
such  as  tax  them  with  those  gktring 
contradictions  of  which  the  book  is  full, 
and  which  they  piously  father  upon  God 
himself;  alleging  that,  in  the  course  of 
so  long  a  time,  he  repealed  and  altei-ed 
several  doctrines  and  precepts  which 
the  prophet  had  before  received  of  him. 
M.  D'Herbelot  thinks  it  probable,  that 
when  the  heresies  of  the  Nestorians, 
Eutychians,  &c.  had  been  condemned 
by  oecumenical  councils,  many  bishops, 
priests,  monks,  &c.  being  driven  into 
the  deserts  of  Arabia  and  Eg)pt,  fui'- 
nished  the  impostor  with  passages,  and 
crude  ill-conceived  doctrines,  out  of  the 
Scriptures;  and  that  it  was  hence  that 
the  Alcoran  became  so  full  of  the  wild 
and  erroneous  opinions  of  those  here- 
tics. The  Jews  also,  who  were  veiy 
numerous  in  Arabia,  furnished  mate- 
rials, for  the  Alcoran  ;  nor  is  it  without 
some  reason  that  they  boast  twelve  of 
their  chief  doctors  to  have  been  the 
authors  of  this  work.  The  Alcoran, 
■while  Mahomet  lived,  was  only  kept  in 
loose  sheets:  his  successor,  Abubeker, 
first  collected  them  into  a  volume,  and 
committed  the  keeping  of  it  to  Haphsa, 
the  widow  of  Mahomet,  in  order  to  be 
consulted  as  an  original ;  and  there  be- 
ing a  good  deal  of  diversity  between 
the  several  copies  already  dispersed 
throughout  the  provinces,  Ottoman, 
successor  of  Abubeker,  procured  a 
great  number  of  copies  to  be  taken  fi'om 
that  of  Haphsa,  at  the  same  time  sup- 
pressing all  the  others  not  conformable 
to  the  original.  The  chief  differences 
in  the  present  copies  of  this  book  con- 
sist in  the  points,  which  were  not  in  use 
in  the  time  of  Mahomet  and  his  imme- 
diate successors ;  but  were  added  since, 
to  ascertain  the  reading,  after  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Massoretes,  who  added 
the  like  points  to  the  Hebrew  texts  of 
Scripture.  There  are  seven  principal 
editions  of  the  Alcoran,  two  at  Medma, 
one  at  Mecca,  one  at  Cufa,  one  at  Bas- 
sora,  one  in  Syria,  and  the  common,  or 
vulgate  edition.  The  first  contains  6000 
verses,  the  others  surpassing  this  num- 
ber by  200  or  236  verses ;  but  the  num- 
ber of  words  and  letters  is  the  same  in 
all;  viz.  77,639  words,  and  323,015 
letters.  The  number  of  commentaries 
on  the  Alcoran  is  so  large,  that  the 
bare  titles  would  make  a  huge  volume. 
Ben  Oschair  has  written  the  history  of 
them,  entitled,  Tai-ikh  Ben  Oschair. 
The  principal  among  them  are,  Reid- 
Iiaori,  Thaalebi,  Zamalchschari,  and 
Bacai.  The  Mahometans  have  a  posi- 
tive theology  built  on  the  Alcoran  and 
tradition,  as  well  as  a  scholastical  one 


built  on  reason.  They  have  likewi.sc 
their  casuists,  and  a  kind  of  canon  law, 
wherein  they  distinguish  between  what 
is  of  divine  and  what  of  positive  right. 
They  have  their  beneficiaries,  too, 
chaplains,  almoners,  and  canons,  who 
I'ead  a  chapter  every  day  out  of  the 
Alcoran  in  their  mosques,  and  have  pre- 
bends annexed  to  then-  office.  The  ha- 
tib  of  the  mosque  is  what  we  call  the 
parson  of  the  parish ;  and  the  scheiks  are 
the  preachers,  who  take  their  texts  out 
of  the  Alcoran. 

4.  Koran,  Mahometan  faith  concern- 
ing-. It  is  the  general  belief  among  the 
Mahometans  that  the  Koran  is  of  divine 
original ;  nay,  tliat  it  is  eternal  and  un- 
created ;  remaining,  as  some  express 
itj,  in  the  very  essence  of  God :  and  the 
fttst  transcript  has  been  from  ever- 
lasting, by  God's  throne,  written  on  a 
table  of  vast  bigness,  called  the  fire- 
served  table,  in  wliich  are  also  i-ecorded 
the  divine  decrees,  past  and  future; 
that  a  copy  from  this  table,  in  one  vo- 
lume upon  paper,  was  by  the  ministry 
of  the  angel  Gabriel  sent  down  to  the 
lowest  heaven,  in  the  month  of  Rama- 
dan, on  the  night  of  fiowcr,  from  whence 
Gabriel  revealed  it  to  MahoiriCt  in  par- 
cels, some  at  Mecca,  and  some  at  Me- 
dina, at  different  times,  during  the  space 
of  twenty-three  years,  as  the  exigency 
of  affairs  required;  giving  him,  however, 
the  consolation  to  show  him  the  whole 
(which  they  tell  us  was  bou.nd  in  silk, 
and  adorned  with  gold  and  precious 
stones  of  paradise)  once  a  year ;  biit  in 
the  last  year  of  his  life  he  had  the  fa- 
vour to  see  it  twice.  They  say,  that 
only  ten  chapters  were  delivered  entire, 
the  rest  being  revealed  piecemeal,  and 
written  down  from  time  to  time  by  the 
prophet's  amanuensis,  in  such  a  part  of 
such  and  such  a  chapter,  till  they  were 
completed,  according  to  the  directions 
of  the  angel.  The  first  parcel  that  was 
revealed  is  generally  agreed  to  have 
been  the  first  five  verses  of  the  ninety- 
sixth  chapter.  In  fine,  thtf  book  of  the 
Alcoran  is  held  in  tlie  highe:-;t  esteem 
and  reverence  among  the  Mussulmans. 
They  dare  not  so  much  as  tcich  the 
Alcoran  without  being  first  wa;jbed,  or 
legally  purified ;  to  prevent  which  an 
inscription  is  put  on  the  cover  or  label, 
— Let  7ione  touch  but  they  ivho  are  clea?i. 
It  is  read  with  great  care  and  i-espect, 
being  never  held  below  the  girdle. 
They  swear  by  it ;  take  omens  from  it 
on  all  weighty  occasions ;  carry  it  with 
them  to  war ;  write  sentences  of  it  on 
their  banners;  adoni  it  with  gold  and 
precious  stones ;  and  knowingly  not 
suifer  it  to  be  in  the  possession  of  any 


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of  a  diffei'ent  religion.  Some  say  that 
it  is  punishable  even  with  death,  in  a 
Christian,  to  touch  it ;  others,  that 
the  veneration  of  the  Mussulmans 
leads  them  to  condemn  the  translating 
it  into  any  other  language,  as  a  profa- 
nation :  but  these  seem  to  be  exagge- 
rations. The  Mahometans  have  taken 
care  to  have  their  Scripture  transla- 
ted into  the  Pei'sian,  the  Javan,  the 
IVfalayan,  and  other  languages ;  though, 
out  of  respect  to  the  original,  these  ver- 
sions are  generally,  if  not  always,  inter- 
lincated. 

5.  Koran,  success  of  the,  accounted 
for.  The  author  of  the  "View  of 
t^hristianity  and  Mahometanism"  ob- 
serves, that,  "  by  the  advocates  of  Ma- 
hometanism, the  Koran  has  always  be^ 
held  forth  as  the  greatest  of  miracles, 
and  equally  stupendous  with  the  act  of 
raising  the  dead.  The  miracles  of  Mo- 
ses and  Jesus,  they  say,  were  ti'ansient 
and  temporary ;,  but  that  of  the  Koran  is 

Eermanent  and  perpetual,  and  therefore 
ir  surpassed  all  the  miraculous  events 
of  preceding  ages.  We  will  not  detract 
from  the  real  merits  of  the  Koran ;  we 
allow  it  to  be  generally  elegant  and 
often  sublime ;  but  at  the  same  time 
we  reject  Avith  disdain  its  arrogant  pre- 
tence to  any  thing  supernatural,  all  the 
veal  excellence  ot  the  work  being  easily 
referable  to  natural  and  visible  'causes. 
In  the  language  of  Arabia,  a  language 
extremely  loved  and  diligently  cultiva- 
ted by  the  people  to  whom  it  was  ver- 
nacular, Mahomet  found  advantages 
which  were  never  enjoyed  by  any  for- 
mer or  succeeding  impostor.  It  requires 
not  the  eye  of  a  philosopher  to  discover 
in  every  soil  and  country  a  principle  of 
national  pride :  and  if  we  look  back  for 
many  ages  on  the  history  of  the  Ara- 
bians, we  shall  easily  perceive  that  pride 
among  them  invariably  to  have  consist- 
ed in  the  knowledge  and  improvement 
of  their  native  language.-  The  Arabic, 
which  has  been  justly  esteemed  the 
most  copioa*  of  the  eastern  tongues, 
which  had  existed  from  the  remotest 
antiquity,  which  had  been  eml)eirished 
by  numberless  poets,  and  refined  by  the 
constant  exercise  of  the  natives,  was  the 
most  successful  instrument  which  Ma- 
liomct  employed  in  planting  his  new  i-e- 
ligion  among  them.  Admiralily  adapted 
by  its  unrivalled  harmony,  and  by  its 
endless  variety,  to  add  painting  to  cx- 
prcsJiion,  and  to  pursue  the  imagination 
in  its  xmbounded  flight,  it  became  in  the 
Iiands  of  Mahomet  an  iiresistiole  charm 
to  blind  the  judgment  and  to  captivate 
the  fancy  of  his  followers.  Of  that  de- 
scription of  men  Avho  first   composed 


the  adherents  of  Mahomet,  and  to 
wliom  the  Koran  was  addressed,  few, 
probably,  were  able  to  pass  a  very  ac- 
curate judgment  on  the  propriety  of  the 
sentiments,  or  on  the  beauty  of  the  dic- 
tion :  but  all  could  judge  of  the  military 
abilities  of  their  leader ;  and  in  the 
midst  of  their  admiration,  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  that  they  would  ascribe 
to  his  compositions  every  imaginary- 
beauty  of  inspired  language.  The  shep- 
herd and  the  soldier,  though  awake  to 
the  charms  of  those  wild  but  beautiful 
compositions  in  which  were  celebi-ated 
their  favourite  occupations  of  love  oi:^ 
war,  were  yet  little  able  to  criticise  any 
other  works  than  those  which  were  ad- 
di'essed  to  their  imagination  or  their 
heart.  To  abstract  reasonings  on  the 
attributes  and  the  dispensations  of  the 
Deity,  to  the  comparative  excellencies 
of  rival  religions,  to  the  consistency  of 
any  one  religious  system  in  all  its  parts, 
and  to  tlie  force  of  its  various  proofs, 
they  were  quite  inattenti\'e.  In  such  a 
situation,  the  appearance  of  a  work 
which  possessed  something  like  wisdom 
and  consistence  ;  which  prescribed  the 
rules  tand  illustrated  the  duties  of  life ; 
and  which  contained  the  principles  of  a 
new  and  comparatively  sublime  theo- 
logy, independently  of  its  real  and  per- 
manent merit,  was  likely  to  excite  their 
astonishment,  and  to  become  the  stan- 
dard of  future  composition.  In  the  first 
periods  of  the  literature  of  every  coun- 
tiy,  something  of  this  kind  has  happen- 
ed. The  father  of  Grecian  poetry  very 
obviously  influenced  the  taste  and  imi- 
tation of  his  country.  The  modern  na- 
tions of  Europe  all  possess  some  original 
author,  who,  rising  frojti  the  darkness 
of  former  ages,  has  begun  the  career  of 
composition,  and  tinctured  with  the 
character  of  his  own  imagination  the 
sti-eam  which  has  flowed  through  his 
posterity.  But  the  prophet  of  Arabia 
had  in  this  respect  advantages  peculiar 
to  himself.  His  compositions  were  not 
to  his  followers  the  works  of  man,  but 
the  genuine  language  of  Heaven  Avhich 
had  sent  him.  They  were  not  confined, 
therefore,  to  that  admiration  which  is 
so  liberally  bestowed  on  the  earliest 
productions  of  genius,  or  to  that  fond  at- 
tachment with'which  men  every  where 
regard  the  original  compositions  of  their 
country ;  but  with  their  admiration 
they  blended  their  piety.  To  know  and 
to  feel  the  beauties  of  the  Koran,  was 
in  some  respect  to  share  in  the  temper 
of  heaven ;  and  lie  who  was  most  affect- 
ed with  admiration  in  the  perusal  of  its 
beauties,  seemed  fitly  the  object  of  that 
mercy  which  had  given  it  to  ignorant 


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man.  The  Koran,  therefore,  became 
naturally  and  necessarily  the  standard 
of  taste.  With  a  language  thus  hallow- 
ed in  their  imaginations,  they  were  too 
well  satisfied  either  to  dispute  its  ele- 
gance, or  improve  its  structure.  In  suc- 
ceeding ages,  the  additional  sanction  of 
antiquity  or  prescription,  was  given  to 
those  compositions  which  their  f^ithers 
had  admired ;  and  while  the  belief  of 
its  divine  original  continues,  that  admi- 
ration which  has  thus  become  the  test 
and  the  duty  of  the  faithful,  can  neither 
be  altered  nor  diminished.  When,  there- 
fore, we  consider  these  peculiar  advan- 
tages of  the  Koran,  we  ha^■e  no  reason 
to  be  surprised  at  the  admiration  in 
which  it  is  held.  But,  if  descending  to 
a  more  minute  investigation  of  it,  we 
consider  its  perpetual  inconsistence  and 
absurdity,  we  shall  indeed  have  cause 
for  astonishment  at  that  weakness  of 
humanity,  which  could  ever  have  re- 
ceived such  compositions  as  the  work 
of  the  Deity." 

6.  Koran,  style  and  merits  of  the, 
examined.  "  The  first  praise  of  all  the 
productions  of  genius  (continues  this 
author)  is  invention ;  that  quality  of  the 
mind,  Avhich,  by  the  extent  and  quick- 
ness of  its  views,  is  capable  of  the 
largest  conceptions,  and  oi  forming  new 
combinations  of  objects  the  most  distant 
and  unusual.  But  the  Koran  bears  lit- 
tle impression  of  this  transcendant  cha- 
racter. Its  materials  are  wholly  bor- 
rowed from  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
Scriptures,  from  the  Talmudical  le- 
gends and  apocryphal  gospels  then  cur- 
i-ent  in  the  east,  and  from  the  traditions 
and  fables  which  abounded  in  Arabia. 
The  materials  collected  from  these  se- 
veral sources  are  here  heaped  together 
with  perpetual  and  heedless  i-epetitions, 
without  any  settled  principle  or  visible 
connection.  When  a  great  part  of  the 
life  of  Mahomet  had  been  spent  in  pre- 
paratory meditation  on  the  system  he 
was  about  to  establish,  its  chapters  were 
dealt  out  slowly  and  separately  during 
the  long  period  of  twenty-three  years. 
Yet,  thus  defective  in  its  stnicture,  and 
no  less  objectionable  in  its  doctrines,  was 
the  work  which  Mahomet  delivered  to 
his  followers  as  the  oracles  of  God. 
The  most  prominent  feature  of  the  Ko- 
ran, that  point  of  excellence  in  which 
the  partiality  of  its  admirers  has  ever 
delighted  to  view  it,  is  the  sublime  no- 
tion it  generally  impresses  of  the  nature 
and  attributes  of  God.  If  its  author  had 
really  derived  these  just  conceptions 
from  the  inspiration  of  that  Being  whom 
they  attempt  to  describe,  they  would 
not  have  been  surrounded,  as  they  now 


are  on  every  side,  with  error  and  ab- 
surdity. But  it  miglit  be  easily  proved, 
that  whatever  it  justly  defines  of  the 
divine  attributes  was  borrowed  from  ouf 
Holy  Scripture  ;  which  even  from  its 
first  promulgation,  t)ut  especially  from 
the  completion  of  the  New  Testament, 
has  extended  the  views  and  enlightened 
the  understandings  of  mankind:  and 
thus  furnished  them  with  arms  which 
have  too  often  been  effectually  turned 
against  itself  by  its  ungenerous  enemies. 
In  this  instance,  paiticularly,  the  copy 
is  far  below  the  great  original,  both  in 
the  propriety  of  its  inmages  and  the 
force  of  its  desci'iptions." 

7.  Koran,  the  sublimity  of  the,  con- 
trasted. "  Our  Holy  Scriptures  are  the 
only  compositions  that  can  enable  the 
dim  sight  of  mortality  to  penetrate  into 
the  invisible  world,  and  to  behold  a 
glimpse  of  the  divine  pei-fections.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  they  wrould  represent 
to  us  the  happiness  of  heaven,  they  de- 
scribe it,  not  by  any  thing  minute  and 
particular,  but  by  something  general 
and  great;  something  that,  without  de- 
scending to  any  determinate  object,  may 
at  once  by  its  beauty  and  immensity 
excite  our  wishes,  and  elevate  our  af- 
fections. Though  in  the  prophetical 
and  evangelical  writings,  the  joys  that 
shall  attend  us  in  a  divine  state,  are  of- 
ten mentioned  with  ardent  admiration, 
they  are  expressed  rather  by  allusion 
than  by  similitude  ;  rather  by  indefinite 
and  figurative  terms,  than  by  any  thing 
fixed  and  determinate.  '  Eye  hath  not 
seen,  nor  ear  heard,-  neither  have  en- 
tered into  the  heart  of  man  the  things 
which  God  hath  prepared  for  them  that 
love  him,'  1  Cor.  ii.  9.  What  a  reve- 
rence and  astonishment  does  this  pas- 
sage excite  in  every  hearer  of  taste  and 
piety  !  What  energy,  and  at  the  same 
time  what  simplicity  in  the  expression  i 
How  sublime,  and  at  the  same  time 
how  obscure,  is  the  imagery !  Different 
was  the  conduct  of  Mahoniet  in  his  de- 
scriptions of  heaven  and  paradise.  Un- 
assisted by  the  necessary  influence  of 
virtuous  intentions  and  divine  inspira- 
tion, he  was  neither  desirous,  nor  indeed 
able  to  exalt  the  minds  of  men  to  sub- 
lime conceptions,  or  to  rational  expec- 
tations. By  attempting  to  explain  what 
is  inconceivable,  to  describe  what  is  in- 
effabl.^,  and  to  materialize  what  in  it- 
self is  spiritual,  he  absurdly  and  im- 
piously aimed  to  sensualize  the  purity 
of  the  divine  essence.  Thus  he  fabri- 
cated a  system  of  incoherence,  a  reli- 
gion of  depravity,  totally  repugnant  to 
the  nature  of  that  Being,  who,  as  he 
jiretended,  v/^as  its  object;  but  therefore 


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more  likely  to  accord  with  the  appe- 
tites and  conceptions  of  a  corrupt  and 
sensual  age.  That  we  may  not  appear 
to  exalt  our  Scriptures  thus  far  above 
the  Koran  by  an  unreasonable  prefer- 
ence, we  shall  produce  a  part  of  the 
second  chapter  of  the  latter,  which  is 
deservedly  admired  by  the  Mahome- 
tans, who  wear  it  engraved  on  their  or- 
naments, and  recite  it  in  their  prayers. 

•  God  !  there  is  no  God  but  he  ;  the  liv- 
ing, the  self-subsisting ;  neither  slumber 
nor  sleep  seizeth  him  :  to  him  belongeth 
whatsoever  is  in  heaven, 'and  on  earth. 
Who  is  he  that  can  intercede  with  him 
but  through  his  good  pleasure  ?  He 
knoweth  that  which  is  past,  and  that 
which  is  to  come.  His  throne  is  extend- 
ed over  heaven  and  earth,  and  the  pre- 
servation of  both  is  to  him  no  burden. 
He  is  the  high,  the  mighty.'  Sale's 
Koran,  vol.  ii.  p.  30.  To  this  description 
who  can  refuse  the  praise  of  magnifi- 
cence ?  Part  of  tliat  magnificence,  how- 
ever, is  to  be  referred  to  that  verse  of 
the  psalmist  whence  it  was  borrowed : 

*  He  that  keepetli  Israel  shall  neither 
slumber  nor  sleep,'  Psal.  cxxi.  4.  But 
if  we  compare  it  with  that  other  pas- 
sage of  the  inspired  psalmist,  (Psal.  cii. 
24 — 27.)  all  its  boasted  grandeur  is  at 
once  obscured,  and  lost  in  the  blaze  of  a 


greater  light !  'O,  my  God,  take  mc  not 
away  in  the  midst  of  my  days;  thy  years 
are  throughout  all  generations.  Of  old 
hast  thou  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
earth  ;  and  the  heavens  are  the  work  of 
thy  hands.  They  shall  perish,  but  thou 
sh alt  endure ;  yea,  all  of  them  shall  wax 
old  like  a  garment ;  as  a  vesture  shaft 
thou  change  them,  and  they  shall  be 
changed.  But  thou  art  the  same,  and 
thy  years  shall  have  no  end.'  The  Kct- 
ran,  therefore,  upon  a  fair  examination, 
far  from  supjjoiting  its  arrogant  claim 
to  a  superaatural  work,  sinks  below  the 
level  of  many  compositions  confessedly 
of  human  original ;  and  still  lower  does 
it  fall  in  our  estimation,  when  compared 
with  that  pure  and  perfect  pattern 
which  we  justly  admire  m  the  Scriptures 
of  truth.  It  is,  therefore,  abundantly 
apparent,  that  no  miracle  was  either 
externally  performed  for  the  support, 
or  is  internally  involved  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  Mahometan  revelation."  See 
Sale's  Koran  ;  Prideaux's  Life  of  Ma- 
homet;  White's  Sermons  at  Bamfiton 
Lectures;  and  article  Mahometan- 
ism. 

KTISTOLATR^,  a  branch  of  the 
Monophysites,  which  maintained  that 
the  body  of  Christ  before  his  resurrec- 
tion was  corruptible. 


LABADISTS  were  so  called  from 
their  founder,  John  Labadie,  a  native  of 
France.  He  was  originally  in  the  Ro- 
mish communion  ;  but  leaving  that,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  reformed 
church,  and  pei'formed  with  reputation 
the  ministerial  functions  in  France, 
Switzerland,  and  Holland.  He  at  length 
erected  a  new  community,  whicli  resid- 
ed successively  at  Middleburg,  in  Zea- 
land, Amsterdam,  Hervorden,  and  at 
Altona,  where  he  died  about  1674.  Af- 
ter his  death,  his  followers  removed 
their  wandering  community  to  Wiewert, 
in  the  district  of  North  Holland,  where 
it  soon  fell  into  oblivion.  If  w^  are  to 
judge  of  the  Labadists  by  their  own  ac- 
count, they  did  not  differ  from  the  re- 
formed church  so  much  in  their  tenets 
and  doctrines  as  in  their  mannei'S  and 
rules  of  discipline ;  yet  it  seems  that  La- 
badie had  some  strange  notions.  Among 
other  things,  he  maintained  that  God 
might  and  did,  on  certain  occasions,  de- 
ceive men ;  that  the  faithful  ought  to 
have  all  things  in  common;  that  there 


is  no  subordination  or  distinction  of  rank 
in  the  true  church  ;  that  in  I'cading  the 
Scriptures  greater  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  internal  inspiration  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  than  to  the  words  of  the 
text;  that  the  observation  of  Sunday 
was  a  matter  of  indifference ;  tliat  the 
contem])lative  life  is  a  state  of  grace  and 
union  with  God,  and  the  very  height  of 
perfection. 

LAITY,  the  people  as  distinguished 
from  the  clergy.    Sec  Clergy. 

LAMA,  GRAND,  a  name  given  to 
the  sovereign  pontiff  or  high  priest  of 
the  Thibetian  Tartars,  who  resides  at 
Patoli,  a  vast  pahice  on  a  mountain  near 
the  banks  of  Hai'ampooter,  about  seven 
miles  from  I^ahassa.  The  foot  of  this 
niouatain  is  inhabited  by  twenty  thousand 
lamas,  or  priests,  who  have  their  sepa- 
rate apartments  round  about  the  moun- 
tain, and  according  to  their  respective 
({uality  are  placed  nearer  oi"  at  a  gi-eat- 
er  distance  from  the  sovereign  pontiff. 
He  is  not  only  worshipped  by  the  Tlii- 
betians,  but  also  is  the  grea't  object  of 


LAM 


297 


LAM 


adoration  for  the  various  tribes  of  hea- 
then Tartars  who  roam  through  the 
vast  tract  of  continent  whicli  stretches 
from  the  banks  of  the  Wolga  to  Correa, 
on  the  sea  of  Japan.  He  is  not  only  the 
sovereign  pontiff,  the  vicegerent  of  the 
Deity  on  earth,  but  the  more  remote 
Tartars  are  said  to  absohitely  regard 
him  as  the  Deity  himself,  and  c£dl  him 
God,  the  everlasting  Father  of  heaven. 
They  believe  him  to  be  immortal,  and 
endowed  with  all  knowledge  and  virtue. 
Every  year  they  come  up  from  different 
parts  to  worship,  and  make  rich  offer- 
ings at  his  shrine :  even  the  emperor  of 
China,  who  is  a  manchon  Tartar,  does 
not  fail  in  acknowledgments  to  him  in 
his  religious  capacity ;  and  actually  en- 
tertains at  a  great  expense,  in  the  palace 
of  Pekin,  an  inferior  lama,  deputed  as 
his  nuncio  from  Thibet.  The  grand 
lama,  it  has  been  said,  is  never  to  be 
seen  but  in  a  secret  place  of  his  palace, 
amidst  a  great  number  of  lamps,  sitting 
cross-legged  on  a  cushion,  and  decked 
all  over  with  gold  and  precious  stones, 
•where  at  a  distance  the  people  prostrate 
themselves  before  him,  it  not  being  law- 
ful for  any,  so  much  as  to  kiss  his  feet. 
He  returns  not  the  least  sign  of  respect, 
nor  ever  speaks  even  to  the  greatest 
princes;  but  only  lays  his  hand  upon 
their  heads,  and  they  are  fully  per- 
suaded they  receive  from  thence  a  full 
forgiveness  of  all  their  sins. 

The  Sunniasses,  or  Indian  pilgrims, 
often  visit  Thibet  as  a  holy  place  ;  and 
the  lama  always  entertains  a  body  of 
two  or  three  hundred  in  his  pay.  Be- 
sides his  religious  influence  and  autho- 
rity, the  grand  lama  is  possessed  of  un- 
limited power  tliroughout  his  dom.inions, 
which  are  very  extensive.  The  inferior 
lamas,  who  form  the  most  numerous  as 
well  as  the  most  powerful  body  in  the 
state,  have  the  priesthood  entirely  in 
their  hands;  and  besides  fill  up  many 
monastic  orders  which  are  held  \n  great 
veneration  among  tliem.  The  whole 
country,  like  Italy,  abounds  with  priests ; 
and  they  entirely  subsist  on  the  great 
number  of  rich  presents  which  are  sent 
them  from  the  utmost  extent  of  Tartaiy, 
from  the  empire  of  the  Great  Mogul, 
and  from  almost  all  parts  of  the  Indies. 

The  opinion  of  those  who  are  reputed 
the  most  orthodox  among  the  Thibetians 
is,  that  when  the  grand  lama  seems  to 
die,  either  of  old  age  or  infirmity,  his 
soul,  in  fact,  only  quits  a  crazy  habita- 
tion to  look  for  another  younger  or  bet- 
ter ;  and  is  discovered  again  in  the  body 
of  some  child  by  certain  tokens,  known 
only  to  the  lamas  or  j)riests,  in  which 
order  he  always  appears. 


Almost  all  nations  of  the  east,  except 
the  Mahometans,  believe  the  metemfi- 
sychosis  as  the  most  important  article 
of  their  faith  ;  especially  the  inhabitants 
of  Tliibet  and  Ava,  the  Peguans,  Siam- 
ese, the  greatest  part  of  the  Chinese 
and  Japanese,  and  the  Monguls  and 
Kalmucks,  who  changed  the  religion  of 
Schamanism  for  the  worship  of  the 
grand  lama.  According  to  the  doctrine 
of  this  metempsychosis,l\ie  soul  is  always 
in  action,  and  never  at  rest;  for  no 
sooner  does  she  leave  her  old  habita- 
tion, than  she  entei's  a  new  one.  The 
dalai  lama,  being  a  divine  person,  can 
find  no  better  lodging  than  the  body  of 
his  successor ;  or  the  Foe,  residing  in  the 
dalai  lama,  which  passes  to  his  succes- 
sor :  and  this  being  a  god,  to  whom  all 
things  ai*e  known,  the  dalai  lama  is 
therefore  acquainted  with  every  thing 
which  happened  during  his  residence  in 
his  former  body. 

This  religion  is  said  to  have  been  of 
three  thousand  years  standing ;  and 
neither  time  nor  the  influence  of  men, 
has  had  the  power  of  shaking  the  au- 
thority of  the  grand  lama.  This  theo- 
cracy extends  as  fully  to  temporal  as  to 
spiritual  concerns. 

Though  in  the  grand  sovereignty  of 
the  lamas,  the  temporal  power  has  been 
occasionally  sepai-ated  from  the  spiri- 
tual by  sliglit  revolutions,  they  have  al- 
ways been  united  again  after  a  time ; 
so  that  in  Thibet  the  whole  constitution 
rests  on  the  imperial  pontificate  in  a 
manner  elsewhere  unknown.  For  as  the 
Thibetians  suppose  that  the  grand  lama 
is  animated  by  the  god  Shaka,  or  Foe, 
who  at  the  decease  of  one  lama  trans- 
migrates into  the  next,  and  consecrates 
him  an  image  of  the  divinity,  the  de- 
scending chain  of  lamas  is  continued 
down  fi'om  him  in  fixed  degrees  of  sanc- 
tity ;  so  that  a  more  firmly  established 
sacerdotal  government,  in  doctrine,  cus- 
toms, and  institutions,  than  actually 
reigns  over  this  countiy,  cannot  be  con- 
ceived. The  supreme  manager  of  tem- 
poral affairs  is  no  more  than  the  viceroy 
of  the  sovereign  priest,  who,  conforma- 
ble to  the  dictates  of  his  religion,  dwells 
in  divine  tranquillity  in  a  building  that 
is  both  temple  and  palace.  If  some  of 
his  votaries  in  modern  times  have  dis- 
pensed with  the  adoration  of  his  person, 
still  certain  real  modifications  of  the 
Shaka  religion  is  the  only  faith  they  fol- 
low. The  state  of  sanctity  which  that 
religion  inculcates,  consists  in  monastic 
continence,  absence  of  thought,  and  the 
perfect  repose  of  nonentity. 

It  lias  been  observed  that  the  religion 
of  Thibet  is  the  counterpart  of  the  Ror 
Pd 


LAN 


298 


LAT 


man  Catholic,  since  the  inhabitants  of 
that  country  use  holy  water  and  a  sing- 
ing service  ;  they  also  offer  alms,  pray- 
ers, and  sacrifices  for  the  dead.  They 
have  a  vast  number  of  convents  filled 
with  monks  and  friars,  amounting  to 
thirty  thousand ;  who,  besides  the  three 
vows  of  poverty,  obedience,  and  charity, 
make  several  others.  They  have  their 
confessors,  who  are  chosen  by  their  su- 
periors, and  have  licences  from  their 
lamas,  without  which  they  cannot  hear 
confessions  or  impose  penances.  They 
make  use  of  beads.  They  wear  the 
mitre  and  cap  like  the  bishops :  and 
their  dalai  loma  is  nearly  the  same 
among  them  as  the  sovereign  pontiff  is 
amon^^  the  "ftomanists. 

LAMBETH  ARTICLES.  See  Ar- 
ticles. 

LAMPETLANS,  a  denomination  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  followers 
of  Lampetius,  a  Syrian  monk.  He  pre- 
tended that  as  man  is  boi'n  free,  a  Chris- 
tian, in  order  to  please  God,  ought  to 
do  notliing.  by  necessity  ;  and  that  it  is, 
therefore,  unlawful  to  make  vows,  even 
those  of  obedience.  To  this  system  he 
added  the  doctrines  of  the  Arians,  Car- 
pocratinns,  anci  other  der.ominations. 

LANGUAC-E,  in  genei-al,  denotes 
those  articulcite  sounds  by  which  men 
express  their  thoughts.  Much  has  been 
said  respecting  the  invention  of  lan- 
guage. On  the  one  side  it  is  observed, 
that  it  is  altogether  a  human  invention, 
and  that  the  progress  of  the  mind,  in 
the  invention  and  improvement  of  lan- 
guage, is,  b}^  certain  natural  gradations, 
plainly  discernible  in  the  composition  of 
■words.  But  on  the  other  side  it  is  al- 
leged, that  we  are  indebted  to  divine 
revtlation  for  the  origin  of  it.  Without 
supposing  this,  we  see  not  how  our  first 
parents  could  so  early  hold  convei-se 
with  God,  or  the  man  with  his  wife. 
Admitting,  however,  that  it  is  of  divine 
original,  we  cannot  suppose  that  a  per- 
fect system  of  it  was  all  at  once  given 
to  man.  It  is  much  more  natural  to 
think  that  God  taught  our  first  parents 
only  such  language  as  suited  their  pre- 
sent occasion,  leaving  them,  as  he  did 
in  other  things,  to  enlarge  and  improve 
it,  as  their  future  necessities  should  re- 
quire. Without  attempting,  however, 
to  decide  tiiis  controversy,  we  may  con- 
sider langunge  as  one  of  the  greatest 
blessings  belonging  to  mankind.  Desti- 
tute of  this  v/e  should  make  but  small 
advancements  in  science,  be  lost  to  all 
social  enjoyments,  and  religion  itself 
would  feel  tlie  want  of  such  a  power. 
Our  \\ise  Creator,  therefore,  has  con- 
ferred upon  us  this  inestimable  privi- 


lege :  let  us  then  be  cautious  that  our 
tongues  be  not  the  Aehicle  of  vain  and 
useless  matter,  but  used  for  the  great 
end  of  glorifying  him,  and  doing  good  to 
mankind.  What  was  the  first  language 
taught  man,  is  matter  of  dispute  among 
the  learned,  but  most,  think  it  was  the 
Hebi-ew.  But  as  this  subject,  and  the 
article  in  general,  belongs  more  to  phi- 
lology than  divinity,  we  refer  the  reader 
to  D)'.  Adajn  Smith's  Dissertation  on 
the  Formation  of  Languages  ;  Harris's 
Hermes  ;  IVarburton's  Divine  Legation 
of  Moses,  vol.  iii.  Traite  de  la  Porma- 
tio7i  Mechanic/ne  des  Larigues,  p.ar  le 
President  de  Brasses;  Blair's  Rhetoric, 
vol.  i.  lect.  vi.  Gregory's  £ssays,  ess.  6. 
Lord  Monboddo  on  the  Origin  and 
Progress  of  Language. 

LATITUDINARfAN,  a  person  not 
conforming  to  any  particular  opinion  or 
standard,  but  of  such  moderation  as  to 
suppose  that  people  will  be  admitted 
into  heaven,  although  of  different  per- 
suasions. The  term  was  more  especially 
applied  to  those  pacific  doctors  in  the 
seventeenth  centuiy,  who  offered  them- 
selves as  mediators  between  the  more 
violent  Episcopalians,  and  the  rigid 
Presbytei'ians  and  Independents,  I'e- 
specting  the  forms  of  church  govern- 
ment, public  worship,  and  certain  reli- 
gious tenets,  more  especially  those  that 
were  debated  between  the  Arminians 
and  Calvinists.  The  chief  leaders  of 
these  Latitudinarians  were  Hales  and 
Chillrngworth ;  but  More,  Cudworth, 
Gale,  Witchcot,  and  Tillotson,  were 
also  among  the  number.  These  men, 
although  firmly  attached  to  the  church 
of  England,  did  not  go  so  far  as  to  look 
upon  it  as  of  divine  institution ;  and 
hence  they  maintained,  that  those  who 
followed  other  forms  of  government  and 
worship,  were  not  on  that  account  to  be 
excluded  from  their  communion.  As  to 
the  doctrinal  part  of  religion,  they  took 
the  system  of  Episcopius  for  their  mo- 
del, and,  like  him,  reduced  the  funda- 
mental doctrines  of  Christianity  to  a 
few  points  ;  and  by  this  manner  of  pro- 
ceeding they  endea\  oured  to  show  the 
contending  parties,  that  they  had  no 
reason  to  oppose  each  other  with  such 
animositv  and  bitterness,  since  the  sub- 
jects of  tiicir  debates  were  matters  of  an 
indifferent  nature  with  respect  to  salva- 
tion. They  met,  however,  with  oppo- 
sition for  their  pains,  and  were  branded 
as  Atheists  and  Deists  by  some,  and  as 
Socinians  by  others ;  but  upon  the  re- 
storation of  Charles  II.  they  were  raised 
to  the  first  dignities  of  the  church,  and 
were  held  in  considerable  esteem.  See 
Burnet's  Hist07'y  of  his  own  Times,vo\ 


LAW 


299 


LAW 


i,  b.  11.  p.  188 ;  Mosheim's  Ecc.  Hist. 
vol.  u.  p.  501.  quarto  edit. 

LAURA,  ill  church  history,  a  name 
given  to   a  collection  of  little  cells  at 
some  distance  from  each  other,  in  which 
the  hermits  of  ancient  times  lived  to-  j 
gether  in  a  wilderness.    These  hermits ! 
did  not  live  in  community, but  each  monk  j 
pi'ovided  for  himself  in  his  distinct  cell.  I 
The  most  celebrated  lauras  mentioned 
in  ecclesiastical  history  were  in  Pales- 
tine ;  as  the  laura  of  St.  Euthymus,  St. 
Saba,  the  laura  of  the  towers,  &c. 

LAW,  a  i-ule  of  action ;  a  precept  or 
command  coming  fi-om  a  superior  au- 
thority, which  an  inferior  is  bound  to 
obey.  The  manner  in  which  God  go- 
verns rational  creatures  is  by  a  law,  as 
the  rule  of  their  obedience  to  him,  and 
■which  is  what  we  call  God's  moral  go- 
vernment of  the  world.  He  gave  a  law 
to  angels,  which  some  of  them  kept,  and 
have  been  confirmed  in  a  state  of  obe- 
dience to  it;  but  which  others  broke, 
and  thereby  plunged  themselves  into 
destruction  and  misery.  He  gave,  also, 
a  law  to  Adam,  and  which  was  in  the 
form  of  a  covenant,  and  in  which  Adam 
stood  as  a  covenant  head  to  all  his  pos- 
terity, Rom.  V.  Gen.  ii.  But  our  first 
parents  soon  violated  that  law,  and  fell 
irom  a  state  of  innocence  to  a  state  of  sin 
and  misery,  Hos.vi. 7. Gen. iii.  SeepALL.  ; 

PosUh'e  laws,  are  precepts  which  are 
not  founded  upon  any  reasons  known  to 
those  to  whom  they  are  given.  Thus  in 
the  state  of  innocence  God  gave  the  law 
of  the  Sabbath  ;  of  abstinence  from  the 
fn.i!t  of  the  tree  of  knowledge,  &c. 

Law  of  nature  is  the  will  of  God  re- 
lating to  human  actions,  gi'ounded  in  the 
moral  differences  of  things,  and,  because 
discoverable  by  natural  light,  oljligatory 
upon  all  mankind,  Rom.  i.  20.  ii.  14,  15. 
This  law  is  coeval  with  the  human  race, 
binding  all  over  the  globe,  and  at  all 
times;  yet,  through  the  corruption  of 
reason,  it  is  insufficient  to  lead  us  to  hap- 

S'uiess,  and  utterly  unable  to  acquaint  us 
ow  sin  is  to  be  forgiven,  without  the 
assistance  of  revelation. 

Ceremonial  law  is  that  which  pre- 
scribed the  rites  of  worship  used  under 
the  Old  Testament.  These  rites  were 
typical  of  Christ,  and  were  obligatory 
only  till  Christ  had  finished  his  work, 
and  began  to  erect  his  Gospel  church, 
Heb.  vii.  9,  11.  Heb.  x.  1.  Eph.  ii.  16. 
Col.  ii.  14.  Gal.  v.  2,  3. 

Judicial  law  was  that  which  directed 
the  policy  of  the  Jewish  nation,  as  under 
the  peculiar  dominion  of  God  as  their 
Supreme  magistrate,  and  never,  except 
in  tilings  relative  to  moral  equity,  was 
binding  on  any  but  the  Hebrew  nation. 


Moral  law  is  that  declaration  of  God's 
will  which  directs  and  binds  all  men,  in 
every  age  and  place,  to  their  whole  duty 
to  him.  It  was  most  solemnly  prochLim- 
ed  by  God  himself  at  Sinai,  to  confirm 
the  original  law  of  nature,  and  correct 
men's  mistakes  concerning  the  demands 
of  it.  It  is  denominated  fierfecr.  Psal. 
xix.  7.  fierfietual.  Matt.  v.  "17,  18.  holy, 
Rom.  vii.  12.  good,  Rom.  vii.  12.  sfiiri- 
tual,  Rom.  vii.  14.  exceeding  broad, 
Psal.  cxix.  96.  Some  deny  that  it  is  a 
rule  of  conduct  to  believers  under  the 
Gospel  dispensation ;  but  it  is  easy  to 
see  the  futility  of  such  an  idea ;  for  as  a 
transcript  of  the  mind  of  God,  it  must  be 
the  criterion  of  moral  good  and  evil.  It 
is  also  given  for  that  very  purpose,  that 
we  may  see  our  duty,  and  abstain  from 
every  thing  derogatory  to  the  divine 
glory.  It  affords  us  grand  ideas  of  the 
holiness  and  purity  of  God  :  without  at- 
tention to  it,  we  can  have  no  knowledge 
of  sin.  Christ  himself  came  not  to  de- 
stroy, but  to  fulfil  it ;  and  though  we 
cannot  do  as  he  did,  yet  we  are  com- 
manded to  follow  his  example.  Love  to 
God  is  the  end  of  the  moral  law,  as 
well  as  the  end  of  the  Gospel.  By  the 
law,  also,  we  are  led  to  see  the  nature 
of  holiness,  and  our  own  de])ravity,  and 
learn  to  be  humbled  under  a  sense  of 
our  imperfection.  We  are  not  under  it, 
however,  as  a  covenant  of  %^'orks.  Gal. 
iii.  13.  or  as  a  source  of  terror,  Rom. 
viii.  1.  although  we  must  abide  by  it,  to- 
gether with  the  whole  preceptive  word 
of  God,  as  the  rule  of  our  conduct,  Rom. 
iii.  31.  vii. 

Laws,  directive,  are  laws  without  any 
punishment  annexed  to  them. 

Laws,  penal,  such  as  have  some  pe- 
nalty to  enforce  them.  All  the  laws  of 
God  ai-e  and  cannot  but  be  penal,  be- 
cause every  breach  of  his  law  is  sin,  and 
meritorious  of  punishment. 

Law  of  honour  is  a  system  of  rules 
constructed  by  people  of  fashion,  and 
calculated  to  facilitate  their  intercourse 
with  one  another,  and  for  no  other  pur- 
pose. Consequently  nothing  is  adverted 
to  by  the  law  of  honour  but  what  tends 
to  incommode  this  intercourse.  Hence 
this  law  only  prescribes  and  regulates 
the  duties  betwixt  equals,  omitting 
such  as  relate  to  the  Supreme  Being,  as 
well  as  those  which  we  owe  to  our  in- 
feriors. 

In  fact,  this  law  of  honour,  in  most 
instances,  is  favourable  to  the  licentious 
indulgence  of  the  natural  passions.  Thus 
it  allows  of  fornication,  adultery,  drunk- 
enness, prodigality,  duelhng,  and  of  re- 
venge in  the  extreme,  and  lays  no  sttess 
upon  the  virtues  opposite  to  these. 


LAY 


300 


LEA 


l^aws,  remedial,  a  fancied  law,  which 
some  believe  in,  who  hold  that  God,  in 
mercy  to  mankind,  has  abolished  that 
rigorous  constitution  or  law  that  they 
wei'e  under  originally,  and  instead  of  it 
has  introduced  a  more  mild  constitution, 
and  put  us  under  a  new  law,  which  re- 
quires no  more  than  imperfect  sincere 
obedience,  in  compliance  with  our  poor, 
infirm,  impotent  cii'cumstances  since 
the  fall.  I  call  this  a  fancied  law,  be- 
cause it  exists  no  where  except  in  the 
imagmation  of  those  who  hold  it.  See 
Neonomians,  and  Justification. 

Laivs  of  7iations,  are  those  rules 
which  by  a  tacit  consent  are  agreed 
upon  among  all  communities,  at  least 
among  those  who  are  reckoned  the  po- 
lite and  humanized  part  of  mankind. 
Gill's  Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  p.  454,  oct. 
425,  vol.  in.  ditto ;  Paley's  A'lor.  Phil. 
vol.  i.  p.  2  ;  Cumberland's  Law  of  JSTa- 
ture ;  Grove's  Mor.  Fhil.\ oh  ii.  p.  117. 
Booth's  Death  of  Legal  Hope  ;  Liglish 
and  Burdcr's  Pieces  on  the  Moral  Lazv  ; 
Watts's  Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  49.  8vo.  edi- 
tion, and  vol.  ii.  p.  443,  8cc.  Scott's 
£ssays. 

LAY-BROTHERS,  among  the  Ro- 
manists, illiterate  persons,  who  devote 
themselves  at  some  convent  to  the  ser- 
vice of  the  religious.  They  Avear  a  dif- 
ferent habit  from  that  of  the  religious, 
but  never  enter  into  the  choir,  nor  are 
present  at  the  chapters ;  nor  do  they 
make  any  other  vow  than  that  of  con- 
stancy and  obedience. 

LAYMAN,  one  who  follows  a  secular 
employment,  and  is  not  in  orders :  op- 
posed to  a  clergyman. 

LEARNING,  skill  in  any  science, 
or  that  improvement  of  the  mind  which 
we  gain  by  study,  instruction,  observa- 
tion, &c.  An  attentive  examination  of 
ecclesiastical  history  will  lead  us  to  see 
how  greatly  learning  is  indebted  to 
Christianit)',  and  that  Christianity,  in 
its  turn,  has  been  much  served  by  learn- 
ing. "  All  the  useful  learning,"  says 
Dr.  Jortin,  "  which  is  now  to  be  found 
in  the  world,  is  in  a  gi'eat  measure 
owing  to  the  Gospel.  The  Christians, 
who  Iiad  a  great  veneration  for  the  Old 
Testament,  have  contributed  more  than 
the  Jews  themselves  to  secure  and  ex- 
plain those  books.  The  Chi'istians  in 
iuicient  times  collected  and  preserved 
the  Greek  versions  of  the  Scriptures, 

f)articularly  the  Septuagint,  and  trans- 
atcd  the  originals  into  Latin.  To 
Christians  were  due  the  old  Hexapla ; 
and  in  later  times  Christians  ha\e 
published  the  Polyglots  and  tlie  Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch.  It  was  the  study  of 
the   Holy   Scriptures   which    excited 


Christians  from  early  times  to  study 
chronology,  sacred  and  secular;  and 
here  much  knowledge  of  history,  and 
some  skill  in  astronomy,  were  needful. 
The  New  Testament,  being  written  in 
Greek,  caused  Christians  to  apply 
themselves  also  to  the  study  of  that 
language.  As  the  Christians  were  op- 
posed by  the  Pagans  and  the  Jews,  they 
were  excited  to  the  study  of  Pagan  and 
Jewish  literature,  in  order  to  expose 
the  absurdities  of  the  Jewish  traditions, 
the  weakness  of  Paganism,  and  the  im- 
perfections and  insufficiency  of  philoso- 
phy. The  first  fathers,  till  the  third 
century,  were  generally  Greek  writers. 
In  the  third  century  the  Latin  language 
was  much  upon  the  decline,  but  the 
Christians  preserved  it  from  sinking 
into  absolute  barbarism.  Monkery,  in- 
deed, produced  many  sad  effects ;  but 
Providence  here  also  brought  good  out 
of  evil ;  for  the  monks  were  employed 
in  the  transcribing  of  books,  and  many 
valuable  authors  would  have  perished 
if  it  had  not  been  for  the  monasteries. 
In  the  ninth  century,  the  Saracens  were 
very  studious,  and  contributed  much  to 
the  restoration  of  letters.  But,  Avhat- 
eyer  was  ^ood  in  the  Mahometan  reli- 
gion, it  is  in  no  small  measure  indebted 
to  Christianity  for  it,  since  Mahometan- 
ism  is  made  up  for  the  most  part  of  Ju- 
daism and  Christianity.  If  Christianity 
had  been  suppressed  at  its  first  appear- 
ance, it  is  extremely  probable  that  the 
Latin  and  Greek  tongues  would  have 
been  lost  in  the  revolution  of  empires, 
and  the  irruptions  of  barbarians  in  the 
east  and  in  the  west ;  for  the  old  inha- 
bitants would  have  had  no  conscientious 
and  religious  motives  to  keep  up  their 
language ;  and  then,  together  with  the 
Latm  and  Greek  tongues,  the  knowledge 
of  antiquities  and  the  ancient  writers 
would  have  been  destroyed.  To  whom, 
then,  are  we  indebted  for  the  knowledge 
of  antiquity,  for  everything  that  is  called 
philosophy,  or  the  liters  hu.naniores? 
— to  Christians.  To  whom  for  gram- 
mars and  dictionaries  of  the  learnec 
languages? — to  Christians.  To  whom 
for  chronolog}',  and>.  the  continuation  of 
histoi-y  through  many  centuries.^ — to 
Christians.  1  o  whom  for  rational  sys- 
tems of  morality,  and  improvements  in 
natural  philosophy,  and  for  the  applica- 
tions of  these  discoveries  to  religious 
purposes  ? — to  Christians.  To  whom  for 
metaphysical  researches,  carried  as  far 
as  the  subject  will  permit  * — to  Chris- 
tians. To  whom  for  the  moral  rules  to  be 
observed  by  nations  in  war  and  peace  ? 
— to  Christians.  To  whom  for  juris- 
prudence, and  for  political  knowledge, 


LEG 


301 


LFX 


and  for  settling  the  rights  of  subjects, 
both  civil  and  religious,  upon  a  projaer 
foundation  f — to  Christians.  To  whom 
for  the  reformution? — to  Christians." 

"  As  religion  hath  been  the  chief  pre- 
server of  emdition,  so  erudition  hath 
not  been  ungrateful  to  her  patroness, 
but  hath  contributed  largely  to  the  sup- 


j  LECTURES  BAMPTON,  a  course 
of  eight  sermor.s  preaclied  ainiually  at 
the  university  of  Oxf  n-d,  set  on  foot  by 
!  the  Reverend  Jolin  Banipton,  canon  of 
I  Salisbury. — According  to  tlie  directions 
in  his  will  they  are  to  be  preached  upon 
I  either  of  the  following  subjects : — To 
|l  confirm  and  establish  the  Christian 
port  of  religion.  The  useful  expositions  ;j  faith,  and  to  confute  all  heretics  and 
of  the  Scriptures,  the  sober  and  sensi-  !  schismatics ;  upon  the  divine  authority 
ble  defences  of  revelation,  the  faithful  !  of  the  holy  Scriptures  ;  upon  the  au- 
represemations  of  pure  and  undefiled  I  thority  of  the  writings  of  the  primitive 
Christianity;    the.se    have     been    the  ;{  fathers,  as  to  the  faith  and  practice  of 


works  of  leaiTied,  judicious,  and  indus- 
trious men."  Nothing,  however,  is 
more  common  than  to  hear  the  ignorant : 
decry  all  human  learning  as  entirely 
useless  in  i-eligion ;  and  what  is  still 
more  remarkable,  even  some,  wdio  call 


the  primitive  church  ;  upon  the  divinity 
of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ ; 
upon  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost ; 
upon  the  articles  of  the  Christian  faith, 
as  comprehended  in  the  Apostles'  and 
Nicene   creeds.     For    the    support    of 


themselves  preachers,  entertain  the  jj  this  lecture,  he  bequeathed  his  lands 
same  sentiments.  But  to  such  we  can  ji  and  estates  to  the  chancllor,  masters, 
only  say  what  a  judicious  preacher  ob-  i  and  scholars  of  the  University  of  Ox 

« ]    ..^ «   -,..Ki:^    ^r^^^^\r^^     *-Vrt*-    '-.c     f.^,,,1  £^^  ^-.^—    .,-^^^  j-»..^4-   i."",,.*.  ♦.'u „  ,.;«« 


served  upon  a  public  occasion,  that  if 
all  men  had  been  as  unlearned  as  them- 
selves, they  never  would  have  had  a 
text  on  which  to  have  displayed  their 
ignorance.  Dr.  Jortm's  Sermons,  vol. 
Tii.  charge  1 ;  Mrs.  H.  Move's  Hints  to 
a  Young  Princess,  vol.  i.  p.  64  ;  Cook's 
Miss.  Ser.  on  Matt.  vi.  3  ;  Dr.  Sten- 
TietCs  Ser.  on  Acts  xxvi.  24,  25. 

LECTURES,  RELIGIOUS,  are 
discourses  or  sermons  delivered  by 
ministers  on  any  subject  in  theology. 
Beside  lectures  on  the  sabbath  day, 
many  think  proper  to  preach  on  week 
days  ;  sometimes  at  five  in  the  morning, 
before  people  go  to  work,  and  at  seven 
in  the  evening,  after  they  have  done. 
In  London  there  is  preaching  almost 
every  forenoon  and  evening  in  the 
week,  at  some  place  or  other.  It  may 
be  objected,  however,  against  week-day 
preaching,  that  it  has  a  tendency  to 
take  people  from  their  business,  and 
that  the  number  of  places  open  on  a 
sabbath  day  supersedes  the  necessity 
of  it.  But  in  ansAver  to  this  may  it  not 
be  observed,  1.  That  people  stand  in 
need  at  all  times  of  religious  instniction, 
exhortation,  and  comfoi-t  ? — 2.  That 
there  is  a  probability  of  converting  sin- 
ners then  as  well  as  at  other  times  ?— 
3.  That  ministers  are  commanded  to 
be  instant  in  season  and  out  of  season  ? 


ford  for  ever,  upon  tnist  tliat  the  vice- 
chancellor  for  the  time  being  take  and 
receive  all  the  rents  and  profits  there- 
of; and,  after  all  taxes,  reparations, 
and  necessary  deductions  made,  to  pay 
all  the  remainder  to  the  endowment 
of  these  divinit}^  lecture  sennons.  He 
also  directs  in  his  will,  that  no  person 
shall  be  qualified  to  preach  these  lec- 
tures unless  he  have  taken  the  degree 
of  master  of  arts,  at  least  in  one  of  the 
two  universities  of  Oxford  or  Cam- 
bridge, and  that  the  same  person  shall 
never  preach  the  same  sermon  twice.  A 
number  of  excellent  sermons  preached 
at  this  lecture  are  now  before  the  public. 
A  more  enlarged  account  of  this  lecture 
may  be  seen  in  the  Christian  Obser\"er 
for 'May,  1809. 

LECTURES,      BOYLE'S.        See 
Boyle's  Lectures. 

LECTURE  MERCHANTS,  a  lec- 
ture set  up  in  the  year  1672  by  the  Pres- 
byterians and  Independents,  to  show 
their  agreement  among  themselves,  as 
well  as  to  support  the  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation  against  the  prevailing  er- 
I  rors  of  Popery,  Socinianism,  and  In- 
fidelity. Ihe  principal  ministers  for 
learning  and  popularity  were  chosen 
as  lecturers ;  such  as  Dr.  Bates,  Dr. 
Manton,  Dr.  Owen,  Mr.  Baxter,  Mr. 
Collins,  Jenkins,  Mead,  and  afterwards 


— And,  4.     It  gives  ministers  an  oppor-  !j  Mr.    Alsop,    How,    Cole,   and  others 
tunity  of  hearing  one  another,  which  is  '        '  — -^j   l- 

of  great  utility.  After  all,  it  must  be 
remarked,  that  he  who  can  hear  the 
truth  on  a  sabbath  day  does  not  act  con- 
sistently to  neglect  his  family  or  business 
to  be  always  present  at  week-day  lec- 
tures ;  nor  is  he  altogether  wise  who  has 
an  opportunity  of  receiving  instruction, 
vet  altogether  neglects  it. 


It  was  encouraged  and  supported  by 
some  of  the  pi-incipal  merchants  and 
tradesmen  of  the  city.  Some  misun- 
derstanding taking  place,  the  Presby- 
terians removed  to  Salter's-hall,  and 
the  Independents  remained  at  Pinner's- 
hall,  and  each  party  filled  up  their 
numbers  out  of  tluir  respective  de- 
nominations.   This  lecture  is  kept  up 


LEG 


302 


LEG 


to  the  present  day,  and  is,  we  believe, 
now  held  at  Broad-street  Meeting  every 
Tuesday  morning. 

LECTURES,  MORNING,  certain 
casuistical  lectures,  which  were  preach- 
ed by  some  of  the  most  able  divines  in 
London.  The  occasion  of  these  lectures 
seems  to  be  this:  During  the  trouble- 
some time  of  Charles  L  most  of  the 
citizens  having  some  near  relation  or 
friend  in  the  army  of  the  earl  of  Essex, 
so  many  bills  were  sent  up  to  the  pulpit 
every  Lord's  Day  for  their  preserva- 
tion, that  the  minister  had  neither  time 
to  I'ead  them,  nor  to  recommend  their 
cases  to  God  in  prayer ;  it  was,  there- 
fore, agreed  by  some  London  divines 
to  separate  an  hour  for  this  purpose 
every  morning,  one  half  to  be  spent  in 

ijrayer,  and  the  other  in  a  suitable  ex- 
lortation  to  the  people.  When  the 
heat  of  the  war  was  over,  it  became  a 
casuistical  lecture,  and  was  carried  on 
till  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  These 
sei-mons  were  afterwards  published  in 
several  volumes  quarto,  under  the  title 
of  the  morning  exercises.  The  authors 
were  the  most  eminent  preachers  of 
the  day  :  Mr.  (afterwards  archbishop) 
Tillotson  was  one  of  them.  It  appears 
that  these  lectures  were  held  every 
morning  for  one  month  only;  and  from 
the  preface  to  the  volume,  dated  1689, 
the  time  was  afterwards  contracted  to 
a  fortnight.  Most  of  these  were  deli- 
vered at  Cripplegate  church,  some  at 
St.  Giles's,  and  a  volume  against  popery 
in  Southwark.  Mr.  Neale  observes,  that 
this  lecture  was  afterwards  revived 
jn  a  different  form,  and  continued  in  his 
day.  It  was  kejit  up  long  afterwards 
at  several  places  in  the  summer,  a  week 
at  each  place ;  but  latterly  the  time 
was  exchanged  for  the  evening. 

LECTURES,  MOVER'S.  See 
Mover's  Lectures. 

LECTURE  WARBURTONIAN, 
a  lecture  founded  by  bishop  Warburton 
to  prove  the  truth  of  revealed  religion 
in  general,  and  the  Christian  in  par- 
ticular, from  the  completion  of  the  pro- 
phecies in  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
which  relate  to  the  Christian  church, 
especially  to  the  apostacy  of  papal 
Rome.  To  this  foundation  we  owe  the 
admirable  discourses  of  Hurd,  Halifax, 
Bagot,  and  many  others. 

LECTURERS,  in  tlie  church  of  Eng- 
land, are  an  order  of  preachers  dis- 
tinct from  the  rector,  vicar,  and  cm'ate. 
Tliey  are  chosen  by  the  vestry,  or  chief 
inhabitants  of  the  parish,  supported  by 
voluntary  subscriptions  and  legacies, 
and  arc  usually  the  afternoon  preach- 
ers, and  sometimes   officiate  on  some 


stated  day  in  the  week.  Where  there 
arc  lectures  founded  by  the  donations 
of  pious  persons,  the  lecturers  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  founders,  without  any 
interposition  or  consent  of  rectors  of 
churches,  &;c.  though  with  the  leave 
and  approbation  of  the  bishop  ;  such  as 
that  of  Lady  Mover's  at  St.  Paul's.  But 
the  lecturer  is  not  entitled  to  the  pulpit 
without  the  consent  of  the  rector  or 
vicar,  who  is  possessed  of  the  freehold 
of  the  church. 

LEGAL  or  MOSAICK  DISPEN- 
SATION.   See  Dispensation. 

LEGALIST,  strictly  speaking,  is 
one  who  acts  according  to  or  consistent 
with  the  law  ;  but  in  general  the  term 
is  made  use  of  to  denote  one  who  ex- 
pects salvation  by  his  own  works.  We 
may  farther  consider  a  legalist  as  one 
who  has  no  proper  con\'iction  of  the 
evil  of  sin  ;  who,  although  he  pretends 
to  abide  by  the  law,  yet  has  not  a  just 
idea  of  its  spirituality  and  demands. 
He  is  ignorant  of  the  grand  scheme  of 
salvation  by  free  grace :  proud  of  his 
own  fancied  righteousness,  he  submits 
not  to  the  righteousness  of  God ;  he 
derogates  from  the  honour  of  Christ,  by 
mixing  his  own  works  with  his ;  and, 
in  fact,  denies  the  necessity  of  the  work 
of  the  Spirit,  by  supposing  that  he  has 
ability  in  himself  to  perform  all  those 
duties  which  God  has  reqiured.  Such 
is  the  character  of  the  legalist ;  a  cha- 
racter diametrically  opposite  to  that  of 
the  true  Christian,  whose  sentiment 
corresponds  with  that  of  the  apostle, 
who  jtistly  observes,  "  By  gi-ace  are  ye 
saved  through  faith,  and  that  not  of 
yourselves:  it  is  the  gift  of  God.  Not 
of  works,  lest  anv  man  should  boast." 
Eph.  ii.  8,  9. 

LEGATE,  a  cardinal,  or  bishop 
Avhom  the  pope  sends  as  his  ambassador 
to  sovereign  princes. 

LEGEND,  originally  a  book,  in  the 
Romish  church,  containing  the  lessons 
that  were  to  be  read  in  divine  service  : 
from  hence  the  word  was  applied  to  the 
histories  of  the  lives  of  saints,  because 
chapters  were  read  out  of  them  at  ma- 
tins ;  but  as  the  s^oldeji  legend,  compiled 
l)y  James  de  "Varase,  about  the  year 
1290,  contained  in  it  several  ridiciilous 
and  romantic  stories,  the  word  is  now 
used  by  Protestants  to  signify  any  in- 
credible or  inauthentic  narrative. 
Hence,  as  Dr.  Jortin  observes,  we  have 
false  legends  concerning  the  miracles 
of  Christ,  of  his  apostles,  and  of  ancient 
Christians;  and  the  writers  of  these 
fables  had,  in  all  probability,  as  good 
natural  abilities  as  the  disciples  of 
Clirist,    and    some   of    them    wanted 


LEN 


303 


LES 


neither  learning  nor  craft;  and  yet 
they  betray  themselves  by  faults  agauist 
chr'onolog)',  against  history,  against 
manners  and  customs,  against  morality, 
and  against  probability.  A  liar  of  this 
kind  can  never  pass  vmdiscovered  ;  but 
•■  an  honest  relater  of  tnith  arid  matter 
^  of  fact  is  safe :  he  wants  no  artifice,  and 
fears  no  examination. 

LEGION,  THEBIAN,  a  name  gi- 
ven, in  the  time  of  Dioclesian,  to  a 
whole  legion  of  Christians,  consisting 
of  more  than  six  thousand  men,  who 
were  said  to  have  suffered  maityrdom 
by  the  order  of  Maximiau.  Though 
this  story  had  never  wanted  patrons, 
yet  it  is  disbelieved  by  many.  Dr  Jor- 
tin,  in  his  usual  facetious  way,  says,  that 
it  stands  upon  the  authority  of  one  Eu- 
cherius,  bishop  of  Lyons,  and  a  winter 
of  the  fifth  century,  who  had  it  from 
Theodorus,  another  bishop  who  had 
the  honour  and  felicity  to  find  the  re- 
liques  of  these  martyrs  by  revelation, 
and  perhaps  bv  the  smell  of  the  bones! 

LEGION,  THUNDERING,  a  name 
given  to  those  Christians  who  served 
in  the  Roman  army  of  Marcus  Antoni- 
nus, in  the  second  century.  The  occa- 
sion of  it  was  this : — When  that  empe- 
ror was  at  war  with  the  Mai'comanni, 
his  army  Avas  enclosed  by  the  enemy, 
and  reduced  to  the  most  deplorable  con- 
dition by  the  thirst  under  which  they 
languished  in  a  parched  desert.  Just 
at  this  time  they  were  remarkably  re- 
lieved by  a  sudden  and  unexpected 
rain.  This  event  was  attributed  to  the 
Christians,  who  were  supposed  to  have 
effected  this  by  their  prayers ;  and  the 
name  of  the  thundering  legion  was 
given  to  them,  on  account  of  the  thunder 
and  lightning  that  destroyed  the  enemy, 
while  the  shower  revived  the  fainthig 
Romans.  Whether  this  was  really  mi- 
raculous or  not,  has  been  disputed 
among  learned  men.  They  who  wish 
to  see  what  has  been  said  on  both  sides, 
may  consult  JVitsius  Dissertat.  de  Le- 
gione  Fuhninatjice,  which  is  subjoined 
to_  his  jEgy/itiaca,  in  defence  of  this 
miracle ;  as  also,  what  is  alleged 
against  it  by  Dan  Lauroque,  in  a  dis- 
course upon  that  subject,  subjoined  to 
the  jldversaria  Sacra  of  Matt.  Lau- 
roque, his  father.  The  controversy 
between  Sir  Peter  King  and  Mr.  Moyfe 
upon  this  subject  is  also  worthy  of  at- 
tention. 

LENT,  a  solemn  time  of  fasting  in 
the  Christian  church,  observed  as  a 
time  of  humiliation  before  Easter.  The 
Romish  church,  and  some  of  the  Pro- 
testant communion,  maintain,  that  it 
was  always  a  fast  of  forty  days,  and,  as 


such,  of  apostolical  institution.  Others 
think  that  it  was  of  ecclesiastical  in- 
stitution, and  that  it  was  variously  ob- 
served in  diflferent  chuj'ches,  and  grew 
by  degrees  from  a  fast  of  forty  hours  to 
a  fast  of  forty  days.  This  is  the  senti- 
ment of  Morton,  bishop  Taylor,  Du 
Moulin,  Daille,  and  others.  Anciently 
the  manner  of  observing  Lent  among 
tluxse  who  were  piously  disposed,  was 
to  abstain  from  food  till  evening:  their 
only  refreshment  was  a  supper,  and  it 
was  indifferent  whether  it  was  flesh  or 
any  other  food,  provided  it  was  used 
wit;h  sobriety  arid  moderation.  Lent 
was  thought  the  proper  time  for  exer- 
cising more  abundantly  eveiy  species 
of  charit)' :  thus  what  they  spared  of 
their  own  bodies  by  abridging  them  of 
a  meal,  was  usually  given  to  the  poor  : 
they  employed  their  vacant  hours  in 
visiting  the  sick  and  those  that  were  in 
prison ;  in  entertaining  strangers,  and 
reconciling  differences.  The  Imperial 
laws  forbade  all  prosecution  of  men  iti 
criminal  actions  that  might  bring  them 
to  corporal  punishment  and  torture 
during  the  whole  season.  This  was  a 
time  of  more  than  ordinary  strictness 
and  devotion,  and  therefore,  in  many 
of  the  great  churches,  they  had  reli- 
gious assemblies  for  prayer  and  preach- 
ing every  day.  All  public  games  and 
stage  plays  were  proliibited  at  this  sea- 
son, and  also  the  celebration  of  all  festi- 
vals, birthdays,  and  man-iages.  The 
Christians  ot  the  Greek  church  ob- 
serve four  Lents  ;  the  first  commences 
on  the  fifteenth  of  November :  the  se- 
cond is  the  same  with  our  Lent :  the 
third  Ijegins  the  week  after  Whitsun- 
lide,  and  continues  till  the  festival  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul ;  and  the  fourth  com- 
mences on  the  first  of  August,  and  lasts 
no  longer  than  till  the  fifteenth.  These 
Lents  are  observed  with  great  strict- 
ness and  austerity,  but  on  Saturdays 
and  Sundays  they  indulge  themselves  in 
drinking  wine  and  using  oil,  which  are 
prohibited  on  other  days. 

LESSONS,  among  ecclesiastical  wri- 
ters, are  portions  of  the  holy  Scrip- 
tures read  in  chtu'ches  at  the  time  of 
divine  service.  In  the  ancient  church, 
reading  the  Scripture  was  one  part  of 
tlie  service  of  the  catechumen,  at 
which  all  persons  were  allowed  to  be 
present  in  order  to  obtain  instruction. 
The  church  of  England,  in  the  choice 
of  lessons,  proceeds  as  follows : — for  all 
the  first  lessons  on  ordinary  days,  she 
directs  to  begin  at  the  beginning  of  the 
vear  v/itli  Genesis,  and  so  continue  till 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  aie 
read  over,    only    omitting  Chronicles, 


LEV 


304 


LIB 


>vhich  are  for  the  most  part  the  same 
with  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings ; 
and  other  particular  chapters  in  other 
books,  cither  because  they  c.ontMin  the 
names  of  jjersons,  places,  or  other  mat- 
ters less  profitable  to  ordinary  readers. 
The  course  of  the  first  lessons  for  Sun-  j 
days  is  regulated  after  a  different  man-  \ 
ner:  from  Advent  to  Septuagesima  i 
Sunday,  some  particular  chapters  ofj 
Isaiah  are  appointed  to  be  read,  because 
that  book  contains  the  clearest  pro- 
phecies concei'ning  Christ.  Upon  Sep- 
tuagesima Sunday,  Genesis  is  begun  ; 
because  that  book,  which  treats  ot  the 
fall  of  man,  and  the  severe  judgment 
of  God  inflicted  on  the  woi'ld  for  sin, 
best  suits  with  a  time  of  repentance  and 
mortification.  After  Genesis  follow 
chapters  out  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  as  they  lie  in  order ;  only 
on  festival  Sundays,  such  as  Easter, 
Whitsunday,  &c.,  the  particular  histo- 
ry relating  to  that  day  is  appointed  to 
be  read ;  and  on  the  saints'  days  the 
chui-ch  appoints  lessons  out  of  the  moral 
books,  such  as  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes, 
&c.,  as  containing  excellent  instructions 
for  the  conduct  of  life.  As  to  the  se- 
cond lessons,  the  church  observes  the 
same  course  both  on  Sundays  and 
week-days;  reading  the  Gospel  and 
Acts  of  "the  Apostles  in  the  morning, 
and  the  Epistles  in  the  evening,  in 
the  order  they  stand  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament ;  excepting  on  saints'  days  and 
holy  days,  when  such  lessons  are  ap- 
pointed as  either  explain  the  mystery, 
relate  the  history,  or  apply  the  example 
to  us. 

JuEUCOPETRIANS,  the  name  of  a 
fanatical  sect  which  sprang  up  in  the 
Greek  and  eastern  churches  towards 
the  close  of  the  twelfth  century :  they 
professed  to  believe  in  a  double  trinity, 
rejected  wedlock,  abstained  from  flesh, 
treated  with  the  utmost  contempt  the 
sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
supper,  and  all  tlie  various  bi'anches  of 
external  worship :  placed  the  essence 
of  religion  in  internal  ]jrayer  alone  ;  and 
maintained,  as  it  is  said,  that  an  evil 
being  or  genius  dwelt  in  the  breast  of 
every  mortal,  and  could  be  expelled 
from  thence  by  no  other  method  than 
by  perpetual  sm^plication  to  the  Su- 
pi-eme  neing.  The  founder  of  this  sect 
is  said  to  have  been  a  person  called 
Ldtcofietrus,  and  his  chief  disciple 
Tvchicus,  who  corrupted  liy  fanatical 
'  interpretations  several  books  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  particularly  St.  Matthew's 
Gosnel. 

I^tVITY,  lightness  of  spirit,  in  op- 
posicion   to  gravity.    Nothing   can  be 


more  prober  than  for  a  Christian  to 
wear  an  air  of  cheerfulness,  and  to 
Avatch  against  a  morose  and  gloomy- 
disposition.  But  though  it  i)e  his  pri- 
vilege to  rejoice,  yet  he  must  be  cau- 
tious of  that  volatility  of  spirit  which 
characterises  the  unthinking,  and  mai'ks  • 
the  A'ain  professor.  To  be  cheerful 
without  levity,  and  grave  without  aus- 
terit>',  form  both  a  happy  and  dignified 
character. 

LIBATION,  the  act  of  pouring  wine 
on  the  ground  in  divine  worship.  Some- 
times other  liquids  have  been  used,  as 
oil,  milk,  water,  honey,  but  mostly  wine. 
Amongst  the  Greeks  and  Romans  it 
was  an  essential  part  of  solemn  sacri- 
fices. Libations  were  also  in  use  among 
the  Hebrews,  who  poured  a  hin  of  wine 
on  the  victim  after  it  was  killed,  and 
the  sevei'al  pieces  of  the  sacrifice  were 
laid  on  the  altar  ready  to  be  consumed 
in  the  flames. 

LIBERALITY,  bounty ;  a  generous 
disposition  of  mind,  exerting  itself  in 
giving  largely.  It  is  thus  distinguished 
from  generosity  and  bounty  : — Liberali- 
ty implies  acts  of  mere  giving  or  spend- 
ing; generosity,  acts  of  greatness ;  boun- 
ty, acts  of  kindness.  Liberality  is  a 
natural  disposition;  generosity^XGZ&^(S.% 
from  elevation  of  sentiment ;  bounty, 
from  religious  motives.  Liberality  de- 
notes freedom  of  spirit;  generosity, 
greatness  of  spul,  boiuity,  openness  of 
heart. 

LIBERALITY  of  sentiment,  a  ge- 
nerous disposition  a  man  feels  towards 
another  who  is  of  a  different  opinion 
from  himself;  or,  as  one  defines  it, 
"that  generous  expansion  of  mind 
which  enables  it  to  look  beyond  all 
petty  distinctions  of  party  and'  system, 
and,  in  the  estimate  of  men  and  things, 
to  rise  superior  to  narrow  prejudices." 
As  liberality  of  sentiment  is  often  a 
cover  for  error  and  scej^ticism  on  the 
one  hand,  and  as  it  is  too  little  attended 
to  by  the  ignorant  and  bigoted  on  the 
other,  we  shall  here  lay  before  our 
readers  a  view  of  it  by  a  masterly  wri- 
ter. "  A  man  of  liberal  sentiments 
must  be  distinguished  from  him  who 
hath  no  religious  sentiments  at  all.  He 
is  one  who  hath  sei'iously  and  effectuall)' 
investigated,  both  in  his  Bible  and  on 
his  knees,  in  public  assemblies  and  in 
private  conversations,  the  important  ar- 
1  tides  of  religion.  He  hath  laid  down 
principles,  he  hath  ijiferred  conse- 
quences ;  in  a  word,  he  hath  adopted 
sentiments  of  his  own. 

"He  must  be  distinguished  also  from 
that  tame  ur.discerning  domestic  among 
good  people,  who,  though  he  has  senti- 


LIB 


305 


LIB 


ments  of  his  own,  yet  has  not  judgment 
to  estimate  the  worth  and  value  of  one 
sentiment  beyond  another. 

"Now  a  generous  believer  of  the 
Christian  relieion^s  one  who  will  never 
allow  himself  to  try  to  pi-opagate  his 
sentiments  by  the  commission  of  sin. 
No  collusion,  no  bitterness,  no  wrath,  no 
undue  influence  of  any  kind,  will  he  ap- 
ply to  make  his  sentiments  receivable ; 
and  no  living  thing  will  be  less  happy 
for  his  being  a  Christian.  He  will  ex- 
ercise his  liberality  by  idlowing  those 
who  differ  from  him  as  much  virtue  and 
integrity  as  he  possibly  can. 

"There  are,  among  a  multitude  of 
arguments  to  enforce  such  a  disposition, 
the  following  worthy  our  attention. 

"  First,  We  should  exercise  liberality 
in  union  with  sentiment,  because  of  the 
different  cafiacities,  advantages,  and 
tasks  of  mankind.  Religion  employs 
the  cafiacities  of  mankind,  just  as  the  air 
employs  their  lungs  and  their  organs  of 
speech.  The  fancy  of  one  is  lively,  of 
another  dull.  The  judgment  of  one  is 
elastic;  of  another  feeble,  a  damaged 
spring.  The  memory  of  one  is  reten- 
tive ;  that  of  another  is  treacherous  as 
the  wind.  The  passions  of  this  man  are 
lofty,  vigorous,  rapid  ;  those  of  that  man 
crawl,  and  hum,  and  buz,  and,  when  on 
wmg,  sail  only  round  the  circumference 
of  a  tulip.  Is  it  conceivable  that  capa- 
bility, so  different  in  eveiy  thing  else, 
should  be  all  alike  in  religion  ?  The  ad- 
vantages of  mankind  differ.  How  should 
he  who  hath  no  parents,  no  books,  no 
tutor,  no  companions,  ecjual  him  whom 
Providence  hath  gratihed  Avith  them 
all ;  who,  when  he  looks  over  the  trea- 
sui-es  of  his  own  knowledge,  can  say, 
this  I  had  of  a  Greek,  that  I  learned  of 
a  Roman ;  this  hiformation  I  acquired  of 
my  tutor,  that  was  a  present  of  my  fa- 
ther :  a  friend  gave  me  this  branch  of 
knowledge,  an  acquaintance  bequeath- 
ed me  that  ?  The  tasks  of  mankmd  dif- 
fer ;  so  I  call  the  employmients  and  ex- 
ercises of  life.  In  my  opinion,  circum- 
stances make  great  men ;  and  if  we  have 
not  Caesars  in  the  state,  and  Pauls  in  the 
church,  it  is  because  neither  church  nor 
state  are  in  the  circumstances  in  which 
they  were  in  the  days  of  those  great 
men.  Push  a  dull  man  into  a  river,  and 
endanger  his  life,  and  s-uddenly  he  will 
discover  inveiition,  and  make  efforts 
beyond  himself.  The  world  is  a  fine 
school  of  instruction.    Poverty,  sickness, 

fiain,  loss  of  children,  treachery  of 
riends,  malice  of  enemies,  and  a  thou- 
sand other  things,  drive  the  man  of  sen- 
timent to  his  Bible,  and,  so  to  speak, 
bmg  him  home  to  a  repast  with  his  be- 


I  nefactor,  God.    Is  it   conceivable  that 
he,  whose  young  and  tender  heart  is  yet 
unpractised  in  trials  of  this  kind,  can 
have   ascertained  and   tasted  so  many 
I  religious  truths  as  the  sufferer  has  r" 
1      "We  should  believe  the  Christian  re- 
I  ligion  with  liberality,  in  the  second  place, 
j  because  every  part  of  the  C/iristia/i  re- 
1  iigion  inculcates  generosity.    Christiani- 
I  ty  gives  us  a  character  of  God ;  but 
j  my  God  !  what  a  character  does  it  give ! 
God    is    love.    Christianity    teaches 
the  doctrine  of  Providence;  but  what 
a  providence !     Ujwn  ivhom  doth  not 
its  light  arise  I    Is  there  an  animalcule 
so  little,  or  a  wi'etch  so  forlorn,  as  to 
be  forsaken  and  forgotten  of  liis  God  ? 
Chi-istianity    teaches   the    doctrine    of 
redemption:    but   the    redemption    of 
whom? — of    all  tongues,   kuidred,   na- 
tions, and  people :  of  the  infant  of  a 
span,  and  the  sinner  of  a  hundred  years 
old ;  a  redemption  generous  in  its  prin- 
ciple, generous  in  its  price,  generous  in 
its  effects ;  fixed  sentiments  of  Divine 
munificence,  and  revealed  with  a  libe- 
rality for  which  we  have  no  name.    In 
a  word,  the  illiberal  Christian  always 
acts  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  his  reli- 
gion ;  the  liberal  man  alone  thoroughly 
understands  it. 

"  Thirdly,  We  should  be  liberal,  be- 
cause no  other  spirit  is  exemplijied  in 
the  infallible  guides  whom  we  profess  to 
follow.  I  set  one  Paul  against  a  whole 
army  of  uninspired  men :  '  Some  preach 
Christ  of  good  will,  and  some  of  enxy 
and  strife.  What  then?  Christ  is 
preached  ;  and  I  therein  do  rejoice,  yea, 
and  will  rejoice.  One  eateth  all  things, 
another  eateth  herbs;  but  why  dost 
THOU  judge  thy  brother?  We  shall 
all  stand  before  the  judgment  seat  of 
Christ.'  We  often  inquire,  What  was 
the  doctrine  of  Christ,  and  what  was 
the  practice  of  Christ;  suppose  we 
were  to  institute  a  third  question,  Of 
what  TEMPER  was  Christ? 

"Once  more:  We  should  be  liberal 
as  well  as  orthodox,  because  truth,  es- 
pecially the  truths  of  Christianitv,  do 
not  want  any  sufifiort  from  our  illibe- 
rality.  Letthe  little  bee  guard  its  httle 
honey  with  its  little  sting ;  perhaps  its 
little  life  may  depend  a  little  while  on 
that  little  nourishment.  Let  the  fierce 
bull  shake  his  head,  and  nod  his  horn, 
and  threaten  his  enemy,  who  seeks  to 
eat  his  flesh,  and  wear  his  coat,  aiid 
live  by  his  death :  poor  fellow !  his  liife 
is  in  danger ;  I  forgive  his  bellowing  and 
his  rage.  But  the  Christian  religion, — 
is  that  in  danger  ?  and  what  human  ef- 
forts can  render  that  true  which  is  false, 
that  odious  which  is  lovely  ?  Christian!^ 

Qq 


LIB 


306 


LIB 


ty  is  in  no  dangei',  and  tlierefore  it  gives 
its  professors  life  and  breath,  and  all 
things,  except  a  power  of  injuring 
others. 

«In  fine,  liberality  in  the  profession  of 
religion  is  a  wise  and  inyiocent  policy. 
The  bigot  lives  at  home ;  a  reptile  he 
crawled  into  existence,  and  there  in  his 
hole  he  lurks  a  reptile  still.  A  genei-- 
ous  Christian  goes  out  of  his  own  party, 
associates  with  others  and  gains  ini- 
provement  by  all.  It  is  a  Persian  pro- 
verb, .A  liberal  hand  is  better  than  a 
strong  arm.  The  dignity  of  Christianity 
i«  better  supported  by  acts  of  liberality 
than  by  accui^acy  of  reasoning:  but 
when  both  go  together,  Avhen  a  man  of 
sentiment  can  clearly  state  and  ably  de- 
fend his  religious  principles,  and  when 
his  heait  is  as  generous  as  his  principles 
are  inflexible,  he  possesses  strength  and 
beauty  in  an  eminent  degree."  See 
Theol.  Misc.  vol.  i.  p.  39. 

LIBERTINE,  one  who  acts  without 
restraint,  and  pays  no  regard  to  the  pre- 
cepts of  religion. 

LIBERTINES,  according  to  some, 
were  such  Jews  as  were  free  citizens  of 
Rome :  they  had  a  separate  synagogue 
at  Jerusalem,  and  sundry  of  them  con- 
cun-ed  in  the  persecution  of  Stephen, 
Acts  vi.  9.  Dr.  Guyse  supposes  that 
those  who  had  obtained  this  privilege 
by  gift  were  called  liberti  (free  men,) 
and  those  who  had  obtained  it  by  pur- 
chase, libertini  (made  free,)  in  distinction 
from  original  native  free-men.  Di-. 
Doddridge  thinks  that  they  were  called 
Libertines  as  having  been  the  children 
of  freed  men,  that  is,  of  emancipated 
eaptives  or  slaves.  See  Doddridge  and 
Giiyae  on  Acts  vi.  9. 

LIBERTINES,  a  religious  sect  which 
arose  in  the  year  1525,  whose  principal 
tenets  were,  that  the  Deity  was  the  sole 
operating  cause  in  the  mind  of  man, 
and  the  immediate  author  of  all  human 
actions  ;  that,  consequently,  the  distinc- 
tions of  good  and  evil,  which  had  been 
established  with  regard  to  those  actions, 
■were  false  and  gro\indless,  and  that  men 
could  not,  properly  speaking,  commit 
sin  ;  that  religion  consisted  in  the  union 
of  the  spirit,  or  rational  soul,  with  the 
Supreme  Being;  that  all  those  who  had 
attained  this  happy  union,  by  sublime 
contemplation  and  elevation  of  mind, 
vrere  then  allowed  to  indulge,  without 
exception  or  restraint,  their  appetites 
or  passions;  that  all  their  actions  and 
piu-suits  were  then  perfectly  innocent ; 
and  that,  after  the  death  of  the  bod}-, 
they  were  to  be  united  to  the  Deity. 
They  likewise  said  that  Jesus  Christ 
Vfts  nothing  but  a  mere  je  ne  scat  quoi, 


compc)sed  of  the  spirit  of  God  and  the 
opinion  of  men.  These  maxims  occa- 
sioned their  being  called  Libertines, 
and  the  word  has  lieen  used  in  an  ill 
sense  ever  since.  This  sect  spread 
principally  in  Holland  and  Brabant. 
Their  leaders  were  one  Quintin,  a  Pi- 
cavd,  Pockcsius,  RufFus,  and  another, 
called  Chopin,  who  joined  with  Quintin, 
and  became  his  disciple.  They  obtain- 
ed footing  in  France  through  the  favour 
and  protection  of  Margaret,  queen  of 
Navarre,  and  sister  to  Francis  I.  and 
found  pati'ons  m  several  of  the  refonn- 
ed  churches. 

Libertines  of  Geneva  were  a  cabal  of 
i-akes  rather  than  of  fanatics ;  for  they 
made  no  pretence  to  any  religious  sys- 
tem, but  pleaded  only  for  the  liberty  of 
leading  voluptuous  and  immoral  lives. 
This  cabal  was  composed  of  a  certain 
number  of  licentious  citizens,  who  could 
not  bear  the  severe  discipline  of  Calvin. 
There  were  also  among  them  several 
Avho  were  not  only  notorious  for  their 
dissolute  and  scandalous  manner  of  liv- 
ing, but  also  for  their  atheistical  impie- 
ty and  contempt  of  all  religion.  To  this 
odious  class  belonged  one  Gruet,  who 
denied  the  divinity  of  the  Chi'istian  re- 
ligion, the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the 
difference  between  moral  good  and  evil, 
and  rejected  with  disdain  the  doctrines 
that  are  held  most  sacred  among  Chris- 
tians ;  for  which  impieties  he  was  at  last 
brought  before  the  civil  tribunal  in  the 
year  1550,  and  condemned  to  death. 

LIBERTY  denotes  a  state  of  free- 
dom, in  contradistinction  to  slavery  or 
restraint. — 1.  JVatitral  liberty,  or  liberty 
of  choice,  is  that  in  which  our  volitions 
are  not  determined  by  any  foreign  cause 
or  consideration  whatever  offered  to  it, 
but  by  its  own  pleasure. — 2.  External 
liberty,  or  liberty  of  action,  is  opposed 
to  a  constraint  laid  on  the  executive 
powers ;  and  consists  in  a  power  of  ren- 
dering our  ^'olitions  effectual. — 3.  Philo- 
so/itiicnl  liberty  consists  in  a  prevailing 
disposition  to  act  according  to  the  dic- 
tates of  reason,  i.  e.  in  such  a  manner  as 
shall,  all  things  considered,  most  ef- 
fectually promote  our  happiness. — 4. 
Moral  liberty  is  said  to  be  that  in  which 
there  is  no  interposition  of  the  will  of  a 
superior  being  to  prohibit  or  determine 
our  actions  in  any  particular  under  con- 
sideration. See  Nf.cf:ssity,  Will. — 
5.  Liberty  of  conscience  is  freedom  from 
restraint  in  our  choice  of,  and  judgment 
about  mattei-s  of  religion. — 6.  Spiritual 
liberty  consists  in  fi'eedom  frf)m  the 
curse  of  the  moial  law;  from  tlic  servi- 
tude of  the  ritual ;  from  the  love,  power, 
and  guilt  of  sin ;  from  the  dominion  of 


LIT 

Satan  ;  from  the  corruptions  of  the 
world  ;  from  the  fear  of  death,  and  the 
■wrath  to  come  ;  Rom^.  vi.  14.  Rom.  vhi. 
1.  Gal.  iii.  13.  John  vhi.  36.  Rom  viii. 
21.  Gal.  V.  1.  1  Thess.  i.  10.  See  arti- 
cles Materialists,  Predestina- 
tion, and  Doddridge's  Lee.  p.  50,  vol. 
i.  oct.  Watts's  Pliil.  Ess.  sec.  v.  p.  288  ; 
Ton.  Edwards  on  the  Will ;  Locke  on 
Und.  Grove's  Mor  Phil.  sec.  18,  19. 
J.  Palmer  on  Liberty  of  Man  ;  Mar- 
tin's Queries  a?id  Rem.  on  Human 
Liberty  ;  Chamock's  Works,  p.  175, 
Sec.  vol.  ii. ;  Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  iii. 
ser.  4. 

LIE.    See  Lying. 

LIFE,  a  state  of  active  existence. — 1. 
LIuman  life  is  the  continuance  or  dura- 
tion of  our  present  state,  and  wliich  tlie 
Scriptures  represent  as  shon  and  vain. 
Job  xiv.  1,  2.  Jam.  iv.  14. — 2.  Sfiiritual 
life  consists  in  our  being  in  the  favour  of 
God,  influenced  by  a  pnnciple  of  grace, 
and  li^'mg  dependent  on  him.  It  is  con- 
sidered as  of  divine  oi-igin,  Col.  iii.  4. 
hidden.  Col.  iii.  3.  peaceful,  Rom.  viii.  6. 
secure,  John  x.  28. — 3.  Eternal  life  is 
that  never-ending  state  of  existence 
which  the  saints  shall  enjoy  in  heaven, 
and  is  glorious.  Col.  iii.  4.  holy.  Rev. 
xxi.  27.  and  blissful,  1  Pet.  i.  4.  '  2  Cor. 
iv.  17.    See  Heaven. 

LIGHT  OF  NATURE.  See  Na- 
ture. 

LIGHT  DIVINE.  See  Knowledge, 
Religion. 

LITANY,  a  general  supplication  used 
in  public  worship  to  appease  the  wrath 
of  the  Deity,  and  to  I'eqiiest  those  bless- 
ings a  person  wants.  The  word  comes 
from  the  Greek  uiama.,  "supplication," 
of  ^iTttvEto,  "I  beseech."  At  first,  the 
use  of  litanies  Avas  not  fixed  to  any  stated 
time,  but  were  only  employed  as  exi- 
gencies required.  Thej  were  obsei^ved, 
jn  imitation  of  the  Nmevites,  with  ar- 
dent supplications  and  fastmgs,  to  avert 
the  threatened  juflgments  of  fire,  earth- 
quake, inundations,  or  hostile  invasions. 
About  the  year  400,  litanies  began  to 
be  used  in  processions,  the  people  Avalk- 
ing  barefoot,  and  repeating  them  with 
great  de\'otion  :  and  it  is  pretended 
that  by  this  means  several  countries 
were  delivered  from  great  calamities. 
The  days  on  which  they  were  used 
were  called  Rogation  days  ;  these  were 
appointed  by  the  canons  of  different 
councils,  till  it  was  decreed  by  the 
council  of  Toledo,  that  they  should  be 
used  every  month  throughout  the  year ; 
and  thus,  by  degrees,  they  came  to  be  used 
weekly  on  W  ednesdays  and  Fridays, 
the  ancient  stationary  days  for  fasting. 
To  these  days  the  rubric  of  the  church 


307  LIT; 

of  England  has  added  Sundays,  as  being 
the  greatest  da)'  for  assembling  at  divine 
service.  Before  the  last  revievv'  of  the 
common  prayer,  the  litany  was  a  dis- 
tinct service  by  itself,  and  used  some- 
times after  the  morning  prayer  was 
over  ;  at  present  it  is  made  one  office 
with  the  morning  sei'vice,  being  ordered 
to  be  read  after  the  third  collect  for 
grace,  instead  of  the  intercessional 
prayers  in  the  daily  sem'ice. 

LITURGY  denotes  all  the  ceremo- 
nies in  general  belonging  to  divine  ser- 
vice. Tlie  word  comes  from  the  Greek 
A£iTa?7io,  "service,  public  ministiy," 
formed  of  xe.toi,  "public,"  and  sjyov, 
"work."  In  a  more  restrained  signifi- 
cation, liturgy  is  used  among  the  Ro- 
manists to  signify  the  mass,  and  among 
us  the  common  prayer.  All  who  have 
written  on  liturgies  agree,  that,  in  pri- 
mitive days,  divine  service  was  exceed- 
ingly simple,  clogged  with  a  veiy  few 
ceremonies,  and  consisted  of  but  a  small 
number  of  prayers  ;  but,  by  degi-ees, 
they  increased  the  number  of  ceremo- 
nies, and  added  new  -prayers,  to  make 
the  office  look  more  aAvful  and  venera- 
ble to  the  people.  At  length,  things 
were  carried  to  such  a  pitch,  that  a  re- 
gulation became  necessary  ;  and  it  was 
found  necessary  to  put  the  service  and 
the  manner  of  performing  it  ijito  writ- 
ing, and  this  was  what  they  called  a  li- 
turgy. Liturgies  ha\  e  bee'n  different  at 
different  times  and  in  different  countries. 
We  have  the  liturgy  of  St.  Chiysostom, 
of  St.  Peter,  the  Armenian  liturgy,  GaJ- 
lican  liturgy,  &c.  ike.  "The  proper- 
ties required  in  a  public  litui-gy,"  says 
Paley,  "  are  these  :  it  must  be  compen- 
dious ;  expi'ess  just  conceptions  of  the 
divine  attributes  ;  recite  such  wants  as 
a  congregation  are  likely  to  feel,  and  no 
other  ;  and  contain  as  few  controverted 
propositions  as  possible."  The  liturgy 
of  the  church  of  England  was  compos- 
ed in  the  year  1547,  and  established  in 
the  second  year  of  king  Edward  VI.  In 
the  fifth  year  of  this  king  it  -was  reviewed, 
because  some  things  were  contained  in 
that  liturgy  which  shewed  a  compliance 
with  the  superstition  of  those  times,  and 
some  exceptions  were  taken  against  it 
by  some  learned  men  at  home,  and  by 
Cahin  abroad.  Some  alterations  v/ere 
made  in  it,  whicli  cons-isted  in  adding 
tlie  general  confession  and  absolution, 
and  the  communion  to  begin  with  the 
ten  commandments.  The  use  of  oil  in 
confirniation  and  extreme  unction  was 
left  out,  and  also  prayers  for  souls  de- 
parted, and  what  related  to  a  belief  of 
Christ's  real  presence  in  the  eucharist. 
This  liturgy,  so  reConned,  was  establish- 


LOL 


308 


LOL 


ed  by  the  acts  of  the  5th  and  6th  Ed- 
wai'd  VI.  cap.  1.  However,  it  was  abo- 
lished by  queen  Mary,  who  enacted, 
that  the  service  should  stand  as  it  was 
most  commonly  used  in  the  last  year  of 
the  reign  of  king  Henry  VIH. — That  of 
Edward  VI.  Avas  re-established,  with 
some  alterations,  by  Elizabeth.  Some 
faither  alterations  were  introduced,  in 
consequence  of  the  review  of  the  com- 
mon prayer  book,  by  order  of  king 
James,  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  par- 
ticularly in  the  office  of  private  bap- 
tism, in  several  rubrics,  and  other  pas- 
sages, witl\  the  addition  of  five  or  six 
new  pi'ayers  and  thanksgivings,  and  all 
that  part  of  the  catechism  which  con- 
tains the  doctrine  of  the  sacraments. 
The  book  of  common  pi'ayer,  so  altered, 
remained  in  force  from  the  first  j^ear 
of  king  James  to  the  fourteenth  of 
Charles  II.  The  last  review  of  the  li- 
turgy was  m  the  year  1661.  Many  sup- 
plications have  been  since  made  for  a 
review,  but  without  success.  Bing- 
ham's Orig.  Eccl.  b.  13  ;  Broughtoii's 
Dkt.  Bennett,  Robinson,  and  Clarkson, 
071  Lit urg.  passim  ;  A  Letter  to  a  Dis- 
senting Minister  on  the  Exfiediency  of 
Forms--  ^nd  L'refceU's  Ansiver ;  Rogers's 
Leciv.r^s  on  the  Liturgy  of  the  Cliurch 
of  2r:;.^Land ;  Biddulph's  Lssays  on 
the  Liiur'iy  :  Grton's  Letters,  vol.  i.  p. 
16,  24. 

LI\  ERPOOL  LITURGY,  a  litur- 
gy so  called  from  its  first  publication  at 
Liveipool.  It  was  composed  by  some 
of  the  Presbyterians,  who,  growing 
weary  of  extempore  prayer,  thought  a 
form  more  desiraole.  It  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  1752.  Mr.  Ortin  says  of  it, 
"  It  is  scarcely  a  Christian  Liturgy.  In 
the  collect  the  name  of  Christ  is  hai-dly 
mentioned  ;  and  the  Spirit  is  quite  ban- 
ished from  it."  It  was  little  better  than 
a  deistical  composition.  Orton's  Letters, 
vol.  i.  p.  80,  81.  Bogue  and  Bennett's 
Hist,  of  Diss.  vol.  iii.  p.  342. 

LOLLARDS,  a  religious  sect,  diifer- 
ing  in  many  points  from  the  church  of 
Rome,  whicli  arose  in  Gennany  about 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century ; 
so  called,  as  many  writers  have  imagin- 
ed, from  Walter  Lollard,  who  began  to 
dogmatize  in  1315,  and  was  burnt  at 
Cologne  ;  though  others  think  that  Lol- 
lard was  no  surname,  but  merely  atenn 
of  repi'oach  applied  to  all  heretics  who 
concealed  the  poison  of  en'or  under  the 
appearance  of  piety. 

The  monk  ot  Canterbury  derives  the 
origin  of  the  word  loUard  among  us 
from  loUum,  "  a  tare, "  as  if  the  Lol- 
lards were  the  tares  sown  in  Christ's 
vineyard.    Abelly  says,  that  the  word 


signifies  "praising  God,"  from  the  Ger- 
man loberi  "to  praise,"  and  herr, 
'■lord ;"  because  the  Lollards  employed 
themselves  in  travelling  about  from 
place  to  place,  singing  psalms  and 
hymns.  Otliers,  much  to  the  same  pur- 
pose, derive  lollhard^  lullhard,  or  lollert, 
Lullcrt,  as  it  was  written  by  the  ancient 
Germans,  fi-om  the  old  German  word 
lullen,  lolleii,  or  lalleyi,  and  the  termi- 
nation hard,  with  which  many  of  the 
high  Dutch  words  end.  Lollen  signi- 
fies "to  sing  with  a  lo\v  voice,"  and 
therefore  lolTard  is  a  singer,  or  one  who 
frequently  sings ;  and  in  the  \~iilgar 
tongue  ot  the  Germans  it  denotes  a  per- 
son who  is  continually  praising  God 
with  a  song,  or  singing  hymns  to  his 
honour. 

The  Alexians  or  Cellites  were  called 
Lollards,  because  they  were  public 
singers,  Avho  made  it  their  business  to 
inter  the  bodies  of  those  who  died  of  the 
plague,  and  sang  a  dirge  over  them,  in 
a  mournful  and  indistinct  tone,  as  they 
carried  them  to  the  grave.  The  name 
was  afterwards  assumed  by  persons  that 
dishonoured  it,  for  we  find  among  those 
LoDards  who  made  extraordinary  pre- 
tences to  religion,  and  spent  the  great- 
est part  of  their  time  in  meditation, 
prayer,  and  such  acts  of  piety,  there 
were  many  abominable  h}-pocrites,  who 
entertained  the  most  ridiculous  opinions, 
and  concealed  the  most  enonnous  vices 
imder  the  specious  mark  of  this  extra- 
ordinary profession.  Many  injurious 
aspersions  were  therefore  propagated 
against  those  who  assumed  this  name 
by  the  priests  and  monks  ;  so  that,  by 
degrees,  any  persons  who  covered  here- 
sies or  crimes  under  the  appearance  of 
piety  Avas  called  a  Lollard.  Thus  the 
name  was  not  used  to  denote  any  one 
particular  sect,  but  was  fonnerly  com- 
mon to  all  persons  or  sects  who  were 
supposed  to  be  guilty  of  impiety  towards 
Goci  or  the  church,  under  an  external 
profession  of  great  piety.  However, 
many  societies,  consisting  both  of  men 
and  women,  imder  the  name  of  Lollards, 
were  fonned  in  most  parts  of  Germany 
;md  Flanders,  and  were  supported  part- 
ly by  their  manual  labours,  and  partly 
by  the  charitable  donations  of  pious  per- 
sons. Tlie  magistrates  and  inhabitants 
of  the  towns  where  these  brethren  and 
sisters  resided  gave  them  particular 
marks  of  faAOur  and  protection,  on  ac- 
count of  their  great  usefiilness  to  the 
sick  and  needy.  They  were  thus  sup- 
ported against  their  malignant  rivals, 
and  ol)tauied  many  papal  constitutions, 
l)y  which  their  institute  was  confinned, 
their  persons  exempted  from  the  cog- 


LOR 


309 


LOR 


nizance  of  the  inquisitor,  and  subjected 
entirely  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops ; 
but  as  these  measures  were  insuffi- 
cient to  secure  them  from  ni61estation, 
Charles  duke  of  Burgimdy,  in  the  year 
1472,  obtained  a  solemn  bull  from  Sex- 
tus  IV.  ordei'ing  that  the  Cellitcs,  or 
Lollards,  should  be  ranked  among;  the 
religious  orders,  and  delivered  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops.  And 
pope  Julius  II.  granted  them  still  greater 
privileges,  in  tlie  year  1506.  Mosheim 
mforms  us,  that  many  societies  of  this 
kind  ai'e  still  subsisting  at  Cologne,  and 
in  the  cities  of  Flanders,  though  they 
have  evidently  departed  from  their  an- 
cient rules. 

Lollard  and  his  foUowei-s  rejected  the 
sacrifice  of  the  mass,  extreme  unction, 
and  penances  for  sin ;  arguing  that 
Christ's  sufferings  were  sufficient.  He 
is  likewise  said  to  have  set  aside  bap- 
tism, as  a  thing  of  no  effect ;  and  repen- 
tance as  not  absolutely  necessary,  &c. 
In  England,  the  followers  of  Wickliffe 
were  called,  by  way  of  reproach,  Lol- 
lards, from  the  supposition  that  there 
was  some  affinity  between  some  of  their 
tenets;  though  others  are  of  opinion  that 
the  English  XoUai'ds  came  from  Ger- 
many.    See  WiCKLIFFITES. 

LONG    SUFFERING    OF    GOD. 

See  Patience  of  God. 

LORD,  a  term  properly  denoting  one 
who  has  dominion.  Applied  to  God, 
the  supreme  governor  and  disposer  of 
all  things.    See  God. 

LORD'S  DAY.    See  Sabbath. 

LORD'S  NAME  TAKEN  IN 
VAIN,  consists,  first,  in  using  it  lightly 
or  rashly,  in  exclamations,  adjurations, 
and  appeals  in  common  conversation. — 

2.  Hyfiocritically,  in  our  prayers,  thanks- 
givings,  &c. 3.    Supeistitiously,    as 

when  the  Israelites  carried  the  ark  to 
the  field  of  battle,  to  render  them  suc- 
cessful against  the  Philistines,  1  Sam.iv. 

3,  4. — 4.  Want07ily,  in  swearing  by  him, 
or  creatures  in  his  stead.  Matt.  v.  34, 37. 
— 5.  Angrily,  or  sportfully  cursing,  and 
devoting  ourselves  or  others  to  mischief 
and  damnation. — 6.  Perjuring  ourselves, 
attesting  that  which  is  false,  Mai.  iii.  5. 
— 7.  Blasphemously  reviling  God,  or 
causing  others  to  do  so,  Rom.  ii.  24. 
Perhaps  there  is  no  sin  more  common 
as  to  the  practice,  and  less  thought  of 
as  to  the  guilt  of  it,  than  this.  Nor  is  it 
thus  common  with  the  \Tilgar  only,  but 
with  those  who  call  themselves  wise, 
humane,  and  moral.  They  tremble  at 
the  idea  of  murder,  theft,  adultery,  &c. 
while  they  forget  that  the  same  law 
which  prohibits  the  commission  of  these 
crimes,  does,  with  equal  force,  forbid 


that  of  profaning  his  name.  No  mari, 
therefore,  whatever  his  sense,  abilitieSj 
or  profession  may  be,  can  be  held  guilt- 
less, or  be  exonerated  from  the  charge 
of  being  a  wicked  man,  while  he  lives 
in  the  habitual  violation  of  this  part  of 
God's  sacred  law.  A  very  celebrated 
female  writer  justly  observes,  that  "  It 
is  utterly  inexcusable  ;  it  has  none  of 
the  palliatives  oi  temptation  which  other 
vices  plead,  and  in  that  respect  stands 
distinguished  from  all  others  both  in  its 
nature  and  degree  of  guilt.  Like  many 
other  sins,  however,  it  is  at  once  cause 
and  effect  ;  it  proceeds  from  want  of 
love  and  reverence  to  the  best  of  Beings, 
and  causes  the  want  of  that  love  both  in 
themselves  and  others.  This  species  of 
profaneness  is  not  only  swearing,  but, 
perhaps,  in  some  respects,  swearmg  of 
the  worst  sort ;  as  it  is  a  direct  breach 
of  an  express  command,  and  offends 
against  the  very  letter  of  that  law  which 
says,  in  so  many  words,  "  Thou  shalt  not 
take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in 
vain."  It  offends  against  politeness  and 
good  breeding,  for  those  who  commit  it 
little  think  ot  the  pain  they  are  inflict- 
ing on  the  sober  mind,  which  is  deeply 
wounded  when  it  hears  the  holy  name 
it  loves  dishonoured  ;  and  it  is  as  con- 
trary to  good  breeding  to  give  pain,  as 
it  is  to  true  piety  to  be  profane.  It  is 
astonishing  that  the  refined  and  elegant 
should  not  reprobate  this  practice  for  its 
coarseness  and  vulgarity,  as  much  as 
the  pious  abhor  it  for  its  sinfulness. 

"1  would  endeavour  to  give  some 
faint  idea  of  the  grossness  of  this  offence 
by  an  analog)',  (oh !  how  inadequate  I) 
with  which  the  feeling  heart,  even 
though  not  seasoned  witli  religion,  may- 
yet  be  touched.  To  such  I  would  ear- 
nestly say — Suppose  you  had  some  be- 
loved friend, — to  put  the  case  still  more 
strongly,  a  departed  friend, — a  revered 
parent,  perhaps, — whose  image  never 
occurs  without  awakening  in  your  bosom 
sentiments  of  tender  love  and  lively  gra- 
titude ;  how  would  you  feel  if  you  heard 
this  honoured  name  bandied  about  with 
unfeeling  familiarity  and  indecent  le- 
vity ;  or,  at  best,  thrust  into  eveiy  pause 
of  speech  as  a  vulgar  expletive  r — Does 
not  your  affectionate  heart  recoil  at  the 
thought .''  And  yet  the  hallowed  name 
of  your  truest  Benefactor,  your  heaven- 
ly Father,  your  best  Friend,  to  whom 
yovi  are  indebted  for  all  you  enjoy ;  who 
gives  you  those  very  friends  m  whom 
you  so  much  delight,  those  very  talents 
with  which  you  dishonour  him,  those 
very  organs  of  speech  with  which  you 
blaspheme  him,  is  treated  with  an  ir- 
reverence, a  contempt,  a  wantonness. 


LOR 


?.10 


LOR 


vnth  which  )rou  cannot  bear  the  vei'y 
thought  or  riiention  of  treating  a  liuman 
friend.  His  name  is  impiously,  is  unfeel- 
ingly, is  ungi'atefully  singled  out  as  the 
object  of  decided  n-reverence,  of  sys- 
tematic contempt,  of  thoughtless  levity. 
His  sacred  name  is  used  indiscriminately 
to  express  anger,  joy,  grief,  surprise,  im- 
patience ;  and,  what  is  almost  still  more 
unpardonable  than  all,  it  is  wantonly 
used  as  a  mere  unmeaning  expletive, 
which,  beiiig  excited  by  no  temptation, 
can  have  nothing  to  extenuate  it ;  which, 
causing  no  emotion,  can  have  nothing 
to  recommend  it,  unless  it  be  the  plea- 
sure of  the  sin."  Mrs^  More  on  Edu- 
cation, vol.  ii.  p.  87  ;  GiWs  Body  of 
JDlv.  vol.  iii.  p.  427  j  Brown's  Sijstem  of 
Heliq:  p.  526. 

LORD'S  PRAYER,  is  that  which 
our  Lord  gave  to  his  disciples  on  the 
Mount.  According  to  wliat  is  said  m  the 
sixth  chapter  of  Matthew,  it  was  given 
as  a  directory  ;  but  from  Luke  xi.  1. 
some  argue  that  it  was  given  as  Siforvi. 
Some  have  urged  that  the  second  and 
fourth  petition  of  that  prayer  could  be 
intended  only  for  a  temporary  use  ;  but 
it  is  answered,  that  such  a  sense  may 
be  put  upon  those  petitions  as  sliall  suit 
all  Christians  in  aU  ages  ;  for  it  is  al- 
ways our  duty  to  pray  that  Christ's 
"kingdom  may  be  advanced  in  the  world, 
and  to  profess  our  daily  dependence  on 
God's  providential  care.  Nevertheless, 
there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  Christ 
meant  that  his  people  should  always  use 
this  as  a  set  form  ;  for,  if  that  had  been 
the  case,  it  would  not  have  been  varied 
as  it  is  by  the  two  evangelists,  Matt.  vi. 
Luke  xi.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  they 
both  agree  in  the  main,  as  to  the  sen  e, 
yet  not  in  the  express  Avords  ;  and  the 
uoxology  which  Matthew  gives  at  large 
is  wholly  left  out  in  Luke.  And,  besides, 
we  do  not  find  that  the  disciples  ever 
used  it  as  a  form.  It  is,  however,  a  most 
excellent  summary  of  prayer,  for  its 
brevity,  order,  and  matter ;  and  it  is 
very  lawfiil  and  laudable  to  make  use  of 
any  single  petition,  or  the  whole  of  it, 
provided  a  formal  and  superstitious  use 
of  it  be  avoided. — That  great  zeal,  as 
one  observes,  which  is  to  be  found  in 
some  Christians  either  for  or  against  it, 
is  to  be  lamented  as  a  weakness  ;  and  it 
will  become  us  to  do  all  that  we  can  to 
promote  on  each  side  more  moderate 
sentiments  concerning  the  use  of  it.  See 
Doddridge's  Lecltires,  lee.  194  ;  Bar- 
ronv's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  48  ;  Archhislwji 
JLcii^htona  Exfilanation  of  it  ;  West  on 
the' Lord's  Prayer  ;  Gill's  Body  of  Di- 
vinity, vol.  iii.  p.  362,  8vo.  Fo'rdyce  on 
Edification   by  Fiwlic  Instruction,   p. 


11,  12;  JSTendhmn's  Exjiosition  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer. 

LORD'S  SUPPER  is  an  ordinance 
which  our  Saviour  instituted  as  a  com- 
mernoration  of  his  death  and  sufferings. 
1.  It  is  called  a  sacrament,  thkt  is,  a  sign 
and  an  oath.  An  outward  and  visible 
sign  of  an  inward  and  spii-itual  grace; 
an  oath,  by  which  we  bind  our  souls 
with  a  bond'  unto  the  Lord.  Some,  how- 
ever, reject  this  term  as  not  being  scrip- 
tural; as  likewise  the  idea  of  swearing 
or  vowing  to  the  Lord.  See  Vow. — 2.  It 
is  called  the  Lord's  Supper,  because  it 
was  first  instituted  in  tlie  evening,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  Passover  supper ;  and 
because  we  therein  feed  upon  Christ, 
the  bread  of  life,  Rom.  iii.  20.  1  Cor.  xi. 
— 3.  It  is  called  the  communion,  as  here- 
in we  have  communion  with  Christ,  and 
with  his  people,  1  Cor.  xii.  13.  x.  17. — 
4.  It  is  called  the  eucharist,  a  thanks- 
gi-^ing, because  Christ,  in  the  institution 
of  it,  gaA'e  thanks,  1  Cor.  xi.  24.  and  be- 
cause we,  hi  the  participation  of  it,  must 
give  thanks  likewise. — 5.  It  is  called  a 
feast,  and  by  some  a  feast  upon  a  sacri- 
fice (though  not  a  sacrifice  itself,)  in  al- 
lusion to  the  custom  of  the  Jews  feast- 
ing upon  their  sacrifices,  1  Cor.  x.  18. 

As  to  the  nature  of  this  ordinance,  we 
may  observe,  that,  in  participating  of 
the  bread  and  wine,  we  do  not  consider 
it  as  expiatory,  but,  1.  As  a  commemo- 
rating ordinance.  We  are  here  to  re- 
member the  person,  love,  and  death  of 
Christ,  1  Cor.  xi.  24. — 2.  A  confessing 
ordin-ance.  We  hereby  profess  our  es- 
teem for  Christ,  and  dependence  upon 
him. — 3.  A  communicating  ordinance: 
blessings  of  grace  ai'e  here  communica- 
ted to  us. — 4.  A  covenanting  ordinance. 
God,  in  and  by  this  ordinance,  as  it 
were,  declares  that  he  is  ours,  and  we 
by  it  declare  to  lie  his. — 5.  A  sta?iding 
ordinance,  for  it  is  to  be  observed  to  the 
end  of  time,  1  Cor.  xi.  26.  It  seems  to  be 
quite  an  indifferent  thing,  what  bread  is 
used  in  this  ordmance,  or  what  coloured 
wine,  for  Christ  took  that  which  was 
readiest.  The  eating  of  the  bread  and 
drinking  of  the  wine  being  always  con- 
nected m  Christ's  example,  they  ought 
never  to  be  separated  ;  wherever  one  is 
given,  the  other  should  not  be  withheld. 
This  broad  and  wine  are  not  changed 
into  the  real  l)od}'  and  blood  of  Clii-ist, 
but  are  only  emblems  thereof.  See 
Transuhstantiation. 

The  suhjects  of  this  ordinance  should 
be  such  as  make  a  credible  profession 
of  the  Gospel  :  the  ignorant,  and  those 
whose  lives  are  immoral,  have  no  right 
to  it ;  nor  should  it  ever  be  administer- 
ed as  a  test  of  civil  obedience,  for  this 


LOR 


511 


LOV 


is  perverting  the  design  of  it.  None  but 
tnie  believei-s  can  approach  it  with 
profit ;  yet  we  cannot  exclude  any  who 
make  a  credible  profession,  for  God 
only  is  the  judge  of  the  heart,  while  we 
can  only  act  according  to  outward  ap- 
pearances. 

Much  has  been  said  respecting  the 
time  of  admumtering  it.  Some  plead 
for  the  moming,  others  the  afternoon, 
and  some  for  the  evening  ;  which  lattei", 
indeed,  was  the  time  of  the  first  celebra- 
tion of  it,  and  is  most  suitable  to  a  sup- 
per. How  often  it  is  to  be  observed, 
cannot  be  precisely  ascertained  from 
Scripture.  Some  have  been  for  keep- 
ing it  exery  day  in  the  week ;  others  four 
times  a  week  ;  some  every  Lord's  day, 
■which  many  think  is  nearest  the  apos- 
tolic practice,  Acts  xx.  7.  Others  have 
kept  it  three  times  a  year,  and  some 
once  a  year ;  but  the  most  common  is 
once  a  month.  It  e%-idently  appears, 
howevei',  both  from  Scripture,  1  Cor.  xi. 
26.  and  from  the  nature  of  the  ordinance, 
that  it  ought  to  be  frequent. 

^,v  to  the  posture  :  Dr.  Doddridge 
justly  observes,  that  it  is  greatly  to  be 
lamented  that  Christians  have  pervert- 
ed an  ordinance,  intended  as  a  pledge 
and  means  of  their  mutual  union,  into  an 
occasion  of  discord  and  contention,  by 
la\ing  such  a  disproportionate  stress  on 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  adminis- 
tered, and  the  posture  in  which  it  is  to 
be  received.  As  to  the  latter,  a  table 
posture  seems  most  eligible,  as  having 
been  used  by  Christ  and  his  apostles, 
and  being  peculiarly  suitable  to  the 
notion  of  a  sacred  feast ;  and  kneeling, 
which  was  never  introduced  into  the 
church  till  transubstantiation  was  re- 
ceived, may  prove  an  occasion  of  super- 
stition. Nevertheless,  provided  it  be  not 
absolutely  imposed  as  a  term  of  com- 
munion. It  will  be  the  part  of  Christian 
candour  to  acquiesce  in  the  use  of  it  in 
others  by  whom  it  is  prefen-ed.  It  ap- 
pears that  standing  was  at  least  fre- 
quently used  in  the  Christian  church, 
viz.  always  on  the  Lord's  day,  and  be- 
tween Easter  and  Whitsuntide.  The 
manner  m  which  this  ordinance  is  ad- 
ministered, both  in  the  church  of  Eng- 
land, and  among  Protestant  Dissenters, 
is  so  well  known,  that  we  need  say  no- 
thing of  it  here. 

W  e  will  only  subjoin  a  few  directions 
in  what  ^rawie  of  mind  we  should  attend 
upon  this  ordinance.  It  should  be  with 
sorrow  for  our  past  sins,  and  easiness 
and  calmness  of  affection,  free  fi-om  the 
disorders  and  iiiffles  of  passion  ;  with  a 
holy  awe  ajid  reverence  of  the  Divine 
Majesty,  yet  with  a  gracious  confidence 


and  earnest  desires  toward  God;  -with 
i-aised  expectations ;  praver,  joy,  and 
thanksgiyiiig,  and  love  to  all  men.'When 
coming  from  it,  we  shoidd  admire  the 
condescensions  of  divine  grace;  watch 
against  the  snai-es  of  S?.tan,  and  the  al- 
lurements of  the  world;  rejoice  in  the 
finished  work  of  Chi-ist,  depend  upon 
the  gracious  influence  of  the  Spirit,  that 
we  may  keep  up  a  sense  of  the  divine 
favour,  and  be  longing  for  heaven,  where 
we  hope  at  last  to  join  the  general  as- 
sembly of  the  first-bom. 

The  advantages  uniting  from^  the  par- 
ticipation of  the  Lord's  supper  are  nu- 
merous. 1.  It  is  a  mean  of  strengthening 
our  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. — 2.  It 
affords  gi'eat  consolation  and  joy. — 3.  It 
increases  love. — 4.  It  has  a  tendency  to 
enlighten  our  muids  in  the  mysterj'  of 
godliness. — 5.  It  gives  us  an  utter  aver- 
sion to  all  kinds  of  sin,  and  occasions  a 
hearty  gi-ief  for  it. — 6.  It  has  a  tendency 
to  excite  and  strengthen  all  holy  desires 
in  us. — 7.  It  renews  our  obligations  to 
our  Lord  and  Master. — 8.  It  binds  the 
souls  of  Christians  one  to  another.  See 
Case's  Sermons,  ser.  7 ;  and  Henry 
Earle,  Doolittle,  Grove,  and  Robertsgn, 
on  the  Lord's  Supper ;  Dr.  Owen's, 
Charnock's,  Dr.  Ciuhvorth's,  Mr.  Wil- 
let's,  Dr.  Worthington's,  Dr.  Watts's, 
Bishop  Warbiirton's,  Bishop  Cleaver's, 
and  Dr.  Bell's,  Pieces  on  the  Subject. 
A  variety  of  other  treatises,  explana- 
tory of  the  nature  and  design  of  the 
Lord's  sapper,  may  be  seen  in  almost 
anv  catalogue. 

Lot  is  a  mutual  agreement  to  deter- 
mine an  uncertain  event,  no  other  ways 
determinable,  by  an  appeal  to  the  pro- 
vidence of  God,  on  casting  or  throwing 
something.  This  is  a  decisory  lot,  Prov. 
xvi.  33.  xviii.  18.  The  matter,  there- 
fore, to  be  determined,  in  order  to  avoid 
guilt,  should  be  impoitant,  and  no  other 
possible  way  left  to  detei-mine  it;  and 
the  manner  of  making  the  appeal  so- 
lemn and  grave,  if  we  would  escape  the 
fuilt  of  taking  the  name  of  God  in  vain. 
^'"antonly,  without  necessity,  and  in  a 
ludicrous  manner,  to  make  this  appeal, 
must  be  therefore  highly  blameable. 
And  if  thus  the  decisory  lot,  when  wan- 
tonly and  unnecessarily  employed,  be 
criminal,  equally,  if  not  more  so,  must 
the  divinatory  lot  be,  which  is  employ- 
ed for  discovering  the  will  of  God :  this 
being  no  mean  of  God's  appointment, 
must  be  superstitious,  and  the  height  of 
presumption. 

LOVE  consists  Ln  approbation  of,  and 
inclination  towards  an  object  that  ap- 
pears to  us  as  good.  It  has  been  distin- 
guished into,  1.  Love  of  esteem,  wliich 


LOV  3: 

arises  from  the  mere  consideration  of 
some  excellejicy  in  an  object,  and  be- 
longs either  to  persons  or  things. — 2. 
Love  of  benrvolence,  which  is  an  incli- 
nation to  seek  the  happiness  or  welfare 
of  any  thing. — 3.  Love  of  complacence, 
which  arises  from  the  consideration  of 
any  object  agreeable  to  us,  and  calcu- 
lated to  afford  us  pleasure. 

LOVE  TO  GOD  is  a  divine  princi- 
ple implanted  in  the  mind  by  the  Holy 
bpirit,  whereby  we  reverence,  esteem, 
desire,  and  delight  in  Him  as  the  chief 
good.  It  includes  a  knowledge  of  his  na- 
tural excellences,  Ps.  viii.  1.  and  a  con- 
sideration of  his  goodness  to  us,  1  John 
iv.  19.  Nor  can  these  two  ideas,  I  think, 
be  well  separated;  for,  however  some 
may  argue  that  genuine  love  to  God 
should  arise  only  from  a  sense  of  his 
amiableness,  yet  I  think  it  will  be  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  how  it  can  exist,  ab- 
sti"acted  from  the  idea  of  his  relative 
goodness.  The  passage  last  referred  to 
IS  to  the  point,  and  the  representations 
given  us  of  the  praises  of  the  saints  in 
heaven  accord  with  the  same  senti- 
ment :  "  Thou  art  worthy,  for  thou  hast 
redeemed  us  by  thy  blood,"  Rev.  v.  9. 
See  Self-Love.  "Love  to  God  is  a 
subject,"  says  bishop  Porteus,  "  which 
concerns  us  to  inquire  carefully  into  the 
tine  nature  of.  And  it  concerns  us  the 
more,  because  it  has  been  unhappily 
brought  into  disrepute  by  the  extrava- 
gant conceits  of  a  few  devout  enthusiasts 
concerning  it.  Of  these,  some  have 
treated  the  love  of  God  in  so  refined  a 
way,  and  carried  it  to  such  heights  of 
seraphic  ecstacy  and  rapture,  that  com- 
mon minds  must  for  ever  despair  of 
either  following  or  understanding  them ; 
whilst  others  have  described  it  in  such 
warm  and  indelicate  terms  as  are  much 
better  suited  to  the  gi-ossness  of  earthly 
passion  than  the  purity  of  spiritual  af- 
fection. 

"  But  the  accidental  excesses  of  this 
holy  sentiment  can  be  no  just  argument 
against  its  general  excellence  and  utility. 
"We  know  that  even  friendsliip  it- 
self has  sometimes  been  abused  to  the 
most  unworthy  purposes,  and  led  men  to 
the  commission  of  the  most  atrocious 
crimes.  Shall  we,  therefore,  utterly  dis- 
card that  generous  passion,  and  consider 
it  as  nothing  more  than  the  unnatural 
fei-vour  of  a  romantic  imagination;' 
E\'ery  heart  revolts  against  so  wild  a 
thought !  and  why,  then,  must  we  suffer 
the  love  of  God  to  be  banished  out  of 
the  world,  because  it  has  been  some- 
times improperly  represented  or  indis- 
creetly- exercised  .■•  It  is  not  either  from 
the.  visionaiy  mystic,  the  sensual 4"ana- 


l  LOV 

tic,  or  the  frantic  zealot,  but  from  the 
plain  word  of  God,  that  we  are  to  take 
our  ideas  of  this  divine  sentiment.  There 
we  find  it  described  in  all  its  native  pu- 
rity and  simplicity.  The  marks  by 
which  it  is  there  distinguished  contain 
nothing  enthusiastic  or  extravagant."  It 
may  be  considered,  1.  As  sincere.  Matt. 
xxii.  36,  38. — 2.  Constant,  Rom.  viii. — 
3.  Universal  of  all  his  attributes,  com- 
mandments, ordinances,  &c. — 4.  Pro- 
gressive, 1  Thess.  v.  12.  2  Thess.  i.  3. 
Eph.  iii.  19. — 5.  Superlative,  Lam.  iii. 
24. — 6.  Eternal,  Rom.  viii.  This  love 
manifests  itself,  1.  In  a  desire  to  be  like 
God. — 2.  In  making  his  glory  the  su- 
preme end  of  our  actions,  1  Cor.  xi.  31. 
— 3.  In  delighting  in  communion  with 
him,  1  John  i.  3. — 4.  In  grief  under  the 
hidings  of  his  face.  Job,  xxiii.  2. — 5.  In 
relinquishing  all  that  stands  in  opposi- 
tion to  his  will,  Phil.  iii.  8. — 6.  In  regard 
to  his  house,  worsliip  and  ordinances, 
Ps.  Ixxxiv. — 7.  In  love  for  his  truth  and 
people,  Ps.  cxix.  John  xiii.  35. — 8.  By 
confidence  in  his  pi*omises,  Ps.  Ixxi.  1. 
— And,  lastly,  1w  obedience  to  his  word, 
John  xiv.  15.  1  John  ii.  3.  Gill's  Body  of 
Div.  p.  94.  vol.  iii.  8vo.  TVatts's  Dis- 
courses on  Love  to  God  ;  Scott's  Serm. 
ser.  14 ;  Bellamy  on  Religion,  p.  2,  and 
Sig^ns  of  Coimterfeit  Love,  p.  82 ;  Bji 
Porteiis's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser.  1. 

LOVE,  BROTHERLY,  is  affection 
to  our  neighbours,  and  especially  to  the 
saints,  prompting  us  to  every  act  of 
kindness  toAvard  them.  It  does  not,  in- 
deed", consist  merely  in  pity  to  and  re- 
lief of  others,  1  Cor.  xiii.  in  love  to  our 
benefactors  only,  and  those  who  are  re- 
lated to  us.  Matt.  v.  46,  47.  It  must  flow 
from  love  to  God,  and  extend  to  all 
mankind ;  yea,  we  are  required  by  the 
highest  authority  to  love  even  our  ene- 
mies, Matt.  V.  44.  not  so  as  to  counte- 
nance them  in  their  evil  actions,  but.  to 
forgive  the  uijuries  they  have  done  to 
us.  Love  to  good  men,  also,  must  be 
particularly  cultivated,  foi"  it  is  the  com- 
mand of  Christ,  John  xiii.  34 ;  they  be- 
long to  the  same  Father  and  family. 
Gal.  vi.  10;  we  herel-)y  give  proof  of  oiir 
discipleship,  John  xiii.  35.  The  exam- 
ple of  Christ  should  allure  us  to  it,  1 
John  iii.  16.  It  is  creative  of  a  variety  of 
pleasing  sensations,  and  prevents  a  thou- 
sand evils:  it  is  the  greatest  of  all  graces, 
1  Cor.  xiii.  13. — It  answers  the  end  of 
the  law,  1  Tim.  i.  5  ;  resembles  the  in- 
habitants of  a  better  world,  and  with- 
out it  every  other  attainment  is  of  no 
avail,  1  Cor.  xiii.  Tliis  love  should  show 
itself  by  praving  for  our  brethren,  Eph 
vi.  18  ;  beai-'ing  one  another's  burdens, 
by  assisting  and  relieving  each  other. 


LOW  3 

Gal.  vi.  2.  By  forbearing  with  one  ano- 
ther, Col.  iii.  13.  By  reproving  and  ad- 
monishing in  the  spirit  of  meekness, 
Prov.  xx\  ii.  5,  6.  Bv  establishing  each 
other  in  the  truth ;  by  conversation,  ex- 
hortation, and  stirring  up  one  another  to 
the  several  duties  of  religion,  both  pub- 
lic and  private,  Jude  20,  21.  Heb.  x.  24, 
25.    See  Charity. 

LOVE  OF  GOD,  is  either  his  natu- 
ral delight  in  that  which  is  good,  Is.  Ixi. 
8.  or  that  especial  affection  he  bears  to 
his  people,  1  John  iv.  19.    Not  that  he 

gossesses  the  passion  of  love  as  we  do  ; 
ut  it  implies  his  absolute  pui'pose  and 
will  to  deliver,  bless,  and  save  his  peo- 
ple. The  love  of  God  to  his  people  ap- 
pears in  his  all-wise  designs  and  plans 
for  their  happiness,  Eph.  iii.  10. — 2.  In 
the  choice  of  them  and  determination 
to  sanctify  and  glorify  them,  2  Thess.  ii. 
13. — 3.  In  the  gift  of  his  Son  to  die  for 
them,  and  redeem  them  from  sin,  death, 
and  hell,  Rom.  v.  9.  John  iii.  16. — 4.  In 
the  revelation  of  his  will,  and  the  decla- 
ration of  his  promises  to  them,  2  Pet.  i. 
4. — 5.  In  the  awful  punishment  of  their 
enemfes,  Ex.  xix.  4. — 6.  In  his  actual 
conduct  towards  them  ;  in  supporting 
them  in  Ufe,  blessmg  them  in  death,  and 
Dringing  them  to  glory,  Rom.  viii.  30, 
&c.  Rom.  vi.  23.  The  properties  of  this 
love  may  be  considered  as,  1.  Everlast- 
ing, Jer.  xxxi.  3.  Eph.  i.  4. — 2.  Immu- 
table, Mai.  iii.  6.  Zeph.  iii.  17.— 3.  Free  ; 
neither  the  sufferings  of  Christ  nor  the 
merits  of  men  are  the  cause,  but  his 
own  good  pleasure,  John  iii.  16. — 4.  Great 
and  unspeakable,  Eph.  ii.  4,  6.  iii.  19. 
Psal.  xxxvi.  7. 

LOVE,  Family  of.  A  sect  that  arose 
in  Holland,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
founded  by  Henry  Nicholas,  a  West- 
phalian.  He  maintained  that  he  had  a 
commission  from  heaven  to  teach  men 
that  the  essence  of  religion  consisted  in 
the  feelings  of  divine  love;  that  all  other 
theological  tenets,  whether  they  related 
to  objects  of  faith  or  modes  of  worship, 
wei-e  of  no  sort  of  moment ;  and,  con- 
sequently, that  it  was  a  matter  of  the 
most  perfect  indifference  what  opinions 
Christians  entertained  concerning  the 
divine  nature,  provided  their  hearts 
burned  with  the  pure  and  sacred  flame 
of  piety  and  love. 

LOVE  OF  THE  WORLD.  See 
World. 

LOVE  FEASTS.    See  Agap^. 

LOW  CHURCHMEN,  those  who 
disapproved  of  the  schism  made  in  the 
church  by  the  non-jui-ors,  and  who  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  their  modera- 
tion towards  Dissenters,  and  were  less 
ardent  in  extendinr  the  limits  of  eccle- 


3  LUK 

siastical  authority.  See  High  Churqh- 

MEN. 

LUCIANISTS,  or  Lucanists,  a 
sect  so  called  from  Lucianus,  or  Luca- 
nus,  a  heretic  of  the  second  century,  be- 
ing a  disciple  of  Marcion,  whose  errors 
he  followed,  adding  some  new  ones  to 
them.  Epiphanius  says  he  abandoned 
Marcion,  teaching  that  people  ought 
not  to  maiTy,  for  fear  of  enriching  the 
Creator :  and  yet  other  authors  mention, 
tliat  he  held  this  error  in  common  Avith 
Marcion  and  other  Gnostics.  He  denied 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  asserting  it 
to  be  material. 

There  was  another  sect  of  Lucianists, 
who  appeared  some  time  after  the  Ari- 
ans.  They  taught,  that  the  Father  had 
been  a  Father  always,  and  that  he  had 
the  name  even  before  he  begot  the  Son, 
as  having  in  him  the  power  and  faculty 
of  generation  ;  and  in  this  manner  they 
accounted  for  the  eternitv  of  the  Son. 

LUCIFERIANS,  a  sect  who  adher- 
ed to  the  schism  of  Lucifer,  bishop  of 
Cagliara,  in  the  fourth  century,  who  was 
banished  by  the  emperor  Constantius, 
for  having  defended  the  Nicene  doctrine 
concerning  the  three  persons  in  the 
Godhead  It  is  said,  also,  that  they  be- 
lieved the  sold  to  be  coi-poreal,  and  to 
be  transmitted  from  the  father  to  the 
children.  The  Luciferians  were  nume- 
rous in  Gaul,  Spain,  Egypt,  &c.  The 
occasion  of  this  schism  was,  that  Luci- 
fer would  not  allow  anv  acts  he  had 
done  to  be  abolished.  There  were  but 
two  Luciferian  bishops,  but  a  gi'eat  num- 
ber of  priests  and  deacons.  The  Luci- 
ferians bore  a  great  aversion  to  the 
Arians. 

LUKEWARMNESS,  applied  to  the 
affections,  indifference,  or  want  of  ardor. 
In  respect  to  religion,  hardly  any  thing 
can  be  more  culpable  than  this  spirit. — 
If  there  be  a  God  possessed  of  unspeak- 
able rectitude  in  his  o\vn  nature,  and 
unbounded  goodness  towards  his  crea- 
tures, what  can  be  more  inconsistent 
and  unbecoming  than  to  be  frigid  and 
indifferent  in  our  devotions  to  him  ? 
Atheism,  in  some  respects,  cannot  be 
worse  than  lukewarmness.  The  Atheist 
disbelieves  the  existence  of  a  God,  and 
therefore  cannot  worship  him  at  all; 
the  lukewarm  owns  the  existence,  sove- 
reignty, and  goodness  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  but  denies  him  that  fervour  of 
affection,  that  devotedness  of  heart,  and 
activity  of  service,  which  the  excellen- 
cy of  liis  nature  demands,  and  the  au- 
thority of  his  word  requires.  Such  a 
character,  therefore,  is  represented  as 
absolutely  loathsome  to  God,  and  ob7 
noxious  to  his  wrath,  Rev  iii.  15,  16 
Rr 


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314 


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The  general  signs  of  a  lukewarm  s/ii- 
rit  are  such  as  these :  Neglect  of  pri- 
vate prayer;  a  preference  of  worldly 
to  rel'gious  company;  a  lax  attendance 
on  public  ordinances  ;  omission  or  care- 
less perusal  of  God's  word  ;  a  zeal  for 
some  appendages  of  religion,  while  lan- 
guid about  religion  itself;  a  backward- 
ness to  prortiote  the  cause  of  God  in 
the  world,  and  a  rashness  of  spirit  in 
censuring  those  who  are  desirous  to  be 
useful. 

If  we  inquire  the  causes  of  such  a 
spirit,  we  shall  find  them  to  be — world- 
ly prosperity ;  the  influence  of  carnal 
relatives  and  acquaintances :  indulgence 
of  secret  sins ;  the  fear  of  man ;  and 
sitting  under  an  unfaithful  ministry. 

The  inconsistejicy  of  it  appears  if  we 
consider,  that  it  is  highly  um'easonable ; 
dishonourable  to  God ;  incompatible 
with  the  genius  of  the  Gospel;  a  barrier 
to  improvement ;  a  death-blow  to  use- 
fulness ;  a  direct  opposition  to  the  com- 
mands of  Scripture;  and  tends  to  the 
greatest  misery. 

To  overcome  such  a  state  of  ?nind,  we 
should  consider  how  offensive  it  is  to 
God :  how  incongruous  with  the  very 
idea  and  nature  of  ti-ue  religion ;  how- 
injurious  to  peace  and  felicity  of  mind  ; 
how  ungi'ateful  to  Jesus  Christ,  whose 
whole  life  was  labour  for  us  and  orir 
salvation ;  how  grievous  to  the  Holy 
Spirit;  how  dreadfid  an  example  to 
those  who  have  no  religion;  how  un- 
like the  saints  of  old,  and  e\e.n  to  our 
enemies  in  the  w^orst  of  causes ;  how 
dangerous  to  our  immortal  souls,  since 
it  is  indicative  of  our  want  of  love  to 
God,  and  exposes  us  to  just  condemna- 
tion, Amos  VI.  1. 

LUTHERANS,  those  Christians  who 
follow  the  opinions  of  Martin  Luther, 
the  celebi'ated  reformer  of  the  church, 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  order 
that  we  may  trace  the  rise  and  pro- 
^'css  of  Lutheranism,  we  must  here  re- 
fer to  the  life  of  Liither  himself.  Lu- 
ther was  a  native  of  Eisleben,  in  Saxony, 
and  bom  in  1483.  Though  his  parents 
•were  poor,  he  received  a  learned  edu- 
cation, during  the  progress  of  which  he 
gave  many  mdications  of  uncommon 
vigour  and'  acuteness  of  genius.  As  his 
mind  was  naturally  susceptible  of  serious 
impressions,  and  tinctured  with  some- 
what of  that  religious  melancholy  which 
delights  in  the  solitude  and  devotion  of 
a  monastic  life,  he  retired  into  a  convent 
of  Augustini'an  friars ;  where  he  ac- 
quired great  reputation  not  only  for 
piety,  but  for  love  of  knowledge,  and 
unwearied  application  to  study.  The 
cause  of  this  retirement  is  said  to  lia\e 


been,  that  he  was  once  struck  by  light- 
nbig,  and  his  companion  killed"  by  his 
side  by  the  same  flash.  He  had  'been 
taught  the  scholastic  philosophy  which 
was  in  vogue  in  those  days,  arid  made 
considerable  pi'ogress  in '  it ;  but  hap- 
pening to  find  a  copy  of  the  Bible  which 
lay  neglected  in  the  libraiT  of  his  monas- 
te'n%  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of 
it  with  such  eagerness  and  assiduitv,  as 
quite  astonished  the  monks ;  and  in- 
creased his  reputation  for  sanctity  so 
much,  that  he  was  chosen  professor, 
first  of  philosophy,  and  afterwards  of 
theology,  in  \^' ittemburg,  on  the  Elbe, 
where  Frederic,  elector  of  Saxony,  had 
founded  an  university. 

\\'htle  Luther  continued  to  enjoy  the 
highest  reputation  for  sanctitv  and  learn- 
ing, Tetzel,  a  Dominican  finar  came  to 
^Vittemburg  in  order  to  publish  indul- 
gences. Luther  beheld  his  success  with 
great  concern  ;  and  having  first  inveigh- 
ed against  indulgences  from  the  pulpit, 
he  afterwards  published  ninety-five  the- 
ses, contaming  his  sentiment's  on  that 
subject.  These  he  proposed  not  as  points 
fully  established,  but  as  subjects  of  in- 
quiry and  disputation.  He  appointed  a 
day  on  which  the  learned  were  in\ited 
to  impugn  them,  either  in  person  or  by 
writing ;  and  to  the  whole  he  subjoined 
solemn  protestations  of  his  high  respect 
for  the  apostolic  see,  and  of  his  implicit 
submission  to  its  authorit}-.  No  opponent 
appeared  at  the  time  prefixed  :  the  the- 
ses spread  over  Germany  with  astonish- 
ing rapidity,  and  were  read  with  the 
gi'eatest  eagerness. 

Though  Luther  met  with  no  o])posi- 
tion  for  some  little  time  after  he  began 
to  publish  his  new  doctrines,  it  was  not 
long  before  many  zealous  cliampions 
arose  to  defend  those  opinions  with 
which  the  wealth  and  power  of  the 
clerg}'  were  so  strictly  connected.  Their 
cause,  however,  was  by  no  means  pi-o- 
motcd  by  these  endeavours  :  the  people 
began  to  call  in  question  even  the  au- 
thority of  the  c:mon  law,  and  of  the  pope 
himself.  The  court  of  Rome  at  first  de- 
spised these  new  doctrines  and  disputes ; 
but  at  last  the  attention  of  the  pope  be- 
ing raised  by  the  gi'eat  success  of  the 
reformer,  arid  the  complaints  of  his  ad- 
versaries, Luther  was  summoned,  in  the 
month  of  July,  1,518,  to  appear  at  Rome, 
within  sixty  days,  l^efore  the  auditor  of 
the  chamber.  One  of  J,/Uther's  adversa- 
ries, named  Prierius,  who  had  written 
against  him,  was  appointed  to  examine 
his  doctrines,  and  to  decide  concerning 
them.  The  po]3e  wrote  at  the  same 
time  to  the  elector  of  Saxony,  beseech- 
ing him  not  to  protect  a  man  whose  he- 


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315 


LUT 


retical  and  profane  tenets  were  so  shock- 
ing to  pious  ears ;  and  enjoined  the  pro- 
vincial of  the  Aiigustinians  to  check,  by 
his  authority,  the  rasliness  of  an  arro- 
gant monk,  which  brought  disgface 
upon  their  order,  and  gave  offence  and 
disturbance  to  tlie  wliole  church. 

Fi'om  these  letters,  and  the  appomt- 
nient  (if  his  open  enemy  Prierius  to  be 
his  judge,  Luther  easily  saw  what  sen- 
tence he  might  expect  at  Rome;  and 
tlierefore  discovered  the  utmost  solici- 
tude to  have  his  cause  tried  in  Germa- 
ny, and  before  a  less  suspected  tril)unal. 
He  wrote  a  submissive  letter  to  the 
pope,  in  which  he  promised  im  unreserv- 
ed obedience  to  his  will,  for  as  yet  he 
entertained  no  doubt  of  the  divine  ori- 
gmal  of  the  pope's  authority;  and,  by 
the  intercession  of  the  other  professors, 
Cajetan,  the  pope's  legate  in  Germany, 
was  appointed  to  hear  and  determine 
the  cause.  Luther  appeared  before  him 
without  hesitation  ;  but  Cajetan  thought 
it  below  his  dignity  to  dispute  the  point 
with  a  person  so  much  his  mferior  in 
rank ;  and  therefore  required  him,  by 
virtue  of  the  apostolic  powers  with 
Avhich  he  was  clothed,  to  retract  the  er- 
rors which  he  had  uttered  with  regard 
to  indulgences  and  the  nature  of  faith, 
and  to  abstain  for  the  future  fro)Ti  the 
pubUcatiftn  of  new  and  dangerous_  opi- 
nions ;  and,  at  the  last,  forbade  him  to 
appear  in  his  presence,  unless  he  pro- 
mised to  comply  with  what  had  been 
required  of  him. 

This  haughty  and  violent  manner  of 
proceeding,  together  with  some  other 
circumstances,  gave  Luther's  friends 
such  strong  reasons  to  suspect  that  even 
the  imperial  safe-conduct  would  not  be 
able  to  protect  him  from  the  legate's 
power  and  resentment,  that  they  pre- 
I'ailed  on  him  secretly  to  withdraw  from 
Augsburg,  where  he  had  attended  the 
•legate,  and  to  return  to  his  own  coun- 
try. But  before  his  departvn-e,  accord- 
ing to  a  form  of  which  there  had  been 
some  examples,  he  prepared  a  solemn 
appeal  from  the  legate,  ill-informed  at 
that  time  concerning  his  cause,  to  the 
pope,  when  he  should  receive  moi-e  full 
mtmriation  with  respect  to  it.  Cajetan, 
enraged  at  Luther's  abrupt  retreat,  and 
at  the  publication  of  his  appeal,  wrote 
to  the  elector  of  Saxon),  complaining  of 
both ;  and  requiring  him,  as  he  regarded 
the  peace  of  the  church,  or  the  authori- 
ty of  its  head,  either  to  send  that  sedi- 
tious monk  a  ]3risoner  to  Rome,  or  to 
banish  him  out  of  his  territories.  Fre- 
deric had  hitherto,  from  political  mo- 
tives, protected  Luther,  as  thinknig  he 
niivrht  be  of  use  in  checking  the  eiiox-- 


mous  power  of  the  see  of  Rome ;  and 
though  all  Germany  resounded  with  his 
fame,  the  elector  had  never  yet  admit- 
ted him  into  his  presence.  But  upon 
this  demand  made  by  the  cardinal,  it  oe- 
came  neces-sary  to  throw  off  some  of  his 
former  reserve.  He  had  been  at  gi-eat 
expense,  luid  bestowed  much  attention 
on  founding  a  new  university,  an  object 
of  considerable  importance  to  every 
Gei'man  prince ;  and  foreseeing  how 
fatal  a  blow  the  removal  of  Luther 
would  be  to  its  reputation,  he  not  only 
declined  complying  with  either  of  the 
pope's  requests,  but  openly  discovered 
great  concern  for  Luther's  safety. 

The  situation  of  our  reformei^,  in  the 
mean  time,  became  daily  more  and 
more  alarming.  He  knew  vei-y  well 
what  were  the  motives  which  induced 
the  elector  to  afford  him  protection,  and 
that  he  could  by  no  means  depend  on  a 
continuance  of  his  friendship.  If  he 
should  be  obliged  to  quit  Saxony,  he 
had  no  other  asylum,  and  must  stand 
exposed  to  whatever  punishment  the 
rrige  or  bigotry  of  his  enemies  could  in- 
flict ;  and  so  ready  were  his  adversaries 
to  condemn  him,  that  he  had  been  de- 
clared a  heretic  at  Rome  before  the  ex- 
piration of  the  sixty  days  allowed  hiin 
in  the  citation  for  making  his  appear- 
ance. Notwithstanding  all  this,  how- 
ever, he  discovered  no  symptoms  of  ti- 
midity or  remissness ;  but  continued  to 
vindicate  his  own  conduct  and  opinions, 
and  to  inveigh  agamst  those  of  his  ad- 
versaries with  more  vehemence  than 
ever.  Being  convinced  therefore,  that 
the  pope  would  soon  proceed  to  the 
most  violent  measures  against  him,  he 
appealed  to  a  general  council,  which  he 
affirmed  to  be  the  representative  of  the 
Catholic  church,  and  superior  in  power 
to  the  pope,  who,  Ijeing  a  fallible  m:m, 
might  err,  as  St.  Peter,  the  most  perfect 
of  his  predecessors  had  done. 

The  court  of  Rome  was  equally  assi- 
duous, in  the  mean  time,  to  cnish  the 
author  of  these  new  doctrines,  which 
gave  them  so  much  inieasiness.  A  bull 
was  issued  by  the  pope,  of  a  date  prior 
to  Luther's  appeal,  in  which  he  magni- 
fied the  virtues  of  indulgences,  and  sub- 
jected to  the  heaviest  ecclesiastical  cen- 
sures all  who  presumed  to  teach  a  con- 
trary doctrine.  Such  a  clear  decision 
of  the  sovereign  pontiff  against  him 
might  have  been  wry  fatal  to  Luther's 
cause,  had  not  the  death  of  the  emperor 
Maximilian,  which  happened  on  Janua- 
ry 17,  1519,  contributed  to  give  matters 
a  different  turn.  Both  the  principles 
and  interest  of  Maximilian  had  prompt- 
ed him  to  support  the  authority  of  the 


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316 


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see  of  Rome ;  but,  in  consequence  of  his 
death,  the  vicai'iate  of  that  party  of  Ger- 
many Avhich  is  governed  by  the  Saxon 
laws  devolved  to  the  elector  of  Saxony  ; 
and,  under  the  shelter  of  his  friendly  ad- 
ministration, Luther  himself  enjoyed 
tranquillity  ;  and  his  opinions  took  such 
root  in  difFepnt  places,  that  they  could 
never  afterwards  be  eradicated.  At  the 
same  time,  as  the  election  of  an  empe- 
ror was  a  point  more  interesting  to  the 
pope  (Leo  X.)  than  a  theological  con- 
troversy which  he  did  not  understand, 
and  of  which  he  could  not  foresee  the 
consequences,  he  was  so  extremely  soli- 
citous not  to  irritate  a  prince  of  such 
considerable  influence  in  the  electoral 
college  as  Frederic,  that  he  discovered 
a  great  unwillingness  to  pronounce  the 
sentence  of  excommunication  against 
Luther,  which  his  adversaries  contmual- 
ly  demanded  with  the  most  clamorous 
importunity. 

From  the  reason  just  now  given,  and 
Leo's  natural  avei'sion  to  severe  mea- 
sures, a  suspension  of  proceeding  against 
Luther  took  place  for  eighteen  months, 
though  perpetual  negociations  were  car- 
ried on  during  this  interval,  in  order  to 
bring  the  matter  to  an  amicable  issue. 
The  manner  in  which  these  were  con- 
ducted having  given  our  reformer  many 
opportunities  of  observing  the  corruption 
of  the  court  of  Rome,  its  obstinacy  in 
adhering  to  established  errors,  and  its  in- 
difference about  trath,  however  clearly 
proposed  or  strongly  proved,  he  began, 
m  1520,  to  utter  some  doubts  with  re- 
gard to  the  divine  original  of  the  papal 
authority,  which  he  publicly  disputed 
with  Eccius,  one  of  his  most  learned 
and  formidable  antagonists.  The  dis- 
pute was  indecisive,  both  parties  claim - 
mg  the  victory  ;  but  it  must  have  been 
very  mortifying  to  the  partizans  of  the 
Romish  church  to  hear  such  an  essen- 
tial point  of  their  doctrine  publicly  at- 
tacked. 

The  papal  authority  being  once  sus- 
pected, Luther  proceeded  to  push  on 
his  inquiries  and  attacks  from  one  doc- 
trine to  another,  till  at  last  he  begon  to 
shake  the  firmest  foundatiotis  on  which 
the  wealth  and  power  of  the  chui'Ch 
were  established.  Leo  then  began  to 
perceive  that  there  were  no  hopes  of  re- 
claiming such  an  incoi-rigil^le  heretic, 
and  therefore  prepared  to  pronounce 
the  sentence  of  excommunication  against 
him.  The  college  of  cardinals  was  often 
assembled,  in  order  to  prepare  the  sen- 
tence with  due  deliberation ;  and  tlie 
ablest  canonists  were  consulted  how  it 
might  be  expressed  with  unexcep- 
tionable formality.   At  last  it  was  issued 


on  the  15th  of  June,  1520.  Forty-one 
propositions,  extracted  out  of  Luther's 
works,  were  therein  condemned  as  he- 
retical, scandalous,  and  oifensive  to  pi- 
ous fears ;  all  persons  were  forbidden  to 
read  his  writings,  upon  pain  of  excom- 
munication ;  such  as  had  any  of  them 
in  their  custody  were  commanded  to 
commit  them  to  the  flames;  he  himself, 
if  he  did  not  within  sixty  days  publicly 
recant  his  errors,  and  burn  his  books, 
was  pronounced  an  obstinate  heretic, 
excommunicated,  and  delivered  to  Sa- 
tan for  the  destruction  of  the  flesh  ;  and 
all  secular  princes  were  required,  un- 
der pain  of  mcun-ing  the  same  censure, 
to  seize  his  person,  that  he  might  be 
punished  as  his  crimes  deserved. 

Luther  was  not  in  the  least  discon- 
certed by  this  sentence,  which  he  had 
for  some  time  expected.  He  renewed 
his  appeal  to  this  general  council ;  de- 
clared the  pope  to  be  that  antichrist  or 
man  of  sin  whose  appearance  is  fore- 
told in  the  New  Testament ;  declaimed 
against  his  tyranny  with  greater  vehe- 
mence than  ever ;  and  at  last,  by  way 
of  retaliation,  having  assembled  all  the 
professors  and  students  in  the  university 
of  Wittemburg,  with  great  pomp,  and 
in  the  presence  of  a  vast  multitude  of 
spectators,  he  cast  the  volumes  of  the 
canon  law,  together  with  the  bull  of  ex- 
communication, into  the  flames.  The 
manner  in  which  this  action  was  justi- 
fied, gave  still  more  offence  than  the  ac- 
tion itself.  Having  collected  from  the 
canon  law  some  of  the  most  extravagant 
propositions  with  regard  to  the  pleni- 
tude and  omnipotence  of  the  pope's  pow- 
er, as  well  as  tlie  subordination  of  all  se- 
cular jui'isdiction  to  his  authority,  he 
published  these  with  a  conimentaiy, 
pointing  out  the  impiety  of  such  tenets, 
and  their  evident  tendency  to  subvert  all 
civil  government. 

On  the  accession  of  Charles  V.  to 
the  empire,  Luther  found  himself  in  a 
very  dangerous  situation.  Charles,  in 
order  to  secure  the  pope's  friendship, 
had  determined  to  treat  him  with  gi-eat 
severity.  His  eagerness  to  gain  thi? 
point  rendered  him  not  a^'crse  to  gratify 
the  papal  legates  in  Germany,  who  in- 
sisted, that,  without  any  delay,  or  for- 
mal deliberation,  the  diet  then  sitting  at 
Worms  ought  to  condemn  a  man  whiom 
the  pope  had  already  excommunicated 
as  an  incorrigible  heretic.  Such  an 
abrupt  manner  of  proceeding,  however, 
being  deemed  unprecedented  and  unjust 
I)y  the  members  of  the  diet,  they  made 
a  point  of  Luther's  ajjpearing  in  person, 
and  declaring  whether  he  adliered  or 
not  to  those  opinions  which  had  drawn 


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317 


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upon  him  the  censures  of  the  church. 
Not  onlv  the  emperor,  but  all  the  princes 
through  whose  territories  he  hud  to 
pass,  granted  him  a  safe-conduct ;  and 
Charles  wrote  to  him  at  the  same  time, 
requiring  his  immediate  attendance  on 
the  diet^  and  renewing  his  pron_iises  of 

Erotection  from  any  injury  or  violence. 
lUther  did  not  hesitate  one  moment 
abovit  yielding  obedience;  and  set  out 
for  Worms,  attended  by  the  herald  who 
had  brought  the  emperor's  letter  and 
safe-conduct,  ^^^hile  on  his  journey, 
many  of  his  friends,  whom  the  fate  of 
Huss  under  similar  circumstances,  and 
notwithstanding  the  same  security  of  an 
imperial  safe-conduct,  filled  with  solici- 
tude, advised  and  entieated  him  not  to 
rush  wantonly  into  the  midst  of  danger. 
But  Luther,  superior  to  such  terrors, 
silenced  them  with  this  reply:  "I  am 
lawfully  called,"  said  he,  "to  appear 
in  that  city  ;  and  thither  I  will  go,  in 
the  name  of  the  Lord,  though  as  many 
devils  as  there  are  tiles  on  the  houses 
were  there  combmed  against  me." 

The  reception  which  he  met  with  at 
Worms  was  such  as  might  ha\e  been 
reckoned  a  full  reward  ot  all  his  labours, 
if  vanity  and  the  love  of  applause  had 
been  the  principles  by  which  he  was  in- 
fluenced. Greater  crowds  assembled 
to  behold  him  than  had  appeared  at  the 
emperor's  public  entry ;  his  apartments 
wei-e  daily  filled  with  princes  and  per- 
sonages of  the  highest  rank  ;  and  he 
was  treated  with  an  homage  more  sin- 
cere, as  well  as  more  flattering,  than 
any  which  pre-eminence  in  birth  or 
condition  can  command.  At  his  ap- 
pearance before  the  diet  he  behaved 
with  great  decency  and  with  equal  firm- 
ness. He  readily  acknowledged  an  ex- 
cess of  acrimony  and  vehemence  in  his 
controversial  writings;  but  refused  to 
retract  his  opinions,  unless  he  were  con- 
vinced of  their  falsehood,  or  to  consent 
to  their  being  tried  by  any  other  iiile 
than  the  word  of  God.'  When  neither 
threats  nor  entreaties  could  prevail  on 
him  to  depait  from  this  resolution,  some 
of  the  ecclesiastics  proposed  to  imitate 
the  example  of  the  council  of  Constance ; 
and,  by  punishing  the  author  of  this  pes- 
tilent heresy,  who  was  now  in  their 
power,  to  deliver  the  church  at  once 
fi'oni  such  an  evil.  But  the  members 
of  the  diet  refusing  to  expose  the  Ger- 
man integrity  to  fresh  reproach  by  a 
second  violation  of  public  faith,  and 
Charles  beuig  no  less  unwilling  to  bring 
a  stain  upon  the  beginning  of  his  ad- 
mmistration  by  such  an  ignominious 
action,  Luther  was  permitted  to  de- 
part in  safety.     A  few  days  after  he 


left  the  city,  a  severe  edict  was  publish- 
ed in  the  emperor's  name,  and  by  au- 
thority of  the  diet,  depri\  ing  him,  as  an 
obstinate  and  excomnumicated  criminal, 
of  all  the  privileges  which  he  enjoyed  as 
a  subject  of  the  empire  ;  foroiddhig  any 
prince  to  harbour  or  protect  him  ;  and 
requiring  all  to  seize  his  person  as  soon 
as  the  term  specified  in  his  protection 
should  be  expu-ed. 

But  this  rigorous  decree  had  no  con- 
siderable effect ;  the  execution  of  it  be- 
ing pi-evented  partly  by  the  multiplicity 
of  occupations  which  the  commotions  in 
Spaui,  together  with  the  wars  in  Italy 
and  the  Low  Countries,  ci'eated  to  the 
emperor  ;  and  partly  by  a  prudent  pre- 
caution employed  b}'  the  elector  of  bax- 
ony,  Luther's  taithful  patron.  As  Luther, 
on  his  return  from  \\  orms,  vv  as  passing 
near  Altenstrain,  in  Tlmringia,  a  num- 
ber of  horsemen,  in  masks,  rushed  sud- 
denly out  of  a  wood,  where  the  elector 
had  appointed  them  to  lie  in  wait  for 
him,  and,  surrounding  his  company,  car- 
ried him,  after  dismissing- all  his  attend- 
ants, to  Wortburg,  a  btrong  castle,  not 
far  distant.  There  the  elector  oi'dered 
him  to  b^  supplied  with  e\  ery  thing  ne- 
cessary or  agreeable  ;  l:)ut  the  place  of 
his  retreat  was  cai'efully  concealed,  un- 
til the  fury  of  the  present  storm  against 
him  began  to  abate,  upon  a  change  in 
the  political  system  of  Europe.  In  this 
solitude,  where  he  I'emained  nuie 
months,  ^nd  which  he  frequently  called 
his  Patmos,  after  the  name  of  that 
island  to  which  the  apostle  John  was 
banished,  he  exerted  his  usual  vigour 
and  industry  in  defence  of  liis  doctrmes, 
or  in  confutation  of  his  adversaries  ;  pub- 
lishing several  treatises,  wliich  revived 
the  spirit  of  his  followers,  astonished  to  a 
great  degree,  and  disheartened  at  the 
sudden  disappearance  of  their  leader. 

Luther,  weaiy  at  length  of  his  retire- 
ment, appeared  publicly  again  at  Wit- 
temburg,  upon  the  6th  of  March,  1522. 
He  appeared,  indeed,  without  the  elec- 
tor's leave  ;  but  immediately  wi'ote 
him  a  letter  to  prevent  him  taking  it 
ill.  The  edict  ot  Charles  V.  severe  as 
it  was  had  litll^  or  no  check  to  Lu- 
ther's doctrine ;  for  the  emperor  was 
no  sooner  gone  into  Flanders,  than  his 
edict  was  neglected  and  despised,  and 
the  docti-ine  seemed  to  spread  even 
faster  than  before.  Carolostadius,  in 
lAither's  absence,  had  pushed  things  on 
faster  than  his  leader,  and  had  attempt- 
ed to  abolish  the  use  of  mass,  to  remove 
images  out  of  the  churches,  to  set  aside 
auricidar  confession,  invocation  of  saints, 
the  abstaining  from  meats ;  had  allowed 
the  moivks  to  leave  the  monasteries,  to 


LUT 


318 


LUT 


neglect  their  vows,  and  to  marry ;  in 
short,  had  quite  changed  the  doctrine 
and  discipline  of  the  church  at  Wittem- 
burg,  all  which,  though  not  against  Lu- 
ther's sentiments,  was  yet  blamed  by 
him,  as  being  rashly  and  unseasonably 
done.  Lutheranism  was  still  confined  to 
Germany  ;  it  was  not  to  go  to  France  ; 
and  Henry  VIII.  of  England  made  the 
most  rigorous  acts  to  hinder  it  from  in- 
vading his  realm.  Nay,  he  did  some- 
thing more :  to  show  his  zeal  for  reli- 
i^on  and  the  holy  see,  and  perhaps  his 
bkill  in  theological  learning,  he  wrote 
a  treatise  Of  the  Seven  Sacraments, 
against  Luther's  book  Of  the  Captivity 
cf  Babylon,  which  he  presented  to  Leo 
X.  in  October,  1521.  The  pope  received 
it  very  favoui-ably,   and   was   so   well 

K leased  with  the  king  of  England,  that 
e  complimented  him  with  the  title  of 
Defender  of  the  Faith.  Luther,  how- 
ex  er,  paid  no  regard  to  his  kingship, 
but  answered  him  with  great  sharpness, 
treating  both  his  person  and  perform- 
ance in  the  most  contemptuous  manner. 
Henry  complained  of  Luther's  rude 
usage  of  him  to  the  princes  of  Saxony  : 
arid  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester,  replied 
to  his  answer,  m  behalf  of  HenVj^s  trea- 
tise; but  neither  the  king's  complaint, 
nor  the  bisliop's  reply,  were  attended 
with  any  visible  effects. 

Luthtr,  though  he  had  put  a  stop  to 
the  violent  proceedings  of  Carolostadius, 
now  made  open  war  on  the  pope  and 
bishops  ;  and,  that  he  might  make  the 
peopfe  despise  tlieir  authoi-ity  as  much 
as  possible,  he  wrote  one  book  against 
the  pope's  bull,  and  another  against  the 
order  falsely  called  the  Order  of  Bi- 
sho/is.  The  same  year,  1522,  he  "wrote 
tiletter,  dated  July 'the  29th,  to  the  as- 
sembly of  the  states  of  Bohemia ;  in 
which  he  assured  them  that  he  was  la- 
bouring to  establish  tlieir  doctrine  in 
Germany,  and  exhorted  them  not  to  re- 
turn to  the  communion  of  the  church  of 
Rome ;  and  he  published  also  this  year 
a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  in 
the  Gernnan  tongue,  which  was  after- 
wards corrected  by  himself  and  Me- 
iancthon.    I'his  translation  having  been 

{n'inted  several  times,  and  being  in  every 
)ody's  hands,  Ferdinand,  archduke  of 
Austria,  the  emperor's  brother,  rnade  a 
very  severe  edict,  to  hinder  the  farther 
])ublication  of  it ;  ajid  forbade  all  the 
subjects  of  his  Imperial  Majesty  to  have 
any  copies  of  it,  or  of  Luther's  otlier 
books.  Some  other  princes  followed  liis 
example  ;  and  Luther  was  so  angry  at 
it,  thut  he  wrote  a  treatise  Of  the  Secu- 
lar Poiver,  in  which  he  accuses  them  of 
tyranny  and  impiety.    The  diet  of  tlie 


empire  was  held  at  Nuremberg,  at  the 
end  of  the  year  to  which  Hadrian  VI. 
sent  his  brief,  dated  November  the  25th  ; 
for  Leo  X.  died  upon  the  2d  of  Decem- 
ber, 1521,  and  Hadrian  had  been  elected 
fiope  upon  the  9th  of  January  following, 
n  his  brief,  among  other  things,  he  ob- 
serves to  the  diet  how  he  had  heard, 
with  grief,  that  Martin  Luther  after  the 
sentence  of  Leo  X.  which  was  ordered 
to  be  executed  by  the  edict  of  Worms, 
continued  to  teach  the  same  errors,  and 
daily  to  publish  books  full  of  heresies , 
that  it  appeared  strange  to  him  that  so 
large  and  so  religious  a  nation  could  be 
seduced  by  a  wretched  apostate  friar ; 
that  nothing,  however,  could  be  more 
pernicious  to  Christendom ;  and  that, 
therefore,  he  exhorts  them  to  use  their 
utmost  endeavours  to  make  Luther, 
and  the  authoi's  of  those  tumults,  return 
to  their  duty  ;  or,  if  they  refuse,  and 
continue  obstinate,  to  proceed  against 
them  according  to  the  laws  of  the  em- 
pire, and  the  severity  of  the  last  edict. 

Tlie  resolution  of  this  diet  was  pub- 
lished in  the  form  of  an  edict,  upon  the 
6th  of  March,  1523;  but  it  had  no  ef- 
fect in  checking  the  Lutherans,  who 
still  went  on  in  the  same  triumphant 
mannei".  This  j  ear  Luther  wrote  a 
great  many  pieces ;  among  the  rest,  one 
upon  the  dignity  and  office  of  the  su- 
preme magistrate;  Avhich  Frederick, 
elector  of  Saxony,  is  said  to  liave  been 
liighly  pleased  with.  He  sent,  about 
the  same  time,  a  writing  in  the  Ger- 
man language  to  the  Waldenses,  or 
Pickards,  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  who 
had  applied  to  him  "about  worshipping 
the  body  of  Christ  in  the  euchanst." 
He  wrote,  also,  another  book,  which  lie 
dedicated  to  the  senate  and  people  of 
Prague,  "about  the  institution  of  mi- 
nisters of  the  church."  He  drew  up  a 
form  of  saying  mass.  He  wrote  a  piece, 
entitled,  l/in  Example  of  popish  Doc- 
trine and  Divinity  ;  which  Dupin  calls 
a  satire  against  nuns,  and  those  who 
profess  a  monastic  life.  He  wrote  also 
against  the  vows  of  vu'ginity,  in  his  pre- 
face to  his  commentary  on  1  Coi\  viii. 
and  his  exhortations  here  were  it  seems, 
followed  with  effect ;  for,  soon  after,  nine 
nuns,  among  whom  was  Cathei-ine  de 
Bore,  eloped  from  the  nunnery  at 
Nimptschen,  and  were  brought,  by  the 
assistance  of  Leonard  Coppen,  a  bur- 
gess of  Torgau,  to  Wittemburg.  What- 
ever offence  this  proceeding  might  give 
to  the  Papists,  it  was  highly  extolled  by 
Luther ;  who,  in  a  book  written  in  the 
(ierman  language,  compares  the  deli- 
verance of  these  nuns  from  the  slavery 
of  monastic  life  to  that  of  the  souls 


LUT 


319 


LUT 


which  Jesus  Christ  has  dehvered  by  his 
death.  This  year  Luther  had  occasion 
to  canonize  two  of  his  followers,  who, 
as  Melchior  Adam  relates,  were  burnt 
at  Brussels,  in  the  beginning  of  July, 
and  were  the  first  who  suffered  martyi*- 
dom  for  his  doctrine.  He  wrote  also  a 
consolatoiy  letter  to  three  noble  ladies 
at  Misnia,  who  were  banished  from  the 
duke  of  Saxony's  court  at  Friburg,  for 
reathng  his  books. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1524, 
Clement  VII.  sent  a  legate  into  Ger- 
many to  the  diet  which  was  to  be  held 
at  iSfuremberg.  Hadrian  \T.  died  in 
October  1523,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Clement  upon  the  19th  of  November. 
A  little  before  his  death,  he  canonized 
Benno,  who  was  bishop  of  Meissen,  in 
the  time  of  Gregoiy  VII.  and  one  of  the 
most  zealous  defendei-s  of  the  holy  see. 
Luther,  imagining  that  this  was  done 
directly  to  oppose  him,  drew  up  a  piece 
with  this  title.  Against  the  new  idol  and 
old  devil  set  ufi  at  Meissen,  in  which  he 
treats  the  memory  of  Gregoiy  with 
great  freedom,  and  does  not  spare  even 
Hadrian.  Clement  VII's  legate  repre- 
sented to  the  diet  of  Nuremberg  the  ne- 
cessity of  enforcing  the  execution  of  the 
edict  of  Worms,  which  had  been  strange- 
ly neglected  by  the  princes  of  the  em- 
pire ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  legate's 
solicitations,  which  were  veiy  pressing, 
the  decrees  of  that  diet  were  thought  so 
ineffectual,  that  they  were  condemned 
at  Rome,  and  rejected  by  the  emperor. 

In  October,  1524,  Luther  flung  off  the 
monastic  habit ;  which,  though  not  pre- 
meditated and  designed,  was  yet  a  very 
proper  preparative  to  a  step  he  took  the 
year  after :  we  mean  his  mairiage  with 
Catherine  de  Bore. 

His  marriage,  however,  did  not  retard 
his  activity  and  diligence  in  the  work  of 
reformation.  He  revised  the  Augs- 
burg confession  of  faith,  and  apology  for 
the  Protestants,  when  the  Protestant 
rehgion  was  first  established  on  a  firm 
basis.  See  Protestants  and  Refor- 
mation. 

After  this,  Luther  had  little  else  to  do 
than  to  sit  do\vn  and  contemplate  the 
mighty  work  he  had  finished ;  for  that 
a  single  monk  should  be  able  to  give 
the  church  so  rude  a  shock,  that  there 
needed  but  such  another  entirely  to 
overturn  it,  may  very  well  seem  a 
mighty  work.  He  did  indeed,  Mttle 
else;  for  the  remainder  of  his  hfe  was 
spent  in  exhorting  princes,  states,  and 
uni\ersities,  to  confirm  the  refoiTnation 
which  had  been  brought  about  through 
him  ;  and  pubhshing  from  time  to  time 
such  writings  as  might  encourage,  di- 


rect and  aid  them  in  doing  it.  The  em- 
peror threatened  temporal  punishment 
with  armies,  and  the  pope  eternal  with 
bulls  and  anathemas  ;  but  Luther  cared 
for  none  of  their  threats. 

In  the  year  1533,  Luther  wrote  a  con- 
solatory epistle  to  the  citizens  of  Os- 
chatz,  who  had  suffered  some  hard- 
ships for  adhering  to  the  Augsburg* 
confession  of  faith ;  in  which,  among 
other  things,  he  says,  "  The  de\'il  is  the 
host,  and  the  world  is  his  inn ;  so  that 
wherever  you  come,  you  will  be  sure  to 
find  this  ugly  host."  He  had  also  about 
this  time  a  terrible  controversy  with 
George  duke  of  Saxony,  who  had  such 
an  aversion  to  Luther's  doctrine,  that  he 
obliged  his  subjects  to  take  an  oath  that 
they  would  never  embrace  it.  How- 
ever, sixty  or  seventy  citizens  of  Leip- 
sic  were  found  to  have  deviated  a  little 
from  the  Cathohc  way  in  some  point  or 
other,  and  they  wereknown  previously 
to  have  consulted  Luther  about  it ;  upon 
which  George  complained  to  the  elec- 
tor John,  that  Luther  had  not  only 
abused  his  person,  but  also  preached 
up  rebellion  among  his  subjects.  The 
elector  ordered  Luther  to  be  acquainted 
with  this ;  and  to  be  told,  at  the  same 
time,  that  if  he  did  not  acquit  himself  of 
this  charge,  he  could  not  possibly  escape 
punishment.  But  Luther  easily  refuted 
the  accusation,  by  proving,  that  he  had 
been  so  far  from  stirring  up  his  subjects 
against  him  on  the  score  of  religion, 
that,  on  the  contrar}',  he  had  exhorted 
them  i-ather  to  undergo  the  greatest 
hardships,  and  even  suffer  themselves 
to  be  banished. 

In  the  year  1534,  the  Bible,  translated 
by  him  into  German,  was  first  printed, 
as  the  old  privilege,  dated  BibliopoUs, 
under  the  elector's  hand,  shows ;  and  it 
was  published  the  same  year.  He  also 
published  this  year  a  book  against  mass- 
es, and  the  consecration  of  priests,  in 
which  he  relates  a  conference  he  had 
\vith  the  devil  upon  those  points;  for  it 
is  remarkable  m  Luther's  whole  histoiy, 
that  he  never  had  any  conflicts  of  aiiy 
kind  within,  but  the  devil  was  always 
his  antagonist.  In  February,  1537,  an 
assembly  was  held  at  Smalkald  about 
matters  of  religion,  to  whicli  I^utlier  and 
Melancthon  were  called.  At  tliis  meet- 
ing Luther  was  seized  with  so  grievous 
an  illness,  that  there  were  no  hopes  of 
his  recovery.  He  was  afflicted  witii  the 
stone,  and  had  a  stoppage  of  urine  for 
eleven  days.  In  this  terrible  condition 
he  would  needs  undertake  to  travel, 
notwithstanding  all  that  his  friends  could 
say  or  do  to  prevent  him ;  his  lesoln- 
tidn,  however,   was   attended   witli   a 


LUT 


320 


LUT 


good  effect ;  for  the  night  after  his  de- 
parture he  began  to  be  better.  As  he 
was  carried  along  he  made  his  will,  in 
which  he  bec^ueathed  his  detestation  of 
poperv  to  his  friends  and  bretliren ; 
agreeably  to  what  he  used  to  say  :  Pestis 
tram  vivus,  moriens  ero  ?nors  tiia,  jia- 
fia  ;  that  is,  "  I  was  the  plague  of  po- 
pery in  my  life,  and  shall  contiiiue  to  be 
so  in  mv  death." 

This  'year  the  pope  and  the  court  of 
Rome,  hnding  it  impossible  to  deal  with 
the  Protestants  by  force,  began  to  liave 
recourse  to  stratagem.  They  affected, 
therefore,  to  think,  that  though  Luther 
had,  indeed,  carried  things  on  with  a 
high  hand,  and  to  a  violent  extreme, 
yet  what  he  had  pleaded  in  defence  of 
these  measures  was  not  entirely  with- 
out foundation.  They  talked  with  a 
seeming  sh*w  of  moderation ;  and  Pius 
III.  who  succeeded  Clement  VII.  pro- 
posed a  reformation  first  among  them- 
selves, and  even  went  so  far  as  to  fix  a 
place  for  a  council  to  meet  at  for  that 
pui-pose.  But  Lutlier  treated  this  farce 
as  it  deserved  to  be  treated  ;  unmasked 
and  detected  it  immediately ;  and,  to 
ridicule  it  the  more  strongly,  caused 
a  picture  to  be  drawn,  in  which  was  re- 
presented the  pope  seated  on  high  upon 
a  throne,  some  cardinals  about  him  with 
foxes'  tails  on,  and  seeming  to  evacuate 
upwai-ds  and  downwards,  (sursuni  de- 
orsuin  rejxureare,  as  Melchior  Adam 
expresses  it.)  This  was  fixed  over 
against  the  titlepage,  to  let  the  reader 
see  at  once  the  scope  and  design  of  the 
book ;  which  was  to  expose  that  cun- 
ning and  artifice  Avith  which  these  sub- 
tle politicians  affected  to  cleanse  and  pu- 
rifv  themselves  from  their  errors  and 
superstitions.  Luther  published,  about 
the  same  time,  a  confutation  of  the  pre- 
tended grant  of  Constantine  to  Sylves- 
ter, bishoj)  of  Rome ;  and  also  some 
letters  of  Jolm  Huss,  written  from  his 
prison  at  Constance  to  tlie  Bohemians. 
In  this  manner  was  Luther  employed 
till  his  death,  which  happened  in  the 
year  1.546. 

A  thousand  lies  were  invented  by  the 
Papists  about  Lutlier's  death.  Some 
said  that  he  died  suddenly ;  others,  that 
he  killed  himself;  others,  that  tlie  de- 
vil strangled  him  :  otiiers,  that  liis  corpse 
stunk  so  abominably,  that  they  were 
forced  to  leave  it  in  the  way,  as  it  was 
carried  to  be  interred.  Nay,  lies  were 
invented  about  his  death,  even  while  he 
was  yet  alive.  Luther,  however,  to  give 
the  most  effectual  i-efutation  of  this  ac- 
count of  his  death,  put  forth  an  adver- 
tisement of  his  being  ahve;  and,  to  be 
even  Vi-itli  tlie  Papists  for  the  malice 


they  had  shoAvn  in  this  lie,  wrote  a  book 
at  the  same  time  to  prove,  tliat  "the 
papacy  was  founded  by  the  devil." 

Lutheranism  has  undergone  some  al- 
terations since  tlie  time  of  its  fovmder. 
Luther  rejected  the  epistle  of  St.  Janies 
as  inconsistent  with  the  doctrine  of  St. 
Paul  in  relation  to  justification ;  he  also 
set  aside  the  Apocalypse ;  both  of  which 
are  now  received  as  canonical  in  the 
Lutheran  church. 

Luther  reduced  the  number  of  sacra- 
ments to  two,  viz.  baptism  and  the  eu- 
charist ;  but  he  believed  the  impanation, 
or  consubstantiation ;  that  is,  that  the 
matter  of  the  bread  and  wine  remain 
with  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ ;  and 
it  is  in  this  article  that  the  main  dif- 
ference between  the  Lutheran  and  the 
English  churches  consists. 

Luther  maintained  the  mass  to  be  no 
sacrifice :  exploded  the  adoration  of  the 
host,  auricular  confession,  meritorious 
works,  indulgences,  purgatory,  the  wor- 
ship of  images,  &c.  which  had  been  in- 
troduced in  the  corrupt  times  of  the 
Romish  church.  He  also  opposed  the 
doctrine  of  fi-ee  will,  maintained  predes- 
tination, and  asserted  our  justification 
to  be  solely  by  the  imjiutation  of  the 
merits  and  satisfaction  of  Christ.  He 
also  opposed  the  fastings  of  tlie  Romish 
church,  monastical  vows,  the  celibate  of 
the  clergy,  &c. 

The  Lutherans,  however,  of  all  Pro- 
testants, are  said  to  differ  least  from  the 
Romish  church  ;  as  they  affirm  that  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  materially 
present  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord  s 
supper,  though  in  an  incomprehensible 
manner;  and  likewise  to  represent  some 
religious  rites  and  institutions,  as  the  use 
of  images  in  churches,  the  distinguishing 
vestments  of  the  clergy,  the  private  con- 
fession of  sins,  the  use  of  wafers  in  the 
administration  of  the  Lord's  supper,  the 
form  of  exorcism  in  the  celebration  of 
baptism,  and  other  ceremonies  of  the 
like  nature,  as  tolerable,  and  some  of 
them  as  useful.  The  Lutherans  main- 
tain with  regard  to  the  divine  decrees, 
that  they  respect  the  salvation  or  mi- 
sery of  men,  m  consequence  of  a  pi"e- 
vioiis  knowledge  of  tlieir  sentiments  and 
characters,  and  not  as  free  and  uncon- 
tinual,  and  as  founded  on  the  mere  will 
of  God.  Towards  the  close  of  the  se- 
venteenth century,  the  Lutherans  be- 
gan to  entertain  a  greater  liberality  of 
sentiment  than  they  had  before  adopted ; 
though  in  many  places  they  persevered 
longer  in  severe  and  despotic  principles 
than  other  Protestant  churches.  Tiieir 
public  teachers  now  enjoy  an  unbounde.] 
liberty  of  dissenting  from  tfie  densii.ns 


MAC 


321 


MAC 


of  those  symbols  or  creeds  which  were 
once  deemed  ahnost  infallible  rules  of 
faith  and  practice,  and  of  declaring  their 
dissent  in  the  manner  they  judg;e  the 
most  expedient.  Mosheim  attributes 
this  change  in  their  sentiments  to  the 
iTiaxims  which  they  generall}-  adopted, 
that  Christians  were  accountable  to  God 
alone  for  their  religious  opinions;  and 
that  no  individual  could  be  justly  pun- 
ished by  the  magistrate  for  his  erro- 
neous opinions,  while  he  conducted  him- 
self like  a  virtuous  and  obedient  subject, 
and  made  no  attempts  to  disturb  the 
peace  and  order  of  civil  society.  In 
Sweden  the  Lutheran  church  is  epis- 
copal: in  Norway  the  same.  In  Den- 
mai'k, under  the  nameoi siiperhitendent, 
all  episcopal  authority  is  retained ; 
whilst  through  Germany  the  superior 
power  is  vested  in  a  consistory,  over 
which  there  is  a  president,  with  a  dis- 
tinction of  rank  and  privileges,  and  a 
subordination  of  inferior  clergy  to  their 
superiors,  different  from  the  parity  of 
Presbyterianism.  Mosheim^  s  Ecclfs, 
History  ;  Life  of  Luther :  Haivies's  Ch. 
Hist.  vol.  ii.  p.  454;  Lnc.  Brit.  Robert- 
so?i's  Hist,  of  Charles  V.  Vol.  ii.  p.  42 ; 
Luther  on  tJie  Galatians. 

LUXURY,  a  disposition  of  mind  ad- 
dicted to  pleasure,  not,  and  superfluities. 
Luxury  implies  a  giving  one's  self  up 
to  pleasure  ;  voluptuousness,  an  indul- 
gence in  the  same  to  excess.  Luxury 
may  be  farther  considered  as  consisting 
in  1.  Vain  and  useless  expenses. — 2.  In 
a  parade  beyond  what  people  can  afford. 
— 3.  In  affecting  to  be  above  our  own 
rank. — 4.  In  living  in  a  splendour  that 
does  not  agree  with  the  public  good.  In 
order  to  avoid  it,  we  should  consider 
that  it  is  ridiculous,  troublesome,  sinful, 
and  ruinous.  Robinson's  Claude,  vol.  i. 
p.  382;  Ferguson  qn  Society,  part.  vi. 
sec.  2. 

LYING,  speaking  falsehoods  wilfully, 
•with  an  intent  to  deceive.  Tlius,  by 
Grove,  "  A  lie  is  an  affirmation  or  de- 
nial by  words,  or  any  other  signs  tp 
which  a  certain  determinate  meaning  is 
affixed,  of  something  contrary  to  our 
real  thoughts  and  intentions."  Thus,  by 
Paley,  "a  lie  is  a  breach  of  promise; 


for  whoever  seriously  addresses  his  dis- 
course to  another,  tacitly  promises  to 
speak  the  truth,  because  he  knows  that 
the  truth  is  expected."  There  are  va- 
rious kinds  of  lies.  1.  The  pernicious  lie, 
uttered  for  the  hurt  or  disadvantage  of 
our  neighbour. — 2.  The  officious  lie, 
uttered  tor  our  own  or  our  neighbour's 
advantage. — 3.  The  ludicrous  and  jo- 
cose lie,  uttered  by  way  of  jest,  and  only 
for  mirth's  sake  in  common  converse. — 
4.  Pious  frauds  as  they  are  impi'operly 
called,  pretended  inspirations,  forged 
books,  counterfeit  miracles,  are  species 
of  ^ies. — 5.  Lies  of  the  coiiduct,  for  a  lie 
may  be  told  in  gestures  as  well  as  in 
words;  as  when  a  tradesman  shuts  up 
his  wmdows  to  induce  his  creditors  to 
believe  that  he  is  abroad. — 6.  Lies  of 
omission,  as  when  an  author  wilfully 
omits  what  ought  to  be  related :  and 
may  we  not  add, — 7.  That  all  equivoca- 
tion and  omental  reservation  come  nn- 
der  the  guilt  of  lying.  The  evil  and  in- 
justice of  lying  appear,  1.  From  its  be- 
ing a  breach  of  the  natural  tuid  univer- 
sal right  of  mankind  to  truth  in  the  in- 
tercourse of  speech. — 2.  From  its  being 
a  violation  of  God's  saci'ed  law,  Phil.  'v. 
8.  Lev.  xix.  11.  Col.  iii.  9.-3.  The  fa- 
culty of  speech  was  bestowed  as  an  in- 
strument of  knowledge,  not  of  deceit ; 
to  communicate  our  thoughts,  not  to 
hide  them. — 4.  It  is  esteemed  a  re- 
proach of  so  heinous  and  hateful  a  na- 
tui'e  for  a  man  to  be  called  a  liar,  that 
sometimes  the  life  and  blood  of  the  slan- 
derer have  paid  for  it. — 5.  It  has  a  ten- 
dency to  dissolve  all  society,  and  to  in- 
dispose the  mind  to  religious  impressions. 
— 6.  The  punishment  of  it  is  considera,7 
ble:  the  loss  of  credit,  the  hatred  of 
those  whom  we  have  deceived,  and  an 
eternal  separation  from  God  in  the 
\Vorld  to  come.  Rev.  xxi.  8.  Rev.  xxii. 
15.  Psalm  cis  7.  See  Equivocation. — 
Grove's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  i.  ch.  11 ;  Pa- 
ley's  Moral  Phil.  vol.  i.  ch.  15;  Dod^ 
dridge's  Led.  lect.  68 ;  Watts's  Scrm, 
vol.  i.  ser.  22;  Evans's  Serm.  vol.  ii. 
ser.  13;  South's  Serm.  vol.  i.  ser.  12; 
Dr.  Lamont's  Serm.  vol.  i.  ser.  11  and 
12. 


M. 


M ACARIANS,  the  followers  of  Ma- 
carius,  an  Egyptian  monk,  who  was 
distinguished  towards  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century  for  his  sanctity  and  vir- 


tue. In  his  writings  there  are  some 
superstitious  tenets,  and  also  cestain 
opmions  that  seem  tainted  with  Oi'igen- 
i  ism.    The  name  has  been  also  applied 


MAG 


322 


MAG 


to  those  who  adopted  the  sentiments  of 
Macarius,  a  native  of  L-eland,  wlio 
about  the  close  of  the  ninth  century, 
propagated  in  France  the  tenet  after- 
wards maintained  by  Averrhoes,  that 
one  individual  intelHgenct  or  soul  per- 
formed the  spiritual  and  rational  fimc^ 
tions  in  all  the  human  race. 

MACEDONIANS,  the  followers  of 
Macedonius,  bishop  of  Constantinople, 
who,  through  the  influence  of  the  Euno- 
micms,  was  deposed  by  the  council  of 
Constantinople  in  360,  and  sent  into 
exile.  He  considered  the  Holy  Ghost 
as  a  divine  energy  diftused  throughout 
the  uni\  erse,  and  not  as  a  person  dis- 
tinct from  the  Father  and  the  Son.  The 
sect  of  tlie  Macedonians  was  crushed 
before  it  had  amved  at  its  full  maturity, 
by  the  council  assembled  Ijy  Theodosius 
in  381,  at  Constantinople.    See  Sewi- 

ARIANS. 

MACHIAVELIAKISM,  the  doc- 
trine or  principles  of  Machiavel,  as  laid 
down  in  his  treatise  entitled  The  Prince, 
and  which  consists  in  doing  any  thing  to 
compass  a  design,  without  any  regaid  to 
the  peace  or  welfare  of  subjects,  the 
dictates  of  honesty  and  honour,  or  the 

Erccepts  of  religion.  This  work  has 
een  trjinslfited  into  many  languages, 
and  wrote  ag:(inst  by  many  authors, 
though  the  world  is  not  agreed  as  to  the 
motives  of  the  writer;  some  thinking 
he  meant  to  i-ecommend  tyrannical 
maxims  ;  others,  that  he  only  delineated 
them  to  excitP  abhorrence. 

MAGDALEN,  religious  of  St.  a  de- 
nomination ^Iven  to  divers  communities 
of  nuns,  consisting  generall)'  of  penitent 
courtezans;  sometimes  also  called  Mag- 
dulanettes.  Thev  were  established  at 
Mcntz  in  1542  ;  at  Paris  in  1492 ;  at  Na- 
ples in  1324;  at  Rouen  and  Bordeaux 
m  1618.  In  each  of  these  monasteries 
there  were  three  kinds  of  persons  and 
congregations ;  the  first  consisted  of 
those  who  were  admitted  to  make  vows, 
and  those  bear  the  name  of  St.  Magda- 
len ;  the  congregHticm  of  St.  Martha 
was  the  second,  und  was  composed  of 
those  whom  it  was  not  thought  proper 
to  admit  to  vows  finally  ;  the  congrega- 
tion of  St.  Lazanis  was  composed  of 
such  as  wore  detained  by  force.  The 
religious  of  St.  Magdalen  at  Rome  were 
e.-^tablished  by  Po])e  Leo  X.  Clement 
VIII.  settled  a  revenue  on  them;  and 
further  a])poirlted,  that  the  effects  of  all 
public  prostitutes  dying  intestate  should 
fall  to  them ;  and  that  the  testaments  of 
tlie  rest  should  be  invalid,  unless  they 
bequeathed  a  portion  of  their  effects, 
which  was  to  be  at  least  a  fifth  part  of 
them. 


MAGI,  or  Magians,  an  ancient  re- 
ligious sect  of  Persia  and  other  eastera 
countries;  who,  abominating  the  adora- 
tion of  images,  worshipped  God  only  by 
fire,  in  which  they  were  directly  oppo- 
site to  the  Sabians.  See  Sabians.  The 
Magi  belie\'ed  that  there  were  two 
principles,  one  the  cause  of  all  good, 
and  the  otlier  the  cause  of  all  evu ;  in 
which  opinion  they  were  followed  by 
the  sect  of  the  Maiiichees.  See  Mani- 
CHEEs.  They  called  the  good  princi- 
ple Jazden,  and  Ormuzd,  and  the  evil 
^r\nc\\Ae  Ahrainan  or  Ah er num.  The 
former  was  by  the  Greeks  called  Oro- 
niasdf's,  and  the  latter  Arimanius.  The 
reason  of  their  worshipping  Jire  was, 
because  they  looked  upon  it  as  the  tru- 
est symbol  of  Oromasdes,  or  the  good 
god ;  as  darkness  was  of  Arimaniiis,  or 
the  evi!  god.  In  all  their  temples  they 
had  fire  continually  burning  upon  their 
altars,  and  in  their  own  private  houses. 
The  religion  of  the  Magi  fell  into  dis- 
grace on  the  death  of  those  ringleaders 
of  that  sect  who  had  usurped  the  sove- 
reignty after  the  death  of  Cambyses; 
and  the  slaughter  that  was  made  of  the 
chief  men  among  them  sunk  it  so  low, 
that  Sabianisni  every  where  prevailed 
against  it ;  Darius  and  most  of  his  fol- 
lowers on  that  occasion  going  over  to  it. 
But  the  affection  v/hich  the  people  had 
for  tlie  religion  of  their  forefathers  not 
being  easily  to  be  rooted  out,  the  fa- 
mous impostor  Zoi'oaster,  some  ages 
after,  undertook  to  revive  and  reform 
it. 

The  chief  reformation  this  pretended 
prophet  made  in  the  Magian  religion 
vvas  in  the  first  principle  of  it ;  for  he 
introduced  a  god  superior  both  to  Oro- 
masdes and  Arimanius.  Dr.  Prideaux 
is  of  opinion  that  Zoroaster  took  the 
hint  of  this  alteration  in  their  theology 
from  the  prophet  Isaiah,  who  brings  m 
God,  saying  to  Cynis  king  of  Persia,  / 
am  the  Lord,  and  there  is  Jione  else:  I 
form  the  light,  and  create  darkness  ;  I 
make  peace  and  create  er'il,  ch.  xlv.  7. 
In  short,  Zoroaster  held  that  thefe  was 
one  su])reme  independent  Being,  and 
under  him  two  principles,  or  angels; 
one  the  angel  of  light  or  good,  and  the 
other  the  angel  of  evil  or  •  darkness ; 
that  there  is  a  perpetual  struggle  be- 
tween them,  which  shall  last  to  the  end 
of  the  world ;  that  then  the  iuigel  of 
darkness  and  his  disciples  shall  go  into 
a  woi'ld  of  their  own,  where  they  shall 
be  punished  in  everlasting  darkness; 
and  the  angel  of  light  and  his  disciples 
shall  also  go  into  a  world  of  their  own, 
where  they  shall  be  rewarded  in  ever- 
lasting fight. 


MAG 


323 


MAH 


Zoroaster  was  the  first  who  hniltjire- 
tem/iles  ;  the  Magians  before  his  time 
pei-formmg  their  devotion  on  the  tops 
of  hills  and  in  the  open  air,  bj^  which 
means  they  were  exposed  to  the  incon- 
venience of  rain  and  tempests,  which 
often  extinguished  their  sacred  fires. 
To  procure  tjje  greater  veneration  for 
these  sacred  fires,  he  pretended  to  have 
received  fire  from  heaven,  which  he 
placed  on  the  altar  of  the  first  fire-tem- 
ple he  erected,  which  was  that  of  Xis, 
m  Media,  from  whence  they  say  it  was 
propagated  to  all  the  rest.  The  Ma- 
giau  priests  kept  their  sacred  fire  with 
the  gr-eatest  diligence,  watching  it  day 
and  night,  and  ne\  er  suftering  it  to  be 
extinguished.  They  fed  it  only  with 
wood  stript  of  the  bark,  and  they  never 
blowed  it  with  their  breath  or  with  bel- 
lows, for  fear  of  poliutmg  it ;  to  do  ei- 
ther of  these  Avas  death  by  their  law. 
The  Magian  religion  as  reformed  b}- 
Zoroaster,  seems  in  many  things  to  be 
buUt  upon  the  plan  of  the  Jewish.  The 
Jews  had  their  sacred  fire  which  came 
down  fi-om  heaven  upon  the  altar  of 
burnt  offerings,  which  thev  never  suf- 
fered to  go  out,  and  with  which  aU  their 
sacrifices  and  oblations  were  made.  Zo- 
roaster, in  hke  manner,  pretended  to 
have  brought  his  holy  fire  from  heaven ; 
and  as  the  Jews  had  a  Shekinah  of  the 
diAine  presence  among  them,  resting 
over  the  mercy  seat  in  the  Holy  of  Ho 
lies,  Zoroaster  likewise  told  his  Ma- 
gians to  look  upon  the  sacred  fire  in 
their  temples  as  a  Shekinah,  in  which 
God  especially  dwelt. — From  these  and 
some  other  instances  of  analogy  between 
the  Jewish  and  the  Magian  religion, 
Prideaux  infers  that  Zoroaster  had  been 
first  educated  and  brought  up  in  the 
Jewish  religion. 

The  priests  of  the  Magi  were  the 
most  skilful  mathematicians  and  philo- 
sophers of  the  age  m  Avhich  they  lived, 
insomuch  that  a  learned  man  and  a 
Magian  became  equivalent  terms.  This 
proceeded  so  far,  tnat  the  vulgar,  look- 
mg  on  their  knowledge  to  be  more  than 
natural,  imagined  they  wei'e  inspired  by 
some  supernatural  power.  And  hence 
those  who  practised  wicked  and  diabo- 
lical aits,  taking  upon  themselves  the 
name  of  Magians,  drew  on  it  that  ill  sig- 
nification which  the  word  Magician  now 
bears  among  us. 

The  Magian  piiests  were  all  of  one 
tribe ;  as  among  the  Jews,  none  but  the 
son  of  a  priest  was  capable  of  bearing 
that  office  among  them.  The  royal  fa- 
mily among  the  Persians,  as  long  as  this 
sect  subsisted,  was  always  of  the  sacer- 
dotal tribe.    They  were  divided  into 


three  orders ;  the  inferior  clerg}',  the 
supeiintendents,  or  bibliops,  and  the 
archimagus,  or  arch-priest. 

Zoroaster  liad  the  addiess  to  bring 
over  Darius  to  his  new-refcnncd  reli- 
gion, notwithstanding  the  strongest  op- 
pcsiticn  of  the  Sabians ;  and  from  that 
time  it  became  the  national  religion  of 
all  that  country,  and  so  continued  for 
many  ages  after,  till  it  was  supplanted 
b)'  tlhat  of  Mahomet.  Zoroaster  com- 
posed a  book  containing  the  principles 
of  the  Magian  religion.  It  is  called 
Zenda-vcsta,  and  by  conti'action  Zend. 
See  Zend. 

MAGIC,  a  science  which  teaches  to 
produce  sui-prising  and  extraordinary 
efiects  ;  a  correspondence  with  bad  spi- 
rits, by  means  oiwhich  a  person  is  able 
to  perform  sui-prising  thmgs.  This  was 
strictly  forbidden  by  the  law  of  God,  on 
pain  of  death.  Lev.  xix.  31. 

MAGISTER  DISCIPLINiE,  or 
Mastkr  of  Discipline,  the  appella- 
tion of  a  certain  ecclesiastical  officer  in 
the  ancient  Christian  church.  It  was  a 
custom  in  some  places,  particularly  in 
Spain,  in  the  time  of  the  Gothic  kings, 
about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  ?ot 
parents  to  dedicate  their  children 'very 
young  to  the  service  r f  the  chuich.  For 
this  purpose  they  were  taken  into  the 
bishop's  family,  and  educated  under 
him  by  some  grave  and  discreet  person 
whom  the  bishop  deputed  for  tha«-  pur- 
pose, and  set  over  them,  by  the  name  of 
Fresbyter  or  Magister  DiscxplindS.t 
whose  chief  business  it  was  to  inspect 
their  behaA'iour,  and  inst'tict  them  in 
the  miles  and  discipline  of  the  church. 

MAGNANIMITY,  gi-eatness  of  soul; 
a  disposition  of  mind  exerted  in  con- 
temning dangers  and  difficulties,  m 
scorning  temptations,  and  despising 
earthly  pomp  and  splendour.  Cic.  de 
offic.  lee.  i.  ch.  20;  Gro-ve's  Moral  Phil. 
p.  268,  vol.  ii.  See  articles  Courage, 
Fortitude,  in  this  work ;  Steel's 
Christian  Hero  ;  Watts  on  Self- Murder. 

MAHOMET ANISM,  the  system  of 
religion  formed  and  propagated  by  Ma- 
homet, and  stUl  adhered  to  by  his  fol- 
lowers. It  is  professed  by  the  Turks 
and  Persians,  by  several  nations  among 
the  Africans,  and  many  among  the  East 
Indians. 

Mahomet  was  bom  in  the  reign  of 
Anushirwan  the  Just,  emperor  of  Per- 
sia, about  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  He  came  into  the 
world  under  some  disadvantages.  His 
father  Abd'allah  was  a  younger  son  of 
Abd'almotalleb ,  and  dying  very  youn^, 
and  in  his  father's  life-time,  left  his  wi- 
dow and  an  uifant  son  in  veiy  mean  cir- 


MAH 


324 


MAH 


cum  stances,  his  whole  subsistence  con- 
sisting but  of  five  camels  and  one  Ethio- 
pian she  slave.  Abd'almotalleb  was 
therefore  obliged  to  take  care  of  his 
grandchild  Mahomet;  which  he  not 
only  did  during  his  life,  but  at  his  death 
enjoined  his  eldest  son  Abu  Taleb,  who 
was  brother  to  Abd'allah  by  the  same 
mother,  to  provide  for  him  for  tlie  fu- 
ture ;  which  he  \'ei-y  affectionately  did, 
and  instructed  him  in  the  business  of  a 
merchant,  which  he  followed ;  and  to 
that  end  he  took  him  into  Syria,  when 
he  was  but  thirteen.  He  afterwards 
I'ecommended  him  to  Khadijah,  a  noble 
and  I'ich  widow,  for  her  factor ;  in  whose 
service  he  behaved  himself  so  well,  that 
by  making  him  her  husband,  she  soon 
raised  him  to  an  equality  with  the  richest 
in  Mecca.  " 

After  he  began  by  this  advantageous 
match  to  live  at  his  ease,  it  was,  that  he 
formed  the  scheme  of  establishing  a  new 
religion,  or,  as  he  expressed  it,  of  re- 
planting the  only  tiiie  and  ancient  one 
professed  by  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham, 
Moses,  Jesus,  and  all  the  prophets,  by 
destroying  the  gross  idolatiy  into  which 
the  generality  of  his  countrymen  had 
fallen,  and  weeding  out  the  corruptions 
and  superstitions  which  the  latter  Jews 
and  Christians  had,  as  he  thought,  in- 
troduced into  their  religion,  and  re- 
ducing it  to  its  original  purity,  whicli 
consisted  chiefly  in  the  worship  of  one 
God. 

Before  he  made  any  attempt  abroad, 
he  rightly  judged  that  it  was  necessary 
for  him  to  begin  with  the  conversion  of 
his  own  household.  Having,  therefore, 
retired  with  his  family,  as  he  had  done 
several  times  before,  to  a  cave  in  mount 
Hiira,  he  there  opened  the  secret  of  his 
mission  to  his  wife  Khadijah ;  and  ac- 
quainted her,  that  the  angel  Gabriel 
Had  just  before  appeared  to  him,  and 
told  him  that  he  was  appointed  tlie 
apostle  of  God ;  he  also  repeated  to  her 
a  passage  which  he  pretended  had  been 
revealed  to  him  by  the  ministry  of  the 
angel,  with  those  other  circumstances 
of  this  first  ajTpearance  which  are  rela- 
ted by  the  Mahometan  writers.  Kha- 
dijah received  the  news  with  great  joy, 
swearing  by  Him  in  whose  h;inds  her 
soul  was,  that  she  trusted  he  wimld  be 
the  propliet  of  his  nation ;  and  imme- 
diately communicated  what  she  hud 
hfMrd  to  her  cousin  Warak  di  Ebn 
Nawfal,  who,  being  i  Christian,  could 
write  in  the  Hebrew  character,  and  was 
tolerably  well  versed  in  ti\e  Scriptures  ; 
and  he  readily  came  into  her  opinion, 
assuring  her  that  ihe  same  angel  who 
had  formerly  appeared  unto  Moses  was  | 


now  sent  to  Mahomet.  The  first  over- 
ture  the  prophet  made  was  in  the  month 
of  Ramadan,  in  the  fortieth  year  of  his 
age,  which  is  tlierefore  usually  called 
the  year  of  his  mission. 

Encouraged  by  so  good  a  beginning, 
he  resolved  to  proceed,  and  try  for  some 
time  what  he  could  do  by  private  per- 
suasion, not  daring  to  hazard  the  whole 
affair  by  exposing  it  too  suddenly  to  the 
public.  He  soon  made  proselytes  of 
those  under  his  own  roof,  viz.  his  wife 
Khadijah,  his  servant  Zeid  Ebn  Hare- 
tha,  to  whom  he  gave  his  freedom  on 
that  occasion  (whicli  afterwards  became 
a  rule  to  his  followers,)  and  his  cousin 
and  pupil  Ali,  the  son  of  Abu  Taleb, 
though  then  very  young:  but  this  last, 
making  no  account  of  the  other  two, 
used  to  style  himself  the  first  of  be- 
lievers. The  next  person  Mahomet  ap- 
plied to  was  Abd'allah  Ebn  Abi  Kohafa, 
surnamed  Abu  Beer,  a  man  of  great 
authority  among  the  Koreish,  and  one 
whose  interest  he  Avell  knew  would  be 
of  great  service  to  him  ;  as  it  soon  ap- 
peared; for  Abu  Beer,  being  gained 
over,  prevailed  also  on  Othman  Ebn 
Affan,  Abd'alraham  Ebn  Awf,  Saad 
Ebn  Abbi  Wakkus,  At  Zobeir  al  Awam, 
and  Telha  Ebn  Obeid'allah,  all  princi- 
pal men  of  Mecca,  to  follow  his  exam- 
ple. These  men  were  six  chief  com- 
panions, who,  with  a  few  more,  were 
converted  in  the  space  of  three  years : 
at  the  end  of  which  Mahomet  having 
as  he  hoped,  a  sufficient  interest  to  sup- 
port him,  made  his  mission  no  longer  a 
secret,  but  gave  out  that  God  had  com- 
manded him  to  adn\onish  his  near  rela- 
tions ;  Lmd  in  order  to  do  it  with  more 
convenience  and  prospect  of  success,  he 
directed  Ali  to  prepare  an  entertain- 
ment and  invited  the  sons  and  descen- 
dants of  Abd'almotalleb,  intending  then 
to  open  his  mind  to  them. — This  was 
done,  and  about  forty  of  them  came ; 
but  Abu  Lalieb,  one  of  his  uncles,  ma- 
king the  company  break  up  before  Ma- 
homet had  an  opportunity  of  speaking, 
obliged  him  to  give  them  a  second  in- 
vitation the  next  day ;  and  when  they 
were  come,  he  madethem  the  following 
speech :  "  I  know  no  man  in  all  Ai'a- 
tjia  who  can  offer  his  kindred  a  more , 
excllent  thing  than  I  now  do  to  you  ;  I 
offer  you  happiness  both  in  this  life,  and 
in  that  whicli  is  to  come:  God  Almighty 
hath  commanded  me  to  call  you  unto 
him.  Wlio,  therefore,  among  you  will 
be  assistant  to  me  herein,  and  become 
my  broth'.-r  and inv  vicegerent?"  All  of 
them  hesitating  and  declining  the  mat- 
ter, Ali  at  length  rose  up,  anil  declared 
that  he  would  be  his  assistant,  and  ve- 


MAH 


325 


MAH 


hemently  threatened  those  who  should 
oppose  him.  Mahomet  upon  this  em- 
braced Ah  with  great  demonstrations  of 
affection,  and  desired  all  who  were  pre- 
sent to  hearken  to  and  obey  him  as  his 
de])ut\';  at  which  the  company  broke 
out  into  a  great  laughter,  telling  Abu 
Taleb  that  he  must  now  pay  obedience 
to  his  son. 

This  T-epulse,  however,  was  so  far 
from  discouraging  Mahomet,  that  he 
began  to  preach  in  public  to  the  people, 
who  heard  him  with  some  patience,  till 
he  came  to  upbraid  them  with  the  ido- 
latry, obstinacy,  and  perversencss  of 
themselves  and  their  fathers;  which  so 
highly  provoked  them,  thiit  they  de- 
clared themselves  his  enemies;  and 
would  soon  ha\^e  procured  his  raiu,  had 
he  not  been  protected  by  Abu  Talcb. 
The  chief  of  the  Korejsh  warmly  soli- 
cited this  person  to  desert  Irs  nephew, 
making  frequent  remonstrances  agamst 
the  innovations  he  was  attempting : 
which  pro\iug  ineffectual,  .  they  at 
length  threatened  him  with  an  open 
rupture  if  he  did  not  prevail  on  Maho- 
met to  desist.  At  this  Abu  Taleb  was  so 
far  moved,  that  he  earnestly  dissuaded 
his  nephew  from  pursuhig  the  affair  any 
farthei',  representing  the  great  danger 
that  he  and  his  friends  must  otherwise 
i-un.  But  Mahomet  was  not  to  be  in- 
timidated ;  telling  his  uncle  plainly,  that 
if  they  set  the  sun  affain&t  hhn  otv  his 
right  hand,  and  the  moon  on  his  left,  he 
would  7iot  leave  his  entcrfirise:  and 
Abu  Taleb,  seeing  him  so  fa-mly  re- 
sohed  to  proceed,  used  no  farther  ar- 
guments, but  promised  to  stand  by  him 
against  all  his  enemies. 

The  Koreish,  finding  they  could  pre- 
vail neither  by  fair  words  nor  menaces, 
tried  what  they  could  do  by  force  and 
ill  treatment ;  using  Mahomet's  follow- 
ers so  very  injuriously,  that  it  was  not 
safe  for  them  to  continue  at  Mecca  any 
longer ;  whereupon  Mahomet  gave  lea\e 
to  such  of  them  as  had  no  friends  to 
protect  them  to  seek  for  refuge  else- 
where. And  accoixlingly,  in  the  fifth 
year  of  the  prophet's  mission,  sixteen 
of  them,  four  of  whom  were  women, 
fled  into  Ethiopia;  and  among  them 
Othman  Ebn  Affan,  and  his  wife  Ra- 
kiah,  Mahomet's  daughter.  Tins  was 
the  first  flight ;  but  afterwards  several 
others  followed  them,  retiring,  one  af- 
ter another,  to  the  number  of  eightv- 
three  men,  and  eighteen  womeir,  be- 
sides chikh'cn.  These  refugees  were 
kindly  received  by  the  Najashi,  or  king 
of  Ethiopia,  who  refused  to  deliver 
them  up  to -those  v/hom  the  Koreish 
*cnt  to  demand  them,  and,  as  the  Arab 


v/riters  unanimously  attest,  even  pro- 
fessed the  Mahometan  religion. 

In  the  sixth  year  of  his  mission,  Ma- 
homet had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  his 
party  strengthened  by  the  conversion  of 
his  uncle  Hamza,  a  man  of  great  valour 
and  merit ;  and  of  Omar  Ebn  al  Kattab, 
H  person  highly  esteemed,  and  once  a 
violent  opposer  of  the  prophet.  As  per- 
secution generally  advances  rather  than 
oljsti-ucts  the  spreading  of  a  religion, 
Islamisra  m.ade  so  great  a  progress 
among  the  Arab  tribes,  that  the  Koreish, 
to  suppress  it  effectually  if  possible,  in 
the  se\'enth  year  of  Mahomet's  mis- 
sion, made  a  solemn  league  or  covenant 
against  the  Hashemites,  and  the  family 
ol  Abd'alm.otalleb,  engaging  themselves 
to  contract  no  marriages  with  any  of 
them,  and  to  have  no  communication 
with  them ;  and  to  give  it  the  greater 
sanction,  reduced  it  into  writing,  and 
laid  it  up  in  the  Caaba.  Upon  this  the 
tribe  became  di^  ided  into  two  factions ; 
arid  the  family  of  Hasham  all  repaired 
to  Abii  I'aleb,  as  their  head ;  except 
only  Abd'al  Uzza,  sumamed  Abii,  La- 
heb,  who,  out  of  inveterate  hatred  to 
his  nephew  and  his  doctrine,  went  over 
to  the  opposite  party,  whose  chief  was 
Abu  Sosiun  Ebn  Harb,  of  the  family  of 
Ommcya. 

The  families  continued  thus  at  va- 
riance for  three  years ;  but  in  the  tenth 
year  of  his  mission,  Mahomet  told  his 
uncle  Abu  Taleb,  that  God  had  mani- 
festly showed  his  disapprobation  of  the 
league  which  the  Koreish  had  made 
against  them  by  sending  a  worm  to  eat 
out  exery  word  of  the  instrument  except 
the  name  of  God.  Of  this  accident 
Mahomet  had  probably  some  private 
notice ;  for  Abu  Taleb  went  immediately 
to  the  Koi-eish,  and  acquainted  them 
with  it ;  offering,  if  it  proved  false,  to 
deliver  his  nephew  up  to  them  ;  but,  in 
case  it  were  time,  he  insisted  that  they 
ought  to  lay  aside  their  animosity,  and 
annul  the  league  they  had  made  against 
the  Hashemites.  To  this  they  acqui- 
esced ;  and,  going  to  inspect  the  wi-iting, 
to  their  great  astonishment  found  it  to 
be  as  Abu  Taleb  had  said ;  and  the 
league  was  thereupon  declared  void. 

In  the  same  year  Abu  Taleb  died  at 
the  age  of  above  fourscore  ;  and  it  is  the 
general  opinion  that  he  died  an  infidel ; 
though  others  sa}^,  that  vvhen  he  was  at 
the  point  of  death  he  embraced  Maho- 
metanism,  and  produce  some  passages 
out  of  his  poetical  compositions  to  con- 
lii-m  their  assertion.  Aljout  a  month, 
or,  as  some  write,  three  days  after  the 
death  of  this  great  benefactor  and  pa- 
tron, Mahomet  had  the  additional  mor- 


MAH 


326 


MAH 


titication  to  lose  his  wife  Khadijah,  who 
had  so  generously  made  his  fortune,  ^or 
which  reason  this  year  is  called  the 
year  of  mourning: 

On  "the  death  of  these  two  persons, 
the  Koreish  began  to  be  moi-e  trouble- 
some than  ever  to  their  prophet,  and 
especially  some  who  had  formerly  been 
his  intimate  friends ;  insomuch  that  he 
found  himself  obliged  to  seek  for  shelter 
elsewhere,  and  first  pitched  upon  Tayef, 
about  sixty  miles  east  from  Mecca,  for 
the  place  of  his  retreat.  Thither,  there- 
fore, he  went,  accompanied  by  his  ser- 
vant Zeid,  and  applied  himself  to  two 
of  the  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Thakif,  who 
were  the  inhabitants  of  that  place ;  but 
they  received  him  very  coldly.  How- 
ever, he  staid  there  a  rnonth ;  and  some 
of  the  more  considerate  and  better  sort 
of  men  treated  him  with  little  I'espect ; 
but  the  slaves  and  inferior  people  at 
length  rose  against  him  ;  and  bringing 
him  to  the  wall  of  the  city,  obliged  him 
to  depait,  and  return  to  Mecca,  while 
he  put  himself  under  the  protection  of 
Al  Motaam  Ebn  Adi. 

This  repulse  greatly  discouraged  his 
followers.  However,  Mahomet  was  not 
wanting  to  himself;  but  boldly  continu- 
ed to  preach  to  the  public  assemblies  at 
the  pilgrimage,  and  gained  several  pro- 
selytes ;  and  among  them  six  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Yathreb,  of  the  Jewish  tribe 
of  Khazraj ;  who,  on  their  return  home, 
failed  not  to  speak  much  in  recommen- 
dation of  their  new  religion,  and  exhort- 
ed their  fellow-citizens  to  embrace  the 
same. 

In  the  twelfth  year  of  his  mission  it 
was  that  Mahomet  gave  out  that  he  had 
made  his  night  journey  from  Mecca  to 
Jerusalem,  and  thence  to  heaven,  so 
much  spoken  of  by  all  that  write  of  him. 
Dr.  Prideaux  thinks  he  invented  it  either 
to  answer  the  expectations  of  those  who 
demanded  some  miracles  as  a  proof  of 
his  mission;  or  else,  by  pretending  to 
have  conversed  with  God,  to  establish 
the  authority  of  whatever  he  should 
think  fit  to  leave  behind  by  way  of  oral 
tradition,  and  make  his  sayings  to  serve 
the  same  pui-pose  as  the  oral  law  of  the 
Jews.  But  it  does  not  appear  that  Ma- 
homet himself  ever  expected  so  great 
a  regard  should  be  paid  to  his  sayings 
as  his  followers  have  since  done;  and, 
seeing  he  all  along  disclaimed  ;my  pow- 
er of  performing  miracles,  it  seems  ra- 
ther to  have  been  a  fctch  of  policy  to 
raise  his  reputation,  by  pretending  to 
ha\e  actually  conversed  with  God  in 
heaven,  as  Moses  had  heretofore  done 
in  the  Mount,  and  to  have  received  seve- 
ral institutions  immediately  from  him, 


whereas,  before,  he  contented  lilmself 
with  persua'ling  them  that  he  had  all 
by  the  ministry  of  Gabriel. 

However,  ihis  story  seemed  so  absurd 
and  incredible,  thiit'  several  of  his  fol- 
lowers left  him  upon  it ;  and  had  proba- 
bly ruined  the  whole  design,  had  not 
Abu  Beer  vouched  for  his  veracity,  and 
declared,  that,  if  Mahomet  affirmed  it 
to  be  true,  he  verily  believed  the  whole. 
Which  happy  incident  not  only  retriev- 
ed the  prophet!s  credit,  but  increased  it 
to  such  a  degree,  that  he  was  secure  of 
being  able  to  maie  his  disciples  swallow 
whatever  he  pleased  to  impose  on  them  • 
for  the  futui'e.  And  this  fiction,  notwith- 
standing its  extravagance,  was  one  of 
the  most  artful  contrivances  Mahomet 
ever  put  in  practice,  and  what  chiefly 
contributed  to  the  raising  of  his  reputa- 
tion to  that  great  height  to  which  it  af- 
terwards an'ived. 

In  this  year,  called  by  the  Mahome- 
tans the  accepted  year,  twelve  men  of 
Yathreb  or  Medina,  of  whom  ten  were 
of  the  tribe  of  Khazraj,  and  the  other 
two  of  that  of  the  Aws,  came  to  Mecca, 
and  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  Mahomet 
at  Al  Akaba,  a  hill  on  the  north  of  that 
city.  This  oath  was  called  the  wo- 
mdn''s  oath ;  not  that  any  women  were 
present  at  this  time,  but  because  a  man 
was  not  thereby  obliged  to  take  up  arms 
in  defence  of  Mahomet  or  his  religion; 
it  being  the  same  oath  that  was  after- 
wards exacted  of  1:he  wom^n,  the  form 
of  which  we  have  in  the  Koran,  and  is 
to  this  effect,  viz.  That  they  should 
renounce  all  idolatry ;  and  that  they 
should  not  steal,  nor  commit  fornication, 
nor  kill  their  children  (as  the  pagan 
Arabs  used  to  do  when  they  apprehend- 
ed they  should  not  be  able  to  maintain 
them,)  nor  forge  calumnies;  and  that 
they  should  obey  the  prophet  in  all 
things  that  were  reasonable.  \\Tien  they 
had  solemnly  engaged  to  all  this,  Ma- 
homet sent  one  of  his  disciples  named 
Masab  Ebn  Omair  home  with  them,  to 
insti-uct  them  more  fully  in  the  grounds 
and  ceremonies  of  his  new  religion. 

Masab,  being  arrived  at  Medina,  by 
the  assistance  of  those  who  had  been 
formerly  converted,  gained  several  pro- 
selytes, particularly  used  Ebn  Hodeira, 
a  chief  man  of  the  city,  and  Saad  Ebn 
Moadh,  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Aws;  Ma- 
hometanisni  spreading  so  fast,  that  there 
was  scarce  a  house  Avherein  there  were 
not  some  who  had  embraced  it. 

The  next  year,  being  the  thirteenth 
of  Mahomet's  mission,  Masab  returned 
to  Mecca,  accompanied  by  seventy- 
three  men  and  two  women  of  Medina 
who  had  professed  Islamism,  besides 


MAH 


327 


MAH 


80Tne  others  wlio  wei-e  as  yet  unbeliev- 
ers. On  their  arrival  they  immediately 
sent  to  M;i.:iomet  and  offered  him  their 
assistance,  of  which  he  was  now  in  great 
need ;  for  his  adversaries  were  by  this  | 
time  s;rown  so  powerful  in  Mecca,  that 
he  could  not  stay  there  much  longer 
without  imminent  danger.  Wherefore 
he  accepted  their  proposal,  and  met 
them  one  night,  by  appointment,  at  Al 
Akaba  above -mentioned,  attended  by  his 
tincle  Al  Abbas;  who,  though  he  was 
not  then  a  believer,  wished  his  nephew 
•well,  and  made  a  speech  to  those  of 
Medina ;  wherein  he  told  them,  that,  as 
Mahomet  was  obliged  to  quit  his  native 
city,  and  seek  an  asylum  elsewhere, 
and  they  had  offered  him  their  protec- 
tion, they  would  do  well  not  to  deceive 
him  :  that  if  they  were  not  firmly  resolv- 
ed to  defend,  and  not  betray  him,  they 
had  better  declare  their  minds,  and  let 
him  provide  for  his  safety  in  some  other 
manner.  Upon  their  protesting  their 
sincerity,  Mahomet  swore  to  be  faithful 
to  them,  on  condition  that  they  should 

f>rotect  him  against  all  insults  as  heaiti- 
y  as  they  would  their  own  wives  and 
families.  They  then  asked  him,  wliat 
recompence  they  were  to  expect,  if  they 
should  happen  to  be  killed  ni  his  quar- 
rel ?  he  answered,  Paradise.  AVhere- 
upon  they  pledged  their  faith  to  him, 
and  so  returned  home,  after  Mahomet 
had  chosen  twelve  out  of  their  number, 
who  were  to  have  the  same  authority 
among  them  as  the  twelve  apostles  of 
Christ  had  among  his  disciples. 

Hitherto  Mahomet  had  propagated 
his  religion  by  fair  means ;  so  that  the 
■whole  success  of  his  enterprise,  before 
his  flight  to  Medina,  must  be  attributed 
to  persuasion  only,  and  not  to  compul- 
sion. For  befare  this  second  oath  of 
fealty  or  inauguration  at  Al  Akaba,  he 
had  no  permission  to  use  any  force  at 
all ;  and  in  several  places  of  the  Koran, 
which  he  pretended  were  revealed  dur- 
ing his  stay  at  Mecca,  he  declares  his 
business  was  only  to  preach  and  admon- 
ish ;  that  he  had  no  authority  to  com- 
pel any  person  to  embrace  his'  religion ; 
and  that,  whether  people  believe  or  not, 
was  none  of  his  concern,  but  belonged 
solely  unto  God.  And  he  was  so  far 
from  allowing  his  followers  to  use  force, 
that  he  exhorted  them  to  bear  patiently 
those  injuries  which  were  offered  them 
on  account  of  their  faith ;  and,  when 
persecuted  himself,  chose  rather  to  quit 
the  place  of  his  birth,  and  retire  to  Me- 
dina, than  to  make  any  resistance.  But 
this  great  passiveness  and  moderation 
seem  entirely  owing  to  his  want  of  pow- 
er, and  the  great  superiority  of  his  op- 


posers,  for  the  first  twelve  years  of  his 
mission  ;  for  no  sooner  was  he  enabled, 
by  the  assistance  of  those  of  Medina,  to 
make  head  against  his  enennies,  than  he 
gave  out,  that  God  had  allowed  him 
and'his  followers  to  defend  themselves 
against  the  infidels:  and  at  length,  as 
his  forces  increased,  he  pretended  to 
have  the  divine  leave  even  to  attack 
them,  and  destroy  idolatry,  and  set  up 
the  tiiie  faith  by  the  sword;  finding, 
by  experience,  that  his  designs  would 
otherwise  proceed  very  slowly,  if  they 
were  not  utterly  overthrown ;  and  know- 
ing, on  the  other  hand,  that  innovators, 
when  they  depend  solely  on  their  own 
strength,  and  can  compel,  seldom  nm 
auA'  risk ;  from  whence,  says  Machiavel, 
it  follows,  that  all  the  armed  prophets 
have  succeeded,  and  the  unarmed  ones 
have  failed.  Moses,  Cyrus,  Theseus, 
and  Romulus,  would  not  have  been  able 
to  establish  the  observance  of  their  in- 
stitutions for  any  length  of  time,  had 
they  not  been  armed.  The  first  pas- 
sage of  the  Koran  which  gave  ^laho- 
met  the  permission  of  defending  him- 
self by  arms  is  said  to  have  been  that  in 
the  twenty-second  chapter ;  after  which, 
a  great  number  to  the  same  purpose 
were  revealed. 

Mahomet  having  pro\-ided  for  the 
security  of  his  companions,  as  well  as 
his  own,  by  the  league  offensive  and 
defensive  which  he  had  now  concluded 
with  those  of  Medina,  directed  them  to 
repair  thither,  which  they  accordingly 
did;  but  himself,  with  Abu  Beer  and 
Ali,  staid  behind,  having  not  yet  receiv- 
ed the  divine  permission  as  he  pretend- 
ed, to  leave  Mecca.  The  Koreish,  fear- 
ing the  consequence  of  this  new  alliance, 
began  to  think  it  absolutely  necessary  to 
pi-event  Mahomet's  escape  to  Medina; 
and  having  held  a  council  thereon, 
after  several  milder  expedients  had 
been  rejected,  they  came  to  a  resolution 
that  he  should  be  killed;  and  agreed 
that  a  man  should  be  chosen  out  of 
every  tribe  for  the  execution  of  this  de- 
sign ;  and  that  each  man  should  have  a 
blow  at  him  with  his  sword,  that  the. 
g-uilt  of  his  blood  might  fall  equally  on 
all  the  tribes,  to  whose  united  power  the 
Hashemites  were  much  inferior,  and 
therefore  durst  not  attempt  to  revenge 
their  k'asman's  death. 

This  conspiracy  was  scarce  formed, 
when,  by  some  means  or  other,  it  came 
to  Mahomet's  knowledge  ;  and  he  gave 
out  that  it  was  revealed  to  him  by  the 
angel  Gabriel,  who  had  now  ordered 
him  to  retire  to  Medina.  Wliereupon, 
to  amuse  his  enemies,  he  directed  Ali 
1  to  lie  down  in  his  place,  and  wrap  him- 


MAH 


32S 


MAH 


self  up  in  his  green  cloak,  Avhich  he  did  ; 
and  Mahomet  escaped  miri'-culously,  as 
they  pretend,  to  Abu  Beci-'s  house,  un- 
perceived  by  the  conspirators,  who  liad 
already  assembled  at  the  prophet's  door. 
They, "in  tl\e  mean  time,lo(  kvnc^thron.igh 
the  ci"evice  and  seeing  Ali,  vvhom  they 
took  to  be  Mahomet  himself,  asleep, 
continued  watching  tlieve  till  mcniing, 
when  Ali  arose,  and  they  found  them- 
selves deceived. 

From  Abu  Beer's  house  Mahomet 
and  he  went  to  a  cave  in  mount  Tluir, 
to  the  south-east  of  Mecca,  accompanied 
onh"  by  Amor  Ebn  Foheirah,  Abu  Beer's 
servant,  and  Abd'allah  Ebn  Oreitah, 
an  idolater  whom  they  had  hired  for  a 
guide.  In  this  c^ve  they  lav  hid  three 
davs,  to  avoid  the  search  of  their  ene- 
mies, which  they  veiy  narrowly  escaped, 
and  not  without  the  assistance  of  more 
miracles  than  one;  for  some  say  that 
the  Koreish  were  stinack  with  blindness, 
so  that  they  could  not  find  the  cave ; 
others,  that,  after  Mahomet  and  his 
companions  were  got  in,  two  pigeons 
laid  their  eggs  at  the  entrance,  and  a 
spider  covered  the  mouth  of  the  cave 
with  her  web,  which  made  them  look 
no  farther  Abu  Beer  seeing  tlae  pi'o- 
phet  in  sucli  imminent  danger,  became 
very  sorrowful ;  whereupon  Mahomet 
comforted  him  with  these  words,  re- 
corded in  the  Koran;  Be  not  grieved, 
for  God  is  ivith  us.  Their  enemies 
being  retired,  the}'  left  the  cave,  and 
set  out  for  Medina  by  a  bye-road ;  and 
having  fortunately,  or,  as  the  Mahome- 
tans tell  us,  miraculously,  escaped  some 
who  were  sent  to  pursue  them,  arrived 
safely  at  that  city ;  whither  Ali  followed 
them  in  three  davs,  after  he  had  settled 
some  affairs  at  iNlecca. 

Mahomet  being  securely  settled  at 
^ledina,  and  able  not  only  to  defend 
himself  against  the  insults  of  his  ene- 
mies, but  to  attack  them,  began  to  send 
out  small  parties  to  make  reprisals  on 
the  Koreish;  the  first  party  consistuig 
of  no  more  than  nine  men,  Avho  inter- 
cepted and  plundered  a  caravan  be- 
longing to  that  tribe,  .and  in  the  action 
took  two  pi-isoners.  But  what  establish- 
ed his  affairs  veiy  much,  and  was  the 
foundation  on  which  he  built  all  his  suc- 
ceeding greatness,  was  the  gaining  of 
the  battle  of  Bedr,  which  was  fought  in 
the  second  year  of  the  Hegira,  and  is 
so  famous  in  the  Mahometan  history. 
Some  reckon  no  less  than  twenty-seven 
expeditions,  wherein  Mahomet  was  per- 
sonally present,  in  nine  of  which  he 
fave  battle,  besides  several  other  exi)c- 
itions  in  which  he  Avas  not  present. 
His  forces  he  maintained  partly  by  the 


contributions  cf  his  followers  for  tliis 
pui-pose,  which  he  called  by  the  name 
of  zacat,  or  almfi,  and  the  paying  x>f 
which  he  very  artfully  made  one  main 
article  of  his  religion ;  aiid  partly  bv 
orderiiig  a  fifth  ])art  of  the  plunder  to 
be  brought  into  the  public  treasury  for 
that  purpose,  in  which  matter  hehke- 
wise  pretended  to  act  by  the  divine 
direction. 

In  a  few  years,  by  the  success  of  his 
arms,  notv/ithstanding  he  sometimes 
came  off  with  the  worst,  he  considera- 
bly raised  his  credit  and  power.  In  the 
sixth  year  of  the  Hegira  he  set  out  with 
1400  men  to  visit  the  temple  of  Mecca, 
not  with  an}'  intent  of  committing  hos- 
tilities, but  in  a  peaceable  manner. 
However,  when  he  came  to  Al  Hodei- 
biya,  which  is  situated  partly  within  and 

Smartly  without  the  sacred  territojy,  the 
Coi-eish  sent  to  let  him  know  that  they 
would  not  permit  him  to  enter  Mecca, 
unless  he  forced  his  way :  whereupon 
he  called  his  troops  about  him,  and' they 
all  took  a  solemn  oath  of  fealty  or  ho- 
mage to  him,  and  he  resoh'ed  to  attack 
the  citv:  but  those  of  Mecca  sending 
Arwa  "Ebn  Masun,  prince  of  the  tn!>e 
of  Thakif,  as  their  ambassador,  to  de- 
sire peace,  a  truce  was  concluded  be- 
tween them  foi-  ten  years,  by  which  any 
person  was  allowed  to  enter  into  league 
either  with  IVIahomet,  or  with  the  Ko- 
reish as  he  thought  fit. 

In  tlie  seventh  year  of  the  Hegira, 
Mahomet  began  to  think  of  propai^- 
ing  his  religion,  beyond  the  bounds  of 
Arabia,  and  sent  messengers  to  tlie 
neighbouring  princes,  with  letters  to 
invite  tliem  to  Mahometanism.  Nor 
was  this  project  without  some  success ; 
Khosru  Parviz,  then  king  of  Persia, 
received  his  letter  with  great  disdain, 
and  tore  it  in  a  passion,  sending  away 
the  messenger  very  abru])tly;  which, 
when  Mahomet  heard,  he  said,  God 
shall  tear  his  kingdom.  And  soon  after 
a  messenger  came  to  Mahomet  from 
Badhan,  king  of  Yam  an,  who  was  a  de- 
pendent on '  the  Persians,  to  acquaint 
him  that  he  had  received  orders  to  send 
him  to  Khosru.  Mahomet  put  off  his 
ans^ver  till  the  next  morning,  and  then 
told  the  messenger  it  had  been  revealed 
to  him  that  night  that  Khosru  was  slain 
bv  his  son  Shim y eh;  adding,  that  he 
was  well  assured  his  new  religion  and 
emjiire  should  rise  to  as  great  a  height 
as  that  as  Khosru  ;  and  therefore  bid 
him  advise  his  master  to  embrace  Ma- 
lionietanism.  The  messenger  being  re- 
turned, Badhan  in  a  few  days  received 
a  letter  from  Shiniyeh,  informir.g  him 
of  his  father's  death,  and  ordering  liini 


MAH 


329 


MAH 


to  give  the  prophet  no  further  disturb- 
ance. Whereupon  Bashan,  and  the  Per- 
sians with  him,  turned  Mahometans. 

The  emperor  HeracUus,  as  the  Ara- 
bian historians  assure  us,  received  Ma- 
homet's letter  with  great  respect,  hiv- 
ing it  on  his  piUow,  and  dismissed  the 
bearer  honourably.  And  some  pretend 
that  he  would  have  professed  this  new 
faith,  had  he  not  been  afi-aid  of  losuig 
his  crown. 

Mahomet  wi-ote  to  the  same  effect  to 
the  king  of  Ethiopia,  though  he  had 
been  converted  before,  according  to  the 
Arab  writers ;  and  to  Mokawkas,  go- 
vernor of  Egypt,  who  gave  the  messen- 
ger a  very  favourable  reception,  and 
sent  several  valuable  presents  to  Ma- 
homet, and  among  the  rest  two  girls, 
one  of  which,  named  Marv,  became  a 
gi-eat  favourite  with  him.  He  also  sent 
letters  of  the  like  pui-port  to  several 
Arab  princes;  particularly  one  to  Al 
Hareth  Ebn  Abi  Shamer,  king  of  Ghas- 
san,  who  retiu'ning  for  answer  that  he 
would  go  to  Mahomet  himself,  the  pro- 
phet said,  Maij  his  kingdom  perish  ; 
another  to  Hawdha  Ebn  Ali,  king  of 
Yamama,  who  was  a  Christian,  and, 
having  sometime  before  professed 
Islamism,  had  lately  returned  to  his 
former  faith :  this  prince  sent  back  a 
very  rough  answer,  upon  which  Ma- 
homet cursing  him,  he  died  soon  after ; 
and  a  third  to  Al  Mondar  Ebn  Sawa, 
king  of  Bahrein,  who  embraced  !Ma- 
hometanism,  and  all  the  Arabs  of  that 
country  followed  his  example. 

The  eighth  year  of  the  Hegira  was  a 
very  fortunate  year  to  I^lahomet.  In 
the  beginning  of  it  Khaled  Ebn  al  W'si- 
lid  and  Amru  Ebn  al  As,  both  excellent 
soldiers,  the  first  of  whom  afterwards 
conquered  Syria  and  other  countries, 
and  the  latter  Egj pt, became  prosel}tes 
to  Mahometanism.  And  soon  after  the 
prophet  sent  3000  men  against  the  Gre- 
cian forces,  to  revenge  the  death  of  one 
of  his  ambassadors  who,  being  sent  to 
the  governor  of  Bosi-a  on  the  same  er- 
rand as  those  who  went  to  the  above- 
mentioned  nrinces,  was  slain  by  an 
Arab  of  the  tribe  of  Ghassan,  at  Muta, 
a  town  in  the  temtoiy  of  Balka,  in 
Syria,  about  three  days  journey  east- 
ward from  Jerusalem,  near  which  town 
they  encountered.  The  Grecians  being 
vastly  superior  in  number  (for,  including 
the  auxiliai-y  Arabs,  they  had  an  aiTny 
of  100,000  men,)  the  Mahometans  were 
repulsed  m  the  first  attack,  and  lost 
successively  three  of  their  generals,  \\z. 
Zeib  Ebn  Haretha,  Mahomet's  freed- 
man ;  Jaasar,  the  son  of  Abu  Taleb ; 
an^  Abdaliah  Ebn  Rawalia ;   but  Kha- 


lid  Ebn  al  \\^alid,  succeeding  to  the 
command,  overthrew  the  Greeks  with 
great  slaughter,  and  brought  away 
abundance  of  rich  spoil ;  on  occasion  of 
which  action  Mahomet  gave  him  the 
title  of  Scif  771  in  soy uf  Allah,  "one  of 
the  swords  of  God." 

In  this  year  also  Mahomet  took  the 
city  of  Mecca,  the  inhabitants  whereof 
had  broken  the  truce  concluded  on  two 
years  before  ;  for  the  tr^be  of  Beer,  who 
were  confederates  with  the  Koreish, 
attacking  those  of  Kozah,  who  Avere  al- 
lies of  Mahomet,  killed  several  of  them, 
being  supported  in  the  action  by  a 
paity  of  the  Koreish  themselves.  The 
consequence  of  this  violation  was  soon 
apprehended,  and  Abu  Sosian  himself 
made  a  journey  to  Medina  on  purpose 
to  heal  the  breach  and  renew  the  ti-uce, 
but  in  vain ;  for  Mahomet,  glad  .  of 
this  opportunity,  refused  to  see  him: 
whereupon  he  applied  to  Abu  Beer  and 
Ali;  but  they  giA'ing  him  no  answer, 
he  was  obUged  to  return  to  Mecca  as 
he  came. 

Mahomet  immediately  gave  orders 
for  preparations  to  be  made  that  he 
miglit  surprise  the  Meccans  while  they 
wei'e  unprovided  to  receive  him ;  in  a 
little  time  he  began  his  march  thither ; 
and  by  the  time  he  came  near  the  city, 
his  forces  were  increased  to  ten  thou- 
sand men.  Those  of  Mecca  not  beihg 
in  a  condition  to  defend  themselves 
against  so  fonnidable  an  army,  surren- 
dered at  discretion,  and  Abu  Sosian 
saved  his  life  by  turning  Mahometan. 
About  twenty-eight  of  the  idolaters 
were  killed  by  a  party  under  the  com- 
mand of  Khaled ;  but  this  happened  con- 
trary to  Mahomet's  orders,  who,  when 
he  entered  the  town,  pardoned  all  the 
Koreish  on  their  submission,  except  only 
six  men  and  four  women,  who  were 
more  obnoxious  than  ordinaiy,  (some  of 
them  having  apostatized,)  and  were 
solemnly  proscribed  by  the  prophet  him- 
self: but  of  these  no  more  than  one  man 
and  one  woman  were  put  to  death,  the 
rest  obtaining  pardon  on  their  embrac- 
ing Mahometanism,  and  one  of  the  wo- 
men making  her  escape. 

The  remainder  of  this  year  Mahomet 
employed  in  destroying  the  idols  in  and 
round  Mecca,  sending  several  of  the 
generals  on  expeditions  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  to  invite  the  Arabs  to  Islam- 
ism ;  wherein  it  is  no  wonder  if  they 
now  met  with  success. 

The  next  jear  being  the  ninth  of  the 
Hegira,  the  Mahometans  call  the  ijear 
of  'embassies ;  for  the  Arabs  had  been 
hitherto  expecting  the  issue  of  the  w  ar 
between  JNlahomet  and  the  Koreish : 
T  t 


MAH 


J  50 


MAH 


but,  so  soon  as  that  tribe,  the  principal 
cf  the  whole  nation,  and  the  genuine 
descendants  of  Ishmael,  whose  preroga- 
tives none  offered  to  dispute,  had  sub- 
mitted, they  were  satished  that  it  was 
not  in  their  power  to  oppose  Mahomet; 
and  thei-efore  began  to  come  m  to  him 
in  great  numbers,  and  to  send  embassies 
to  make  their  submission  to  him,  bofh 
to  Mecca,  while  he  staid  there,  and  also 
to  Mediaia,  whither  he  returned  this 
year.  Among  the  rest,  five  kings  of 
the  tribe  of  Hamyar  professed  Maho- 
metanism,  and  sent  ambassadors  to  no- 
tify the  same. 

In  the  tenth  year  Ali  was  sent  into 
Yaman  to  propagate  the  Mahometan 
faith  thei'e ;  and,  as  it  is  said,  converted 
the  whole  tribe  of  Hanidan  in  one  day. 
Their  example  was  quickly  followed 
by  all  the  inhabitants  of  that  province, 
except  only  those  of  Najran,  who,  being 
Christians,  chose  rather  to  pay  tribute. 

Thus  was  Mahometanism  established, 
and  idolatry  rooted  out,  even  in  Maho- 
met's life- time,  (for  he  died  the  next 
yeai*,)  throughout  all  Arabia,  except 
only  Yamama,  where  Moseilama,  who 
set  up  also  as  a  prophet  as  Mahoniet's 
competitor,  had  a  great  pai-U',  and  was 
not  reduced  till  the  kalifat  of^Abu  Beer : 
and  the  Arabs  being  then  united  in  one 
faith,  and  under  one  prince,  found  them- 
selves in  a  condition  of  making  those 
conquests  which  extended  the  Maho- 
metan faith  over  so  great  a  part  of  the 
world. 

1.  Mahometans,  tenets  of  the.  The 
Mahometans  divide  their  rehgion  into 
two  general  parts,  faith  and  practice, 
of  which  the  first  is  divided  into  six  dis- 
tinct branches :  Belief  in  God,  in  his 
angels,  in  his  Scriptures,  in  his  pro- 
phets, in  the  resurrection  and  final  judg- 
ment, and  in  God's  absolute  Decrees. 
The  points  relating  to  practice  are, 
prayei',  with  washings,  8cc.  alms,  fast- 
mg,  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  circum- 
cision. 

Of  the  Mahometmi  faith.  1.  That 
both  Mahomet,  and  those  among  his 
followers  who  are  reckoned  orthodox, 
had  and  continued  to  have  just  and  tnie 
notions  of  God  and  his  attributes,  ap- 
pears so  plain  from  the  Koran  itself, 
and  all  the  Mahometan  divines,  that 
it  would  be  loss  of  time  to  refute  those 
who  suppose  the  Ciod  of  Mahomet  to 
l»e  different  from  the  true  God,  and 
fjnly  a  fictitious  deity  or  idol  of  his  own 
creation. 

2.  The  existence  of  angels  and  their 

f)urity,  are  absolutely  required  to  be  bc- 
ieved  in  the  Koran ;  and  he  is  reckoned 
an  infidel  who  ^tnies  there  are   such 


beings,  or  hates  any  of  them,  or  asserts 
any  distinction  of  sexes  among  them. 
They  believe  them  to  have  pure  and 
subtle  bcidies,  created  of  fire ;  that  they 
neither  eat  nor  drmk,  nor  propagate 
their  species;  that  they  have  various 
forms  and  offices,  some  adoring  God  in 
diflferent  postures,  others  singing  praises 
to  him,  or  interceding  for  mankind. 
They  hold,  that  some  of  theni  are  em- 
ployed in  writing  down  the  actions  of 
men;  others  in  carrying  the  throne  of 
God,  and  other  services. 

3.  As  to  the  Scriptures,  the  Maho- 
metans are  taught  by  the  Koran,  that 
God,  in  di\'ers  ages  of  the  world,  gave 
revelations  of  his  will  in  writing  to  se- 
veral prophets,  the  whole  and  every  one 
of  which  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
a  good  Moslem  to  believe.  The  num- 
ber of  these  sacred  books  were,  accord- 
ing to  them,  one  hundred  and  four;  of 
which  ten  were  ^iven  to  Adam,  fifty  to 
Seth,  thirty  to  Ldris  or  Enoch,  ten  to 
Abraham;  and  tlie  other  four,  being 
the  Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  the  Gospel, 
and  the  Kora,n,  were  successively  de- 
livered to  Moses,  David,  Jesus,  and 
Mahomet :  which  last  being  the  seal  of 
the  prophets,  those  revelations  are  now 
closed,  and  no  more  are  to  be  expected. 
All  these  divine  books,  except  the  four 
last,  they  agree  now  to  be  entireh'  lost, 
and  their  contents  unknown ;  tiir.ugh 
the  Sabians  have  several  books  wiiich 
they  attribute  to  some  of  the  anteVlilu- 
vian  prophets.  And  of  those  four, 
the  Pentateuch,  Psalms,  and  Gospel, 
they  say,  have  undergone  so  many 
alterations  and  corruptions,  that,  though 
thei-e  may  possibly  be  some  part  of 
the  true  word  of  God  therein,  yet 
no  credit  is  to  be  given  to  the  present 
copies  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews  and 
Christians. 

4.  The  number  of  th6  pixsphets  which 
have  been  from  time  to  time  sent  by 
God  into  the  world,  amounts  to  no  less 
than  224,000,  accorduig  to  one  Maho- 
metan tradition  ;  or  to  124,000,  accord- 
ing to  another;  among  whom  313  were 
apostles,  sent  with  special  commissions 
to  reclaim  mankind  from  infidelity  and 
superstition ;  and  six  of  them  brought 
new  laws  or  dispensations,  which  suc- 
cessively abrogated  the  preceding; 
these  were  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham, 
Moses,  Jesus,  and  Mahomet.  All  the 
prophets  in  general,  the  Mahometans 
believe  to  have  been  freed  from  great 
sins  and  errors  of  consequence,  and 
professors  Of  one  and  the  same  religion, 
that  is,  Islamism,  notwithstanding  the 
dificrciit  laws  and  institutions  which 
they  observed.    They  allow  of  degrees 


MAH 


331 


WAH 


among  them,  and  hold  some  of  them  to 
be  more  excejlent  and  honourable  than 
others.  The  first  place  they  give  to 
the  revealers  and  establishers  of  new 
dispensations,  and  the  next  to  the 
apostles. 

In  this  great  number  of  prophets 
they  not  only  reckon  divers  patri- 
archs and  persons  named  in  Scripture, 
but  not  recorded  to  have  been  pro- 
phets (wherein  the  Jewish  and  Chi'is- 
tian  writers  have  sometimes  led  the 
Avay,)  as  Adam,  Seth,  Lot,  Ishmael, 
Nun,  Joshua,  8cc.  and  mtroduced  some 
of  them  under  different  names,  as 
Enoch,  Heber,  and  Jetliro,  who  are 
called  in  the  Koran,  Edris,  Hud,  and 
Shoaib  :  but  se^  eral  others  whose  vei')' 
names  do  not  appear  in  Scripture 
(though  they  endeavour  to  find  some 
persons  there  to  fix  them  on,)  as  Selah, 
Khedr,  Dhu'lkefl,  &;c. 

5.  The  belief  of  a  general  resvtrrec- 
tion  and  a  future  judgment. 

The  time  of  the  resurrection  the 
Mahometans  allow  to  be  a  perfect  se- 
cret to  all  but  God  alone;  the  angel 
Gabriel  himself  aknowledging  his  ig- 
jiorance  in  this  point,  when  A'lahomet 
asked  him  about  it.  However,  they 
say,  the  appi-oach  of  that  day  may  be 
known  from  certain  signs  which  are  to 
precede  it. 

After  examination  is  past,  (the  ac- 
count of  which  is  too  long  and  tedious 
for  this  place,)  and  e\'ery  one's  work 
weighed  in  a  just  balance,  they  say, 
that  nmtual  retaliation  will  follow,  ac- 
cording to  which  every  creature  will 
take  vengeance  one  of  another,  or  have 
satisfaction  made  them  for  the  injuries 
which  they  have  suffered.  And,  since 
there  will  then  be  no  other  way  of 
returning  like  for  like,  the  manner  of 
giving  this  satisfaction  will  be  by  taking 
awav  a  proportional  part  of  the  good 
works  of  him  who  offered  the  injury, 
and  adduig  it  to  those  of  him  who  suf- 
fered it.  Which  being  done,  if  the  an- 
gels (by  whose  ministry  this  is  to  be 
performed)  say.  Lord,  we  have  given 
to  every  one  his  due,  and  there  remain- 
eth  of  this  person's  good  works  so  much 
as  tquallcth  the  weight  of  an  ant,  God 
will  of  his  mercy,  cause  it  to  be  doubled 
unto  him,  that  he  may  be  admitted  into 
Paradise ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  his 
good  works  be  exhausted,  and  there  re- 
main e\  il  works  only,  and  there  be  any 
who  ha\  e  not  yet  received  satisfaction 
from  him,  God  will  order  that  an  equal 
weight  of  their  sins  be  added  unto  his, 
thfit  he  may  be  punished  for  them  in 
their  stead,  and  he  wih  be  sent  to  hell 
laden  with  both.  This  will  be  the  method 


of  God's  dealing  with  mankind.  As  to 
brutes,  after  they  shall  have  likewise 
taken  vengeance  of  oiie  another,  he 
will  command  them  to  be  changed  into 
dust ;  wicked  men  being  reserved  to 
more  gi'ievous  punishment,  so  that  they 
shall  cry  out,  on  hearing  this  sentence 
passed  on  the  bnites,  iVould  to  God 
that  wc  were  dust  also  /  As  to  the  genii, 
many  Mahometans  are  of  opinion  that 
such  of  them  as  are  tiaie  believers,  will 
undergo  the  same  fate  as  the  irrational 
animals,  and  have  no  other  reward  than 
the  favour  of  being  converted  into  dust ; 
and  for  tliis  they  quote  the  authority  of 
their  prophet. 

The  trials  being  over,  and  the  assem- 
bly dissolved,  the  Mahometans  hold, 
that  those  who  are  to  be  admitted  into 
Paradise  will  take  the  right  hand  way, 
and  those  who  are  destined  into  hell-fire 
will  take  the  left :  but  both  of  them 
must  first  pass  the  bridge  called  in 
Arabic  jdl  Sit'at,  which,  thev  say,  is 
laid  over  the  midst  of  hell,  and  describe 
to  be  finer  than  a  hair,  and  sharper  than 
the  edge  of  a  sword ';  so  that  it  seems 
very  difficult  to  conceive  how  any  one 
shall  be  able  to  stand  upon  it ;  foi-  which 
reason  most  of  the  sect  of  the  Mota- 
zalites  reject  it  as  a  fable ;  though  the 
orthodox  think  it  a  sufficient  proof  of 
the  tnith  of  this  article,  that  it  was 
seriously  affirmed  by  him  who  never 
asserted  a  falsehood,  meaning  their 
prophet;  who,  to  add  to  the  difficulty 
of  the  passage,  has  hkewise  declared, 
that  this  bridge  is  beset  on  each  side 
with  briers  and  hooked  thorns,  which 
will,  howevei',  be  no  impediment  to  the 
good ;  for  they  sh-all  pass  with  wonder- 
ful ease  and  swiftness,  like  lightning,  or 
the  wmd,  Mahomet  and  his  Moslems 
leading  the  way  ;  whereas  the  wicked, 
what  with  the  slipperiness  and  extreme 
narrowness  of  the  path,  the  entangling 
of  the  thonis,  and  the  extinction  of  the 
light  which  directed  the  former  to  Pa- 
ladise,  will  soon  miss  their  footing,  and 
fall  down  headlong  into  hell,  which  is 
gaping  beneath  them. 

As  to  the  punishment  of  the  wicked, 
the  Mahometans  are  taught,  that  hell 
is  divided  into  seven  stories  or  apait- 
ments,  one  below  another,  designed  for 
the  reception  of  as  many  distinct  classes 
of  the  damned. 

The  fi.rst,  which  they  call  Jehenan, 
the}-^  sav,  will  be  the  receptacle  of  those 
who  ackTicwIedged  one  God,  that  h, 
the  wicked  Mahometans;  who,  after 
having  been  punished  accovding  to  their 
demerits,  will  at  length  be  released; 
the  second,  named  Ladha,  they  assign 
to  the  Jews;  the  third,  named  dl  lioia- 


MAH 


332 


MAH 


via,  ta  the  Christians ;  the  foui-th,  named 
al  Sair,  to  the  Sabians  ;  the  fifth,  named 
Sakar,  to  the  Magians  ;  the  sixth,  na- 
med o/  Ja/tin,  to  the  idolaters  ;  and  the 
seventh,  which  is  the  lowest  and  worst 
of  all,  and  is  called  al  Hawijat,  to  the 
hypocrites,  or  those  who  outwardly 
professed  some  religion,  but  in  their 
hearts  were  of  none.  Over  each  of  these 
apartments  they  believe  there  will  be 
set  a  giiai'd  of  angels,  nineteen  in  num- 
ber :  to  whom  the  damned  will  confess 
the  just  judgment  of  God,  and  beg  them 
to  intercede  with  him  for  some  allevia- 
tion of  their  pain,  or  that  they  may  be 
delivei'ed  by  being  annihilated. 

Mahomet  has,  in  his  Koran  and  tra- 
ditions, been  very  exact  in  describing 
the  various  torments  of  hell,  which,  ac- 
cording to  him,  the  wicked  will  suffer 
both  from  intense  heat  and  excessive 
cold.  "We  shall,  however,  enter  into 
no  detail  of  them  here ;  but  only  ob- 
serve, that  the  degrees  of  these  pains 
will  also  vary  in  proprrtion  to  the 
crimes  of  the  sufferer,  and  the  apart- 
ment he  is  condemned  to  ;  and  that  he 
who  is  punished  the  most  lightly  of  all 
will  be  shod  with  shoes  of  fire,  "the  fer- 
vour of  which  will  cause  his  skull  to 
boil  like  a  cauldron.  The  condition 
of  these  unhappy  wretches,  as  the  same 
prophet  teaches,  camict  be  proper]} 
called  either  life  or  deat/i ;  and  their 
misery  will  be  greatly  increased  by 
their  despair  of  being  ever  delivered 
from  that  place,  since,  according  to 
that  frequent  expression  in  the  Koran, 
they  must  retnain  therein  for  ever.  It 
must  be  remarked,  however,  that  the 
infidels  alone  will  be  liable  to  eternity 
of  damnation ;  for  the  Moslems,  or 
those  who  have  embraced  the  true 
religion,  and  have  been  guilty  of  heinous 
sins,  will  be  delivered  thence'  after  they 
shall  have  expiated  their  crimes  by 
their  sufferings.  The  time  which  these 
believers  shall  be  detained  there,  ac- 
cording to  a  tradition  handed  down  from 
their  prophet,  will  not  be  less  than  nine 
hundred  years,  nor  moi-e  than  seven 
thousand.  And,  as  to  the  manner  of 
their  deliveiy,  they  say  that  thcv  shall 
be  distinguished  by  the  marks  of  pros- 
tration on  those  parts  of  their  bodies 
with  which  they  used  to  touch  the 
ground  in  prayer,  and  over  \\hich  the 
fire  will  therefoi-e  have  no  pow  er ;  and 
that,  being  known  by  this  characteristic, 
they  will  be  released  by  the  mercy  of 
God,  at  the  intercession  of  Mahomet 
and  the  blessed  :  whereupon  those  who 
shall  have  been  dead  will  be  restored 
to  life,  as  has  been  said:  and  those 
whose  bodies  shall  liavc  contracted  anv 


sootincss  or  filth  from  the  flames  and 
smoke  of  hell,  will  be  immersed  in  one 
of  the  ri^'ers  of  Paradise,  called  the 
Rix'er  of  If;  which  will  wash  them 
whiter  than  pearls. 

The  righteous,  as  the  Mahometans 
are  taught  to  believe,  having  surmount- 
ed the  difhculties,  and  passed  the  sharp 
bridge  above-mentioned,  before  they 
enter  Paradise,  will  be  refreshed  by 
drinking  at  the  pofid  of  their  prophet, 
who  describes  it  to  be  an  exact  square, 
of  a  month's  journey  in  compass ;  its 
water,  which  is  supplied  by  two  pipes 
from  al  Cawtha},  one  of  the  rivei^s 
of  Pai-adise,  being'  whiter  than  milk  or 
silver,  and  more  odoriferous  than  musk, 
with  as  many  cups  set  around  it  as  there 
are  sta.rs  in  the  firmament ;  of  which 
water  whoever  driiiks  will  thirst  no 
more  for  ever.  This  is  the  first  taste 
which  the  blessed  will  have  of  their  fu- 
ture and  now  near  approaching  felicity. 

Though  Paradise  be  so  very  frequent- 
ly mentioned  in  the  Koran,  yet  it  is  a  dis- 
pute among  the  Mahometans,  whether 
it  be  already  ci'eated  or  to  be  created 
hereafter;  the  Motazalites  and  some 
other  sectaries  asserting,  that  there  is 
not  at  present  any  such  place  in  nature, 
and  that  the  Paradise  which  the  righ- 
teous Avill  inhabit  in  the  next  life  will 
be  different  from  that  from  which  Adam 
was  expelled.  However,  the  orthodox 
profess  the  contrary,  maintaining  that  it 
was  created  e\en  before  the  world,  and 
describe  it  fi-om  their  pi-ophet's  tradi- 
tions in  the  following  manner  : 

Thev  say  it  is  situated  above  the 
seven  heavens,  (or  in  the  seventh  hea- 
ven,) and  next  under  the  throne  of 
God ;  and,  to  express  the  amenity  of 
the  place,  tell  us,  that  the  earth  of  it  is 
of  the  finest  wheat-flour,  or  of  the 
purest  musk,  or  as  others  will  have  it, 
of  saffron  ;  that  its  stones  are  pearls  and 
jacinths,  the  walls  of  its  building  en- 
riched with  gold  and  silver,  and  that 
the  tiimks  of  all  its  ti'ees  are  of  gold ; 
among  which  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  tree  called  tuba,  or  the  tree  of  hap- 
piness. Concerning  this  tree,  they  fable, 
th;it  it  stands  in  the  palace  of  Mahomet, 
though  a  branch  of  it  will  reach  to  the 
house  of  every  true  believer;  that  it 
will  be  laden  with  pomegranates, 
grapes,  dates,  and  other  fruits,  of  sin-- 
jM-ising  bigness,  and  of  tastes  unknown 
to  mortals.  So  that,  if  a  man  desire  to 
eat  of  any  particular  kind  of  fruit,  it 
will  immediately  be  presented  him; 
or,  if  he  choose  flesfi,  birds  ready 
dressed  will  be  set  before  him,  accord- 
ing to  his  wish.  They  add,  tliat  the 
boughs  of  this  tree  will  spontaneously 


MAH 


333 


MAH 


bend  clown  to  the  hand  of  the  person 
who  would  gather  of  its  fruits,  and  that 
it  will  supply  the  blessed  not  onlj'  with 
food,  but  also  with  silken  garments,  and 
ijeasts  to  ride  on  i-eady  saddled  and  bri- 
dled, and  adonied  with  rich  trappings, 
which  will  bui'st  foith  from  its  miits; 
and  that  this  tree  is  so  large,  that  a  per- 
son mounted  on  the  fleetest  horse,  would 
riot  be  able  to  gallop  fi*om  one  end  of  its 
sliade  to  tlie  other  in  one  hundred  years. 

As  plenty  of  water  is  one  of  tlie  great- 
est additions  to  the  pleasantness  of  any 
place,  the  Koran  often  speaks  of  the  ri- 
vers of  Paradise  as  a  principal  ornament 
thereof:  some  of  these  rivers,  they  say, 
flow  witli  water,  some  with  milk,  some 
with  wine,  and  others  with  honey;  all 
taking  their  rise  from  the  root  of  the 
tree  tuba. 

But  all  these  glories  will  be  eclipsed 
by  the  resplendent  and  ravishing  girls  of 
Paradise,  called,  from  their  large  black 
eyes,  Hur  al  oyiai,  the  enjoyment  of 
whose  company  will  1)e  a  principal  feli- 
city of  the  faithful.  These,  they  say,  are 
created  not  of  clay,  as  mortal  women 
are,  but  of  pure  musk ;  being,  as  their 

f)i'ophet  often  affirms  in  his  Koran,  free 
rom  all  natural  impurities,  defects,  and 
inconveniences  incident  to  the  sex;  of 
the  strictest  modesty,  and  secluded  from 
public  view  in  pavilions  of  lioUow  pearls, 
so  large,  that,  as  some  traditions  have 
it,  one  of  them  will  be  no  less  than  four 

f)arasangs  (or,  as  others  say,  sixty  miles) 
ong,  and  as  many  broad. 

The  name  which  the  Mahometans 
usually  give  to  this  happy  mansion  is  al 
Jannat,  oi-,  "the  Garden;"  and  some- 
times they  call  it,  with  an  addition,  Jati- 
nat  al  Ferdaivs,  "  the  Garden  of  Para- 
dise ;"  Jannat  Adan,  "  the  Gai-den  of 
Eden,"  (though  they  generally  inter- 
pret the  word  Eden  not  according  to 
Its  acceptation  in  Hebrew,  but  accord- 
ing to  its  meaning  in  their  own  tongue, 
wherein  it  signifies  "a  settled  or  per- 
petual habitation;")  Jannat  al  Ma=:va, 
"the  Garden  of  Abode;  Jannat  al 
Maim,  "the  Garden  of  Pleasure  ;"  and 
tlie  like  :  by  which  several  appellations 
some  understand  so  many  different  gar- 
dens, or  at  least  places  of  different  de- 
grees of  felicity  (for  they  reckon  no  less 
than  one  hundred  such  in  all,)  the  very 
meanest  whereof  will  afford  its  inhabi- 
tants so  many  pleasures  and  delights, 
that  one  would  conclude  they  must  even 
sink  under  them,  had  not  Mahomet  de- 
clared that,  in  order  to  qualify  the  bless- 
ed for  a  full  enjoyment  of  them,  God 
will  give  to  every  one  the  abilities  of  one 
hundred  men. 
6.  God's  absoUite  decree  and  predes-  || 


tination  both  of  good  and  evil.  The  or- 
thodox doctrine  is,  that  whatever  hath, 
or  shall  come  to  pass  in  this  world, 
whether  it  be  good,  or  whether  it  be 
bad,  proceedeth  entirely  fiom  the  di- 
vine will,  and  is  irrevocably  fixed  and 
recorded  fi'om  all  eternity  in  the  pre- 
sei'ved  table  ;  God  having  secretly  pre- 
detei'mined  not  only  the  adverse  and 
prosperous  fortune  of  every  person  in 
this  world,  in  the  most  minute  particu- 
lars, but  also  his  faith  or  infidelity,  his 
obedience  or  disobedience,  and  conse- 
quently his  everlasting  happiness  or 
misery  after  death ;  which  fate  or  pi'e- 
destination  it  is  not  possible  by  any  fore- 
sight or  wisdom  to  avoid. 

II.  Religious  practice.  1.  The  first 
point  is  prayer,  under  which  are  also 
comprehended  those  legal  washings  or 
puiihcations  which  are  necessary  pre- 
parations thereto. 

For  the  regular  performance  of  the 
duty  of  prayer  among  the  Mahometans, 
it  is  requisite,  while  they  pray,  to  turn 
their  faces  towards  the  temple  of  Mec- 
ca ;  the  quarter  where  the  same  is  situ- 
ated being,  for  that  reason,  pointed  out 
within  tiieir  mosques  by  a  niche,  which 
they  call  al  Mt-hrab  ;  and  without,  by 
the  situation  of  the  doors  opening  into 
the  galleries  of  the  steeples :  there  are 
also  tables  calculated  foi-  the  ready  find- 
ing out  their  Keblah,  a  pai't  towards 
which  they  ought  to  pray,  in  places 
where  they  have  no  other  direction. 

2.  Alms  are  of  two  sorts,  legal  and 
voluntary.  The  legal  alms  are  of  indis- 
pensable obligation,  being  commanded 
by  the  law,  which  directs  and  deter- 
mines both  the  portion  which  is  to  be 
given,  and  of  what  things  it  ought  to 
consist ;  but  the  voluntary  alms  are  left 
to  every  one's  liberty,  to  give  more  or 
less  as  he  shall  see  fit.  The  former 
kind  of  alms  some  think  to  be  properly- 
called  zacat,  and  the  latter  sadacat, 
though  this  name  be  also  frequently 
given  to  the  legal  alms.  They  are  called 
zacat,  either  because  they  increase  a 
man's  store  by  drawing  down  a  blessing 
thereon,  and  produce  in  his  soul  the  vir- 
tue of  liberality ;  or  because  they  purify 
the  remaining  part  of  one's  substance 
from  pollution,  and  the  soul  from  the 
filth  of  avarice ;  and  sadacat,  because 
they  are  a  proof  of  a  man's  sincerity  in 
the  worship  of  God.  Some  writei'S  have  . 
called  the  legal  alms  tithes  ;  but  impro- 
perly, since  in  some  cases  they  fall 
short,  and  in  others  exceed  that  px'o- 
portion. 

3.  Fasting  is  a  duty  of  so  great  mo- 
ment, that  Mahomet  used  to  say  it  was 
the  gate  of  religion  ;  and  that  the  odour 


MAH 


334 


MAL 


of  the  mouth  of  him  voho  fasteih  is  more 
grateful  to  God  than  that  of  musk  ;  and 
Al  Gnazali  reckons  fasting  one  fourth 
part  of  the  faith.  According  to  tfie  Ma- 
hometan divines,  there  are  tliree  de- 
grees of  fasting:  1.  The  restraining  the 
belly  and  other  pails  of  the  body  from 
satisfymg  their  lusts. — 2.  The  restram- 
ing  the  ears,  eyes,  tongue,  hands,  feet, 
and  other  members,  from  sin. — 3.  The 
fasting  of  the  heart  from  worldly  cares, 
and  restraining  the  thought  from  every 
thing  besides  God. 

4.  The  pilgrimage  to  INIecca  is  so  ne- 
cessary a  pomt  of  practice,  that,  accord- 
ing to  a  tradition  of  Mahomet,  he  who 
dies  without  performing  it,  may  as  well 
die  a  Jew  or  a  Christian ;  and  the  same 
is  expressly  commanded  in  the  Koran. 
See  Pilgrimage. 

III.  JMuhometaiiism,  causes  of  the 
success  of.  The  rapid  success  which 
attended  the  propagation  of  this  new 
religion  was  owing  to  causes  that  are 
plain  and  e\ident,  and  must  remove,  or 
ratlier  prevent  our  surprise,  when  they 
are  attentively  considered.  The  terror 
of  Mahomet's  arms,  and  the  repeated 
victories  which  were  gained  by  him  and 
his  successors,  were,  no  doubt,  the  irre- 
sistible arguments  that  persuaded  such 
multitudes  to  embrace  his  religion,  and 
submit  to  his  dominion.  Besides,  his  law 
was  artfully  and  mar\'ellously  adapted 
to  the  coiTupt  nature  of  man ;  and,  in  a 
most  particular  manner,  to  the  manners 
and  opinions  of  the  Eastern  nations,  and 
the  vices  to  which  they  were  naturally 
addicted :  for  the  articles  of  faith  which 
it  proposed  were  few  in  number,  and 
extremely  simple ;  and  the  duties  it  re- 
quired were  neither  many  nor  difficult, 
nor  such  as  were  mcompatible  with  the 
empire  of  appetites  and  passions.  It  is 
to  be  observed  farther,  that  the  gross 
ignorance  under  which  the  Arabians, 
SSyrians,  Persians,  and  the  gTeatest  part 
of  the  Eastern  nations,  laboured  at  this 
time,  rendered  many  an  easy  prey  to  the 
artifice  and  eloquence  of  this  bold  ad- 
venturei".  To  these  causes  of  the  pro- 
gress of  Mahometanism  we  may  add  the 
bitter  dissensions  and  cnicl  animosities 
that  reigned  among  the  Christian  sects, 

Eirticularly  the  Greeks,  Nestorians, 
utychians,  and  Monophysites  ;  dissen- 
sions that  filled  a  great  part  of  the  East 
with  carnage,  assassmations,  and  such 
detestable  enormities,  as  rendered  the 
\ery  name  of  Christianity  odious  to 
many.  We  might  add  here,  that  the 
Monophysites  and  Nestorians,  full  of 
resentment  against  the  Greeks,  from 
whom  they  had  suffered  the  bitterest 
and  most  injurious  treatment,  assisted 


tlie  Arabians  in  the  conquest  of  sevei-al 
provinces,  into  which,  of  consequence, 
the  religion  of  Mahomet  was  afterwai'ds 
introduced.  Other  causes  of  the  sudden 
progress  of  that  religion  will  naturally 
occur  to  such  as  consider  attentively  its 
spirit  and  genius,  and  the  state  of  the 
world  at  this  time. 

IV.  Mahometanism,  subversion  of. 
Of  things  yet  to  come  it  is  difficult  to 
say  any  thing  with  precision.  We  have, 
however,  some  reason  to  believe,  from 
the  aspect  of  Scripture  prophecy,  that, 
triumphant  as  this  sect  has  been,  it  shall 
at  last  come  to  nought.  As  it  arose  as  a 
scourge  to  Christendom  about  the  time 
that  Antichrist  obtained  a  temporal  do- 
minion, so  it  is  not  improbable  but  they 
will  have  their  downfall  nearly  at  the 
same  period.  The  ninth  chapter  of  Re- 
velations seems  to  refer  wholly  to  this 
imposture:  "The  four  angels  were 
loosed,"  says  the  prediction,  15th  verse, 
"  which  were  prepared  for  an  hour,  and 
a  day,  and  a  month,  and  a  year,  for  to 
slay  the  third  part  of  men.  This  pe- 
riod, in  the  language  of  prophecy, 
makes  391  years,  which  being  aaded  to 
the  year  when  the  four  angels  were 
loosed,  will  bring  us  down  to  1844,  or 
thereabouts,  for  the  final  destruction  of 
the  Mahometan  empire.  It  must  be 
confessed,  however,  that  though  the 
event  is  certain,  the  exact  time  cannot 
be  easily  ascertained.  Prideaux's  Life 
of  Mahomet ;  Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist. 
cent.  vii.  ch.  2.  Salens  Preliminai~y  Dis- 
course, prefixed  to  his  English  Trans- 
lation of  the  Koran;  Simpson's  Key  to 
Proph.  sect.  19.  Bishop  A'erjton,  Mede, 
and  Gill,  on  Rev.  ix.  Miller's  Propag. 
of  Christianity,  vol.  i.  ch.  1.  White's  Ser. 
at  Bampton,  Led.  Enc.  Brit. 

MALEVOLENCE  is  that  disposition 
of  mind  which  inclines  us  to  wish  ill  to 
any  person.  It  discovers  itself  in  frowns     I 
ancl  a  lowering  countenance ;  in  uncha-      i 
i-itableness,  in    tvSS.    sentiments ;    hard     \ 
speeches  to  or  of  its  object ;  in  cursing     ■ 
and  reviling  ;  and  doing  mischief  either 
with  open  violence  or  secret  spite,  as 
far  as  there  is  power. 

MALICE  is  a  settled  or  deliberate 
determination  to  revenge  or  do  hurt  to 
another.  It  more  frequently  denotes  the 
disposition  of  inferior  minds  to  execute 
e\'cry  purj)ose  of  mischief  withm  the 
more  limited  circle  of  their  abilities.  It 
is  a  most  hateful  temper  in  the  sight  of 
God,  strictly  forbidden  in  his  holy  word. 
Col.  iii.  8—12.  disgraceful  to  rational 
creatures,  and  eveiy  wav  inimical  to  the 
spirit  of  Christianity,  Matt.  v.  44,  See 
Charity,  Lovk. 

MALKSiNTTY,  a  disposition   obsti- 


MAN 


MAN 


nately  bad  oi'  malicious.  Malignancy 
and  malignity  are  words  nearly  synony- 
mous. In  some  connections,  malignity 
seems  rather  more  pertinently  applied 
to  a  radical  depravity  of  nature ;  and 
malignancy  to  indications  of  this  depra- 
vity in  temper  and  conduct  in  particular 
instances. 

MAN,  a  being,  consisting  of  a  rational 
soul  and  organical  bod}".  By  some  he  is 
defined  thus:  "He  is  the  head  of  the 
animal  creation  ;  a  being  who  feels,  re- 
flects, thinks,  contrives,  and  acts ;  who 
has  the  power  of  changing  his  place 
upon  the  earth  at  pleasure  ;  who  pos- 
sesses the  faculty  of  communicating  his 
thoughts  by  means  of  speech,  and  who 
has  dominion  over  all  other  creatures  on 
the  face  of  the  earth."  W&  shall  here 
present  the  reader  with  a  brief  account 
of  his  formation,  species,  and  different 
state.  1.  His  formation.  Man  was  made 
last  of  all  the  ci-eatures,  being  the  chief 
and  master-piece  of  the  whole  creation 
on  earth.  He  is  a  compendium  of  the 
creation,  and  therefore  is  sometimes 
called  a  mici'ocosm,  a  little  world,  the 
woi'ld  in  miniature  ;  something  of  the 
vegetable,  animal,  and  rational  world 
meet  in  him ;  spirit  and  matter ;  yea, 
heaven  and  earth  centre  in  him  ;  he  is 
the  bond  that  connects  them  both  to- 
gether. The  constituent  and  essential 
Eartsof  man  created  by  God  are  two; 
ody  and  soul.  The  one  was  made  out  of 
the  dust ;  the  other  was  breathed  into 
him.  The  body  is  formed  with  the 
greatest  precision  and  exactness :  every 
muscle,  vein,  artery,  yea,  the  least  fibre, 
in  its  pi'oper  place ;  all  in  just  propor- 
tion and  symmetry,  in  subserviency  to 
the  use  of'each  other,  and  for  the  good 
of  the  whole,  Ps.  cxxxix.  14.  It  is  also 
made  erect,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
four-footed  animals,  who  look  down- 
ward to  the  earth.  Man  was  made  to 
look  upward  to  the  heavens,  to  contem- 
plate them,  and  the  gloiy  of  God  dis- 
played in  them ;  to  look  up  to  God,  to 
worship  and  adore  him.  In  the  Greek 
langur.ge,  man  has  his  name,  avSyuTrof, 
from  turning  and  looking  upwards.  The 
soul  is  the  other  part  of  man,  which  is  a 
substance  or  subsistence :  it  is  not  an  ac- 
cident, or  quality,  inherent  m  a  subject : 
but  capable  of  suljsisting  without  the 
bod)-.  It  is  a  spiritual  substance,  imma- 
terial, immortal.    See  Soul. 

2.  Man^  different  s/iccies  of.  Accord- 
ing to  Linnaeus  and  Buffon,  there  are 
six  different  species  among  mankind. 
The  first  are  those  under  the  Polar  re- 
gions, and  comprehend  the  Laplanders, 
the  Esquimaux  Indians,  the  Samoied 
Tartars,  the  inhabitants  of  Nova  Zam- 


bia, Borandians,  the  Greenlanders,  and 
the  people  of  Kamtschatka.  The  village 
of  men  in  these  countries  is  lai-ge  and 
broad ;  the  nose  fiat  and  short ;  the 
eyes  of  a  yellowish  brown,  inclining  to 
blackness ;  the  cheek-bones  extremely 
high  ;  the  mouth  large;  the  lips  thick, 
and  turning  outwards;  the  voice  thin, 
and  squeaking ;  and  the  skin  a  dark 
grey  colour.  They  are  short  in  stature, 
the  generality  being  about  four  feet 
high,  and  the  tallest  not  more  than  five. 
They  are  ignorant,  stupid  and  super- 
stitious.— 2.  The  second  are  the  Tartar 
race,  comprehending  the  Chuiese  and 
the  Japanese.  Their  countenances  are 
broad  and  wrinkled,  even  in  youth ; 
their  noses  short  and  flat ;  their  e}es 
little,  cheek-bones  high,  teeth  large, 
complexions  olive,  and  the  hair  black. 
— 3.  The  third  are  the  southern  Asiatics, 
or  inhabitants  of  India.  These  are  of  a 
slender  shape,  long  straight  black  hair, 
and  generally  Roman  noses.  They  are 
slothful,  submissive,  cowardly,  and  ef- 
feminate.— 4.  The  negi'oes  of  Africa 
constitute  the  fourth  striking  variety  in 
the  human  species.  They  are  of  a  black 
colour,  having  downy  soft  hair,  short 
and  black ;  their  beards  often  turn  grey, 
and  sometimes  white ;  their  noses  are 
flat  and  short ;  their  lips  thick,  and  their 
teeth  of  an  ivory  whiteness.  These  have 
been  till  of  late  the  unhappy  v/retches 
who  have  been  torn  fi-om  their  faniiiies, 
friends,  and  native  lands,  and  consigned 
for  life  to  miser)",  toU,  and  bondage; 
and  that  by  the  wise,  polished,  and  the 
Christian  inhabitants  of  Europe,  and 
above  all  by  the  monsters  of  England  I  ' 
— 5.  The  natives  of  America  are  the 
fifth  race  of  men  :  they  are  of  a  copper 
colour,  with  black  thick  straight  hair, 
flat  noses,  high  cheek-bones,  and  small 
eyes. — 6.  The  Europeansmay  be  consi- 
dered as  the  sixth  and  last  variety  of 
the  human  kind,  whose  features'  we 
need  not  describe.  The  English  are 
considered  as  the  fairest. 

3.  Man,  different  states  of.  The  state 
of  man  has  been  divided  into  fourfold  ; 
his  primitive  state ;  fallen  state ;  gra- 
cious state;  and  future  state.  1.  His 
state  of  innocence.  God,  it  is  said,  made 
man  upright,  Eccl.  vii.  29.  without  anj^ 
imperfection,  coiTuption,  or  principle  of 
conniption  in  his  body  or  soul ;  with 
light  in  his  understanding,  holiness  in 
his  will,  and  purity  in  his  affection.  This 
constituted  his  original  righteousness, 
which  was  universal,  both  with  respect 
to  the  subject  of>it,  the  whole  man,  aiv'. 
the  object  of  it,  the  whole  law.  Bein.s; 
thus  m  a  state  of  holiness,  he  was  neces- 
sarily in  a  state  of  happiness.  He  was  a 


MAN 


336 


Man 


very  glorious  creature,  the  favourite  of 
heaven,  the  lord  of  the  world,  possess- 
ing perfect  tranquillity  in  his  own  breast, 
and  immortal,  i  et  he  was  not  witliout 
law;  tor  to  the  law  of  nature,  which 
was  impressed  on  his  heart,  God  super- 
«'\dded  a  positive  law,  not  to  eat  of  the 
forbidden  fruit.  Gen.  ii.  17.  under  the 
penalty  of  death  natural,  spiritual,  and 
eternal.  Had  he  obeyed  this  law,  he 
might  have  had  reason  to  expect  that 
he  would  not  only  have  had  the  contin- 
uance of  his  natural  and  spiritual  life, 
but  have  been  transported  to  the  upper 
pai'adise. — 2.  His  fall.  Man's  righteous- 
ness, however,  though  universal,  was 
not  immutable,  as  the  event  has  proved. 
How  long  he  lived  in  a  state  of  inno- 
cence cannot  easily  be  ascertained,  yet 
most  suppose  it  was  but  a  short  time. 
The  positive  law  which  God  gave  him 
he  broke,  by  eating  the  forbidden  fi-uit. 
The  consequence  of  this  e\-il  act  was, 
that  man  lost  the  chief  good :  his  na- 
ture was  coriTipted  ;  his  powers  depra- 
ved, his  body  subject  to  corruption,  his 
soul  exposed  to  miser}-,  his  posterity  all 
involved  in  ruin,  subject  to  eternal  con- 
demnation, and  for  e^•er  incapable  to  re- 
store themselves  to  the  favour  of  God, 
to  obey  his  commands  perfectly,  and  to 
satisfy  his  justice.  Gal.  iii.  Rom.  v.  Gen. 
jii.  Eph.  ii.  Rom.  iii.  passim.  See  Fall. 
— 3.  His  recovery.  ^-Vlthough  man  has 
fallen  by  his  iniquity,  yet  he  is  not  left 
finally  to  perish.  The  divine  Being, 
foreseeing  the  fall,  in  infimte  love  and 
mercy  made  provision  for  his  relief. 
Jesus  Christ,  according  to  the  divine 
purpose,  came  in  the  fulness  of  time  to 
(56  his  Sa\"iour,  and  by  vh-tue  of  his  suf- 
ferings, all  who  believe  arc  justified  fi-om 
the  curse  of  the  law.  By  the  influences 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  he  is  regenerated, 
united  to  Christ  by  faith,  and  sanctified. 
True  believers,  thei'efore,  live  a  life  of 
dependence  on  the  promises ;  of  regu- 
larity and  obedience  to  God's  word ;  of 
holy  joy  and  peace ;  and  have  a  hope 
full  of  immortality. — 4.  His  future  state. 
As  it  respects  the  impenitent,  it  is  a 
state  of  separation  from  God,  and  eter- 
nal punishment,  Matt.  xxv.  46.  But  the 
righteous  shall  rise  to  gloiy,  honour, 
and  everlasting  joy.  To  the  former, 
death  will  be  the  introduction  to  misery; 
to  the  latter,  it  will  be  the  admission  to 
felicity.  All  will  be  tried  in  the  judg- 
ment-day, and  sentence  pronounced  ac- 
cordingly. The  wicked  will  be  driven 
away  in  his  wickedness,  and  the  righ- 
teous be  saved  with  an  everlasting  sal- 
vation. But  as  these  subjects  are  treated 
on  elsewhere,  we  refer  the  reader  to 
the  articles,  Grace.  Heavfn,  Hell, 


Sin.  Hartley's  Observations  on  Man; 
Boston's  Fourfold  State;  Kaimes^a 
Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man;  Locke, 
on  Und.  Reid  on  the  .,4ctTve  and  Inttl- 
lectual  PoKvers  of  Man  ;  IVollaston's 
Felig-ion  of  Kature ;  Harris's  Philoso- 
fihical  Arrangements. 
■  MANICHEES  or  Manicheans, 
{Mayiicheei^  a  sect  of  ancient  heretics, 
who  asserted  two  principles ;  so  called 
fYom  their  author  Manes,  or  Mani- 
chceus,  a  Pei-sian  by  nation,  and  educa- 
ted among  the  Magi,  being  himself  one 
of  that  number  before  he  embraced 
Christianity. 

This  heresy  had  its  first  rise  about 
the  year  277,  and  spread  itself  piinci- 
pally  in  Arabia,  Eg}  pt  and  Africa.  St. 
Epiphanius,  who  treats  of  it  at  large, 
observes  that  the  tme  nam.e  of  this  he- 
resiarch  was  Cubricus;  and  that  he 
changed  it  for  Manes,  which  in  the 
Persian  or  Babjlonish  language  signi- 
fies vessel.  A  rich  widow,  whose  ser- 
vant he  had  been,  dying  without  issue, 
left  him  stores  of  wealth ;  after  which 
he  assumed  the  title  of  the  ujiostle  or 
aivoy  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Manes  was  not  contented  Avith  the 
quality  of  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,  but 
he  also  assumed  that  of  the  pai-aclete, 
whom  Christ  had  promised  to  send; 
which  Augustine  explains,  by  saying, 
that  Manes  endeavoured  to  persuade 
men  that  the  Holy  Ghost  did  personally 
dwell  in  him  with  full  authority.  He  left 
several  disciples;  and  among  others, 
Addas,  Thomas,  and  Hcrmas.  These 
he  sent  in  his  life-time  into  several  pro- 
vuices  to  preach  his  doctrine.  Manes 
ha\ing  undertaken  to  cure  the  king  of 
Persia's  son,  and  not  succeeding,  was 
put  in  prison  upon  the  young  pinnce's 
death,  whence  he  made  his  escape ; 
but  he  was  apprehended  soon  after,  and 
flayed  alive. 

However,  the  oriental  writers  cited 
by  D'Herbelot  and  H\dc,  teU  us  that 
IVIancs,  after  having  been  jjrotected  in 
a  singular  manner  by  Hormizdas,  who 
succeeded  Sapor  in  the  Persian  throne, 
but  who  was  not  able  to  defend  him,  at 
length,  against  the  united  hatred  of  tlie 
Christians,  the  Magi,  the  Jews,  and  the 
Pagans,  was  shut  up  in  a  strong  cas- 
tle, to  serve  him  as  a  refuge  against 
those  who  persecuted  him  on  account 
of  his  doctrine.  They  add,  that  after 
the  death  of  Hormizdas,  Varanes  I.  his 
successor,  first  protected  Mar.cs,  but 
aftei-vvards  gave  him  up  to  the  fury  of 
the  Magi,  wliose  resentment  against  him 
was  due  to  his  having  adopted  the  Sad- 
duccan  principles,  as  some  say ;  while 
others  attribute  it  to  his  having'minglecl 


MAN 


337 


MAN 


the  tenets  of  the  Magi  with  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity.  However,  it  is 
certain  tliat  the  Manicheans  celebrated 
the  day  of  their  master's  death.  It  has 
been  a  subject  of  much  controversy 
whether  Manes  was  an  impostor.  The 
learned  Dr.  Lardner  has  eximined  the 
arguments  on  both  sides;  and  though 
he  does  not  choose  to  deny  that  he  was 
an  impostor,  he  does  not  discern  evident 
proofs  of  it.  He  acknowledges  that  he 
was  an  ai'rogant  philosopher,  and  a 
great  schemist ;  but  whether  he  was  an 
impostor  he  cannot  certainly  say.  He 
was  much  too  fond  of  philosophical  no- 
tions, which  he  endeavoured  to  bring 
into  religion,  for  which  he  is  to  be 
blamed:  nevertheless  he  observes  that, 
evei-y  bold  dogmatizerisnot  an  impostor. 

The  doctrine  of  Manes  was  a  motley 
mixture  of  the  tenets  of  Christianity 
with  the  ancient  philosophy  of  the  Per- 
sians, in  which  he  had  been  instructed 
during  his  youth.  He  combined  these 
two  systems,  and  applied  and  accom- 
modated to  Jesus  Christ  the  characters 
and  actions  which  the  Persians  attribut- 
ed to  the  god  Mithras. 

He  established  two  principles,  viz.  a 
good  and  an  evil  one:  the  first  a  most 
pure  and  subtle  matter,  which  he  called 
light,  did  nothing  but  good ;  and  the  se- 
cond a  gross  and  coriiipt  substance, 
which  he  called  darkness,  nothing  but 
evil.  This  philosophy  is  very  ancient ; 
and  Plutarch  treats  ot  it  at  large  in  his 
Iris  and  Osiris.  Our  souls,  according  to 
Manes,  were  made  by  the  good  princi- 
ple, and  our  bodies  by  the  evil  one ; 
these  two^principles  being,  according  to 
him,  co-eternal  and  independent  of  each 
other.  Each  of  these  is  subject  to  the 
dominion  of  a  superintendent  Being, 
whose  existence  is  from  all  eternity. 
The  Being  who  presides  over  the  light 
is  called  God ;  he  that  nales  the  land  of 
darkiiess  bears  the  title  of  hyle  or  de- 
■mon.  The  ruler  of  the  light  is  supreme- 
ly happy,  and  in  consequence  thereof 
benevolent  and  good ;  the  prince  of 
darkness  is  unhappy  in  himself  and  de- 
sirous of  rendering  others  partakers  of 
his  misery ;  and  is  e\'il  and  malignant. 
These  two  beings  have  produced  an  im- 
mense multitude  of  creatures  resem- 
bling themselves,  and  distributed  them 
through  their  respective  provinces.  Af- 
ter a  contest  between  the  ruler  of  light 
and  the  prince  of  darkness,  in  which 
the  latter  was  defeated,  this  prince  of 
darkness  produced  the  first  parents  of 
the  human  race.  The  beings  engender- 
ed from  this  original  stock  consist  of  a 
body  formed  out  of  the  corrupt  matter 
uf  the  kingdom  of  darkness,  and  of  two 


souls ;  one  of  which  is  sensitive  and  lust- 
ful, and  owes  its  existence  to  the  evil 
principle;  the  other  rational  and  im- 
mortal, a  particle  of  that  divine  light 
which  had  been  carried  away  in  Ihe 
contest  by  the  army  of  darkness,  and 
immersed  into  the  mass  of  malignant 
matter.  The  earth  was  created  by 
God  out  of  this  cornipt  mass  of  matter, 
in  oixler  to  be  a  dwelling  for  the  human 
race,  that  their  captive  souls  might  by- 
degrees  be  delivered  from  their  corpo- 
real prisons,  and  the  celestial  elements 
extricated  from  the  gross  substance  in 
which  they  were  involved.  With  this 
view  God  produced  two  beings  from 
his  own  substance,  viz.  Christ  and  the 
Holy  Ghost ;  for  the  Manicheans  held 
a  consubstantial  Tinnity.  Christ,  or 
the  glorious  intelligence,  called  by  the 
Persians  Mithras,  subsisting  m  and  by 
liimself,  and  residmg  in  the  sun,  ap- 
peared in  due  time  among  the  Jews, 
clothed  with  the  shadowy  form  of  a 
human  body,  to  disengage  the  rational 
soul  from  the  corrupt  body,  and  to  con- 
quer the  violence  of  malignant  matter. 
The  Jews,  incited  by  the  prince  of  dark- 
ness, put  him  to  an  ignominious  death, 
which  he  suffered  not  in  reality,  but 
only  in  appearance,  and  according  to 
the  opinion  of  men.  When  the  purposes 
of  Christ  were  accomplished,  he  return- 
ed to  his  throne  in  the  sun,  appointing 
apostles  to  propagate  his  religion,  and 
leaving  his  followers  the  promise  of  the 
paraclete  or  comforter,  who  is  Manes 
the  Persian.  Those  souls  who  believe 
Jesus  Christ  to  be  the  Son  of  God,  re- 
nounce the  worship  of  the  god  of  the 
Jews,  who  is  the  prince  of  darkness,  and 
obey  the  laws  delivered  by  Christ,  and 
illustrated  by  Manes  the  comforter,  are 
gradually  purified  from  the  contagion 
of  matter ;  and  their  purification  being 
completed,  after  having  passed  through 
two  states  of  trial,  by  water  and  fire, 
first  in  the  moon  and  then  in  the  sun, 
their  bodies  return  to  the  original  mass 
(for  the  Manicheans  derided  the  resur- 
rection of  bodies,)  and  their  souls  ascend 
to  the  regions  of  light.  But  the  souls  of 
those  who  have  neglected  the  salutary 
work  of  purification,  pass  after  death 
into  the  bodies  of  other  animals  and  na- 
tures, where  they  remain  till  they  have 
accomplished  their  probation.  Some, 
however,  more  perverse  and  obstinate, 
are  consigned  to  a  severer  course  of  trial, 
being  delivered  over  for  a  time  to  the 
power  of  malignant  aerial  spirits,  who 
torment  them  m  various  ways.  After 
this,  a  fire  shall  break  forth  and  con- 
sume the  frame  of  the  world ;  and  the 
prince  and  powers  of  darkness  shall  r^ 
U  u 


MAN 


}3S 


MAN 


turn  to  their  primitive  seats  of  anguish 
and  misery,  in  which  they  shall  dwell 
for  ever.  These  mansions  shall  be  sur- 
rounded by  an  invincible  guard,  to  pre- 
vent their  ever  renewing  a  war  in  the 
regions  of  light. 

.  Manes  borrowed  many  things  from 
the  ancient  Gnostics  ;  on  which  account 
many  authors  consider  the  Manicheans 
as  a  branch  of  the  Gnostics. 

In  ti'uth,  the  Mauichean  doctrine  was 
a  system  of  philosophy  rather  than  of 
religion.  They  made  use  of  amulets,  in 
imitation  of  the  Basilidians ;  and  are  said 
to  have  made  profession  of  astronomy 
and  astrology.  They  denied  that  Jesus 
Christ,  who  was  only  God,  assumed  a 
time  human  body,  and  maintained  it  was 
only  ima^-inaiy ;  and  therefore  they  de- 
nied his  mcarnation,  death,  &c.  They 
pretended  that  the  laAv  of  Mnses  did  not 
come  from  God,  or  the  good  principle, 
but  from  the  evil  one ;  and  that  for  this 
reason  it  was  abrogated.  They  rejected 
almost  all  the  sacred  hooks  in  whicli 
Christians  look  for  the  sublime  truths  of 
their  holv  religion.  They  affirmed  that 
the  Old  Testament  was  not  the  work  of 
God.  but  of  tlie  prince  of  darkness,  who 
■was  substituted  by  the  Jews  in  the  place 
•  of  the  true  God.  They  abstained  entire- 
ly from  eating  the  flesh  of  any  animal, 
following  herein  the  doctrine  of  the  an- 
cient Pythagoreans :  they  also  condemn- 
ed marriage.  The  rest  of  their  erroi-s 
mav  be  seen  in  St.  Epiphanius  and  St. 
Aueustine ;  which  last,  having  been  of 
their  sect,  may  be  presumed  to  have 
been  thoroughly  acquainted  with  them. 

Though  the  Manichees  professed  to 
receive  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, yet  in  effect  they  only  took  so 
much  of  them  as  suited'  with  their  own 
opinions.  They  first  formed  to  them- 
selves a  ceitJiinidea  or  scheme  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  to  this  adjusted  the  writings 
of  the  apostles,  pretending  that  what- 
ever was  inconsistent  vnth  this  had 
been  foisted  into  the  New  Testament 
by  the  later  writers,  who  were  half 
Jews.  On  the  other  hand,  they  made 
fables  and  apocry])hal  books  pass  for 
apostolical  writings ;  and  even  are  sus- 
pected to  have  forced  sevei'al  others, 
the  better  to  maintam  their  errors.  St. 
Epiphanius  ^^ives  a  catidogue  of  several 
pieces  published  by  Manes,  and  adds 
extracts  out  of  some  of  them.  These 
are  the  Mysteries,  Chapters,  Gospel, 
and  Treasury. 

The  rule  of  life  and  ^planners  which 
Manes  prescribc-d  to  his  followers  was 
most  extra\'an:antly  j-igoi-ous  and  severe. 
However,  h;-  divided  his  disciples  into 
two  classes ;  one  of  which  comprehend- 


ed the  perfect  Chnstian,  under  the 
name  of  the  eleci ;  and  the  other  the 
imperfect  and  feeble,  under  the  title  of 
auditors  or  hearers.  The  elect  v>'ere 
obliged  to  rigorous  and  entire  abstmence 
from  flesh,  eggs,  milk,  fish,  wine,  all  in- 
toxicating drink,  wedlock,  and  all  amo. 
rous  gratifications ;  and  to  live  in  a  state 
of  the  severest  penury,  noui'ishing  their 
emaciated  bodies  with  bread,  herbs, 
pulse  and  melons,  and  depriving  them- 
selves of  all  the  comforts  that  anse  from 
the  moderate  indulgence  of  natural  pas- 
sions, and  also  from  a  variety  of  inno- 
cent and  agreeable  pursuits.  The  audi- 
tors were  allowed  to  possess  houses, 
lands,  and  wealth;  to  feed  on  flesh,  to 
enter  into  the  bonds  of  conjugal  tender- 
ness ;  but  this  liberty  was  granted  them 
with  many  limitations,  and  under  the 
strictest  conditions  of  moderation  and 
temperance.  The  general  assembly  of 
Manicheans  was  headed  by  a  pi-esident, 
who  represented  Jesus  Christ.  There 
were  joined  to  him  twelve  rulers  or 
masters,  who  were  designed  to  repre- 
sent the  twelve  apostles,  and  these 
were  fr'Uowed  by  seventy -two  bishops  ; 
the  images  of  the  seventy-two  disciples 
of  our  Lord.  These  bishops  had  pres- 
byters or  deacons  under  them,  and  all 
the  members  of  these  religious  orders 
were  chosen  out  of  the  class  of  the  elect. 
Their  worship  was  simple  and  plain, 
and  consisted  of  prayers,  reading  the 
Scriptures,  and  hearing  public  discoui's- 
es,  at  which  both  the  auditors  and  elect 
were  allowed  to  be  pi'esent.  They  also 
obser\ed  the  Christian  appointment  of 
baptism,  and  the  eucharist.  They  kept 
the  Lord's  day,  ol^serving  it  as  a  fast: 
and  they  likewise  kept  Easter  and  the 
Pentecost. 

Towards  the  fourth  century  the  Mani- 
cheans concealed  themselves  under  va- 
rious names,  which  they  successively 
adopted,  and  changed  in  proportion  as 
they  were  discovered  by  them.  Thus 
they  assunped  tlie  names  of  Encratites, 
Apotactics,  Saccophori,  Hj'droparas- 
tates.  Solitaries,  and  several  others,  un- 
der which  they  lay  concealed  for  a  cer- 
tain time,  but  could  not,  howevei',  long 
escape  the  vigilance  of  their  enemies. 
About  the  close  of  the  sixth  century, 
this  sect  gained  a  very  considerable  in- 
fluence, particularly  among  the  Per- 
sians. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century,  the  sect  of-  Manichees  took  a 
new  face,  on  account  of  one  Constan- 
tine,  an  Armenian,  and  an  adherer  to 
it ;  who  took  -upon  him  to  suppress  the 
reading  of  all  other  books  besides  the 
evangelists  and  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul, 


MAR 


3a9 


INIAR 


which  he  explained  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  make  them  contain  a  new  system 
of  Manicheipm.  He  entirely  discai'ded 
all  the  writings  of  his  predecessors ;  re- 
jecting the  chimeras  of  the  Valentini- 
ans  and  their  thirty  xons :  the  fable  of 
Manes,  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  i-ain, 
and  other  dreams ;  but  still  retained  the 
impurities  of  Basilides.  In  this  manner 
he  reformed  Manicheism,  insomuch  that 
his  followers  made  no  scruple  of  ana- 
thematizing Schythian,  Buddas,  called 
also  Addas  and  Tercliintfi,  the  contem- 
poraries and  disciples,  as  some  say,  and, 
according  to  others,  the  predecessors 
and  masters  of  Manes,  and  e\-en  Manes 
himself;  Constantine  being  now  their 
great  apostle.  After  he  had  seduced  an 
infinite  number  of  people,  he  was  at  last 
stoned  by  order  of  the  emperor. 

This  sect  prevailed  in  Bosnia  and  the 
adjacent  provinces  about  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century  ;  pi'opagated  their 
doctrine  with  confidence,  and  held  their 
religious  assemblies  with  impunity. 

IVIANNERS:  the  plural  noiin  has 
various  significations ;  as  the  general 
way  of  life,  the  morals  or  the  habits  of 
any  person ;  also  ceremonial  beha\'iour 
or  stvid'.ed  civility.  Good  manners,  ac- 
cording to  Swift,  is  the  art  of  making 
those  people  easy  with  whom  we  con- 
verse. Pride,  ill-nature,  and  want  of 
sense,  are  the  thi-ee  great  sources  of  ill- 
manners.  Without  some  one  of  these 
defects  no  man  will  behave  himself  ill 
for  want  of  experience  ;  or  of  what,  in 
the  language  of  some,  is  called  knowing 
the  world.  For  the  effect  that  Christi- 
anity has  on  the  manners  of  men,  see 
article  Christianity. 

MARCELLIANS,  a  sect  of  ancient 
heretics  towards  the  close  of  the  second 
century;  so  called  fi-om  Marcellus  of 
Ancyra,  their  leader,  who  was  accused 
of  reviving  the  errors  of  Sabellius. 
Some,  howevei',  are  of  opinion  that 
Marcellus  was.oi-thodox,  and  that  they 
Avere  his  enemies  the  Arians,  who  fa- 
thered their  errors  upon  him.  St.  Epi- 
phanius  observes,  that  there  was  a  great 
deal  of  dispute  with  regard  to  the  real 
tenets  of  Marcellus ;  but  as  to  his  fol- 
lowers, it  is  evident  that  they  did  not 
own  the  three  hypostases ;  for  Marcel- 
lus considered  the  Son  and  Holy  Ghost 
as  two  emanations  from  the  divine  na- 
ture, which,  after  performing  their  re- 
spective offices,  wei-e  to  return  again 
into  the  substance  of  the  Father;  and 
this  opinion  is  altogether  incompatible 
with  the  belief  of  three  distinct  persons 
in  the  Godhead. 

MARCIONITES,  or  Marcionists, 
Marcionistc^,  a  very  ancient  and  popular 


sect  of  heretics,  who,  in  the  time  of 
Epiphanius,  wei'e  spread  over  Italy, 
Eg}pt,  Palestine,  Sjria,  Arabia,  Persia, 
and  other  countries:  they  were  thus  de- 
nominated fi'om  their  author  Marcion. 
Marcion  was  of  Pontus,  the  son  of  a  bi- 
shop, and  at  first  made  profession  of  the 
monastical  life  ;  but  he  was  excommu- 
nicated by  his  own  father,  who  would 
ne\  er  admit  him  again  into  communion 
with  the  church,  not  even  on  his  repent- 
ance. On  this  he  abandoned  his  own 
country,  and  retired  to  Rome,  where  he 
began  to  broach  his  doctrines. 

He  laid  down  two  principles,  the  one 
^ood,  the  other  evil ;  between  these  he 
imagined  an  intermediate  kind  of  Deity, 
of  a  mixed  nature,  who  was  the  Cveator 
of  this  mferior  world,  and  the  god  and 
legislator  of  the  Jewish  nation:  the 
other  nations  who  worshipped  a  variety 
of  gods,  were  supposed  to  be  under  the 
empii-e  of  the  evil  principle.  These  two 
conflicting  powers  exercised  oppressions 
upon  rational  and  immortal  souls;  and 
therefore  the  supreme  God,  to  deliver 
them  from  bondage,  sent  to  the  Jews  a 
Being  more  like  unto  himself,  even  his 
Son  Jesus  Christ,  clothed  with  a  certain 
shadowy  resemblance  of  a  body:  this 
celestial  messenger  was  attacked  by 
the  prince  of  darkness,  and  by  the  god 
of  the  Jews,  but  without  effect.  Those 
who  followed  the  directions  of  this  ce- 
lestial conductor,  mortify  the  body  by- 
fastings  and  austerities,  and  renounce 
the  precepts  of  the  god  of  the  Jews  and 
of  the  prince  of  darkness,  shall  after 
death  ascend  to  the  mansions  of  felicity 
and  perfection.  The  rule  of  manners 
which  Mai'cion  prescribed  to  his  follow- 
ers was  excessi\'ely  austere,  containing 
an  express  prohibition  of  wedlock,  wine, 
flesh,  and  all  the  external  comforts  of 
life. 

Marcion  denied  the  real  birth,  incar- 
nation, and  passion  of  Jesus  Christ,  and 
held  them  to  be  apparent  only.  He  de- 
nied tiie  resurrection  of  the  body,  and 
allowed  none  to  be  baptized  but  those 
who  preserved  their  continence;  but 
these  he  granted  might  be  baptized 
thi-ee  times.  In  many  things  he  follow- 
ed the  sentiments  of  the  heretic  Cerdon, 
and  rejected  the  law  and  the  prophets. 
He  pretended  the  Gospel  had  been  cor- 
itipted  by  false  prophets,  and  allowed 
none  of  the  evangelists  but  St.  Luke, 
whom  also  he  altered  in  many  places, 
as  well  as  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  a 
great  many  things  in  which  he  threw 
out.  In  his  own  copy  of  St.  Luke  he 
threw  out  the  first  two  chapters  entire. 

MARCITES,  Marcit^,  a  sect  of 
heretics  in  the  second  centuiy,  who  also 


MAR 


340 


MAR 


called  themselves  the  fierfecti,  and  made 
profession  of  doing  every  thing  with  a 
great  deal  of  liberty  and  without  fear. 
This  doctrine  tliey  borrowed  from  Si- 
mon Magus,  who  however  was  not  their 
chief;  for  they  were  called  Murcites 
from  one  Marcus,  who  conferred  the 
priesthood,  and  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments,  on  women. 

MARCOSIANS,  or  Colobarsians, 
an  ancient  sect  in  the  church,  making  a 
branch  of  the  Valentinians. 

St.  Irenffius  speaks  at  large  of  the 
leader  of  this  sect,  Marcus,  who  it 
seems  was  reputed  a  great  magician. 
The  Marcosians  had  a  great  number  of 
apociyphal  books  which  they  held  for 
canonical,  and  of  the  same  authority 
with  ours.  Out  of  these  they  picked 
several  idle  fables  touching  the  infancy 
of  Jesus  Christ,  which  they  put  off  for 
true  histories.  Many  of  these  fables 
are  still  in  use  and  credit  among  the 
Greek  monks. 

MARONITES,  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory, a  sect  of  eastern  ClM'istians  who 
follow  the  Syrian  rite,  and  are  subject  to 
the  pope ;  their  pi'incipal  habitation  be- 
ing on  Mount  Libanus. 

Mosheim  informs  us  that  the  doctrine 
of  the  Monothelites,  condemned  and  ex- 
ploded by  the  council  of  Constantinople, 
found  a  place  of  refuge  among  the  Mar- 
daites,  a  people  who  inhabited  the 
Mounts  Libanus  and  Atilibanus,  and 
■who  about  the  conclusion  of  the  seventh 
century,  were  called  Maronites,  after 
7l/aro,' their  first  bishop  ;  a  name  which 
they  still  I'etain.  None  (he  says)  of  the 
ancient  writei's  give  any  account  of  the 
first  pei-son  who  instructed  these  moun- 
taineers in  the  doctrine  of  the  Monothe- 
lites :  it  is  probable,  however,  from  se- 
veral circumstances,  that  it  was  John 
Maro,  whose  name  they  adopted ;  and 
lliat  tliis  ecclesiastic  received  the  name 
of  Maro  from  his  having  lived  in  the 
character  of  a  monk  in  the  famous  con- 
vent of  St.  Maro,  upon  the  borders  of 
the  Orontes,  before  his  settlement 
among  the  Mardaites  of  Mount  Liba- 
nus. One  thing  is  certain,  from  the 
testimony  of  Tyrius  and  other  unexcep- 
tionable witnesses,  as  also  from  the  most 
authentic  records,  viz.  that  the  Maron- 
ites retained  the  opinions  of  the  Mono- 
thelites until  the  twelfth  century,  when 
abandoning  and  renouncing  the  doctrine 
of  one  will  in  Christ,  they  were  re-ad- 
mitted in  the  year  1182  to  the  commu- 
nion of  the  Roman  church.  The  most 
learned  of  the  niodcni  Maronites  have 
left  no  metiiod  unemployed  to  defend 
their  churcli  against  this  accusation ; 
they  have  labouied  to  prove,  by  a  a  a- 


riety  of  testimonies,  that  their  ancestor's 
always  persevered  in  the  Catholic  faith, 
in  their  attachment  to  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff, without  ever  adopting  the  doctrine 
of  the  Monophysites,  or  Monothelites. 
But  all  their  efforts  are  insufficient  to 
prove  the  truth  of  these  assertions  to 
such  as  ha-\e  any  acquaintance  with  the 
history  of  the  church,  and  the  records 
of  ancient  times;  for  to  all  such,  the 
testimonies  they  allege  Avill  appear  ab- 
solutely fictitious,  and  destitute  of  au- 
thority. 

Faustus  Noiron,  a  Maronite  settled  at 
Rome,  has  published  an  apology  for 
Maro  and  the  rest  of  his  nation.  His 
tenet  is,  that  they  really  took  their  name 
from  the  Maro,  who  lived  about  the 
year  400,  and  of  whom  mention  is  made 
m  Chrysostom,  Theodoret,  and  the  Me- 
nologium  of  the  Greeks.  He  adds,  that 
the  disciples  of  this  Maro  spread  them- 
selves throughout  all  Syria ;  that  they 
built  several  monasteries,  and  among 
others  one  that  bore  tlie  name  of  their 
leader;  that  all  the  Syrians  who  were 
not  tainted  with  heresy  took  refuge 
among  them  ;  and  that  for  this  reason 
the  heretics  of  those  times  called  them 
Maronites. 

Mosheim  observes,  that  the  subjection 
of  the  Maronites  to  the  spiritual  juris- 
diction of  the  Roman  pontiff  was  agi'eed 
to  with  this  express  condition ;  that  nei- 
ther the  popes  nor  their  emissaries 
should  pi'etend  to  change  or  abolish  any 
thing  that  related  to  the  ancient  rites, 
moral  precepts,  or  religious  opinions  of 
this  people :  so  that  in  reality  there  is 
nothing  to  be  found  among  the  Maron- 
ites that  sa\'ours  of  popery,  if  we  except 
their  attachment  to  the  Roman  pontiff, 
who  is  obliged  to  pay  very  dear  for  their 
friendship.  For  as  tlie  Maronites  live 
in  the  utmost  distress  of  poverty,  under 
the  tyrannical  yoke  of  the  Mahometans, 
the  bishop  of  Rome  is  under  the  necessity 
of  furnishing  them  with  subsidies  as  may 
appease  their  oppressors,  procure  a 
subsistence  for  the  bishop  and  clergy, 
provide  all  things  requisite  for  the  sup- 
port of  their  churches,  and  the  uninter- 
rupted exercise  of  public  worship,  and 
contriI>ute  in  general  to  lessen  their  mi- 
series. It  is  certain  that  there  are  Ma- 
ronites in  Syria  who  still  behold  the 
church  of  Rome  with  the  greatest  aver- 
sion and  abhorrence ;  nay,  what  is  still 
more  i-emarkalile,  great  numbers  of 
that  nation  residing  in  Italy,  e\  en  under 
tlie  eye  of  the  pontiff,  opposed  his  au- 
thority during  the  last  century,  and 
threw  the  court  of  Rome  into  great  per- 
plexity. One  body  of  these  non-conform- 
uig  Maronites  retired  into  the  valleys  of 


MAR 


341 


MAR 


Piedmont,  where  they  joined  the  Wsl- 
denses;  another,  above  six  hundred  in 
number,  with  a  bisliop  and  several  ec- 
clesiastics at  their  head,  Hed  into  Cor- 
sica, and  implored  the  protection  of  the 
Republic  of  Genoa  agamst  the  violence 
of  the  inquisitoi-s. 

The  Maronites  have  a  patriarch  who 
resides  in  the  monastery  of  Cannubin, 
on  Mount  Libanus,  and  assumes  the 
title  of  patriarch  of  Antioch,  and  the 
name  of^  Peter,  as  if  he  seemed  desirous 
of  being  considered  as  the  successor  of 
that  apostle.  He  is  elected  by  the  cler- 
ry  and  the  people,  according  to  the  an- 
cient custom ;  but,  since  their  re-union 
with  the  church  of  Rome,  he  is  obhged 
to  have  a  bull  of  contiimiition  from  the 
pope.  He  keeps  a  perpetual  cehoacy, 
as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  bishops,  his 
suffragans :  as  to  the  rest  of  the  eccle- 
siastics, they  are  allowed  to  mari-y  be- 
fore ordination ;  and  yet  the  monastic 
1  f e  is  in  great  esteein  among  them. 
Their  monks  ai-e  of  the  order  of  bt. 
Anthony,  and  hve  in  the  most  obscure 
places  in  the  mountains,  far  from  the 
commerce  of  the  world. 

As  to  their  faith,  they  agree  in  the 
mJiin  with  the  rest  of  the  Eastern 
chqrch.  Their  priests  do  not  say  mass 
singlv,  but  all  say  it  together,  sxautling 
rr.iind  the  altar.  I'hey  communicate  in 
unleavened  bread:  aiid  the  laity  have 
hitherto  partaken  in  both  kinds,  though 
the  practice  of  communicating  m  one 
has  of  late  been  getting  footing,  having 
been  introduced  by  little  and  little.  In 
Lent  thev  eat  nothing,  unless  it  be  two 
or  three  hours  before  sun-rising :  their 
other  fastings  are  very  numerous. 

MARRIAGE,  a  convenant  between  a 
man  and  a  woman,  in  whicli  they  mu- 
tualh-  promise  cohabitation,  and  a  con- 
tiiuipj  care  to  promote  the  comfort  and 
happiness  of  each  other.  By  Grove 
thus:  "A  society  formed  between  two 
persons  of  different  sexes,  chiefly  for  the 
pi-ocreation  and  education  of  childi'en." 
This  union  is  very  near  and  strict,  and 
indeed  indissoluble  but  by  death,  ex- 
cepting in  one  case ;  unfaithfuhiess  in 
the  one  or  the  other  bv  adultery  or  for- 
nication, Rom.  vii.  2.  Matt.  v.  32.  It  is 
to  be  entered  into  with  deliberation  at  a 
pi'oper  age,  and  with  mutual  consent, 
as  well  as  with  the  consent  of  parents 
and  guardians,  under  whose  care  single 
persons  may  be.  It  is  a  very  honourable 
state,  Heb.  xiii.  4.  being  an  institution 
of  God,  and  that  in  Paradise,  Gen.  u. 
Chi'ist  honoured  marriage  by  his  pre- 
sence, and  at  such  a  solemnity  wrought 
his  first  miracle,  Jolin  ii.  Moreover,  it 
!«  honourable,  as  families   are  formed 


and  built  up,  the  world  peopled  with 
inhabitants ;  it  prevents  incontinence 
and  fornication,  and,  where  the  various 
duties  ot  it  are  attended  to,  renders  life 
a  blessmg. 

The  laws  of  revelation,  as  well  as 
most  civilized  countries,  have  made  se- 
veral exceptions  of  persons  marrying 
who  are  nearly  related  by  blood.  The 
mairiage  of  parents  and  children  ap- 
pears, at  first  view,  contrary  to  nature, 
not  merely  on  account  of  the  disparity 
of  age,  but  of  the  confusion  which  it  in- 
troduces into  natural  relations,  and  its 
obliging  to  inconsistent  duties;  such  as 
reverence  to  a  son,  and  the  daughter  to 
be  equal  with  the  father.  Nor  can  the 
sen  or  daughter  acquit  themselves  of 
such  inciinsistent  duties  as  would  arise 
trom  this  unnatural  union.  The  mar- 
riage of  brothers  and  sisters,  and  of 
some  other  near  relations,  is  likewise 
disapproved  by  reason  on  various  ac- 
counts. It  fnistrates  one  design  of  mar- 
riage, which  is  to  enlarge  benevolence 
and  friendship,  by  cementing  various  fa- 
milies in  a  clcse  alliance.  And,  farther, 
were  it  allowed,  young  persons,  instead 
cf  entering  into  marriage  upon  mature 
consideration,  with  a  settled  esteem  and 
friendship,  and  a  proper  concern  and 
provision  for  the  support  and  education 
of  cliildren,  would  be  in  danger  (through 
the  intimacy  and  afiection  produced  by 
their  near  relation,  and  being  bred  to- 
gether) of  sliding  in  their  inconsiderate 
years  into  those  criminal  familiarities 
which  are  most  destructive  of  the  great 
ends  of  mamage.  Most  nations  have 
agreed  to  brand  such  marriages  as 
highly  criminal,  who  cannot  be  sup- 
posed to  have  derived  their  judgment 
from  Moses  and  the  Israelites.  It  is  pro- 
bable God  expressly  prohibited  these 
marriages  ui  the  beginning  of  mankind, 
and  from  the  first  heads  of  families  the 
prohibition  might  be  transmitted  as  a 
most  sacred  law  to  their  descendants. 
See  Incest. 

Some  have  supposed  frpm  those  pas- 
sages, 1  Tim.iii.  2.  Tit.  i.  6.  that  bishops 
or  pastors  ought  never  to  many  a  se- 
cond wife.  But  such  a  prohibition  would 
be  contrary  to  natural  right,  and  the  de- 
sign of  the  laAv.  itself;  neither  of  which 
was  ever  uitended  to  be  set  aside  by  the 
Gospel  dispensation.  It  is  more  proba- 
bly designed  to  guard  against  polygamy, 
and  against  divorce  on  frivolous  occa- 
sions ;  both  of  which  were  frequent 
among  the  Jews,  but  condemned  by  our 
Lord,  Matt.  xix.  3 — 9. 

The  duties  of  this  state  are  on  the 
part  of  the  husband,  love,  '^(ftierior  to 
any  shown  to  any  otiier  perSOT;  a  love 


MAR 


342 


MAR 


of  complacency  and  delight,  Prov.  v. 
18,  19.  Chaste  and  single.  Provision 
for  the  temporal  good  of  the  wife  and 
family,  1  Tim.  v.  3.  Protection  from 
abuse  and  iiiiuries,  Ruth  iii.  9.  1  Sum. 
XXXV.  5,  18.  I)oing  every  thing  that  may 
contribute  to  the  pleasure,  peace,  and 
comfort  of  the  wife,  1  Cor.  vii.  33. 
Seeking  her  spiritual  welfare,  and  every 
thing  that  shall  promote  her  edification 
and  felicity.  The  duties  on  the  part  of 
the  wife  are,  reverence,  subjection,  obe- 
dience, assistance,  sympathy,  assuming 
no  authority,  and  continuance  with  him, 
Ei)h.  V.  32,  33.  Tit.  ii.  5.  1  Tim.  v.  11, 
12.  Ruth.  i.  16.  See  articles  Divorce, 
Parent.  Grove's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  ii.  p. 
470;  Pakxfs  Mar.  Phil.  ch.  viii.  vol.  i. 
p.  339 ;  Bean's  Christian  Minister's 
Advice  to  a  A'cw-ynarricd  Con/ile ; 
Guide  to  Domestic  Happiness;  Ad- 
vantages and  Disadvantages  of  the 
Marriage  State;  StcTinctt  on  Domestic 
Duties;  Jay's  Ussay  on  Marriage; 
Doddridge's  Led.  225,  234,  265.  vol.  i. 
oct.  ed. 

MARTYR,  is  one  who  lays  down  his 
life  or  suffers  death  for  the  sake  of  his 
religion.  The  word  is  Greek,  ^ajny, 
and  properly  signifies  a  "  witness."  It 
is  applied  by  way  of  eminence  to  those 
who  suffer  in  witness  of  the  truth  of  the 
Gospel. 

The  Chi'istian  church  has  abounded 
with  martyrs,  and  history  is  filled  with 
surprising  accounts  of  their  singular 
constanc}^  and  fortitude  under  the  cruel- 
est  torments  human  nature  was  capa- 
ble of  suftering.  The  primitive  Chi'is- 
tians  were  accused  by  their  enemies  of 
paying  a  sort  of  divine  worship  to  mar- 
t3rs.  Of  this  we  have  an  instance  in 
the  answer  of  the  chiu-ch  of  Smyrna 
to  the  suggestion  of  the  Jews,  who,  at 
the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp,  desired  the 
heathen  judge  not  to  suffer  the  Chris- 
tians to  carry  off  his  body,  lest  they 
should  leave  their  crucified  master,  and 
worship  him  in  his  stead.  To  which 
they  answered,  "We  can  neither  for- 
sake Christ,  nor  worship  any  other ;  for 
we  worship  him  as  the  bon  of  God ;  but 
love  the  martyrs  as  the  disciples  and 
followers  of  the  Lord,  for  the  great  af- 
fection they  have  sJiown  to  their  King 
and  Master."  A  like  answer  was  given 
at  the  martyrdom  of  Fructuosus  in 
Spain  ;  for  when  the  judge  asked  I'^do- 
gius,  his  deacon,  whetlier  he  would  not 
worship  Fructuosus,  as  thinking,  that, 
though  he  refused  to  worship  the  hea- 
then idols,  he  might  yet  be  inclined  to 
worship  a  Christian  martyr,  Eulogius 
replied,  -"I  do  not  worship  Fructuosus, 
but  him  whom  Fructuosus  worsliips."^ 


I  The  primitive  Christians  believed  that 
j  the  martyrs  enjoyed  acij  singular  pri- 
vileges ;  that  upon  their  death  they 
I  Avere  immediately  admitted  to  the  be- 
atific vision,  while  other  souls  waited  for 
the  completion  of  their  hap]  mess  till 
the  day  of  judgment;  and  that  God 
would  gi-ant  to  their  prayers  the  has- 
tening of  his  kingdom,  and  shortening 
the  times  of  persecution.  Perhaps  this 
consideration  might  excite  many  to  court 
martyrdom,  as  we  believe  many  did.  It 
must  be  recollected,  however,  that  mar- 
tyrdom in  itself  i.s  no  proof  of  the  good- 
ness of  our  cause,  only  that  we  ourselves 
are  persuaded  that  it  is  so.  "It  is  not 
the  olood,  but  the  cause  that  makes  the 
martyr."  {Mead.)  Yet  we  may  consi- 
der the  number  and  fortitude  of  those 
who  have  suffered  for  Christianity  as  a 
collateral  proof  at  least  of  its  excel- 
lency ;  for  the  thing  for  which  they  suf- 
feredwas  not  a  poirit  of  speculation,  but 
a  plain  matter  of  fact,  in  which  (had  it 
been  false)  they  could  not  have  been 
mistaken.  The  martyrdom,  therefore, 
of  so  many  wise  and  good  men,  taken 
with  a  view  of  the  whole  system  of 
Christianity,  will  certainly  afford  some- 
thing considerable  in  its  favour. 

The  churches  built  over  the  graves  ci 
the  maityrs,  and  called  by  their  names, 
in  order  to  preserve  the  memory  of 
their  sufferings,  were  distingtiished  by 
the  title  mariyrium  co7ifessio,  or  me- 
nioria. 

The  festivals  of  the  martyrs  are  of 
very  ancient  date  m  the  Christian 
church,  and  may  be  carried  back  at 
least  from  the  time  of  Polycarp,  who 
suffered  martyrdom  about  the  year  of 
Christ  168.  On  these  days  the  Chris- 
tians met  at  the  graA'es  of  the  martyrs, 
and  offered  prayers  and  thanksgivings 
to  God  for  the  example  they  had  afford- 
ed them :  they  celebrated  the  euchar- 
ist,  and  gave  alms  to  the  poor;  which, 
together  with  a  ])aneg)'rical  oration  or 
sermon,  and  reading  the  acts  of  the 
maityrs,  were  the  spiritual  exercises 
of  these  anniversaries. 

Of  the  sayings,  sufferings,  and  deaths 
of  the  martyrs,  tliough  preserved  with 
gi'eat  care  tor  the  above  puiijose,  and 
to  serve  as  models  to  future  ages,  we 
have  but  very  little  left,  the  g-eatest 
part  of  them  having  been  desti'oyed 
during  that  dreadful  persecution  which* 
Dioclesian  carried  on  for  ten  years  with 
fresh  fury  against  the  Christians ;  fer  a 
most  diligent  search  was  then  made  af- 
ter all  their  books  and  papei-s ;  and  all 
of  them  that  were  found  were  committed 
to  the  flames.  F.usebius,  indeed,  com- 
posed a  martyrology,  but  it  never  reach- 


MAR 


34: 


ed  down  to  us;  and  those  since  com- 
piled are  extremely  suspected.  From 
the  eighth  ct:ntury  downwards,  several 
Greek  and  L-itin  authors  endeavoured 
to  make  up  the  loss,  by  compiling,  with 
vast  labour,  accounts  of  the  lives  and 
actions  of  the  ancient  martyrs, but  which 
consist  of  little  else  than  a  series  of  fa- 
bles: nor  are  those  records  that  pass 
undei-  tlie  name  of  martyrology  worthy 
of  superior  credit,  since  they  bear  the 
most  evident  marks  both  of  ignoi'ance 
and  falsehood. 

MARTYROLOGY,  a  catalogue  or 
list  of  martyrs,  including  the  history  of 
their  lives  and  sufferings  for  the  sake  of 
religion.  The  term  comes  from  jiajrvp 
"  witness,"  and  w/m,  dico,  or  ki^u  col/iifo. 

The  martvrologies  draw  their  mate- 
rials from  the  calendars  of  particular 
chuixhes,  in  which  tlie  several  festivals 
dedicated  to  them  are  marked ;  and 
which  seem  to  be  derived  from  the 
practice  of  the  ancient  Romans,  who  in- 
serted the  names  of  heroes  and  great 
men  in  their  fasti,  or  public  registci-s. 

The  martyrologies  are  veiy  nume- 
rous, and  contain  many  ridiculous  and 
even  contradictory  narratives  ;  which  is 
easily  accounted  for,  if  we  consider  how 
many  forged  and  spurious  accounts  of 
the  lives  of  saints  and  martyrs  appeared 
in  the  first  ages  of  the  church,  which 
the  legendary  writers  afterwards  adopt- 
ed without  examining  into  the  truth  of 
them.  However,  some  good  critics,  of 
late  years,  have  gone  a  great  way  to- 
wards clearing  the  lives  of  the  saints 
and  martyrs  from  the  monstrous  heap 
of  fiction  they  laboured  under.  See  ar- 
ticle Legend. 

The  martyrology  of  Eusebius  of  Cx- 
sarea  was  the  most  celebrated  in  the 
ancient  church.  It  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  St.  Jerome ;  but  the  learned 
agree  that  it  is  not  now  extant.  That 
attributed  to  Beda  in  the  eighth  century, 
is  of  very  doubtful  authority  ;  the  names 
of  several  saints  being  there  found  who 
did  not  live  till  after  the  time  of  Beda. 
The  ninth  century  was  very  fertile  m 
mai-tyrologies ;  then  appeared  that  of 
Floinis,  subdeacon  of  the  church  at  Ly- 
ons; who,  however,  only  filled  up  the 
chasms  in  Beda.  This  was  published 
about  the  year  830,  and  was  followed  by 
that  of  Waldenburtus,  Uionk  of  the  dio- 
cese of  Treves,  written  in  verse  about 
the  year  848  ;  and  this  by  that  of  Usard, 
a  French  monk,  and  written  by  the 
cornmand  of  Charles  the  Bald,  in  875, 
which  last  is  the  martyrology  now  ordi- 
narily used  in  the  Romish  church.  That 
of  Rabanus  Maurus  is  an  improA'ement 
on  Beda  and  Florus,  written  about  the 


*        MAS" 

year  845 ;  that  of  Noker,  monk  of  SL 
Gal,  was  written  about  the  year  894. 
The  martyrology  of  Ado,  monk  of  Ter- 
riers, in  the  diocese  of  Treves,  after- 
wards archbishop  of  Vienne,  is  a  de- 
scendant of  the  Roman,  if  we  may  so 
call  it ;  for  Du  SoUier  gi\"es  its  genealo- 
gy thus : — The  martyrology  of  St.  Je- 
rome is  the  great  Roman  martyrology ; 
from  this  was  made  the  little  Roman 
one  printed  by  Rosweyd ;  of  this  little 
Roman  martyrology  was  fonned  that  of 
Beda,  augmented  by  Florus.  Ado  com- 
piled his  in  the  year  858.  The  mar- 
tyrology of  Nevelon  monk  of  Corbie, 
written  about  the  year  1089,  is  little 
more  than  an  abridgment  of  that  of 
Ado:  father  Kircher  also  makes  m.en- 
tion  of  a  Coptic  martyrology,  preserved 
by  the  Maronites  at  Rome. 

We  have  also  several  Protestant  mar- 
tyi'ologies,  containing  the  sufferings  of 
the  reformed,  under  the  Papists,  viz. 
an  English  martyrology  by  J.  Fox ; 
with  others  by  Clark,  Bray,  &c.  See 
Persecution. 

Martyrolijgv  is  also  used  in  the  Ro- 
mish church  for  a  roll  or  register  kept 
in  the  vestiy  of  each  church,  containing 
the  na?nes  of  all  the  saints  and  martyrs 
both  of  the  universal  chuich,  and  of 
the  particular  ones  of  that  city  or  mo- 
nastery. 

Martyrology  is  also  applied  to  the 
painted  or  written  catalogues  in  the  Ro- 
man churches,  containing  the  founda- 
tions, orbits,  prayers,  and  masses,  to  be 
said  each  day. 

MASORA,  a  tenn  in  the  Jewish  the- 
ology, signifying  a  work  on  the  Bible, 
performed  by  several  learned  rabbins  to 
secure  it  from  any  alterations  which 
might  otherwise  happen. 

Their  work  regards  merely  the  letter 
of  the  Hebrew  text,  in  which  they  have 
first  fixed  the  true  reading  by  vowels 
and  accents;  they  have,  secondly,  num.- 
bered  not  only  the  chapters  and  sections, 
but  the  verses,  words,  and  letters  of  the 
text:  and  they  fi.nd  in  the  Pentateuch 
5245  verses,  and  in  the  whole  Bible 
23,206.  The  masora  is  called  by  the 
Jews,  the  hedge  or  fence  of  the  law,  be- 
cause this  enumeration  of  the  verses, 
&c.  is  a  means  of  preservhig  it  from  be- 
ing corrupted  and  altered.  They  have, 
thirdly,  marked  whatever  iiTegularities 
occur"  in  any  of  the  letters  of  the  He- 
brew text;  such  as  the  different  size  of 
the  letters,  their  various  positions  and 
inversions,  &c.  and  they  have  been  fruit- 
fid  in  finding  out  reasons  for  these  mys- 
teries and  irregularities  in  them.  Thev 
ai-e,  fourthly,  supposed  to  be  the  au- 
thors of  the  Ken  and  Chetibh,  or  the 


MAS 


H4 


MAS 


marginal  corrections  of  the  text  in  our 
Hebrew  Bibles. 

The  text  of  the  sacred  books,  it  is  to 
be  observed,  was  originally  written 
"without  any  breaks  or  divisions  into 
chajiters  or  verses,  or  even  into  words  : 
so  that  a  whole  book,  in  the  ancient 
manner,  was  but  one  continued  word : 
of  this  kind  we  have  itill  several  an- 
cient manuscripts,  both  Greek  and  La- 
tin. In  regard,  therefore,  the  sacred 
writings  had  undergone  an  infinite 
nuni^er  of  alterations;  whence  various 
readings  had  arisen,  and  the  original 
■was  become  much  mSngled  and  dis- 
guised, the  Jews  had  recourse  to  a  ca- 
non, which  they  judged  infallible,  to  fix 
and  ascertain  the  reading  of  the  He- 
brew text;  and  this  rule  they  call  ma- 
sora  ;  "  tradition,"  from  noo,  tradit,  as  if 
this  critique  were  nothing  but  a  tradi- 
tion which  they  had  receiv  ed  from  their 
forefathers.  Accordingly  they  say,  that, 
"when  God  gave  the  law  to  Moses  at 
Mount  Sinai,  he  taught  him  first  the 
true  reading  of  it ;  and,  secondly,  its  true 
interpretation ;  and  that  both  these  were 
handed  down  by  oral  tradition  from  ge- 
neration to  generation,  till  at  length  they 
"were  committed  to  writing.  The  form- 
er of  these,  viz.  the  true  reading,  is  the 
subject  of  the  masora;  the  latter,  or 
true  interpretation,  that  of  the  mishna 
and  gemera. 

According  to  Elias  Levita,  they  were 
the  Jews  of  a  famous  school  at  Tiberias, 
about  five  hundred  years  after  Christ, 
who  composed,  or  at  least  began,  the 
masora ;  whence  they  are  called  maso- 
rites  and  masoretic  doctors.  Aben  Ezra 
makes  them  the  authors  of  the  points 
and  accents  in  the  Hebrew  text,  as 
ve  now  find  it,  and  which  serve  for 
vowels. 

The  age  of  the  masorites  has  been 
much  disputed.  Archbishop  Usher 
places  them  before  Jerome ;  Capel,  at 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century;  father 
Morin,  in  the  tenth  century.  Basnage 
says,  that  they  were  not  a  society,  but 
a  succession  of  men  ;  and  that  the  ma- 
sora was  the  work  of  many  grammarians, 
"who,  without  associating  and  communi- 
cating their  notions,  composed  this  col- 
lection of  criticisms  on  the  Hebrew  text. 
It  is  urged,  that  there  were  masorites 
from  the  time  of  Ezra  and  the  men  of 
the  great  synagogue,  to  about  the  year 
of  Christ  1030:  and  that  Ben  Asher  and 
Ben  Naphtali,  who  were  the  best  of  the 
profession,  and  who,  according  to  Bas- 
nage, were  the  inventors  of  the  masora, 
flourished  at  this  time.  Each  of  these 
published  a  copy  of  the  whole  Hebrew 
text,  as  correct,  says  Dr.  Prideaux,  as 


they  could  make  it.  The  eastern  Jews 
have  followed  that  of  Ben  Niiphtali,  and 
the  western  that  of  Ben  Asher:  and  all 
that  has  been  done  since  is  to  copy  after 
them,  without  making  any  more  correc- 
tions, or  masoretical  criticisms. 

The  Arabs  ha^e  done  the  same  thing 
by  their  Koran  that  the  Masorites  have 
done  by  the  Bible ;  nor  do  the  Jews  de- 
ny their  having  bon-owed  tliis  expedient 
from  the  Arabs,  who  first  put  it  in  px'ac- 
tice  in  the  seventh  century. 

There  is  a  great  and  little  masora 
printed  at  Venice  and  at  E;,sil,  with  the 
Hebrew  text  in  a  different  character. 
Buxtorf  has  written  a  masoretic  com- 
mentary which  he  calls  Tiberias. 

MASS,  3Iissa,  in  the  church  of  Rome, 
the  office  or  prajers  used  at  the  cele- 
bration of  the  eucharist;  or,  in  other 
words,  consecrating  the  bread  and  wine 
into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and 
offering  them,  so  transubstanti^iled,  as 
an  expiatory  saci'ifice  for  the  quick  and 
the  dead. 

As  the  mass  is  in  general  believed  to 
be  a  representation  of  tlie  passion  of  our 
blessed  Saviour,  so  e\'ery  action  of  the 
priest,  and  every  particular  part  of  the 
service,  is  supposed  to  allude  to  the  par- 
ticular ciixumstances  of  his  passion  and 
death. 

Nicod,  after  Baronius,  observes,  that 
the  word  comes  from  the  Hebrew  mis- 
sach  {oblatian  ;)  or  from  the  Latin  nm- 
sa  m.ssoru7n ;  because  in  the  former 
times  the  catechumens  and  excommu- 
nicated were  sent  out  of  the  church, 
when  the  deacons  said,  Ite,  missa,  est, 
after  sermon  and  reading  of  the  epistle 
and  Gospel ;  they  not  being  allowed  to 
assist  at  the  consecration.  Menage  de- 
rives the  word  from  inissio,  "dismiss- 
ing ;"  others  from  7mssa,  "  missing, 
sending;"  because  in  the  mass  the 
prayers  of  men  on  earth  are  sent  up 
to  heaven. 

The  general  di\'ision  of  masses  con- 
sist in  high  and  low.  The  first  is  that 
sung  by  the  choristers,  and  celebrated 
with  the  assistance  of  a  deacon  and  sub- 
deacon  :  low  masses  are  those  in  which 
the  prayers  are  barely  rehearsed  with- 
out singing. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  different 
or  occasional  masses  in  the  Romish 
church,  many  of  which  have  nothing 
peculiar  but  the  name:  such  are  tlie 
masses  of  the  saints ;  that  of  St.  Mary 
of  the  Snow,  celebrated  on  the  fifth  of 
August ;  that  of  St.  Margaret,  patron- 
ess of  lying-in-women  ;  that  at  the  feast 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  at  which  are 
said  three  masses;  that  of  the  Inno- 
I  cents,  at  which  the  Gloria,  in  excelsis 


MAS 


345 


MAT 


and  hallelujah  are  omitted,  and,  it  being 
a  day  of  mourning,  the  altar  is  of  a 
violet  colour.  As  to  ordinary  masses, 
some  are  said  for  the  dead,  and,  as  is 
supposed,  contribute  to  fetch  the  soul 
out  of  purgatory.  At  these  masses  the 
altar  is  put  in  mouming,  and  the  only 
decorations  are  a  cross  in  the  middle  of 
six  yellow  wax  lights  :  the  dress  of  the 
celebrant,  and  the  very  mass-book,  are 
black  ;  many  parts  of  the  office  are 
omitted,  and  the  people  are  dismissed 
without  the  benediction.  If  the  mass  be 
said  for  a  person  distinguished  by  his 
rank  or  virtues,  it  is  followed  with  a  fu- 
neral oration :  they  erect  a  chaficlle 
ardente,  that  is,  a  representation  of  the 
deceased,  with  branches  and  tapers  of 
yellow  wax,  either  in  the  middle  of  the 
church,  or  near  the  deceased's  tomb, 
•where  the  priest  pronounces  a  solemn 
absolution  of  the  deceased.  There  are 
likewise  private  masses  said  for  stolen 
or  strayed  goods  or  cattle,  for  health, 
for  travellers,  &c.  which  go  under  the 
name  of  votive  lyiasses.  There  is  still 
a  further  distinction  of  masses,  denomi- 
nated from  the  countries  in  which  they 
were  used:  thus  the  Gothic  mass,  or 
missa  mosarabum,  is  that  used  among 
the  Goths  when  they  were  masters  of 
Spain,  and  which  is  still  kept  up  at  To- 
ledo and  Salamanca;  the  Ambrosian 
mass  is  that  composed  by  St.  Ambrose, 
and  used  only  at  Milan,  of  which  city  he 
was  bishop ;  the  Gallic  mass  used  by 
the  ancient  Gauls  ;  and  the  Roman  mass, 
used  by  almost  all  the  churches  iii  the 
Romish  communion. 

Mass  of  the  firesancHfied  {missa  fir£- 
sanctificatoritm)  is  a  mass  peculiar  to 
the  Greek  church,  in  which  there  is  no 
conseci-ation  of  the  elements;  but,  af- 
ter singing  some  hymns,  they  receive 
the  bread  and  wine  which  were  before 
consecrated.  This  mass  is  performed 
all  Lent,  except  on  Saturdays,  Sundays, 
and  the  Annunciation.  The  priest  counts 
upon  his  fingers,  the  days  of  the  ensuing 
week  on  which  it  is  to  be  celebrated, 
and  cuts  off  as  many  pieces  of  bread  at 
the  altar  as  he  is  to  say  masses ;  and 
after  having  consecrated  them,  steeps 
them  in  wine,  and  puts  them  in  a  box  ; 
out  of  which,  upon  every  occasion,  he 
takes  some  of  it  with  a  spoon,  and,  put- 
ting it  on  a  dish,  sets  it  on  the  altar. 

MASSACRE,  a  term  used  to  signify 
the  sudden  and  promiscuous  butchery 
of  a  multitude.    See  Persecution. 

MASSALIANS,  or  Messalians,  a 
sect  which  sprung  up  about  the  vear 
361,  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantinus,  who  maintained  that  men 
have  two  souls,  a  celestial  and  a  diabo- 


lical ;  and  that  the  latter  is  driven  out 
by  pra}'er.  From  those  woi-ds  of  our 
Lord,  "Labour  not  for  the  meat  that 
pei-isheth,"  it  is  said,  that  they  con- 
cluded they  ought  not  to  do  any  work  to 
get  their  bread.  We  may  suppose,  says 
Dr.  Jortin,  that  this  sect  did  not  last 
long;  that  these  sluggards  were  soon 
starved  out  of  the  world ;  or,  rather, 
that  cold  and  hunger  sharpened  their 
wits,  and  taught  them  to  be  better  inter- 
preters of  Scripture. 

MASTER,  a  person  who  has  ser- 
vants under  him ;  a  ruler,  or  instructor. 
The  duties  ofinasters  relate  to  the  civil 
concerns  ofyhe  family.  To  ari'ange  the 
se\eral  businesses  required  of  servants ; 
to  give  particular  mstructions  for  what 
is  to  be  done,  and  how  it  is  to  be  done  ; 
to  take  care  that  no  more  is  required  of 
servants  than  they  are  equal  to ;  to  be 
gentle  in  our  deportment  towards  them ; 
to  reprove  them  when  they  do  wrong, 
to  commend  them  when  they  do  right; 
to  make  them  an  adequate  recompense 
for  their  services,  as  to  protection, main- 
tenance, wages  and  character. — 2.  As 
to  the  morals  of  serz<unts.  Masters 
must  look  well  to  their  servants'  cha- 
racters before  they  hire  them  ;  instnict 
them  in  the  principles  and  confirm 
them  in  the  habits  of  virtue;  watch 
over  their  morals,  and  set  them  good 
examples. — 3.  As  to  their  religious  in- 
terests. They  should  instruct  them  in 
tlie  knowledge  of  divine  tilings.  Gen.  xiv. 
14.  Gen.  xviii.  19.  Pra}^  with  them  and 
for  them,  Joshua  xxiv.  15.  Allow  them 
time  and  leisure  for  religious  services^ 
8cc.  Eph.  vi.  9.  See  Stennett  on  Domes- 
tic Duties,  ser.  8 ;  Paley's  Moral  Phil. 
vol.  i.  233,  235  ;  Beattie's  Elements  of 
Moral  Science,  vol.  i.  150,  153;  Doa.- 
dridge's  Lee.  vol.  ii.  266. 

MATERL\LISTS,  a  sect  in  the  an- 
cient  church,  composed  of  persons,  who, 
being  prepossessed  with  that  maxim  in 
philosophy,  "  ex  nihilo  nihil  fit,"  out  of 
nothing  nothing  can  ai-ise,  had  recourse 
to  an  eternal  matter,  on  which  they  sup- 
posed God  wrought  in  the  creation,  in- 
stead of  admitting  Him  alone  as  the  sole 
cause  of  the  existence  of  all  things.  Ter- 
tuUian  vigorously  opposed  them  in  his 
treatise  against  Hennogenes,  who  was 
one  of  their  number. 

Materialists  are  also  those  who  main- 
tain that  the  soul  of  man  is  material, 
or  that  the  principle  of  perception  and 
thought  is  not  a  substance  distinct  from 
the  body,  but  the  result  of  corporeal  or- 
ganization. There  are  others  called  by 
this  name,  who  have  maintained  that 
there  is  nothing  but  matter  in  1,he  nni^ 
verse. 
X  X 


MAT 


346 


MAT 


The  followers  of  the  late  Dr.  Priestley- 
are  considered  as  Mitei'ialists,  or  philo- 
snphical  Necessarians.  According  to 
the  doctor's  writings,  he  believed, — 

1.  Th  It  man  is  no  more  than  what  we 
now  see  of  him :  his  being  commences 
at  the  time  of  his  conception,  or  perhaps 
at  an  earlier  period.  The  corporeal 
and  mental  faculties,  inhermg  m  ,the 
same  substance,  grow,  ripen,  and  decay 
together ;  and  whenever  the  system  is 
dissolved,  it  continues  in  a  state  of  disso- 
lution, till  it  shall  please  that  Almighty 
Being  who  called  it  into  existence,  to  re- 
store it  to  life  again.  For  if  the  mental 
principle  were,  in  its  own  nature,  im- 
material and  immortal,  all  its  peculiar 
faculties  would  be  so  too,  whereas  we 
see  that  every  faculty  of  the  mind,  with- 
out exception,  is  liable  to  be  impaired, 
Snd  even  to  become  wholly  extinct,  be- 
fore death.  Since,  therefore,  all  the  fa- 
culties of  the  mind,  separately  taken, 
appear  to  be  mortal,  the  substance,  or 
principle,  iu  which  they  exist,  must  be 
pronoiuiced  mortal  too.  Thus  we  might 
conclude  that  the  body  was  mortal, 
from  observing  that  all  the  separate 
senses  and  limbs  were  liable  to  decay 
and  perish. 

This  svstem  gives  a  real  value  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection  from  tlie 
dead,  which  is  peculiar  to  revelation  ; 
on  wliich  alone  the  sacred  writers  build 
all  our  hope  of  future  life :  and  it  ex- 
plains the  uniform  language  of  tlic 
Scriptures,  Avhich  sjjeak  of  one  day  of 
judgment  for  all  mankind  ;  and  repiT- 
sent  all  the  rewards  of  virtue,  and  all 
.  the  punishments  of  vice,  as  taking  place 
at  that  awful  day,  and  not  before.  In 
the  Scriptures,  the  heathens  are  repre- 
sented as  without  hope,  and  all  mankind 
as  perishing  at  death,  if  there  be  no  re- 
suri'ection  of  the  dead. 

The  apostle  Paul  asserts,  in  1  Cor. 
XV.  16.  that  if  the  dead  rise  not,  then  is 
not  Christ  risen  ;  and  if  Christ  be  not 
raised,  your  faith  is  iidin,  ye  are  ijet  in 
your  sins :  then  they  also  who  are  fallen 
asleefi  in  Christ  are  fierished.  And 
again,  ver.  32,  If  the  dead  rise  not  let 
us  eat  and  drink,  for  to-morronv  ive  die. 
In  the  whole  discourse,  he  does  not  even 
mention  the  doctrine  of  happiness  or 
misery  without  the  body. 

If  we  search  the  Scriptures  for  pas- 
sages expressive  of  the  state  of  man  at 
death,  we  shall  find  such  declarations 
as  expi'esslv  exclude  any  trace  of  sense, 
thought,  or  enjoyment.  See  Ps.  vi.  5. 
Job  xiv.  7,  S:c. 

2.  That  tb.ere  is  some  fixed  law  of 
nature  respecting  the  will  as  well  as 
the   other  powers   of   the  mind,   and 


every  thing  else  in  the  constitution  of 
nature ;  and  consequently  that  it  is 
never  determined  without  some  real  or 
apparent  cause  foreign  to  itself;  i.  e. 
without  some  motive  of  chcice ;  or  that 
motives  uitluence  us  in  some  definite 
and  invariable  manner,  so  that  every 
^'olition,  or  choice,  is  constantly  regu- 
lated and  determined  b}'  what  precedes 
it :  and  this  constiint  determination  of 
mind,  according  to  the  m-^tives  present- 
ed to  it,  is  what  is  meant  by  its  necessary 
determination.  This  being  admitted  to 
be  fact,  there  will  be  a  necessary  con- 
nexion between  all  things  past,  present, 
and  to  come,  in  the  v/ay  of  proper  cause 
and  effect,  as  much  in  the  intellectuiil  as 
in  the  natural  world  ;  so  that  accordmg 
to  the  established  laws  of  nature,  no 
event  could  have  been  otherwise  than  it 
has  ban,  or  is  to  be,  and  therefoi-e  all 
things  past,  pi-esent,  and  to  come,  are 
precisely  ^vhat  the  Author  of  Nature 
really  h-.tended  them  to  be, and  has  made 
provision  for. 

To  establish  this  conclusion,  nothing 
is  necessary  but  that  throughout  ail  na- 
ture the  same  consequences  should  in- 
variably result  from  the  same  circum- 
stances. For  if  this  be  admitted,  it  will 
necessai-ily  follow,  that  at  the  com- 
mencement of  any  system,  since  the  se- 
veral parts  of  it'  and  their  respective 
situations  were  appointed  by  the  Deity, 
the  first  change  would  take  place  ac- 
cording to  a  certain  rule  established  by 
himself,  the  result  of  \'/hich  would  be  a 
new  situation ;  after  which  the  same 
laws  containing  another  change  would 
succeed,  according  to  the  same  rules, 
and  so  on  for  ever ;  every  new  situation 
invariably  leading  to  another,  and  eve- 
ry event,  from  the  commencement  to 
the  termination  of  the  system,  being 
strictly  connected,  so  that,  unless  the 
fundamental  la-ws  of  the  system  were 
changed,  it  would  be  impossible  that 
any  event  should  have  been  otherwise 
than  it  was.  In  all  these  cases,  the  cir- 
cumstances preceding  any  change  are 
called  the  causes  of  that  change:  and 
since  a  determinate  event,  or  effect,  con- 
stantly follows  certain  circumstances,  or 
causes,  the  connexion  between  cause 
and  effect  is  concluded  to  be  mvariable, 
and  therefoi-e  necessary. 

It  is  universally  acknowledged,  that 
there  can  be  no  effect  without  an  ade- 
<;juate  cause.  This  is  even  the  founda- 
tion on  which  the  onlv  proper  argmuent 
for  the  being  of  a  Cr^d  rests.  And  the 
Necessarian  asserts,  that  if,  in  any  given 
state  of  mind,  with  respect  both  to  dis- 
positions and  motives,  two  diiTerent  de- 
terminations, or  volitions,  be  possible,  it 


MAT 


347 


MEA 


«aii  be  on  no  other  principle,  than  that 
one  of  them  should  come  under  the  de- 
scription of  an  effect  without  a  cause  ; 
just  as  if  the  beam  of  a  balance  might 
mcline  either  way,  though  loaded  with 
equal  weights.  And  if  any  thing  what- 
ever, even  a  thought  in  the  mind  of  man, 
could  arise  without  an  adequate  cause, 
any  thing  else,  the  mind  itself,  or  the 
whole  universe,  might  likewise  exist 
without  an  adequate  cause. 

This  scheme  of  philosophical  neces- 
sity implies  a  chain  of  causes  and  effects 
established  by  infinite  wisdom,  and  ter- 
minating in  the  ,  greatest  good  of  the 
whole  universe ;  evils  of  all  kinds,  na- 
tural and  moral,  being  admitted,  as  far 
as  they  contribute  to  that  end,  or  are  in 
the  nacure  of  things  inseparable  from  it. 
Vice  is  productive  not  of  good,  but  of 
evil  to  us,  both  here  and  hereafter, 
though  good  may  result  from  it  to  the 
whole  system ;  and,  according  to  the 
fixed  laws  of  nature,  our  present  and  fu- 
tui'e  happiness  necessarily  depend  on 
our  cultivating  good  dispositions. 

This  scheme  of  philosophical  neces- 
sity is  distinguished  from  the  Calvinistic 
doctrine  of  pvedes'cination  in  the  follow- 
ing particulars : 

1.  No  Necessai-ian  supposes  that  any 
of  the  human  race  will  suffer  eternally : 
but  that  future  punishments  will  an- 
swer the  same  purposes  as  temporal 
ones  are  found  to  do";  all  of  which  tend 
to  good,  and  are  evidently  admitted  for 
that  pui^pose.  Upon  the  doctrine  of  ne- 
cessity, also,  the  most  indifferent  actions 
of  men  are  equally  necessary  with  the 
most  important;  since  every  vohtion, 
like  any  other  effect,  must  have  an  ade- 
quate cause  depending  upon  the  previ- 
ous state  of  the  mind,  and  the  influence 
to  which  it  is  exposed. 

2.  The  Necessarian  believes  that  his 
own  dispositions  and  actions  are  the  ne- 
cessary and  sole  means  of  his  present 
and  future  happiness ;  so  that,  in  the 
most  proper  sense  of  the  Avords,  it  de- 

Eends  entirely  on  lihnself  whether  he 
e  vutuous  or  vicious,  happy  or  miser- 
able. • 

3.  The  Calvinistic  system  entirely  ex- 
cludes the  popular  notion  of  free-wdl, 
viz.  the  liberty  or  power  of  doing  what 
we  please,  virtuous  or  vicious,  as  be- 
longing to  every  pei-son,  in  every  situa- 
tion ;  which  is  perfectly  consistent  with 
the  doctrine  of  philosophical  necessity, 
and  indeed  results  from  it. 

4.  The  Necessarian  believes  nothing 
of  the  posterity  of  Adam's  sinning  in 
him,  and  of  their  being  liable  to  the 
wi-ath  of  God  on  that  account ;  or  the 
necessity  of  an  infinite  Beiag  making 


atonenient  for  them  by  suffering  in  theii' 
stead,  and  thus  ma.king  the  Deity  pro- 
pitious to  them.  He  believes  nothing  of 
all  the  actions  of  any  man  being  neces- 
sarily sinful ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
thinks  that  the  veiy  worst  of  men  are 
capable  of  benevolent  intentions  in  many 
things  that  they  do;  and  likewise  that 
\ery  good  men  are  capable  of  falling 
fi-om  virtue,  and  consequently  of  sinking 
into  final  perdition.  Upon  the  principles 
of  the  Necessarian,  also,  all  late  repent- 
ance, and  especially  after  long  and  con- 
firmed habits  of  vice,  is  altogether  and 
necessarily  ineffectual ;  there  not  being 
sufficient  time  left  to  produce  a  change 
of  disposidon  and  character,  which  can 
only  be  dene  by  a  change  of  conduct  of 
propoitionably  long  continuance. 

In  short,  the  three  doctrines  of  Ma- 
terialism, Philosophical  Necessity,  and 
Socinianism,  are  considered  as  equally 

Sarts  of  one  system.  The  scheme  of 
Tecessity  is  the  immediate  result  of  the 
materiality  of  man;  for  mecha.nism  is 
the  undoubted  consequence  of  material- 
ism, and  that  man  is  wholly  material,  is 
eminently  subservient  to  the  proper  or 
mere  humanity  of  Christ.  For  if  no  man 
have  a  soul  distinct  trom  his  body, 
Christ,  who  in  all  other  respects  ap- 
peared as  a  man,  could  not  have  a  soul 
which  had  existed  before  his  body :  and 
the  whole  doctrine  of  the  pre-existence 
of  souls,  of  which  the  opinion  of  the  pre- 
existence  of  Christ  is  a  branch,  will  be 
effectually  oveituiTied.  See  Necessi- 
ty, Pre-existence,  Spinosism,  Soul, 
Unitarian,  and  books  under  those  ar- 
ticles. 

MEANS  OF  GRACE  denote  those 
duties  we  perform  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  our  mmds,  affecting  our 
hearts,  and  of  obtaining  spiritual  bless- 
ings ;  such  as  hearing  the  Gospel,  read- 
ing the  Scriptures,  self-examination, 
meditation,  prayer,  praise.  Christian 
conversation,  &c.  The  means  are  to 
be  used  without  any  reference  to  merit, 
but  sa;ely  with  a  dependence  on  the 
Divme  Being ;  nor  can  we  ever  expect 
happiness  in  ourselves,  nor  be  good  ex- 
emplars to  others,  while  we  live  in  tlie 
neglect  of  them.  It  is  in  vain  to  argue 
that  the  divine  decree  supercedes  the 
necessity  of  them,  since  God  has  as  cer- 
tainly appointed  the  means  as  the  end. 
Besides,  he  himself  generally  works  by 
them,  and  the  more  means  he  thinks 
proper  to  use,  the  more  he  displays  his 
glorious  perfections.  Jesus  Chnst,  when 
on  earth,  used  means:  he  prayed,  he 
exhorted,  and  did  good,  by  going  from 
place  to  place.  Indeed,  the  systems  of 
nature,  providence,  and  grace,  are  all 


MED 


348 


MED 


carried  on  by  means.  The  Scriptures 
abound  with  exhortations  to  them,  Matt. 
V.  Rom.  xii.  and  none  but  enthusiasts  or 
immoral  charactei's  ever  refuse  to  use 
them. 

MEDIx\TOR,  a  person  that  inter- 
venes between  two  parties  at  variance, 
in  order  to  reconcile  them.  Thus  Je- 
sus Christ  is  the  Mediator  between  an 
offended  God  and  sinful  man,  1  Tim.  ii. 
5.  Both  Jews  and  Gentiles  have  a  no- 
tion of  a  Mediator :  the  Jews  call  the 
Messiah  Ni^^fOK  the  Mediator  or  Middle 
One.  The  Persians  call  their  god  Mi- 
thras, n£(7iTris,  a  Mediator;  and  the  dse- 
mons,  with  the  heathens,  seem  to  be, 
according  to  them,  mediators  between 
the  superior  gods  and  men.  Indeed 
the  whole  religion  of  Paganism  was  a 
svstem  of  mediation  and  intercession. 
The  idea,  therefore,  of  salvation  by  a 
Mediator,  is  not  so  novel  or  restricted 
as  some  imagine  ;  and  the  Scriptures  of 
truth  inform  us,  that  it  is  only  by  this 
way  human  beings  can  an'ive  to  eternal 
felicity.  Acts  iv.  12.  John  xiv.  6.  Man, 
in  his  state  of  innocence,  was  in  fi'iend- 
ship  with  God ;  but,  by  sinning  against 
him,  he  exposed  himself  to  his  just  dis- 
pleasvu'e ;  his  powers  became  enfeebled, 
and  l\is  heart  hlled  with  enmity  against 
him,  Rom.  viii.  6  :  he  was  driven  out  of 
his  pai'adisaical  Eden,  and  totally  inca- 
pable of  returning  to  God,  and  making 
satisfaction  to  his  justice.  Jesus  Christ, 
therefore,  was  the  appointed  Mediator 
to  bring  about  reconciliation,  Gen.  iii. 
12.  Col.  i.  21 ;  and  in  the  fulness  of  time 
he  came  into  this  world,  obeyed  the  law, 
satisfied  justice,  and  brought  his  people 
into  a  state  of  grace  and  favour ;  yea, 
into  a  more  exalted  state  of  friendship 
with  God  than  was  lost  by  the  fall,  Eph. 
ii.  18.  Now,  in  order  to  the  accomplish- 
ing of  this  work,  it  was  necessary  that 
the  Mediator  should  be  God  and  man  in 
one  person.  It  was  necessary  that  he 
should  be  man,  1.  That  he  might  be  re- 
lated to  those  he  was  a  Mediator  and 
Redeemer  of. — 2.  That  sin  might  be 
satisfied  foi",  and  reconciliation  be  made 
for  it,  in  the  same  nature  which  sinned. 
—3.  It  was  proper  that  the  Mediator 
should  be  capable  of  obeying  the  law 
broken  by  the  sin  of  man,  as  a  divine 
person  could  not  be  subject  to  the  law, 
and  yield  obedience  to  it.  Gal.  iv.  4. 
Rom.'  v.  ly. — 4.  It  was  meet  that  the 
Mediator  should  be  man,  that  he  might 
be  capable  of  sufferuig  death;  for,  as 
God,  he  could  not  die,  and  without  shed- 
ding of  blood  there  was  no  i-emission, 
Hei).  ii.  10,  15.  vii.  .1.-5.  It  was  fit  he 
should  be  man,  that  lie  might  be  a  faith- 
ful high  priest,  to  sympathise  with  his 


people  under  all  their  trials,  tempta- 
tions, &c.  Heb.  ii.  17,  18.  Heb.  iv.  15. — 
6.  It  was  fit  that  he  should  be  a  holy 
and  righteous  man,  free  from  all  sin, 
original  and  actual,  that  he  might  offer 
himself  without  spot  to  God,  take  away 
the  sins  of  men,  and  be  an  advocate  foi- 
them,  Heb.  vii.  26.  ix.  14.  1  John  iii.  5. 
But  it  was  not  enough  to  be  truly  man, 
and  an  innocent  person ;  he  must  be 
more  than  a  man :  it  was  requisite  that 
he  should  be  God  also,  for,  1.  No  mere 
man  could  have  entered  into  a  covenant 
with  God  to  mediate  between  him  and 
sinful  men. — 2.  He  must  be  God,  to 
give  vii'tue  and  value  to  his  obedience 
and  sufferings  ;  for  the  sufferings  of  men 
or  angels  would  not  have  been  sufficient. 
— 3.  Being  thus  God-man,  we  are  en- 
couraged to  hope  in  him.  In  the  person 
of  Jesus  Christ  the  object  of  tnist  is 
brought  nearer  to  ourselves ;  and  those 
well-known  tender  affections  which  are 
only  figuratively  ascribed  to  the  Deity, 
are  in  our  great  Mediator  thoroughly 
realized.  Farther,  were  he  God,  and 
not  man,  we  should  approach  him  with 
fear  and  dread ;  were  ne  man  and  not 
God,-  we  should  be  guilty  of  idolatry  to 
worship  and  trust  him  at  all,  Jer.  xvii.  5. 
The  plan  of  salvation,  therefore,  by  such 
a  Mediator,  is  the  most  suitable  to  hu- 
man beings  that  possibly  could  be ;  for 
here  "  Mercy  and  tnith  meet  together, 
righteousness  and  peace  kiss  each 
other."  Psal.  Ixxxv.  10.  The  proper- 
ties of  Christ  as  Mediator  ai'e  these: 
1.  He  is  the  only  Mediator,  1  Tim.  ii. 
4.  Praying,  therefore,  to  saints  and  an- 
gels is  an  error  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
and  has  no  countenance  from  the  Scrip- 
ture.— 2.  Christ  is  a  Mediator  of  men 
only,  not  of  angels :  good  angels  need 
not  any ;  and  as  for  evil  angels,  none  is 
provided  nor  admitted. — 3.  He  is  the 
Mediator  both  for  Jews  and  Gentiles, 
Eph.  ii.  18.  1  John  ii.  2.-4.  He  is  Me- 
diator both  for  Old  and  New  Testament 
saints. — 5.  He  is  a  suitable,  constant, 
willing,  and  prevalent  Mediator;  his 
mediation  always  succeeds,  and  is  infal- 
lible. Gill's  Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  oct.  p.i 
336;  WiMii  (Econ.  Feed.  lib.  ii.  c.  4;* 
Fuller's  Gospel  its  owfi  Witness,  ch.  4.  ' 
p.  2 ;  Hurrion's  Christ  Crucified,  p. 
103.  &c.  Dr.  Owen  on  the  Person  of 
Christ;  Dr.  Goodwin's  JTorA^s,  b.  iii. 

MEDITATION  is  an  act  by  which 
we  consider  any  thing  closely,  or  where- 
in the  soul  is  employed  in  the  search  ox' 
consideration  of  any  truth.  In  religion 
it  is  used  to  signify  the  serious  exercise 
of  the  understanding,  whereby  our 
thoughts  are  fixed  on  the  observation  of 
.spii'itual  things,  in  order  to  practice, 


MED 


349 


MEE 


Mystic  divines  make  a  gveat  diflFerence 
between  meditation  and  contemplation; 
the  former  consists  in  discursive  acts  of 
the  soul,  considering  methodically  and 
Avith  attention  the  mysteries  of  faith  and 
the  precepts  of  morality  ;  and  is  per- 
formed by  reflections  and  n^asonings 
which  leave  behind  them  manifest  im- 
pressions on  the  brain.  The  pure  con- 
templative, they  say,  have  no  need  of 
meditation,  as  seeing  all  things  in  God 
at  a  glance,  and  without  any  i-eflection. 
See  Beguins  and  Quietists. 

1.  Meditation  is  a  duty  which  ought 
to  be  attended  to  by  all  who  wish  well 
to  their  spiritual  mterests.  It  ought  to 
be  deliberate,  close,  and  fierfietual,  Psal. 
cxix.  97.  Psal.  i.  2. — 2.  The  subjects 
whicli  ought  more  especially  to  engage 
the  Christian  mind  are  the  works  of 
creation,  Psal.  xix.  the  pei'fections  of 
God.  Deut.  xxxii.  4;  the  excellencies, 
offices,  chai-acters,  and  works  of  Christ, 
Heb.  xii.  2,  3;  the  offices  and  opera- 
tions of  tlie  Holy  Spirit,  John  xv.  and 
xvi.  the  various  dispensations  of  Provi- 
dence, Psal.  xcvii.  1,  2  ;  the  precepts, 
declarations,  promises,  &c.  of  God's 
word,  Psal.  cxix ;  the  value,  powers, 
and  immortality  of  the  soul,  Mark  viii. 
36  ;  the  noi)le,  beautiful,  and  benevolent 
plan  of  the  Gospel,  1  Tim.  i.  11 ;  the 
necessity  of  our  personal  interest  in  and 
experience  of  its  power,  John  iii.  3  ;  the 
depravity  of  our  nature,  and  the  free- 
dom of  divine  grace  iu  choosing,  adopt- 
ing, justifying,  and  sanctifying  us,  1  Cor. 
vi.  11;  the  shortness,  woilh,  and  swift- 
ness of  time,  James  iv.  14  ;  the  certainty 
of  death,  Heb.  ix.  27 ;  the  resurrection 
and  judgment  to  come,  1  Cor.  xv.  50, 
&c.  and  the  future  state  of  eternal  re- 
wards and  punishments,  Matt.  xxv. 
These  are  some  of  the  most  important 
subjects  on  which  we  should  meditate. 
— 3.  To  fierform  this  duty  aright,  we 
should  be  much  in  prayer,  Luke  xviii. 
1 ;  avoid  a  worldly  spirit,  1  John  ii.  15  ; 
beware  of  sloth,  Heb.  vi.  11 ;  take  heed 
of  sensual  pleasures,  James  iv.  4 ;  watch 
against  the  devices  of  Satan,  1  Pet.  v. 
8;  be  often  in  retirement,  Psal.  iv. 
4;  embrace  the  most  favourable  op- 
portunities, the  calmness  of  the  morn- 
ing, Psal.  V.  1,  3 ;  the  solemnity  of  the 
evening.  Gen.  xxiv.  63 ;  Sabbath  days, 
Psal.  cxviii.  24  ;  sacramental  occasions, 
&c.  1  Cor.  xi.  28.-4.  The  advantages 
resulting  from  this  are,  inrprovement  of 
tlie  faculties  of  the  soul,  Prov.  xvi.  22 ; 
the  affections  are  raised  to  God,  Psalm 
xxxix.  1,  4;  an  eniovment  of  divine 
peace  and  felicity,  Phil.  iv.  6,  7;  holi- 
ness of  life  is  promoted,  Psal.  cxix.  59, 
60  J  and  we  thereby  experience  a  fore- 


taste of  eternal  glory.  Psalm  Ixxiii,  35, 

26.  2  Cor.  v.  1,  &c. 

MEEKNESS,  a  temper  of  mind  not 
easily  provoked  to  resentment.  In  the 
Greek  language  it  is  rrjaos  quasi.,  pa;i  fa- 
cilis,  easi?2ess  of  spb'it,  and  thus  it  may 
be  justly  called;  for  it  accommc dates 
the  soui  to  every  occun-ence,  and  so 
makes  a  man  easy  to  himself,  and  to  all 
about  him.  The  Latins  call  a  meek  man 
mansuetus,  qu.  manu  assiietus,  vsed  to 
the  hand;  which  alludes  to  the  taming 
and  reclaiming  of  creatures  wild  by  na- 
ture, and  bringing  them  to  be  tractable 
and  familiar,  !James  iii.  7,  8 :  so  where 
the  grace  of  meekness  reigns,  it  sub- 
dues the  impetuous  disposition,  and 
learns  it  submission  and  forgiveness. 
It  leaches  us  to  govem  our  own  anger 
whenever  we  are  at  any  time  prov  >ked, 
and  patiently  to  bear  the  anger  of  others, 
that  it  may  nut  be  a  provocation  to  us. 
The  former  is  its  office,  especially  in 
superiors;  the  lattei'  in  inferiors,  and 
both  in  equals,  James  iii.  13.  The  ex- 
cellcncij  of  such  a  sfiirit  appears,  if  we 
consider  that  it  enables  us  to  gain  a  vic- 
tory over  cornipt  nature,  Pro\'.  xvi.  32  ; 
that  jt  is  a  beauty  and  an  ornament  to 
human  beings,  1 "  Pet.  iii.  4 ;  that  it  is 
obedience  to  God's  word,  and  con- 
formity' to  the  best  patterns,  Eph.  v. 
1,  2.  Phil.  iv.  8.  It  is  productive  of  the 
highest  peace  to  the  possessor,  Luke 
xxi.  19,  Matt.  xi.  28,  29.  It  fits  us  for 
any  duty,  instraction,  relation,  condition, 
or 'persecution,  Phil.  iv.  11, 12.  To  ob- 
tain this  spirit,  consider  that  it  is  a  di- 
vine injunction,  Zeph.  ii.  3.  Col.  iii.  12. 
1  Tim.  vi.  11.  Observe  the  many  ex- 
amples of  it ;  Jesus  Christ,  Matt.  xi.  28  ; 
Abraham,  Gen.  xiii.  Gen.  xvi.  5.  6 ; 
Moses,  Numb.  xii.  3 ;  David,  Zech.  xii. 
8.  2  Sam.  xvi.  10,  12.  Ps.  cxxxi.  2; 
Paul,  1  Cor.  ix.  19.  How  lovely  a  spirit 
it  is  in  itself,  and  how  it  secures  us  from 
a  variety  of  evils.  That  peculiar  pro- 
mises are  made  to  such,  Matt.  v.  5.  Is. 
Ixvi.  2.  That  such  give  evidence  of 
their  being  under  the  influence  of  di- 
vine grace,  and  shall  enjoy  the  divine 
blessing.  Is.  Ivii.  15.  See  Henry  on 
Meekness;  Dunlop's  Ser.  vol.  ii j).'434 ; 
Evans's  Ser.  on  the  Christian  Temper, 
ser.  29;  Tillotson  on  1  Pet.  ii.  21;  and 
on  Matt.  v.  44 ;  Logan's  Sermons,  vol. 
i.  ser.  10 ;  and  Jortin's  Sermons,  ser.  H, 
vol.  iii. 

MEETING-HOUSE,  a  place  appro- 
priated by  Dissenters  for  the  purpose 
of  public  worship.  Since  the  act  of  uni- 
formity passed,  1662,  by  which  so  many 
hundreds  of  ministers  were  ejected  from 
their  livings,  meeting-houses  have  be- 
come very  numerous.     For  a   consi- 


MEL 


350 


MEN 


clerable  time,  indeed,  they  were  prohi- 
bited by  the  conventicle  act ;  but,  at  last, 
toleration  being  granted  to  Dissenters, 
they  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  meeting 
and  worshipping  God  accorduig  to  the 
dictates  of  their  own  consciences,  and 
Wiiich  they  still  possess  to  this  day. 
The  number  of  meeting-houses  in  Lon- 
di-n,  may,  perhaps,  amount  to  about  150, 
though  some  reckon  upwards  of  200.  In 
all  the  respectable  towns,  and  even  m 
many  vuluges  of  England,  there  are 
meeting-houses ;  and,  within  a  few  years, 
they  huve  greatly  increased. 

r»IELAlSCHOLY,  sadness  or  gloom; 
arising  either  from  the  habit  of  body,  or 
the  state  of  the  mind.  To  remove  it, 
the  foUovv'ing  remedies  may  be  applied, 
1.  Early  rising.  2.  Plain  nourishing  food. 
3.  Exercise  in  the  open  air.  Or  if  it 
arises  particularly  fri>m  the  mmd,  1. 
Associate  with  the  cheerful.  2.  Studv 
the  Scriptures.  3.  Consider  the  amiable 
chi'.racter  of  God.  4.  Avoid  sin.  5.  Be 
much  in  prayer.  See  Burtoji,  Baxter, 
and  Rogers  on  Melancholy. 

MELATONI,  so  called  from  one 
Miletc,  who  taught  that  not  the  soul, 
but  the  body  of  man,  was  made  after 
God's  im  ige.  * 

MELCHIZEDEZIANS,  a  denomi- 
nation which  arose  about  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century.  They  affirmed 
that  Melchizedeck  was  not  a  man,  but  a 
heavenly  power  superior  to  Jesus  Christ ; 
for  JVIelchizedeck,  the\-  said,  was  tl>e 
intercessor  and  mediator  of  the  angels ; 
and  Jesus  Christ  was  only  so  for  man, 
and  his  priesthood  only  a  coj)y  of  that  of 
Melchizedeck. 

MELCHITES,  the  name  given  to 
the  Syriac,  Egyptian,  and  other  Chi-is- 
tians  of  the  Levant.  The  Melchites, 
excepting  some  few  points  of  little  or  no 
imjiortance,  which  relate  only  to  cere- 
monies, and  ecclesiastical  discipline,  are, 
in  every  respect,  professed  Greeks  ;  but 
they  are  governed  by  a  particular  pa- 
triarch, who  assumes  the  title  of  Pa- 
triarch of  Antioch.  They  celebrate 
mass  in  the  Arabian  language.  The  re- 
ligious among  the  Melchites  follow  the 
rule  of  St.  Basil,  the  common  rule  of  all 
the  Gr?ek  monks. 

MELETIANS,  the  name  of  a  consi- 
derable party  who  adhered  to  the  cause 
of  Mcletius,  bushop  of  Lycopolis,  in  Up- 
per Egypt,  after  he  was  deposed,  about 
the  year  306,  by  Peter,  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria, under  the  charge  of  his  having 
sacrificed  to  the  gods,  and  having  been 
guilty  of  other  hemous  crimes  ;  though 
Epiphanius  makes  his  only  failing  to 
have  been  an  excessive  severity  against 
the  lapsed.    This  dispute,  which  was  at 


first  a  personal  difference  between  Me- 
letius  and  Peter,  became  a  religious  con- 
troversy ;  and  the  Meletian  party  sub- 
sisted in  the  fifth  century,  but  was  con- 
demned by  the  first  council  of  Nice. 

MEMORY,  a  faculty  of  the  mind, 
which  presents  to  us  ideas  or  notions  of 
things  that  are  past,  accompanied  with 
a  persuasion  that  the  things  themselves 
were  formerly  real  and  present.  When 
we  remember  with  little  or  no  effoi-t,  it 
is  called  remembrance  simply,  or  me- 
mmy,  and  sometimes  passive  memory. 
When  we  endeavour  to  remember  what 
does  not  immediately  and  of  itself  oc- 
cur, it  is  called  active  memoiy,  or  re- 
collection. A  good  memory  has  these 
several  qualifications:  1.  It  is  ready  to 
receive  and  admit  with  great  ease  the 
various  ideas,  both  of  words  and  things, 
which  are  learned  or  taught. — 2.  It  is 
large  and  copious  to  treasure  up  these 
ideas  in  great  number  and  variety. — 3. 
It  is  strong  and  durable  to  retain,  for 
a  considerable  time,  those  words  or 
thoughts  which  are  committed  to  it. — 4. 
It  is  faithful  and  active  to  suggest  and 
recollect,  upon  every  proper  occasion, 
all  those  words  or  thoughts  which  it 
hath  treasured  up.  As  this  faculty  may 
be  injured  by  neglect  and  slothfidness, 
we  will  here  subjoin  a  few  of  the  best 
I'ules  which  have  been  given  for  the  im- 
provement of  it.  1.  We  shoidd  form  a 
clear  and  distinct  apprehension  of  the 
things  which  we  commit  to  memoiy. — 

2.  Beware  of  every  sort  of  intemperance, 
for  that  gi-eatly  impairs  the  faculties. — 

3.  If  it  be  weak,  we  must  not  overload 
it,  but  charge  it  only  with  the  most  use- 
ful and  sohd  notions. — 4.  We  should 
take  every  opportunity  of  uttering  our 
best  thoughts  in  conversation,  as  this 
will  deeply  imprint  them. — 5.  We 
should  join  to  the  idea  we  wish  to  re- 
member, some  other  idea  that  is  more 
familiar  to  us,  which  bears  some  simili- 
tude to  it,  either  in  its  nature,  or  in  the 
sound  of  the  word. — 6.  We  should  think 
of  it  before  we  go  to  sleep  at  night,  and 
the  first  thing  in  tlie  morning,  when  the 
faculties  are  fresh. — 7.  Method  and  re- 
gularity in  the  things  we  commit  to  the 
memory  are  necessary. — 8.  Often  think- 
ing, writing,  or  talking,  on  the  subjects 
we  wish  to  remember. — 9.  Fervent  and 
frequent  prayer.  See  Watts  on  the 
Mind,  chap.  17 ;  Grci/s  Mnnoria  Tech- 
?tica  ;  Rogers^  Pleasures  of  Memory  ; 
Reid's  Litell.  Powers  of  Man,  303,310, 
338,  356. 

MENANDRIANS,  the  most  ancient 
branch  of  Gnostics ;  thus  called  fron\ 
Menander  their  chief,  said  by  some, 
without  sufficient  foundation,  to  have 


MEN 


351 


MEN 


been  a  disciple  of  Simon  Magus,  and 
himself  a  reputed  magician. 

He  tauglit,  that  no  person  could  be 
saved  unless  he  were  baptised  in  his 
name ;  and  he  conferred  a  peculiar  sort 
of  baptism,  which  would  render  those 
who  receiA'ed  it  immortal  in  the  next 
world ;  exhibiting  himself  to  the  world 
with  the  phrenzy  of  a  lunatic  more  than 
the  founder  of  a  sect  as  a  promised  sa- 
viour ;  for  it  appears  by  the  testimonies 
of  Irenaeus,  Justin,  and  TeituUian,  tliat 
he  pretended  to  be  one  of  the  xons  sent 
from  the  pleroma,  or  ecclesiastical  re- 
gions, to  succour  the  souls  that  lay  groan- 
ing under  bodily  oppression  and  servi- 
tude; and  to  maintain  them  against  the 
violence  and  stratagems  of  the  dsmons 
that  hold  the  reins  of  empire  in  this 
sublunary  world.  As  this  doctrine  was 
built  upon  the  same  foundation  with  that 
of  Simon  Magus,  the  ancient  writers 
looked  upon  him  as  the  instructor  of 
Menandffr.  See  Simonians. 

MENDICANTS,  or  Begging  Fri- 
ars, se\eral  orders  of  religious  in  po- 
pish countries,  who,  having  no  settled 
revenues,  are  supported  by  the  cha- 
ritable contributions  they  receive  from 
others. 

This  sort  of  society  began  in  the 
thirteenth  centuiy,  and  the  members  of 
it,  b\'  the  tenor  ot  their  institution,  were 
to  remain  entirely  destitute  of  all  fix- 
ed revenues  and  possessions ;  though  in 
process  of  time  their  number  became  a 
heavy  tax  upon  the  people.  Innocent 
III.  was  the  first  of  the  popes  who  per- 
ceived the  necessity  of  mstituting  such 
an  order ;  and  accordingly  he  gave  such 
monastic  societies  as  made  a  profession 
of  povei'ty,  the  most  distmguishing 
marks  of  his  protection  and  favour. 
They  were  also  encouraged  and  patron- 
ized by  the  succeeding  pontiffs,  when 
experience  had  demonstrated  their  pub- 
lic and  extensive  usefulness.  But  when 
it  became  generally  known  that  they 
had  such  a  peculiar  place  in  the  es- 
teem and  protection  of  the  i-ulers  of  the 
church,  their  number  grew  to  such  an 
enormous  and  unwieldy  multitude,  and 
swarmed  so  prodigiously  in  all  the  Eu- 
ropean provinces,  that'thev  became  a 
burden,  not  only  to  the  people,  but  to 
the  church  itself.  The  great  inconve- 
nience that  arose  from  the  excessive 
multiplication  of  the  Mendicant  orders 
was  remedied  by  Gregory  X.,  in  a  ge- 
neral council  which  he  assembled  at 
Lyons  in  1272 ;  for  here  all  the  religious 
orders  that  had  spining  up  after  the 
council  held  at  Rome  in  1215,  under  the 
pontificate  of  Innocent  III.  were  sup- 
preped ;  and  the  extravagant  multitude 


of  Mendicants,  as  Gregory  called  theiHi 
were  reduced  to  a  smaller  number,  and 
confined  to  the  four  following  societies 
or  denominations,  viz.  the  Dominicans, 
the  Franciscans,  the  Carmelites,  and 
the  Augustins,  or  hermits  of  bt.  Au- 
gustin. 

As  the  pontiffs  allowed  these  four 
Mendicant  orders  the  liberty  of  travel- 
ling wherever  they  thought  proper,  of 
conversing  with  persons  of  every  rank, 
of  instnicting  the  youth  and  multitude 
wherever  they  went ;  and  as  those 
monks  exhibited,  in  their  outward  ap- 
pearance and  manners  of  life,  more 
striking  marks  of  gravity  and  holiness 
than  were  obsei'\'able  in  the  other  mo- 
nastic societies,  they  rose  all  at  once  to 
the  very  summit  of  fame,  and  were  re- 
garded with  the  utmost  esteem  and 
veneration  through  all  the  countries  of 
Europe.  The  enthusiastic  attachment 
to  these  sanctimonious  beggars  went  so 
far,  that,  as  we  learn  from  the  most 
authentic  records,  several  cities  were 
divided  or  cantoned  out  into  four  parts, 
with  a  view  to  these  four  orders:  the 
first  part  being  assigned  to  the  Domini- 
cans, the  second  to  the  Franciscans, 
the  third  to  the  Carmelites,  and  the 
fourth  to  the  Augustins.  The  people 
were  unwilling  to  receive  the  sacra- 
ments from  any  other  hands  than 
those  of  the  Mendicants,  to  whose 
churches  they  ci'owded  to  perform 
their  devotions  while  living,  and  were 
extremely  desirous  to  deposit  there 
also  their  remains  after  death.  Nor 
did  the  influence  and  credit  of  the  Men- 
dicants end  here  ;  for  we  find  in  the  his- 
tory of  this  and  of  the  succeeding  ages, 
that  they  were  employed  not  only  in 
spiritual  matters,  but  also  in  tempoi-al 
and  political  affairs  of  the  greatest  con- 
sequence, in  composing  the  differences 
of  princes,  concluding  treaties  of  peace, 
concerting  alliances,  presiding  in  cabinet 
councils,  governing  courts, levying  taxes, 
and  other  occupations,  not  only  remote 
from,  but  absolutely  inconsistent  with 
the  monastic  character  and  profession. 
However,  the  power  of  the  Dominicans 
and  Franciscans  greatly  sui-passed  that 
of  the  other  two  orders,  insomuch  that 
these  two  orders  were,  before  the  re- 
formation, what  the  Jesuits  have  been 
since  that  happy  and  glorious  period; 
the  ver\"  soul  of  "the  hierarchy,  the  en- 
gines of  the  state,  the  secret  springs  of 
all  the  motions  of  the  one  and  the  other, 
and  the  authors  and  c.irectors  of  every 
great  and  important  event,  both  in  the 
religious  and  political  world.  By  very- 
quick  progression  their  pride  and  con'- 
sequence  amved  at  such  a  pitch,  than 


MEN 


MEN 


they  had  the  presumption  to  declare 
publicly,  that  they  had  a  divine  impulse 
and  commission  to  illustrate  and  main- 
tain the  religion  of  Jesus.  They  treated 
Avith  the  utmost  insolence  and  contempt 
all  the  different  orders  of  the  priest- 
hood ;  they  afhrmed,  without  a  blush, 
that  the  true  methocl  of  obfaining  sal- 
vation was  revealed  to  them  alone ; 
proclaimed  with  ostentation  the  supe- 
rior efficacy  and  virtue  of  their  indul- 
gences; and  vaunted  beyond  measure 
their  interest  at  the  court  of  heaven, 
and  their  familiar  connexions  with  the 
Supreme  Being,  the  Virgin  Mary,  and 
the  saints  in  glory.  By  these  impious 
wiles  they  so  deluded  and  captivated 
the  miserable,  and  blinded  the  multi- 
tude, that  they  would  not  intrust  any 
other  but  the  Mendicants  with  the  care 
of  their  souls.  They  retained  their 
credit  and  influence  to  such  a  degi'ee 
towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  that  great  numbers  of  both 
sexes,  some  in  health,  others  in  a  state 
of  infirmity,  others  at  the  pomt  of  death, 
earnestly  desired  to  be  admitted  into 
the  Mendicant  order,  which  they  look- 
ed upon  as  a  sure  and  infallible  method 
of  rendering  heaven  propitious. — Many 
made  it  an  essential  part  of  their  last 
wills,  that  their  bodies  after  death 
should  be  wrapped  in  old  ragged  Domi- 
nican or  Fi-anciscan  haljits,  and  interred 
among  the  Mendicants.  For  such  was 
the  barbarous  superstition  and  wretched 
ignorance  of  this  age,  that  people  uni- 
versally believed  they  should  readily 
obtam  mercy  from  Christ  at  the  day 
of  judgment,  if  they  appeared  before 
his  tribunal  associated  with  the  Mendi- 
cant friars. 

About  this  time,  however,  they  fell 
under  an  universal  odium ;  but,  being 
j'esolutely  protected  against  all  opposi- 
tion, whether  open  or  secret,  by  the 
popes,  who  regarded  them  as  their  best 
iriends,  and  most  effectual  supports, 
they  suffered  little  or  nothing  from  the 
efforts  of  their  numerous  adversaries. 
In  the  fifteenth  century,  besides  their 
arrogance,  which  was  excessive,  a  quar- 
relsome and  litigious  spirit  prevailed 
among  them,  and  drew  upon  them  justly 
the  displeasure  and  indignation  of  many. 
By  affording  refuge  at  this  time  to  the 
Beguins  m  their  order,  they  be/(jfime  of- 
fensive to  the  bishops,  and  were  lierehy 
involved  in  difficulties  and  perjjlexities 
of  various  kinds.  They  lost  their  civdit 
in  the  sixteenth  century  by  their  rustic 
impudence,  their  ridiculous  superstitions, 
their  ignorance,  cruelty,  and  bruiJsh 
manners.  They  discovered  the  most 
barbarous  aversion  to  the  arts  and  scien- 


ces, and  expressed  a  like  abliorrence  of 
certain  cmment  and  learned  men,  who 
endeavoured  to  open  the  paths  of  science 
to  tiie  pursuits  of  the  studious  youtli,  re- 
commended the  culture  of  the  mind, 
and  attacked  the  barbarism  of  the  agu 
in  their  wi-itings  and  discourses.  Their 
general  cliaracter,  together  with  other 
circumstances,  concurred  to  render  a 
reformation  desirable,  and  to  accomplish 
this  happy  event. 

Among  the  number  of  Mendicants  are 
also  ranked  the  Capuchins,  Recollects, 
Minims,  and  others,  who  are  branches 
or  derivations  from  the  former. 

Buchanan  tells  us,  the  Mendicants  in 
Scotland,  under  an  appearance  of  beg- 
gary, lived  a  very  luxurious  life ;  whence 
one  wittily  called  them  not  Alaidicant, 
but  Manducant  friars. 

MENNONITES,  a  sect  in  the  Unit- 
ed Provinces,  in  most  resjiects  the  same 
with  those  in  other  places  called  Ana- 
baptiHis.  They  had  their  rise  in  IS.Se, 
when  Menno  Simon,  a  nati\^e  of  P'ries- 
land,  who  had  been  a  Romish  priest, 
and  a  notorious  profligate,  resigned  his 
rank  and  office  m  the  Romish  church, 
and  publicly  embraced  the  communion 
of  the  Anabaptists. 

Menno  was  born  at  Witmarsum,  a 
village  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bols- 
wert,  in  Fi'iesland,  in  the  year  1505, 
and  died  in  1561,  in  the  duchy  of  Hol- 
stein,  at  the  country-seat  of  a  certain 
nobleman,  not  far  from  the  city  of  Ol- 
desloe,  who,  moved  with  compassion  by 
the  view  of  the  perils  to  which  Men- 
no  was  exposed,  and  the  snares  that 
were  daily  laid  for  his  ruin,  took  him, 
with  certain  of  his  associates,  into  his 
pi-otection,  and  gave  him  an  asylum. 
The  writhigs  of  Menno,  which  are  al- 
most all  composed  in  the  Dutch  lan- 
guage, were  published  in  folio  at  Am- 
sterdam, in  the  year  1651.  About  the 
year  \SoJ,  Menno  was  earnestly  solicit- 
ed by  many  of  the  sect  with  which  he 
connected  himself,  to  assume  among 
them  the  i-ank  and  functions  of  a  public 
teacher ;  and,  as  he  looked  upon  the 
persons  who  made  this  proposal  to  be 
exempt  from  the  x'anaticai  phrenzy  of 
their  brethren  at  Mu'istcr  (though  ac- 
cording to  other  accounts  they  were 
originally  of  the  same  stamp,  only  ren- 
dered somewhat  wiser  oy  their  suffer- 
ings) he  yielded  to  their  entreaties. 
From  this  period  to  the  end  of  his  life 
he  tra\'cUed  from  one  country  tu  ano- 
ther with  his  wife  and  ciiildren,  exer- 
cising nis  ministry,  under  pressures  and 
calamities  of  various  kinds,  that  suc- 
ceeded each  other  without  interruption, 
and  constantly  exposed  to  the  danger 


MEN 


353 


MEN 


of  falling  a  \'ictim  to  the  severity  of  the 
laws.  East  andW'est  Friesl and,  together 
with  tlie  province  of  Gronigen,  were 
first  visited  by  this  zealous  apostle  of 
the  Anabaptists;  from  whence  he  di- 
rected his  coui'se  into  Holland,  Guel- 
derland,  Brabant  and  Westphalia  ;  con- 
tinued it  through  the  German  provinces 
that  lie  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic  sea, 
and  penetrated  so  far  as  Livonia.  In 
all  these  places  his  ministei-ial  labours 
■were  attended  v/ith  remarkable  suc- 
cess, and  added  to  his  sect  a  prodigious 
number  of  followers.  Hence  he  is  de- 
servedly considered  as  the  common 
chief  of  almost  all  the  Anabafitists,  and 
the  parent  of  the  sect  that  still  subsists 
under  that  denomination.  Menno  was 
a  man  of  genius,  though  not  of  a  very 
sound  judgment :  he  possessed  a  natural 
and  persuasive  eloquence,  and  such  a 
degree  of  learning  as  made  him  pass 
for  an  oracle  in  the  estimation  of  the 
multitude.  He  appears,  moreover,  to 
have  been  a  man  of  probity,  of  a  meek 
and  tractable  spirit,  gentle  in  his  man- 
ners, pliable  and  obsequious  in  his  com- 
merce with  persons  of  all  ranks  and 
characters,  and  extremely  zealous  in 
promoting  practical  religion  antl  virtue, 
.  which  he  recommended  by  his  exam- 
t'  pie  as  w^  as  by  his  precepts.  The 
plan  of  doctrine  and  disciphne  drawn 
up  by  Menno  was  of  a  much  more  mUd 
and  moderate  nature  than  that  of  the 
fiirious  and  fanatical  Anabaptists  (whose 
tumultuous  proceedings  have  been  re- 
cited under  that  article,)  but  somewhat 
more  severe,  though  more  clear  and 
consistent  than  the  doctrine  of  the  v/iser 
branches  of  that  sect,  who  aimed  at 
notliing  more  than  the  restoration  of 
the  Christian  church  to  its  primitive 
purity.  Accordi-ngly,  he  condemned  the 
plan  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  that  was 
founded  on  the  prospect  of  a  new  king- 
dom, to  be  miraculously  established 
by  Jesus  Christ  on  the  ruins  of  civil 
government,  and  the  destruction  of  hu- 
man rulers,  and  which  had  been  the 
fatal  and  pestilential  source  of  such 
dreadful  commotions,  such  execrable 
rebellions,  and  such  enormous  crimes. 
He  declared  publicly  his  dislike  of  that 
docti-ine  which  pomted  out  the  ap- 
proach of  a  marvellous  reformation  in 
the  church  by  the  means  of  a  new 
and  extraordinary  effasion  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  He  expressed  his  abhorrence 
of  the  licentious  tenets  which  several 
,  of  the  Anabaptists  had  maintained  with 
respect  to  the  lawfulness  of  polygamy 
and  divorce;  and,  finally,  considered 
as  unworthy  of  toleration  "those  fanatics 
who  were  of  opinion,  that  the  Holy 


Ghost  continued  to  descend  into  the 
minds  of  many  chosen  behevers,  in  as 
extraordinary  a  manner  as  he  did  at 
the  first  establishment  of  the  Christian 
church,  and  that  he  testified  his  pecu- 
liar presence  to  several  of  the  faithful, 
bjr  miracles,  predictions,  dreams,  and 
visions  of  various  kinds.  He  retained, 
indeed,  the  doctrines  commonly  i-eceiv- 
ed  among  the  Anabaptists,  in  relation 
to  the  baptism  of  infants;  the  milleti- 
nium,  or  one  thousand  years'  reign  of 
Christ  upon  earth ;  the  exclusion  of 
magistrates  from  the  Christian  church ; 
the  abolition  of  war;  and  the  prohibi- 
tion of  oath  enjoined  by  our  Saviour; 
and  the  vanity,  as  well  as  the  pernicious 
effects  of  human  science.  But  while 
Menno  retained  these  doctrines  in  a 
general  sense,  he  explained  and  modified 
them  in  such  a  manner  as  made  them 
resemble  the  religious  tenets  that  were 
univei'sally  received  in  the  Protestant 
churches ;  and  this  rendered  them 
agreeable  to  many,  and  made  them  ap- 
pear inoffensive  even  to  numbers  who 
had  no  inclination  to  embrace  them. 
It,  however,  so  happened,  that  the  na- 
ture of  the  doctrines  considered  in  them- 
selves, the  eloquence  of  Menno,  which 
set  them  off  to  such  advantage,  and  the 
circumstances  of  the  times,  gave  a  high 
degree  of  credit  to  the  religious  system 
of  this  famous  teacher  among  the  Ana- 
baptists, so  that  it  made  a  rapid  pro- 
gress in  that  sect.  And  thus  it  was  in 
consequence  of  the  ministry  of  Menno, 
that  the  different  sorts  Anabaptists 
agreed  together  in  excludmg  from  their 
communion  the  fanatics  that  dishonour- 
ed it,  and  in  renouncing  aU  tenets  that 
Avere  detrimental  to  the  authority  of 
civil  government,  and  by  an  unexpected 
coalition  formed  themselves  into  one 
community. 

Though  the  Mennonites  usually  pass 
for  a  sect  of  Anabaptists,  yet  M.  Her- 
man Schyn,  a  Mennonite  minister,  who 
has  published  their  histor)^  and  apology, 
maintains,  that  they  are  not  Anabaptists 
either  by  principle  or  origin.  However, 
nothing  can  be  more  certain  than  this 
fact,  viz.  that  the  first  Mennonite  con- 
gregations were  composed  of  the  differ- 
ent sorts  of  Anabaptists;  of  those  who 
had  been  always  inoffensive  and  upright, 
and  of  those  who,  before  their  conver- 
sion by  the  ministry  of  Menno,  had  been 
seditious  fanatics;  besides,  it  is  alleged, 
that  the  Mennonites  do  actually  retain 
at  this  day  some  of  those  opinions  and 
doctrines  which  led  the  seditious  and 
turbulent  Anabaptists  of  old  to  the  com- 
mission of  so  many  and  such  enormous 
crimes ;  such  particularly  is  the  doctrine 
Yy 


MEN 


354 


MEN 


concemine  the  nature  of  Christ's  king- 
dom, or  of  the  church  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, though  modified  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  have  lost  its  noxious  (jualities, 
and  to  be  no  longer  pernicious  in  its  in- 
flutiice. 

The  Mennonites  are  subdivided  into 
several  sects,  whereof  the  two  principal 
arc  the  Flandrians,  or  Flemingians, 
and  the  Watcrlandians.  The  opinions, 
says  iVlosheim,  that  are  held  in  common 
by  the  Mennonites,  seem  to  be  all  deriv- 
ed from  this  fundamental  principle, — 
that  the  kingdom  which  Christ  esta- 
blished upon  earth  is  a  visible  church, 
or  community,  into  which  the  holy  and 
just  alone  are  to  be  admitted ;  and 
which  is  consequently  exempt  from  all 
those  institutions  and  rules  of  disci- 
pline that  have  been  invented  by  hu- 
man wisdom  for  the  correction  and  re- 
formation of  the  wicked.  This  prin- 
ciple, indeed,  was  avowed  by  the  an- 
cient Mennonites.  but  it  is  n  'W  almost 
AvhoUy  renounced:  nevertheless,  from 
this  ancient  doctrine  many  of  the  reli- 
gious opinions  that  distineuish  the  Men- 
nonites from  all  other  Christian  com- 
munities seem  to  be  derived.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  doctrine,  they  admit 
none  to  the  sacrament  of  baptism  but 
persons  that  are  come  to  the  full  use 
of  their  reason ;  they  neither  admit 
civil  rulers  i)ito  their  communion,  nor 
allow  any  of  their  members  to  perform 
the  functions  of  magistracy;  they  deny 
the  lawfulness  of  repelling  force  by 
force  ;  and  consider  war,  \\\  all  its  shapes, 
as  unchristian  and  unjust:  they  enter- 
tain the  u'.inost  aversion  to  the  exe- 
cution of  justice,  and  more  especially 
to  capital  punishments  :  and  they  also 
refuse  to  confirm  their  testimony  by 
an  oath.  The  particular  sentiments 
that  di\'ided  the  more  considerable  so- 
cieties of  the  Mennonites,  are  the  fol- 
lowing: The  rigid  Mennonites,  called 
the  FlemingianSj  maintain  with  various 
degrees  of  rigour  the  opinions  of  their 
founder,  Menno,  as  to  the  human  na- 
ture of  Christ,  alleging  that  it  was 
Eroduced  in  the  womb  of  the  Virgin 
y  the  creating  power  of  the  Holy 
Ghost ;  the  obligation  that  binds  us  to 
wash  the  feet  of  strangers,  in  conse- 
quence of  our  Saviour's  command  :  the 
necessity  of  excommunicating  and  avoid- 
ing, as  one  would  do  the  plague,  not 
otiiy  avowed  sinners,  but  also  all  those 
■who  depart,  even  in  some  light  in- 
stances pertaining  to  dress,  &c.  from 
the  simplicity  of  their  ancestors ;  the 
contempt  due  to  human  learnuig ;  and 
other  matters  of  less  moment.  How- 
ever, this  austere  system  declines,  aud 


the  rigid  Mennonites  are  gradually  ap" 
proaching  towards  the  opinions  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  more  moderate,  or  Water- 
la77dians. 

The  first  settlement  of  the  Menno- 
nites in  the  United  Provinces  was  grant- 
ed them  by  W^illiam,  prince  of  Orange, 
towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury ;  but  it  was  not  before  the  follow- 
ing century  that  their  liberty  and  tran- 
quillity were  fixed  upon  solid  founda- 
tions, when,  by  a  confession  of  faith  pub- 
lished in  the  year  1626,  they  cleared 
themselves  from  the  imputations  of 
those  pernicious  and  detestable  errors 
that  had  been  laid  to  their  charge.  In 
order  to  appease  their  intestine  dis- 
cords, a  considerable  part  of  the  Ana- 
baptists of  Flanders,  Germany,  and 
i  nesland,  concluded  their  debates  in  a 
conference  held  at  Amsterdam  in  the 
year  1630,  arid  entered  into  the  bonds  of 
fraternal  communion,  each  reserving  to 
themselves  a  liberty  of  retaining  certain 
opinions.  This  association  was  renewed 
and  confirmed  by  new  resolutions  in  the 
year  1649  ;  in  consequence  of  which  the 
rigoi'ous  laws  of  Menno  and  his  success- 
ors were  in  various  respects  mitigated 
and  corrected.    See  Anabaptists. 

MEN  OF  UNDERSTANDING. 
This  title  distinguished  a  deyiomination 
which  appeared  in  Flanders  and  Brus- 
sels in  the  year  1511.  They  owed  their 
origin  to  an  illiterate  man,  whose  name 
was  Egidius  Cantor,  and  to  William  of 
Hildenison,  a  Carmelite  monk.  They 
pretended  to  be  honoured  with  celestial 
visions,  denied  that  any  could  arrive  at 
perfect  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures without  the  extraordinary  suc- 
cours of  a  di\  ine  illumination,  and  de- 
clared the  approach  of  a  new  revela- 
tion from  heaven,  more  perfect  than  the 
Gospel  of  Christ.  They  said  that  the 
resurrection  was  accomplished  in  the 
person  of  Jesus,  and  no  other  was  to  be 
expected  ;  that  the  inward  man  was  not 
defiled  by  the  outward  actions,  what- 
ever they  were ;  that  the  pains  of  hell 
were  to  have  an  end  ;  and  not  only  all 
mankind,  but  even  the  devils  them- 
selves were  to  return  to  God,  and  be 
made  partakers  of  eternal  felicity.  They 
also  taught  among  other  things,  that 
Christ  alone  had  merited  eternal  life 
and  felicity  for  the  human  race ;  and 
that  therefore  men  could  not  acquire 
this  inestimable  privilege  by  their  own 
actions  alone — that  the  priests  to  whom 
the  people  confessed  their  tr;uigressioiis, 
had  not  the  power  of  absolving  them,  but 
this  authority  was  \-ested  in  Christ  alone 
— that  voluntary  penance  and  mortifica- 
tion was  not  necessary  to  salvation. 


MER 


355 


MER 


This  denomination  appears  to  have 
been  a  brancli  of  the  Brethren  and  Sis- 
ters of  the  Free  Spirit. 

MERCY  is  that  disposition  of  mind 
which  excites  us  to  pity  and  relieve 
those  wlio  are  in  trouble,  or  to  pass  by 
their  crimes  without  punishing  them.  It 
is ■  distinguished  from  love,  thus:  The 
object  of  love  is  the  creature  simply ; 
the  object  of  mi'rcy  is  the  creature  fallen 
mto  misery.  Parents  love  their  children 
simply,  as  they  are  their  children;  but 
if  they  fall  into  misery,  love  works  in  a 
way  of  pity  and  compassion:  love  is 
turned  into  mercy. 

"As  we  are  all  the  objects  of  mercy 
in  one  deg^'ee  or  another,  the  mutual 
exercise  of  it  towards  each  other  is  ne- 
cessary to  preserve  the  harmony  and 
happiness  of  society.  But  thei'e  are 
those  who  may  be  more  particularly 
considered  as  the  objects  or  it;  such  as 
the  guilty,  the  indigent,  and  the  misera- 
ble. As  it  respects  the  guilty,  the  great- 
est mercy  we  can  show  to  them  is  to 
endeavour  to  reclaim  them,  and  pi'event 
the  bad  consequences  of  fheir  miscon- 
duct, James  v.  20.  Mercy  may  also  be 
shown  to  them  by  a  proper  mitigation 
of  justice,  and  not  extending  the  punish- 
ment beyond  the  nature  or  desert  of 
the  crime.  With  regard  to  those  who 
are  in  necessity  and  wmit,  meicy  calls 
upon  us  to  .ifFord  the  most  suitable  and 
seasonable  supplies;  and  here  our  bene- 
factions must  be  dispensed  in  propor- 
tion to  our  circumstances,  and  the  real 
distress  of  the  object,  1  John  iii.  17.  As 
to  those  who  are  in  misery  and  distress, 
mercv  prompts  us  to  relieve  and  com- 
fort them  by  doing  what  we  can  to  re- 
move or  alleviate  their  burdens.  Our 
Lord  strongly  recommended  this  act  of 
mercy  in  the  parable  of  the  man  who 
fell  among  thieves,  and  was  relie\ed  by 
the  poor  Samaritan :  and  in  the  conclu- 
sion he  adds,  '  Go  and  do  thou  likewise,' 
Luke  X.  30 — 37. 

"This  merciful  temper  will  show  and 
exert  itself  not  only  towards  those  of 
our  own  paity  and  acquaintance,  but  to 
the  whole  human  species ;  and  not  only 
to  the  whole  human  species,  but  to  the 
animal  creation.  It  is  a  degree  of  inhu- 
manity to  take  a  pleasure  m  giving  any 
thing  pain,  and  more  in  putting  useful 
animals  to  extreme  torture  for  our  own 
sport.  This  is  not  that  dominion  which 
God  originally  gave  to  man  over  the 
beasts  of  the  field.  It  is,  therefore,  an 
usurped  authority,  which  man  has  no 
right  to  exercise  over  bi-ute  creatures, 
which  were  made  for  his  service,  con- 
venience, support,  arid  ease ;  but  not  for 
the  gratification  of  unlawful  passions,  or ' 
ci-uel  dispositions. 


"Mercy  must  be  distinguished  from 
those  weaknesses  of  a  natural  temper 
which  often  put  on  the  appearaiice  ot  it. 
\'\'ith  regard  to  criminals  or  delinquents, 
it  is  false  compassion  to  suppress  tlie  sa- 
lutary admonition,  and  refuse  to  set  their 
guilt  before  them,  merely  because  the 
sight  of  it  will  give  their  conscience 
puiu:  such  unseasonable  tenderness  in. 
a  surgeon  may  pi^ove  the  death  of  his 
patient:  this,  nowever  it  may  appear, 
IS  not  mercy,  but  cruelty.  So  is  that 
fondness  of  a  parent  that  withholds  the 
hand  of  discipline  from  a  beloved  child, 
when  its  frowardness  and  faults  render 
seasonable  and  prudent  con-ection  ne- 
cessary to  save  it  from  i*uin.  In  like 
maimer,  when  a  magistrate,  through 
excessive  clemency,  suffers  a  criminal 
who  is  a  pest  to  society  to  escape  vm- 
punished,  or  so  mitigates  the  sentence 
of  the  law  as  to  put  it  into  his  power  to 
do  still  greater  hurt  to  others,  he  vio- 
lates not  only  the  laws  of  justice,  but  ot 
merc>'  too. 

"Mercy  to  the  indigent  and  neces- 
sitous has  been  no  less  abused  and  per- 
\'eited  by  acts  of  mistaken  beneficence, 
when  impudence  and  clamour  are  per- 
mitted to  extoit  from  the  huid  of  cha- 
rit}'  that  relief  which  is  due  to  silent 
distress  and  modest  merit ;  or  when  one 
o!)ject  is  lavishly  relieved  to  the  detri- 
ment of  another  who  is  more  deserving. 
As  it  respects  those  who  are  in  tribula- 
tion or  misery,  to  be  sure,  every  such 
person  is  an  object  of  our  compassion ; 
but  that  compassion  may  be,  and  often 
is,  exercised  in  a  wrong  manner.  Some 
are  of  so  tender  a  make,  that  they  can- 
not bear  the  sight  of  distress,  and  stand 
aloof  from  a  friend  in  pam  and  aflKxtion, 
because  it  affects  them  too  sensibly, 
when  their  presence  Tvould  at  least  .give 
them  some  little  comfort,  and  might 
possibly  administer  laeting  relief.  This 
weakness  should  be  opposedj  because  it 
not  only  looks  like  unkindness  to  our 
friends,  but  is  really  showing  more  ten- 
derness to  ourselves  than  to  them :  nor 
is  it  doing  as  we  would  be  done  by. 
Again;  it  is  false  pity,  when,  out  of 
mere  tenderness  of  nature,  we  either 
advise  or  permit  our  afflicted  friend  to 
take  or  do  any  thing  which  will  give 
him  a  little  present  transient  ease,  but 
which  we  know  at  the  same  time  will 
increase  his  future  pain,  and  aggravate 
the  symptoms  of  his  disease."  Seeing, 
therefore,  the  extremes  to  which  we 
are  liable,  let  us  learn  to  cultivate  that 
wisdom  and  pnadcnce  which  are  neces- 
sary to  regulate  this  ^-ili:ue.  To  he  Just 
without  being  cimel,  and  merciful  with- 
out being  weak,  should  be  our  constant 


MER 


356 


MES 


aim,  under  all  the  circumstances  of  giiilt, 
indigence,  and  misery,  which  present 
themselves  to  our  view.  See  Benefi- 
cence, Charity,  Love. 

MERCY  OF  GOD  is' his  readiness 
to  relieve  the  miserable  and  to  pardon 
the  guilty.  1.  It  is  essential  to  his  na- 
ture, Exod.  xxxiv.  6,  7 ;  not,  indeed,  as 
a  passion  or  affection,  as  it  is  in  men, 
but  the  result  of  his  sovereign  will,  and 
guided  by  his  infinite  wisdom.— -2.  It  is 
free,  as  nothmg  out  of  himself  can  be 
the  cause  of  it ;  for  tlien  there  would  be 
a  cause  pi'ior  to  him,  the  cause  of  him- 
self. The  misery  of  the  creature  is  not 
the  cause  of  mercy,  for  he  is  not  wrought 
upon  as  creature's  are,  nor  are  the  me- 
rits of  the  creature  the  cause.  Tit.  iii. 
5;  norai-e  even  the  sufferings  of  Christ 
the  cause,  but  the  effects  of  it;  but  it 
arises  from  the  goodness  of  his  nature, 
and  from  his  sovereign  will  and  plea- 
sure, Exod.  xxxiii.  19.  Rom.  ix.  18. — 
3.  His  mercy  is  infinite;  it  pardons  of- 
fences committed  against  an  infinitely 
holy  Being,  and  bestows  an  infinite  good 
on  all  who  believe,  even  Jesus  Christ, 
Luke  i.  78. — 4.  It  is  immutable ;  nothing 
can  change  it ;  it  is  invariably  the  same, 
Mai.  iii.  6.  Luke  i.  50.— 5.  Shall  be  for 
ever  celebrated  in  a  future  state,  Psal. 
Ixxxix.  2.  ciii.  17. — 6.  It  is  only  display- 
ed in  and  thi'ough  Christ,  Eph.  ii.  It  has 
been  farther  distinguished  mto,  1.  Pre- 
venting mercy,  Psal.  lix.  10. — 2.  For- 
bearing mercy,  Rom.  ii.  4. — 3.  Comfort- 
ing mercy,  2  Cor.  i.  4. — 4.  Relieving 
mercy,  Psal.  cxlv.  8,  9. — 5.  Pardoning 
mercy.  Is.  Iv.  6. — 6.  Universal  or  exten- 
sive mercy.  It  extends  to  all  kinds  of 
beings  and  fallen  creatures.  The  binite 
creation  share  in  it,  Psal.  cxlv.  9.  xxxvi. 
5, 6.  The  ungodly  are  the  objects  of  it 
in  a  general  way,  Matt.  v.  45.  1  Tim. 
iv.  10.  The  saints  on  eaith  are  continual 
monuments  of  it,  Rom.  ix.  23;  and  the 
spirits  of  just  men  made  perfect  in 
glory  are  always  praising  God  for  it. 
Finally,  it  is  enjoyed  in  an  especial 
manner  by  all  who  are  true  believers, 
of  every  nation,  in  every  age,  in  everv 
circumstance,  in  all  places,  and  at  all 
times.  See  Grace,  Pardon;  Gill's 
Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  p.  124.  oct.  ed.  Sau- 
rin's  Scj\  vol.  i.  ser.  8.  Dr.  \  Goodwin's 
Works,  vol.  V.  part  2.  Tillotson''s  Ser. 
ser.  147.    HilPs  Sei:  ser.  10. 

MERIT  signifies  desert,  or  to  earn: 
originally  the  word  was  applied  to  sol- 
diers and  other  military  persons,  wlio, 
by  their  labours  in  the  field,  and  by  tlie 
various  hardships  they  underwent  du- 
ring tlic  course  of  a  campaign,  as  also 
by  other  sen  ices  tliey  might  occasion- 
ally render  to  the  commonwealth,  were 


said,  mercre  stipendia,  to  merit,  or  earn 
their  pay ;  which  they  might  properly 
be  said  to  do,  because  they  yielded  in 
real  service  an  equivalent  to  the  state 
for  the  stipend  they  received,  which 
was  therefore  due  to  them  in  justice. 
Here,  then,  we  come  at  the  true  mean- 
ing of  the  word  merit;  from  which  it  is 
very  clearly  to  be  seen  that  there  can 
be  no  such  thin.g  as  merit  in  our  best 
obedience.  One  man  may  merit  of  ano- 
ther, but  all  mankind  together  cannot 
merit  from  the  hand  of  God.  This  evi- 
dently appears,  if  we  consider  the  im- 
perfections of  all  our  services,  and  the 
express  declaration  of  the  divine  word, 
Eph.  ii.  8,  9.  Rom.  xi.  5,  6.  Tit.  iii.  5. 
Rom.  X.  1,  4.  The  Doctrine  of  Merit 
stated,  ser.  i.  vol.  iii.  South's  •Sermo7hs; 
Toplady's  Works,  p.  471,  vol.  iii.  Her- 
vey's  £leve?7  Letters  to  Wesley;  Ro- 
binson's Claude,  vol.  ii.  p.  218. 

MERITS  OF  CHRIST,  a  term  used 
to  denote  the  active  and  passive  obe- 
dience of  Christ;  all  that  he  wrought 
and  all  that  he  suffered  for  the  salva- 
tion of  mankind.  See  articles  Atone- 
ment, Imputation,  Righteousness 
OF  Christ. 

MESSIAH  signifies  anointed,  the  ti- 
tle given  by  waj'  of  eminence  to  our  Sa- 
viour; meaning  the  same  in  Hebrew  as 
Christ  in  Cireek,  and  alludes  to  the  au- 
thority he  had  to  assume  the  chai-acters 
of  prophet,  priest,  and  king,  and  that  of 
Saviour  of  the  world.  The  ancient  Jews 
had  just  notions  of  the  Messiah,  which 
came  gradually  to  be  corrupted,  by  ex- 
pecting a  temporal  monarch  and  con- 
queror ;  and  finding  Jesus  Christ  to  be 
poor,  humble,  and  of  an  unpromising 
appeai-ance,  they  rejected  him.  Most  of 
the  modeiTi  rabbins,  according  to  Bux- 
torf,  believe  that  the  Messiah  is  come, 
but  that  he  lies  concealed  because  of 
the  sins  of  the  Jews.  Others  believe  he 
is  not  yet  come,  fixing  different  times 
for  his  appearance,  many  of  which  are 
elapsed;  and,  being  thus  baffled,  have 
pronounced  an  anathema  against  those 
wlio  shall  pretend  to  calculate  the  time 
of  his  coming.  To  reconcile  the  prophe- 
cies concernmg  the  Messiah  that  seem- 
ed to  be  contradictory,  some  ha\-e  had 
recoiu'se  to  a  twofold  Mcssiali ;  one  in 
a  state  of  poverty  and  suffering,  the 
other  of  splendor  and  glory.  Tlie  first, 
they  say,  is  to  pixiceed  from  the  tribe  of 
Epiiraim,  who  is  to  fight  against  Gog, 
and  to  be  slain  by  Amiillus,  Zech.  xii.  10 ; 
the  second  is  to  be  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
and  lineage  of  David,  who  is  to  conquer 
and  kill'Annillus;  to  bring  the  first 
Messiah  to  life  again,  to  assemble  all 
"Israel,  and  rule  over  the  whole  world. 


MES 


357 


MES 


That  Jesus  Christ  is  the  tnie  Mes- 
siah, and  actually  come  in  the  flesli  is 
evident,  if  we  consider  (as  Mr.  Fuller 
observes)  that  it  is  intimated  that  when- 
ever he  should  come,  the  sacrifices  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic  law  were  to 
be  superseded  by  him,  Ps.  xl.  6 — 8;  1 
Sam.  XV.  22  ;  Dan.  ix.  27;  Jer.  xxxi.  31, 
34;  Heb.  viii.  13.  Now  sacrifice  and 
oblation  have  ceased.  They  virtually 
ceased  when  Jesus  offered  himself  a  sa- 
crifice, and  in  a  few  years  after,  they 
actually  ceased.  A  few  of  the  ancient 
ceremonies  are  indeed  adhered  to,  but 
as  one  of  the  Jewish  writers  acknow- 
ledges, "The  sacrifices  of  the  Holy 
Temple  have  ceased."  Let  every  Jew 
therefore,  ask.  himself  this  question. 
Should  Messiah  the  Prince  come  at 
some  future  period,  how  are  the  sacri- 
fice and  oblation  to  cease  on  his  ap- 
pearance, when  they  have  already  ceas- 
ed near  1800  years. 

Again,  it  is  suggested  in  the  Sci'ip- 
ture,  that  th°  great  body  of  sacred  pro- 
phecy should  be  accomplished  in  him  ; 
Gen.  iii.  16 ;  xxii.  18  ;  Is.  xlix.  10.  liii.  1. 
The  time  when  he  was  to  come  is  clear- 
ly marked  out  in  prophecy :  Is.  xlix. 
10;  Hag.  ii.  6—9;  Dan.  ix.  24.  He  ac- 
tually came  according  to  that  time. — 2. 
The  place  where  Messiah  should  be 
bom,  and  where  he  should  principally 
impart  his  doctrine  is  determined  ;  Mic. 
V.  2 ;  Is.  ix.  2 ;  and  was  literally  fulfilled 
in  Jesus. — 3.  The  house  or  family  from 
whom  he  should  descend  is  clearly  as- 
certained. So  much  is  said  of  his  de- 
scending from  David,  that  we  need  not 
refer  to  particular  proofs ;  and  the  ra- 
ther as  no  Jew  will  deny  it.  The  gene- 
alogies of  Matthew  and  Luke,  whatever 
varieties  there  are  between  them,  agree 
in  tracing  his  pedigree  to  David.  And 
though,  in  both  it  is  traced  in  the  name 
of  Joseph,  yet  this  appears  to  be  only  in 
conformity  to  the  Jewish  custom  of 
tracing  no  pedigree  in  the  name  of  a 
female.  The  father  of  Joseph,  as  men- 
tioned by  Luke,  see-ms  to  have  been  his 
father  by  marriage  only ;  so  that  it  was, 
in  reality,  Mary's  pedigree  that  is  trac- 
ed by  Luke,  though  under  her  husband's 
name  ;  and  this  being  the  natural  line  of 
descent,  and  that  of  Matthew  tlie  legal 
one,  by  Avhich,  as  a  king  he  would  have 
inherited  the  crown,  there  is  no  incon- 
sistency between  them. — 4.  The  kind 
of  miracles  that  Messiah  should  per- 
form is  specified  ;  Is.  xxxv.  5,  6.  He  ac- 
tually performed  the  miracles  there  pre- 
dicted, his  enemies  themselves  being 
judges. — 5.  It  was  prophesied  that  he 
should  as  a  King  be  distmguished  by  his 
lowlines!* ;  entering  into  Jeinisalem,"  not 


m  a  chariot  of  state,  but  in  a  much  hum- 
bler style ;  Zech.  ix.  9  ;  this  was  really 
the  case,  Matt.  xxi.  6.  It  was  predicted 
that  he  should  suffer  and  die  by  the 
hands  of  wicked  men ;  Is.  xlix.  7 ;  liii. 
9 ;  Dan.  ix.  26.  Nothing  could  be  a  more 
striking  fulfilment  of  prophecy  than  the 
treatment  the  Messiah  met  with  in  al- 
most eveiy  particular  circumstance. — 
7.  It  was  foretold  that  he  should  rise 
from  the  dead ;  Is.  liii.  11.  Ps.  Ixviii.  18. 
xvi.  10,  his  resurrection  is  proved  bj'  in- 
dubitable evidence. — 8.  It  was  foretold 
that  the  great  body  of  the  Jewish  nation 
would  not  believe  in  him,  and  that  he 
would  set  up  his  kingdom  among  the 
Gentiles ;  Is.  liii.  1.  xlix.  4 — 6.  vi.  9 — 12. 
Never  was  a  prophecy  more  complete- 
ly fulfilled  than  this,  as  facts  evidently 
prove. 

Lastly,  it  is  declared  that  when  the 
Messiah  should  come,  the  will  of  God 
would  be  perfectlyfulfiUed  by  him,  Is. 
xlii.  1,  49.  Is.  3 — 5.  And  what  was  his 
whole  life  but  perfect  conformity  to 
him  i*  He  finished  the  work  the  Father 
gave  him  to  do :  never  was  there  such 
a  character  seen  among  men.  Well 
therefore  may  we  say,  Truly  this  was 
the  Son  of  God.  See  article  Christi- 
anity, Jesus  Christ. 

There  have  been  numerous  false  Mes- 
siahs which  have  arisen  at  different 
times.  Of  these  the  Saviour  predicted. 
Matt.  xxiv.  14.  Some  have  reckoned  as 
many  as  twenty-four,  of  whom  we  shall 
here  give  an  account. 

1.  Caziba  was  the  first  of  any  note 
who  made  a  noise  in  the  world.  Being 
dissatisfied  with  the  state  of  things  un- 
der Adrian,  he  set  himself  up  at  the 
head  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  pi'o- 
claimed  himself  their  long  expected 
Messiah.  He  was  one  of  those  banditti 
that  infested  Judea,  and  committed  all 
kinds  of  violence  against  the  Romans; 
and  had  become  so  powerful,  that  he 
was  chosen  king  of  the  Jews,  and  by 
them  acknowledged  their  Messiah. — 
However,  to  facilitate  the  success  of 
this  bold  enterprise,  he  changed  his 
name  from  Caziba,  which  it  was  at  first, 
to  that  of  Barchocheba,  alluding  to  the 
star  foretold  by  Balaam  ;  for  lie  pre- 
tended to  be  the  star  sent  from  heaven 
to  restore  his  nation  to  its  ancient  liber- 
ty and  glory.  He  chose  a  foreranner, 
I'aised  an  army,  was  anointed  king,  coin- 
ed money  inscribed  with  his  own  name, 
and  proclaimed  himself  Messiah  and 
prince  of  the  Jewish  nation.  Adrian 
raised  an  aiTiiy,  and  sent  it  against  him. 
He  retired  into  a  town  called  Either, 
where  he  was  besieged.  Bai'chocheba 
was  killed  in  the  siege,  the  city  was  ta- 


MES 


358 


MES 


ten,  and  a  dreadful  havoc  succeeded. 
The  Jews  themselves  allow,  that,  dur- 
ing this  short  war  against  the  Romans, 
in  defence  of  this  mlse  Messiah,  they 
lost  five  or  six  hundred  thousand  souls. 
This  was  in  the  former  part  of  the  se- 
cond centiuy. 

2.  In  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the 
youngei',  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  434, 
another  impostor  arose,  called  Moses 
Cretensis.  He  pretended  to  be  a  second 
Moses,  sent  to  deliver  the  Jews  who 
dAvelt  in  Crete,  and  promised  to  divide 
the  sea,  and  give  them  a  safe  passage 
through  it.  Their  delusion  proved  so 
strong  and  universal,  that  they  neglect- 
ed their  lands,  houses,  and  all  other  con- 
cerns, and  took  only  so  much  with  them 
as  they  could  conveniently  carry.  And 
on  the  day  appointed,  this  false  Moses, 
liaving  led  them  to  the  top  of  a  rock, 
men,  women,  and  children,  threw  them- 
selves headlong  do\Vii  into  the  sea,  with- 
out the  least  hesitation  or  reluctance, 
till  so  great  a  number  of  them  were 
drowned,  as  opened  the  eyes  of  the  rest, 
and  made  them  sensible  of  the  cheat. 
They  then  began  to  look  out  for  their 
pretended  leader,  but  he  disappeared, 
and  escaped  out  of  their  hand. 

3.  In  the  reign  of  Justin,  about  520, 
another  impostor  appeared,  who  called 
himself  the  son  of  Moses.  His  name 
was  Dunaan.  He  entered  into  a  city  of 
Arabia  Felix,  and  there  he  greatly  op- 
pressed the  Christians  ;  but  he  was  ta- 
ken prisoner,  and  put  to  death  by  Eles- 
ban,  an  Ethiopian  general. 

4.  In  the  year  529  the  Jews  and  Sa- 
jTiavitans  I'ebelled  against  the  emperor 
Justinian,  and  set  up  one  Julian  for  their 
king ;  and  accounted  him  the  Messiah. 
The  emperor  sent  an  army  against 
them,  killed  great  numbers  of  them, 
took  their  pretended  Messiah  prisoner, 
and  immediately  put  him  to  death. 

5.  In  the  year  571  was  born  Mahomet, 
in  Arabia.  At  first  he  professed  himself 
to  be  the  Messiah  who  was  promised  to 
the  Jews.  By  this  means  he  drew  many 
of  that  unhappy  people  after  him.  In 
some  sense,  therefore,  he  may  be  con- 
sidered in  the  number  of  false  Messiahs. 
See  Mahometanism. 

6.  About  the  year  721,  in  the  time  of 
Leo  Isaunis,  arose  another  false  Mes- 
siah in  Spain ;  his  name  was  Scrcnus. 
He  drew  great  numbers  after  him,  to 
their  no  small  loss  and  disappointment, 
but  all  his  pretensions  came  to  nothing. 

7.  The  twelfth  century  was  fniitful  in 
false  Messiahs :  for  about  the  }'ear  1 1 37, 
there  appeared  one  in  France,  who  was 
put  to  death,  and  many  of  those  who 
followed  him. 


8.  In  the  year  1138  the  Persians'were 
disturbed  with  a  Jew,  who  called  him- 
self the  Messiah.  He  collected  together 
a  vast  army.  But  he,  too,  was  put  to 
death,  and  his  followers  treated  with 
great  inhumanity. 

9.  In  the  year  1157,  a  false  Messiah 
stirred  up  the  Jews  at  Corduba,  in 
Spain.  The  wiser  and  better  sort  look- 
ed upon  him  as  a  madman,  but  the  great 
body  of  the  Jews  in  that  nation  believed 
in  him.  On  this  occasion  almost  all  the 
Jews  in  Spain  were  destroyed. 

10.  In  the  year  1167,  another  false 
Messiah  rose  in  the  kingdom  of  Fez, 
which  brought  great  trouble  and  perse- 
cution upon  the  Jews  that  were  scat- 
tered through  that  country. 

11.  In  the  same  year  an  Arabian  set 
up  there  for  the  Messiah,  and  pretend- 
ed to  work  miracles.  When  search  was 
made  for  him,  his  followers  fled,  and 
he  was  brought  before  the  Arabian  king. 
Being  questioned  by  him,  he  replied, 
that  he  was  a  prophet  sent  from  God. 
The  king  then  asked  him  what  sign  he 
could  show  to  confirm  his  mission.  Cut 
off  my  head;  said  he,  and  I  will  return 
to  life  again.  The  king  took  him  at  his 
word,  promising  to  believe  him  if  his 
prediction  came  to  pass.  The  poor 
wretch,  however,  never  returned  to  life 
again,  and  the  cheat  was  sufficiently 
discoA'ered.  Those  who  had  been  de- 
luded by  him  Avere  grievously  punished, 
and  the  nation  condemned  to  a  very 
heavy  fine. 

12.  Not  long  after  this,  a  Jew  who 
dwelt  beyond  Luphi-ates,  called  himself 
the  Messiah,  and  drew  vast  multitudes 
of  people  after  him.  He  gave  this  for 
a  sign  of  it,  that  he  had  been  leprous, 
and  was  cured  in  the  course  of  one  night. 
He,  like  the  rest,  perished  in  the  at- 
tempt, and  brought  great  persecution  on 
his  countrymen. 

13.  In  the  year  1174,  a  magician  and 
false  Christ  arose  in  Persia,  who  was 
called  David  Almusser.  He  pretended 
that  he  could  make  himself  invisible; 
but  he  was  soon  taken  and  put  to  death, 
and  a  heavy  fine  laid  upon  his  brethren 
the  Jews. 

14.  In  the  year  1176,  another  of  these 
impostors  arose  in  Moravia,  who  was 
called  David  Almusser.  He  pretended 
that  he  could  make  himself  invisible; 
but  he  was  soon  taken  and  put  to  death, 
and  a  heavy  fine  laid  upon  his  brethren 
the  Jews. 

15.  In  the  year  1199,  a  famous  cheat 
and  rebel  exerted  himself  in  Persia, 
called  David  el  Da\  id.  He  was  a  man 
of  learning,  a  great  magician,  and  pre- 
tended to  be  the  Messiah.  He  raised  an 


MES 


859 


MES 


Army  against  the  king,  but  was  taken 
and  imprisoned ;  and,  having  made  his 
escape,  w;is  afterwards  seized  again, 
and  beheaded.  Vast  numbers  of  the 
Jews  were  butchered  for  taking  part 
with  this  impostor. 

16.  We  are  told  of  another  false 
Christ  in  this  same  centuiy  by  Maimo- 
nides  and  Solomon :  but  they  take  no 
notice  either  of  his  name,  country,  or 
good  or  ill  success. 

Here  we  may  observe,  that  no  less 
than  ten  false  Christs  arose  in  the 
twelfth  centuiy,  and  brought  prodigious 
calamities  and  destiniction  upon  the 
Jews  in  various  quarters  of  the  world. 

17.  In  the  year  1497,  we  find  another 
false  Christ,  whose  name  was  Ismael 
Sophus,  who  deluded  the  Jews  in  Spain. 
He  also  perished,  and  as  many  as  be- 
lieved in  him  were  dispersed. 

18.  In  the  year  1500,  Rabbi  Lemlem, 
a  German  Jew  of  Austria,  declared  him- 
self a  foreninner  of  the  Messiah,  and 

Eulled  down  his  ov/n  oven,  promising 
is  brethren  that  they  should  bake  their 
bread  in  the  Holy  Land  next  year. 

19.  In  the  year  1509,  one  whose  name 
was  Plefferkorn,  a  Jew  of  Cologne,  pre- 
tended to  be  the  Messiah.  He  aiter- 
wards  affected,  however,  to  turn  Chris- 
tian. 

20.  In  the  year  1534,  Rabbi  Salomo 
Malcho,  gi\'ing  out  that  he  was  the 
Messiah,  was  burnt  to  death  by  Charles 
the  Fifth  of  Spain. 

21.  In  the  year  1615,  a  false  Christ 
arose  in  the  East  Indies,  and  was  greatly 
followed  by  the  Portuguese  Jews,  who 
were  scattered  over  that  countiy. 

22.  In  the  year  1624,  another  in  the 
Low  Countries  pretended  to  be  the 
Messiah  of  the  Famih-  of  David,  and  of 
the  line  of  Nathan.  He  promised  to  de- 
stroy Rome,  and  to  overthrow  the  king- 
dom of  Antichrist,  and  the  Turkish 
empire. 

23.  In  the  year  1666,  appeared  the 
false  Messiah  Sabatai  Sevi,  who  made 
so  great  a  noise,  and  gained  such  a 
number  of  proselytes.  He  was  bom  at 
Aleppo,  imposed  on  the.  Jews  for  a  con- 
siderable time ;  but  afterwards,  with  a 
view  of  saving  his  life,  turned  Mahome- 
tan, and  was  at  last  beher.ded.  As  the 
history  of  this  impostor  is  more  enter- 
taining than  that  of  tliose  we  have 
already  mentioned,  I  will  give  it  at  some 
length. 

The  year  1666  was  a  year  of  great 
expectation,  and  some  wonderful  thing 
was  looked  for  by  many.  This  was  a 
fit  time  for  an  impostor  to  set  up ;  and, 
accordingly,  lying  reports  were  earned 
about.    It  was   said,  that  gi-eat  multi- 


tudes marched  from  unknown  parts  to 
the  remote  deserts  of  Arabia,  and  they 
were  supposed  to  be  the  ten  tribes  of 
Israel,  who  had  been  dispersed  for 
many  ages ;  that  a  ship  was  am\'ed  in 
the  north  part  of  Scotland  with  sails 
and  cordage  of  silk ;  that  the  mai'iners 
spake  nothing  but  Hebrew ;  that  on  the 
sails  was  this  motto.  The  tivelve  tribes 
of  Israel.  Thus  were  credulous  men 
possessed  at  that  time. 

Then  it  was  that  Sabatai  Sevi  appear- 
ed at  Smyrna,  and  professed  himself  to 
be  the  Messias.  He  promised  the  Jews 
deliverance  and  a  prosperous  kingdom. 
This  which  he  promised  they  firmly  be- 
lieved. The  Jews  now  attended  to  no 
business,  discoursed  of  nothing  but  their 
return,  and  believed  Sabatai  to  be  the 
Messias  as  firmly  as  we  Christians  be- 
lieve any  article  of  faith.  A  right  reve- 
rend person,  then  in  Turkey,  meeting 
with  a  Jew  of  his  acquaintance  at  Aleppo, 
he  asked  him  what  he  thought  of  Sa- 
batai. The  Jew  replied,  that  he  believ- 
ed him  to  be  the  Messias;  and  that  he 
was  so  far  of  that  belief,  that,  if  he  should 
proA-e  an  impostor,  he  would  then  turn 
Christian.  It  is  fit  we  should  be  parti- 
cular in  this  relation,  because  the  his- 
tory is  so  ^-ery  surprising  and  remarka- 
ble ;  and  we  have  the  account  of  it  from 
those  who  v/ere  in  Turkey. 

Sabatai  Sevi  was  the  son  of  Mordecai 
Sevi,  a  mean  Jew  of  Smyrna.  Sabatai 
was  veiy  bookish,  and  amved  to  great 
skill  in  the  Hebrew  learning.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  new  doctrine,  and  for 
it  was  expelled  the  city.  He  went 
thence  to  Salonichi,  of  old'called  Thes- 
salonica,  where  he  married  a  very  hand- 
some woman,  and  was  divorced  from 
her.  Then  he  travelled  into  the  Morea, 
then  to  Tripoli,  Gaza,  and  Jeiiisalem. 
By  the  way  he  picked  up  a  thh'd  wife. 
At  Jei-usalem  he  began  to  refonn  the 
Jews'  constitutions,  and  abolish  one  of 
their  solemn  fasts,  and  communicated 
his  designs  of  professing  himself  the 
Messias  to  one  Nathan.  He  was  pleased 
with  it,  and  set  up  for  his  Elias,  or  fore- 
runner, and_  took  upon  him  to  abolish 
all  the  Jewish  fasts,  as  not  beseeming, 
when  the  bridegroom  was  now  come. 
Nathan  prophesied  that  the  Messias 
should  appear  before  the  Grand 
Seignior  m  less  than  two  years,  and 
take  from  him  his  crown,  and  lead  him 
in  chains. 

At  Gaza,  Sabatai  preached  repent- 
ance, together  with  a  faith  in  himself, 
so  effectually,  that  the  people  gave 
themselves  up  to  their  devotions  and 
alms.  The  noise  of  this  Messias  began 
to  fill  all  places.    Sabatai  now  resolves 


MES 


360 


MES 


for  Smyrna, and  then  for  Constantinople, 
Kathan  writes  to  him  from  Damascus, 
and  thus  he  begins  his  letter ;  "  To  the 
king,  our  king,  lord  of  lords,  who  ga- 
thers the  dispersed  of  Israel,  who  re- 
deems our  captivity,  the  man  elevated 
to  the  height  of  all"  sublimity,  the  Mes- 
sias  of  the  God  of  Jacob,  the  true  Mes- 
sias,  the  celestial  liion,  Sabatai  Sevi." 

And  now,  throughout  Turkey,  the 
Jews  were  in  great  expectation  of  glo- 
rious times.  They  now  v/ere  devout  and 
penitent,  that  they  might  not  obstruct 
the  good  which  they  hoped  for. 

Some  fasted  so  long  that  they  were 
famished  to  death ;  others  buried  them- 
selves in  the  eaith  till  their  limbs  grew 
stiff;  some  would  endure  melting  wax 
dropped  on  their  flesh ;  some  rolled  in 
snow;  others,  in  a  cold  season,  would 
put  themselves  into  cold  water ;  and 
many  buried  themselves.  Business  was 
laid  aside;  supeiiluities  of  household 
utensils  were  sold ;  the  poor  were  pro- 
vided for  by  immense  contributions. 
Sabatai  comes  to  Smyrna,  where  he 
was  adored  by  the  people,  though  the 
Chacham  contradicted  him,  for  which 
he  was  removed  from  his  office.  There 
he  in  writing  styles  himself  the  only  and 
first-born  Son  of  God,  the  Messias,  the 
Saviour  of  Israel.  And  though  he  met 
■with  some  opposition,  yet  he  prevailed 
there  at  last  to  that  degree,  that  some 
of  his  followers  prophesied,  and  fell 
into  strange  ecstacies:  four  hundred 
men  and  women  prophesi.ed  of  his 
growing  kingdom ;  and  young  infants, 
who  could  hardly  speak,  would  ]>lainly 
pronounce  Sab3.tai,  Messias,  and  Son  of 
God.  The  people  were  for  a  time  pos- 
sessed, and  voices  heard  from  tneir 
bowels :  some  fell  into  trances,  foamed 
at  the  mouth,  recounted  their  future 
prosperity,  their  visions  of  the  Lion  of 
Judah,  and  the  triumphs  of  Sabatai. 
All  which,  says  the  relator,  were  cer- 
tainly true,  being  effects  of  diabolical 
delusions,  as  the  Jev/s  themselves  have 
s'uice  confessed. 

Now  the  impostor  swells  and  assumes. 
Whereas  the  Jews,  in  their  synagogues, 
were  wont  to  pray  for  the  Grand 
5iei;i;nior,  he  orders  those  prayers  to 
be  forborne  for  the  future,  thinking  it 
an  indecent  thing  to  pray  for  him  who 
was  shortly  to  be  his  captive ;  and,  in- 
stead of  praying  for  the  Turkish  empe- 
ror, he  appoints  prayers  for  himself. 
He  also  elected  princes  to  govern  the 
Jews  in  their  march  towards  the  Holy 
Land,  and  to  minister  justice  to  them 
when  they  should  be  possessed  of  it. 
These  princes  were  men  well  known  in 
the  citv  of  Smvrna  at  that  time.    The 


people  were  now  pressing  to  see  some 
miracle  to  corifiiTn  their  faith,  and  to 
convince  the  Gentiles.  Here  the  im- 
postor was  puzzled,  though  any  juggling 
trick  would  have  served  their  turn. 
But  the  credulous  people  supplied  this 
defect.  When  Sabatai  was  before  the 
Cadi  (or  justice  of  peace,)  some  afhrmed 
they  saw  a  pillar  of  fire  between  him 
and  the  Cadi;  and  after  some  had  af- 
firmed it,  others  were  ready  to  swear 
it,  and  did  sv/ear  it  also ;  and  this  was 
presently  believed  by  the  Jews  of  that 
city.  Hie  that  did  not  now  believe  him 
to  be  the  Messias  was  to  be  shunned  as 
an  excommunicated  person.  The  im- 
2)ostor  now  declares  that  he  was  called 
of  God  to  see  Constantinople,  where  he 
had  much  to  do.  He  ships  himself,  to 
that  end,  in  a  Turkish  saick,  in  Ja.nuary, 
1666.  He  had  a  long  and  troublesome 
voyage;  he  had  not  power  over  the 
sea  and  Avinds.  The  Visier,  upon  the 
news,  sends  for  him,  and  confines  him 
in  a  loathsome  prison.  The  Jews  pay 
him  their  visits;  and  they  of  this  city 
are  as  infatuated  as  those  in  Smyiiia. 
They  forbid  traffic  and  i-cfuse  to  pay 
their  debts.  Some  of  our  English  mer- 
chants not  knowing  how  to  recover 
their  debts  from  the  Jews,  took  this  'oc- 
casion to  visit  Sabatai,  and  make  their 
complaints  to  him  against  his  subjects; 
whereupon  he  wrote  the  following  letter 
to  th'e  Jews. 

"  To  you  of  the  nation  of  the  Jews, 
who  expect  the  appearance  of  the 
Messias,  and  the  salvation  of  Israel, 
peace  without  end.  Whereas  we  are 
mformed  that  you  are  indebted  to  seve- 
ral of  the  English  nation,  it  seemcth 
right  unto  us  to  order' you  to  make  satis- 
faction to  tliese  your  just  debts,  wliich  if 
you  refuse  to  do,  and  not  obey  us  herc- 
m,  know  you  that  then  you  are  not 
to  enter  with  us  into  our  joys  and  do- 
minions." 

Sabatai  remained  a  prisoner  in  Con- 
stantinople for  the  space  of  two  months. 
The  Grand  Visier,  designing  for  Candia, 
thought  it  not  safe  to  leave  him  in  the 
city  during  the  Grand  Seignior's  absence 
and  his  own.  He,  therefore,  removed 
him  to  the  Dardanelli,  a  better  air  in- 
deed, but  yet  out  of  the  way,  and  conse- 
quently importing  less  danger  to  the' 
city  ;  which  occasioned  the  Jews  to  con- 
clude that  the  Turks  could  not,  or  durst 
not,  take  away  his  life ;  which  had,  they 
concluded,  been  the  surest  way  to  ha\  e 
removed  all  jealousy.  The  Jews  flocked 
in  great  numbers  to  the  castle  where  he 
was  a  prisoner ;  not  only  those  that  were 
near,  but  from  Poland,  Germany,  Leg- 
horn, Venice,  and  other  places:   they 


MES 


361 


MES 


received  Sabatai's  blessing,  and  promi- 
ses of  advanceinent.  The  Turks  made 
use  of  this  conrtuence  ;  they  raised  the 
price  of  their  lodgings  and  provisions, 
and  put  their '  price  u^jon  those  wlio 
desired  to  see  Sabatai  for  their  admit- 
tance. This  profit  str.pped  t)ieir  mouths, 
and  no  complaints  were  for  this  cause 
sent  to  Adrianople. 

Sabatai,  in  his  confinement,  appoints 
the  manner  of  his  own  nativity.  He 
commands  the  Jews  to  keep  it  on  the 
ninth  day  of  the  month  Ab,  and  to  make 
it  a  day  of  great  joy,  to  celebrate  it  with 
pleasing  meats  and  drinks,  with  illumi- 
nations and  music.  He  obligeth  them 
■to  acknowledge  the  love  of  God,  in 
giving  them  that  day  of  consolation  for 
the  birth  of  their  king  Messias,  Sabatai 
Sevi,  his  servant  and  first-born  Son  in 
love. 

We  may  observe,  by  the  way,  the 
insolence  of  this  impostor.  This  day 
was  a  solemn  day  of  fasting  am  jng  the 
Jews,  forrfierly  in  memory  of  the  burn- 
ing of  the  temple  by  the  Cbaldees: 
several  other  sad  tilings  happened  in 
this  month,  as  the  Jews  observe ;  thi.t 
then,  and  upon  the  same  day,  the  second 
temple  wus  destroyed ;  and  t]\at  in  this 
month  it  was  decreed  in  the  wilderiicbs 
that  the  Israelites  should  not  enter  into 
Canaan,  &C.  Sabatai  was  bom  on  tli's 
day ;  and,  therefore,  the  fast  must  be 
turned  to  a  feast ;  whereas,  in  ti-uth,  it 
had  been  well  for  the  Jews  had  he  not 
been  born  at  all ;  and  much  better  for 
himself,  as  will  appear  from  what 
follows. 

The  Jews  of  that  city  paid  Sabatai 
Sevi  great  respect.  They  decked  their 
synagogues  with  S.  S.  in  letters  of  gold, 
and  made  for  him  in  the  wall  a  crown  : 
they  attributed  the  same  titles  and  pro- 
phecies to  him  which  we  apply  to  our 
Saviour.  He  was  also,  during  this  im- 
prisonment, visited  by  pilgrims  from  all 
parts,  that  had  heard  his  story.  Among 
whom  Nehemiah  Cohen,, from  Poland, 
was  one,  a  man  of  great  learning  in  the 
Kaljbala  and  eastern  tongues ;  who  de- 
sired a  conference  with  Sabatai,  and  at 
the  conference  maintained,  that  accord- 
ing to  tlie  Scripture,  there  ought  to  be 
a  two-fold  Messias;  one  the  son  df 
Ephraim,  a  poor  and  despised  teacher 
of  the  law  ;  the  other  the  son  of  David, 
to  be  a  conqueror.  Nehemiah  was  con- 
tent to  be  the  former,  the  son  of 
Ephraim,  and  to  leave  the  glorv  and 
dignity  of  the  latter  to  Sabatai.  Sabatai, 
for  what  appears,  did  not  dislike  this. 
But  here  lay  the  gi-ound  of  the  quarrel : 
Nehemiah  taught  that  the  son  of 
Ephraim  ought  to  be  the  forerunner 


of  the  son  of  David,  and  to  usher  him 
in ;  and  Nehemiah  accused  Sabatai  of 
too  gi'eat  forwardness  in  appearing  as 
the  son  of  David,  before  the  son  of 
Ephraim  had  led  him  the  way.  Sabatai 
could  not  brook  this  doctrine ;  for  he 
might  fear  that  the  son  of  Ephraim, 
who  was  to  lead  the  way,  might  pre- 
tend to  be  the  son  of  David,  and  so  leave 
him  in  the  lurch ;  and,  therefore,  he 
excluded  him  from  any  pai-t  or  share  in 
i  this  matter ;  which  was  the  occasion  of 
the  iniin  of  Sabatai,  and  all  his  glorious 
designs.  Nehemiah,  being  disappoint- 
ed, goes  to  Adrianople,  and  informs 
the  great  ministers  of  state  against  Sa- 
batai, as  a  lewd  and  dangerous  person 
to  the  govenmient,  and  that  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  take  him  out  of  the  way. 
The  Grand  Seignior,  being  informed  of 
this,  sends  for  Sabatai,  who,  much  de- 
jected, appears  before  him.  The  Grand 
Seignior  requires  a  miracle,  and  chooses 
one  himself;  and  it  was  this:  that  Sa- 
batai should  be  stripped  naked,  and  set 
as  a  mark  for  his  archers  to  shoot  at; 
and,  if  the  arrows  did  not  pierce  his 
flesh,  he  would  own  him  to  lie  the  Ales- 
si  as.  Sabatai  had  not  faith  enough  to 
bear  up  under  so  great  a  trial.  I'he 
Grand  Seignior  let  him  knov/  that  he 
would  forthwith  impale  him,  and  that 
the  stake  was  prepased  for  him,  unless 
he  would  turn  Turk.  Upon  which  he 
consented  to.turn  Mahometan,  to  the 
gr^at  cnnfiision  of  the  Jews.  And  yet 
some  of  the  Jews  were  so  vain  as  to 
affirm  that  it  was  net  Sabatai  himself, 
but  his  shadow,  that  professed  the  reli- 
gion, and  was  seen  m  the  habit  of  a 
Turk  ;  so  great  was  theii-  obstinacy  and 
infidelity,  as  if  it  were  a  thing  impossi- 
ble to  convince  these  deluded  and  in- 
fatuated wretches. 

After  all  tiiis,  several  of  the  Jews  con- 
tinued to  use  the  forms,  in  their  public 
worship  pi-escribed  by  this  Mahometan 
Messias,  which  obliged  the  principal 
Jews  of  Constantinople  to  send  to  the 
synagogue  of  Smyrna  to  forbid  this 
practice.  During  these  things,  the  Jews, 
instead  of  minding  their  trade  and 
traffic,  filled  their  letters  with  news  of 
Sabatai  their  Messias,  and  his  ^vonder- 
ful  works.  They  reported,  that,  when 
the  Grand  Seignior  sent  to  take  him, 
he  caused  all  the  messengers  that  were 
sent  to  die  ;  and  when  other  Janizaries 
were  sent,  they  all  fell  dead  by  a  woi-d 
from  his  mouth ;  and  being  requested 
to  do  it,  he  caused  them  to  revive  again. 
They  added,  that,  though  the  prison 
v,'here  Sabatai  lay  was  barred  and  fast- 
ened v/ith  strong  iron  locks,  yet  he  was 
seen  to  walk  through  the  streets  with  » 
Zz 


MET 


362 


MET 


numerous  train;  that  the  shackles 
which  were  upon  his  neck  and  feet  did 
not  fall  off,  but  were  turned  into  gold, 
with  which  Sabatai  gratified  his  follow- 
ers. Upon  the  fame  of  these  things  the 
Jews  of  Jtaly  sent  legates  to  Smyrna,  to 
eTif|uire  into  the  truth  of  these  matters. 
When  the  legates  arrived  at  Smy^-na, 
they  heard  of  the  news  that  Sabatai 
was  turned  Turk,  to  their  very  great 
confusion ;  but,  going  to  visit  the  brother 
of  Sabatai,  he  endeavoured  to  persuade 
them  that  Sabatai  was  still  the  true 
Messias ;  that  it  was  not  Sabatai  that 
went  about  in  the  habit  of  a  Turk,  but 
liis  angel,  or  spirit ;  that  his  body  was 
taken  into  heaven,  and  should  be  sent 
down  again  when  God  should  think  it 
a  fit  season.  He  added,  that  Nathan, 
his  foreiamner,  who  had  wrought  many 
miracles,  would  soon  be  at  Smyrna; 
that  he  would  reveal  hidden  things  to 
them,  andconfii'm  them.  But  this  Elias 
was  not  suffered  to  come  into  Smyrna, 
and  though  the  legates  saw  him  else- 
where, they  received  no  satisfaction 
at  all. 

24.  The  last  false  Christ  that  had 
made  any  considerable  number  of  con- 
verts was  one  Rabbi  Mordecai,  a  Jew 
of  Ciermany  : .  he  appeared  in  the  year 
1632.  It  was  not  long  before  he  was 
found  out  to  be  an  impostor,  and  was 
obliged  to  tly  from  Italy  to  Poland  to 
save  his  life.  What  became  of  him  af- 
terwards does  not  seem  to  be  recorded. 

This  may  be  considered  as  true  and 
exact  an  account  of  the  false  Christs 
that  have  arisen  since  the  crucifixion  of 
our  blessed  Saviour,  as  can  well  be  giA'en. 
See  Johannes  a  Lent's  Hist,  of  False 
JMi'ssiahs ;  Jortin's  Re7n.  on  Eccl.  Hist. 
vol.  iii.  p.  330;  Kidder's  Demonstration 
cf  the  Messias;  Harris's  Sermons  on 
the  Messiah;  The  ElcxH'nth  Volume  of 
the  Modern  Part  of  the  Universal  His- 
tory ;  Simpson's  Key  to  the  Profihecies, 
sec.  9;  Maclaurin  on  the  Profihecies 
relating  to  the  Messiah ;  Fuller's  Jesus 
the  true  Messiah. 

METH(3I)IST,  a  name  applied  to 
different  sects,  both  Pa])ists  and  Protes- 
tants.— 1.  The  pofiish  Methodists  were 
those  polemical  doctors  who  arose  in 
France  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  in  opposition  to  the  Hu- 
guenots, or  Protestants.  These  Metho- 
dists, from  their  different  manner  of 
treating  tlic  controversy  Avith  tiu'ir  op- 
ponent's, may  l>e  di\'ided  into  two  classes. 
The  one  comprehends  those  doctors 
whose  method  of  disputing  witli  the 
Protestants  was  disingenuous  and  unrea- 
sonable; and  Avho  followed  tlic  exam- 
ple of  tho!i,e  military  chiefs,  who  shut 


up  their  ti-oops  in  intrenchments  and 
strong  holds,  in  order  to  cover  them 
from  the  attacks  of  the  enemy.  Of  this 
number  were  the  Jesuit  Veron,  who 
required  the  Protestants  to  prove  the 
tenets  of  their  church  by  plain  pas- 
sages of  Scri])ture,  without  being  allow- 
ed the  liberty  of  illustrating  those  pas- 
sages, reasoning  upon  them,  or  draw- 
ing any  conclusions  from  them  ;  Nihu- 
sius,  an  apostate  fi'om  the  Protestant 
religion ;  the  two  Wallenburgs,  and 
others,  who  confined  themselves  to  the 
business  of  answering  objections ;  and 
cardinal  Richlieu,  who  confined  the 
whole  controversy  to  the  single  article 
of  the  divine  institution  and  authority^ 
of  the  church.— 2.  The  Metliodists  of 
the  second  class  were  of  opinion,  that 
the  most  expedient  manner  of  reducing 
the  Protestants  to  silence,  was  not  to  at- 
tack them  by  piecemeal,  but  to  over- 
whelm them  at  once  by  the  weight  of 
some  general  principle,  or  presumption, 
or  some  universal  argument,  which 
comprehended  or  might  be  applied  to 
all  the  points  contested  between  the  tAvo 
churches;  thus  imitating  the  conduct 
of  those  military  leaders,  avIio,  instead 
of  spending  their  time  and  strength  in 
sieges  and  skirmishes,  endeavoured  to 
put  an  end  to  the  Avar  by  a  general  and 
decisive  action.  Some  of  these  polemics 
rested  the  defence  of  popery  upon 
prescrifition;  others  upon  the  wicked 
lives  of  Pi-otestant  princes  who  had  left 
the  church  of  Rome ;  others,  the  crime 
of  religious  schism  ;  the  variety  of  opi- 
nions among  Protestants  Avlth  regard  to 
doctrine  and  discipline,  and  the  unifor- 
mity of  the  tenets  and  Avorship  of  the 
church  of  Rome ;  and  thus,  by  urging 
their  i^espective  arguments,  they  thoug]\t 
they  should  stop  the  mouths  of  their 
adA^eisaries  at  once. 

METHODISTS,  PROTESTANT, 
origin  of.  It  is  not  generally  knoAvu 
that  the  name  of  Methodist  had  been 
given  long  before  to  a  religious  sect  in 
England,  or  at  least,  to  a  party  in  reli- 
gion which  Avas  distinguished  by  some 
of  the  same  marks  as  are  now  sup- 
posed to  apply  to  the  Methodists.  Jolm' 
Spence;  avIio  was  librarian  of  Sion  Col- 
lege in  1657,  in  a  book  Avhicli  he  publish- 
ed, says,  "  Wiie.re  are  n^AV  our  Ai\a- 
baptists  and  plain  pike  staff'  Metho- 
dists, Avho  esteem  all  floAvers  of  rhetoric 
in  sermons  no  better  .  than  stinking 
Aveeds?" — But  the  denomination  to 
Avhich  Ave  here  refer,  Avas  founded,  in 
the  year  1729,  by  one  Mr.  Morgan  and 
Mr.  "John  Wesley.  In  the 'month  of 
Novemlier  that  year,  the  latter  being 
then  fcUoAV  of  Lincoln  College.  l)egmi 


MET 


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MET 


to  spend  some  evenings  in  reading  the 
Greek  Testament,  with  Charles  Wes- 
ley, student,  Mr.  Morgan,  commoner  of 
Christ  Church,  and  Mr.  Kirkham,  of 
Merton  College.  Not  long  afterwards, 
two  or  three  of  the  pupils  of  Mr.  John 
Wesley  obtained  leave  to  attend  thcsC 
meetings.  They  then  began  to  visit  the 
sick  in  diflFerent  parts  of  the  town,  and 
the  prisoners  also,  who  were  confined 
in  the  castle.  Two  years  after  they 
were  joined  by  Mr.  Ingham,  of  Queen's 
College,  Mr.  Broughton,  and  Mr.  Her- 
vey ;  and,  in  1735,  by  the  celebrated 
Mr.  Whitfield,  then  in  his  eighteenth 
year.  At  this  time  theii-  number  in  Ox- 
ford amounted  to  about  fourteen.  They 
oljt-iined  their  name ,  from  the  exact 
regularity  of  their  lives,  which  gave  oc- 
casion to  a  young  gentleman  ot  Christ 
Church  to  say,  ^'Here  is  a  new  sect  of 
Metliodists  sprang  up;"  alluding  to  a 
sect  of  ancient  physicians  who  were 
called  Methodists  because  they  reduced 
the  whole  healing  ai*t  to  a  few  common 
principles,  aiid  brought  it  into  some 
metliod  and  orddr. 

At  the  time  that  this  society  was 
formed,  it  was  said  that  the  whole  king- 
dom of  England  was  tending  fast  to  in- 
fidelity. "  it  is  come,"  says  Bishop  But- 
ler, "X  knoAv  not  how,  to  be  taken  for 
granted  by  many  persons,  that  Chris- 
tianity is  not  so  much,  as  a  subject  of  en- 
quiry ;  but  that  it  is  now  at  length  dis- 
covered to  be  fictitious;  and  accordingly 
they  treat  it  as  if,  in  the  present  age, 
this  were  an  agreement  among  all  peo- 
ple of  discernment,  and  nothing  remain- 
ed but  to  set  it  up  as  a  piincipal  subject 
of  mirth  and  ridicule,  as  it  were,  by  way 
of  reprisal  for  its  having  so  long  inter- 
rupted the  pleasures  of  the  world." 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
the  Methodists  were  the  instiniments  of 
stemming  this  torrent.  The  sick  and 
the  poor  also  tasted  the  fruits  of  their 
labours  and  benevolence :  Mr.  Wesley 
abridged  himself  of  all  his  superfluities, 
and  proposed  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  the 
indigent;  and  so  prosperous  was  the 
scheme,  that  they  quickly  increased 
their  fund  to  eighty  pounds  per  annum. 
This,  which  one  should  have  thought 
would  have  been  attended  with  praise 
instead  of  censure,  quickly  drew  upon 
them  a  kind  of  persecution ;  some  of 
the  seniors  of  the  university  began  to  in- 
terfere, and  it  was  reported  "  that  the 
college  censor  was  going  to  blow  up 
tlie  godly  club."  They  found  them- 
selves, however,  patronized  and  encou- 
raged by  some  men  eminent  for  their 
learning  and  virtue ;  so  tliat  the  society 
htill  continued,  though  they  had  suffered 


a  severe  loss,  in  1730,  by  the  death  of 
Ml'.  Morgan,  who,   it  is  said,  was  the 
founder  of  it.    In  October,  1735,  John 
and  Charles  Wesley,  Mr.  Ingham,  and 
Mr.   Delamotte,  son  of  a  merchant  in 
\  London,  embarked  for  Georgia,  in  oi-dcr 
jto  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  Indians. 
After  their  arrival  they  wei-e  at  first 
favourably  received,  but  in  a  short  time 
lost  the  affection  of  tJie  people  ;  and,  on 
account    of  some  differences  witii  the 
store-keeper,  Mr.  Wesley  was  obliged 
!  to  return  to  England.  Mr.  Wesley,  how- 
I  ever,  was  soon  succeeded  by  Mr.  Whit- 
field, whose   repeated  labours  in  that 
I  part  of  the  world  are  well  known. 
I      II.  Methodists,  tenets  of.    After  Mr. 
Whitfield   returned   from  America   in 
1  1741,  he  declared  his  full  assent  to  the 
i  doctrines  of  Calvin.    Mr;  Wesley,  on 
;  the  contrary,  professed  the  Arminian 
j  doctrine,  and  liad  ])rinted,  in  favour  of 
I  perfection    and    uni\  ersal   redemption, 
and    very  strongly  against   election,   a 
doctrine  which  Mr.  \Vhitfield  "believed 
to    be    unscriptural.     The    difference, 
therefore,  of  sentiments  between  these 
two  great  men  caused  a  separation.  Mr. 
^^'esley  preached  in  a  place  called  the 
Foundery,  where  Mr.Whitfield  preach- 
ed but  once,  and  no  more.    Mr  Whit- 
field then  preached  to  very  large  con- 
gregations out  of  doors ;  and  soon  after, 
in   connection  with    Mr.  Cennick,  and 
one  or  two  moj'e,  began  a  new  house,  m 
Kingswood,    Gloucestershire,    and    es- 
tablished a  school  that  favoured  Cal- 
vinistical  preachers.    The  Methodists, 
therefore,  were  now  divided ;  one  part 
following  Mr.  Wesley,  and  the  other 
Ml .  Whitfield. 

Tlie  doctrines  of  the  Wesleyan  Me- 
thodists, according  to  their  own  account, 
are  the  same  as  the  church  of  England, 
as  set  forth  in  her  liturgy,  articles,  and 
homilies.  This,  hov/ever,  has  been  dis- 
puted. Mr.  Wesley, in  his  appeal  to  men 
of  reason  and  religion,  thus  declares  his 
sentiments:  "All  I  teach,"  he  observes, 
"respects  either  the  nature  and  condi- 
tion of  justification,  the  nature  and  con- 
dition of  salvation,  the  nature  of  justify- 
ing and  saving  faith,  or  tlie  Author  of 
faith  and  salvation.  That  justification 
Avhereof  our  articles  and  homilies  speak 
signifies  present  forgiveness,  and  conse- 
quently acceptance  with  God  :  1  believe 
the  condition  of  this  is  faith :  I  mean 
not  only  that  without  faith  we  cannot  be 
justified,  but  also  that,  as  soon  as  any 
one  has  true  faith,  in  that  moment  he  is 
justified.  Good  works  foilov^  this  faith, 
but  cannot  go  before  it ;  much  less  cati 
sanctification,  whicli  implies  a  continued 
course  of  good  works,  springing  from 


MET 


364 


MET 


holiness  of  heai't.  But  it  is  allowed  that 
sanctification  goes  before  our  justifica- 
tion at  the  last  day,  Heb.  xii.  14.  Re- 
pentance, and  fruits  meet  for  repent- 
ance, go  Ijefore  faith.  Repentance  ab- 
solutely must  go  before  faith ;  fruits 
meet  for  it,  if  there  be  opportunity.  By 
repentance  I  mean  conviction  of  sin, 
pi(Khicing  real  desires  and  sincere  re- 
solutions of  amendment  ;•  by  salvation  I 
mean  not  barely  deliverance  from  hell, 
but  a  present  deliverance  from  sin. 
Faith,  in  general,  is  a  divine  supernatu- 
ral evidence,  or  conviction  of  things  not 
seen,  not  discoverable  by  our  bodily 
senses :  justifying  faith  implies  not  only 
a  divme  evidence  or  conviction  that  God 
"was  in  Christ  reconeiling  the  world  un- 
to himself,  but  a  sure  trust  and  confi- 
dence that  Christ  died  for  my  sins,  that 
he  loved  me,  and  gave  himself  for  me. 
And  the  moment  a  penitent  sinner  be- 
lieves this,  God  pardons  and  absolves 
him  ;  and  as  soon  as  his  pardon  or  justi- 
fication is  witnessed  to  him  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  he  is  saved.  From  that  time  (un- 
less he  make  shipwreck  of  the  faith)  sal- 
vation gradually  increases  in  his  soul. 

"The  Author  of  faith  and  salvation 
is  God  alone.  There  is  no  more  of  power 
than  of  merit  in  man ;  but  as  all  merit  is 
in  the  Son  of  God,  in  what  he  has  done 
and  sutFered  for  us,  so  all  power  is  in  the 
Spirit  of  God.  And,  therefore,  e^'ery 
man,  in  order  to  believe  unto  salvation, 
must- receive  the  Holy  Ghost."  So  far 
Mr.  Wesley.  Respecting  original  sin, 
free  will,  the  justification  of  men,  good 
works,  and  works  done  before  justifica- 
tion, he  refers  us  to  what  is  said  on  these 
subjects  in  the  former  part  of  the  ninth, 
the  tenth,  the  eleventh,  the  twelfth,  and 
thirteenth  articles  of  the  church  of 
England.  One  of  Mr.  Wesley's  preach- 
ers bears  this  testimony  of  him  and  his 
sentiments :  "  The  Gospel,  considered 
as  a  genei^al  plan  of  salvation,  he  viewed 
as  a  display  of  the  divine  perfections,  in 
a  way  agfecable  to  the  nature  of  God ; 
in  which  all  the  divine  attributes  harmo- 
nize, and  shine  forth  with  peculiar  lus- 
tre.— The  (iospel,  considered  as  a  means 
to  attain  an  end,  appeared  to  him  to  dis- 
cover as  great  fitness  in  the  means  to 
the  end  as  can  possibly  be  discovered  in 
the  structure  ot  natural  bodies,  or  in  the 
various  0])crations  of  nature,  from  a 
view  of  which  we  draw  our  arguments 
for  the  existence  of  God.-;-Man  he 
viewed  as  blind,  igliorant,  wandering  out 
of  the  wav,  with  his  mind  estranged 
from  God. — He  considered  the  Gos])el 
as  a  dispensation  of  mercy  to  men,  hold- 
ing forth  pardon,  a  free  pardon  of  sin  to 
all  who  repent  and  believe  in  Christ 


Jesus.  The  Gospel,  he  believed,  incul- 
cates universal  holiness,  both  in  heart 
and  in  the  conduct  of  life. — He  showed 
a  mind  well  instructed  in  the  oracles  of 
God,  and  well  acquainted  with  human 
nature.  He  contended,  that  the  first 
step  to  be  a  Christian  is  to  repent ;  and 
that,  till  a  man  is  convinced  of  the  evil 
of  sin,  and  is  determined  to  depart  from 
it ;  till  he  is  convinced  that  there  is  a 
beauty  in  holiness,  and  something  truly 
desiralile  in  being  reconciled  to  God,  he 
is  not  prepared  to  receive  Christ.  The 
second  important  and  necessary  step,  he 
believed  to  be  faith,  agreeable  to  the 
order  of  the  apostle,  '  Repentance  to- 
ward God,  and  faith  toward  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,'  Acts  xx.  20,  21.  In  ex- 
plaining sanctification,  he  accurately 
distinguished  it  from  justification,  or  the 
pardon  of  sin.  Justification  admits  us 
into  a  state  of  grace  and  favour  with 
God,  and  lays  the  foundation  of  sancti- 
fication, or  Christian  holiness,  in  all  its 
extent.  There  has  been  a  great  cla- 
mour raised  against  him  because  he 
called  his  view  of  sanctification  by  the 
woi'd  pei'f  ction;  but  he  often  explain- 
ed Avhat  he  meant  by  this  terai.  He 
meant  by  the  word  perfection,  such  a 
degree  of  the  love  of  God,  and  the  love 
of  man ;  sucli  a  degree  of  the  lp\  e  of 
justice,  truth,  holiness,  and  purit}',  as 
will  remove  from-  the  heart  every  con- 
trary dis]josition  tov/ards  God  or  man  \ 
and  that  this  should  be  our  state  ot 
mind  in  every  situation  and  in  every 
circumstance  of  life. — He  maintained 
that  God  is  a  God  of  love,  not  to  a  part 
of  his  creatures  only,  but  to  all ;  that  He 
who  is  the  Father  of  all,  who  made  all, 
who  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  all 
his  creatures,  loves  them  all ;  that  he 
loved  the  world,  and  ga\'e  his  Son  a 
ransom  for  all  without  distinction  of 
persons.  It  appeared  to  him,  that  to  re- 
present God  as  partial,  as  confining  his 
love  to  a  few,  was  unworthy  our  notions 
of  the  Deity.  He  maintained  that  Christ 
died  for  all  men ;  and  that  he  is  to  be 
offered  to  all ;  that  all  are  to  be  invited 
to  come  to  him :  and  that  whosoever 
comes  in  the  way  which  God  has  ap- 
pointed may  j)artake  of  his  blessings. 
He  supposed  that  sufficient  grace  is 
given  to  all,  in  that  way  and  manner 
which  is  best  adapted  to  inflnencc  the 
mind.  He  did  not  believe  salvation  was 
')V  works.  So  far  was  he  from  jjutting 
works  in  tlie  place  of  the  blood  of  (.Christ, 
that  he  oiily  gave  them  their  just  value  ; 
he  considered  them  as  tlie  fi-uits  of  a 
living  operative  faith,  and  as  the  mea- 
su7-e  of  our  future  reward;  for  every 
man  will  be  rewarded  not  for  his  works. 


MET 


365 


MET 


but  according  to  the  measure  of  tliem. 
He  p:ave  the  whole  p;lory  of  salvation  to 
God,  from  first  to  last.  He  believed 
that  man  woidd  never  turn  to  God,  if 
God  did  not  begin  the  work :  he  ofteri 
said  that  the  first  approaches  of  grace 
to  tiie  mind  are  irresistible ;  that  is,  that 
a  man  cannot  avoid  being  convinced 
that  he  is  a  sinner;  that  God,  b,y  va- 
rious means,  awakens  his  conscience ; 
and  whether  the  man  will  or  no,  these 
convictions  approach  him."  In  order 
that  we  may  form  still  cleai-er  ideas 
respecting  Mr.  Wesley's  opinions,  we 
shall  here  quote  a  few  questions  and 
answers  as  laid  down  in  the  JMinutes 
of  Covference.  Q.  "  In  what  sense  is 
Adam's  sin  imputed  to  all  mankind .'"' 
A.  "In  Adam  all  die,  i.  e.  1.  Our  bo- 
dies then  became  mortal.-^2.  Our  souls 
died,  i.  e.  were  disunited  from  God.  And 
hence, — 3.  We  are  all  bom  with  a  sin- 
ful, devilish  nature  ;  by  reason  whereof, 
— 4.  ^Ve  are  children  of  wrath,  liable  to 
death  eternal,"  Rom.  v.  18.  Eph.  ii.  3. 
Q.  "  In  what  sense  is  the  righteousness 
of  Christ  imputed  to  all  mankind,  or  to 
believers?"  A.  "We  do  not  find  it  ex- 
pressly affirmed  in  Scripture  that  God 
nnputeS  the  righteousness  of  Christ  to 
an)',  although  we  do  find  that  faith  is 
imputed  for  righteousness.  That  text, 
'  As  by  one  man's  disobedience  all  men 
were  made  sinners,  so  by  the  obedience 
of  one  all  were  made  I'ighteous,'  we  con- 
cei\  e,  means  by  the  merits  of  Christ  all 
men  are  cleared  from  the  guilt  of  Adam's 
actual  sin."  Q.  "  Can  faith  be  lost  but 
through  disobedience.'"'  A.  "It  cannot. 
A  believer  first  inwardly  disobeys ;  in- 
clines to  sin  with  his  heart ;  then  his  in- 
tercourse with  God  is  cut  off,  i.  e.  his 
faith  is  lost ;  and  after  this  he  may  fall 
mto  outward  sin,  being  now  weak,  and 
like  another  man."  Q.  "What  is  im- 
plied in  being  2l perfect  Christian?"  A. 
"  The  loving  the  Lord  our  God  with  all 
our  heail,  and  with  all  our  mind,  and 
soul,  and  strength."  Q.  "  Does  this  im- 
ply that  all  inward  sin  is  taken  a\yay  ?" 
A.  "Without  doubt;  or  how  could  we 
be  said  to  be  saved jrro7n  all  our  unclean- 
nesses?"  Ezek.  xxxvi.  29.  Q.  "  How 
much  is  allowed  by  our  brethren  who 
differ  from  us  with  regard  to  entire  saizc- 
tijication?"  A.  "They  grant,  1.  That 
every  one  must  be  entire^  sanctified  in 
the  article  of  death. — 2.  That  till  then 
a  believer  daily  grows  in  grace,  comes 
nearer  and  nearer  to  perfection. — 3. 
That  we  ought  to  be  continuallv  press- 
ing after  this,  and  to  exhort  all  otiiers  to 
do  so."  Q."  What  do  we  allow  them  ?" 
A.  "We  grant,  1.  That  many  of  those 
who  have  died    in  tlie  faith,  yea,  the 


greater  part  of  those  we  have  known, 
were  not  sanctified  throughout,  not  made 
perfect  in  love,  till' a  little  before  death. 
— 2.  That  the  term  sanctified  is  con- 
tinually applied  by  St.  Paul  to  all  that 
werejustified,  that  were  true  believers. 
— 3.  That  by  .this  term  alone  he  rarely 
(if  ever)  means  saved  from  all  sin. — 4. 
That  consequently  it  is  not  proper  to 
use  it  in  this  sense,  without  adding  the 
word  '  wholly,  entirely,'  or  the  like. — 5. 
That  the  inspired  writers  alrhost  con- 
tinually speak  of  or  to  those  who  were 
justified,  but  very  rarely  either  of  or  to 
those  who  were  sanctified. — 6.  That 
consequently  it  behoves  us  to  speak  in 
public  almost  continually  of  the  state  of 
justification  ;  but  more  rarely  in  full  and 
explicit  terms  concerning  entire  sanc- 
tificacion."  Q.  "\Miat  then,  is  the  point 
wherein  we  divide  ?"  A.  "  It  is  this : 
'V\'hcther  we  should  expect  to  b.e  saved 
from  all  sin  before  the  article  of  death." 
Q.  "Is  there  any  clear  Scripture  pro- 
mise of  this,  that  God  will  save  us  from 
all  sin  ?"  A.  "  There  is,  Ps.  cxxx.  8  : 
'  He  shall  redeem  Israel  from  all  his 
iniquities.'  This  is  more  lai'gely  ex- 
pressed in  Ezek.  xxxvi.  26,  29.  2  Cor. 
vii.  1.  Deut.  xxx.  6.  1  John  iii.  8.  Eph.  v. 
25,  27.  John  xvii.  20,  23.  1  John  iv.  If." 

Thus  I  have  endeavoured  to  give  a 
view  of  the  tenets  of  the  Weeleyan 
Methodists ;  and  this  I  have  chosen  to 
do  in  their  own  words,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent misrepresentation. 

As  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Calvinistic 
Methodists,  they  need  not  be  inserted 
here,  as  the  reader  will  find  the  sub- 
stance of  them  under  the  article  Cal- 

VINISTS. 

III.  Methodists,  government  and  dis- 
cipline of.  A  considerable  number  both 
of  the  Calvinist  and  Ai'minian  Metho- 
dists approve  of  the  discipline  of  the 
church  of  England,  while  many,  it  is 
said,  are  dissenters  in  principle.  Mr. 
Wesley  and  Mr.  Whitfield  were  both 
brought  up  in,  and  paid  peculiar  respect 
to  that  church.  They  did  not,  however, 
as  it  is  well  known',  confine  themselves 
to  her  laws  in  all  respects  as  it  related 
to  discipline. 

Mr.  Wesley  having  fomied  nume- 
rous societies  in  different  parts,  he,  with 
his  brother  Charles,  drew  up  certain 
rules,  by  which  they  were,  and  it  seems 
in  many  respects  still  are  governed. 
They  state  the  nature  and  design  of  a 
Methodist  .society  in  the  following  words : 

"  Such  a  societv  is  no  other  than  a 
"  company  of  meii  having  the  form  and 
"  seeking  the  power  of  godliness  ;  uni- 
"  ted,  in  order  to  pi-ay  together,  to  i-e- 
"  ceive  the  word  of  exhortation,  and  to 


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"  walcli  over  one  another  in  love,  that 
"they  may  help  each  other  to  work  out 
'■'  then*  salvation." 

""  That  it  may  the  more  easily  be  dis- 
cerned whether  they  are  indeed  work- 
ing out  their  own  salvation,  each  society 
is  divided  into  smaller  companies,  call- 
ed classes,  according  to  tlieir  respective 
places  of  abode.  .  There  are  about 
twelve  persons  (sometimes  fifteen, 
twenty,  oi*  even  more)  in  each  class ; 
one  of  whom  is  styled  the  leader.  It  is 
his  business,  1.  To  see  each  person  in 
his  class  once  a  week,  at  least,  in  order 
to  enquire  how  their  souls  prosper ;  to 
advise,  reprove,  comfort,  or  exhort,  as 
occasion  may  require  ;  to  receive  what 
they  are  willing  to  give  to  tlie  poor,  or 
toward  the  Gospel. — 2.  To  meet  the 
minister  and  the  stewards  of  the  society 
once  a  week,  in  order  to  inform  the  mi- 
nister of  any  that  are  sick,  or  of  any 
that  walk  disorderly,  and  will  not  be  re- 
proved ;  to  pay  to'  the  stewards  what 
they  have  received  of  their  several 
classes  in  the  week  preceding ;  and  to 
show*  their  account  ol  what  each  person 
has  contributed. 

"There  is  only  one  condition  pre- 
viously required  of  those  who  desire 
admission  mto  these  societies,  namely, 
^i  f/cS/7Y  to  flee  from  the  wrath  to  come; 
to  be  saved  fro7n  their  sins:  but  where- 
ever  this  is  really  fixed  in  tlie  soul,  it 
will  be  shown  by  its  fruits.  It  is,  there- 
fore, expected  of  all  Avho  continue  there- 
in, that  they  should  continue  to  evidence 
their  desire  of  salvation, 

"  First,  by  doing  no  harm  ;  by  avoid- 
ing evil  in  every  kind ;  especially  that 
which  is  most  generally  practised,  such 
as  the  taking  tlie  name  of  God  in  vain  ; 
the  profaning  the  day  of  the  Lord,  either 
by  doing  ordinary  work  thereon,  or  by 
buying  or  selling ;  drunkenness ;  buying 
or  sellinff  sfuritiious  liquors,  or  drinking 
them,  unless  in  cases  of  extreme  neces- 
sity ;  fighting,  quarrelling,  brawling ; 
brother  going  to  laiv  with  brother ;  re- 
turning evil  for  evilj  or  railing  for  railing ; 
the  using  ma7iy  words  in  buying  or  sell- 
ing ;  the  buying  or  selling  uncustomed 
goods;  the  giving  or  taking  things  on 
usunj,  i.  e.  unlawful  interest. 

"  Uncharitable,  or  unprofitable  con- 
versation;  particularly  speaking  eyil  of 
magistrates,  or  of  ministers. 

"Doing  to  others  as  we  would  not 
they  should  do  unto  us. 

"  Doing  wliat  we  know  is  not  for  the 
glory  of  God ;  as  the  putting  on  gold  or 
costly  apparel:  the  taking  such  diver- 
sions as  cannot  be  used  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord  Jesus. 

"  The  singing  those  songs,  or  reading 


those  books,  which  do  not  tend  to  the 
knowledge  or  love  of  God  ;  softness  andl 
needless  self-indulgence ;  laying  up  trea- 
sure upon  earth ;  bori'owing  without  a 
probability  of  paying;  or  taking  up 
goods  without  a  probability  of  paying 
for  them. 

"  It  is  expected  of  all  who  continue 
in  these,  societies  that  they  should  con- 
tinue to  evidence  their  desire  of  sal- 
vation, 

"  Secondly,  By  doing  good  ;  by  being 
in  every  kind  merciful  after  their  power, 
as  they  have  opportunity ;  doing  good 
of  every  possible  sort,  and  as  far  as  pos- 
sible to  all  men  ;  to  their  bodies,  of  the 
ability  which  God  giveth ;  by  giving 
food  to  the  hungry,  by  clothing  the  na- 
ked, by  visiting  or  helping  them  that 
are  sick,  or  in  prison ;  to  their  souls,  by 
instructing,  reproving,  or  exhorting  all 
we  have  any  intercourse  with ;  tram- 
pling under  foot  that  enthusiastic  doc- 
trine of  devils,  that,  'We  are  not  to  do 
good,  unless  our  hearts  be  free  to  it.' 

"By  doing  good,  especially  to  them 
that  are  of  the  household  of  faith,  or 
groaning  so  to  be  ;  employing  them  pre- 
ferably to  others ;  buying  one  of  ano- 
ther; helping  each  other  in  business; 
and  so  much  the  more,  because  the 
world  will  love  its  own,  and  them  only ; 
by  all  possible  diligence  and  frugality, 
that  the  gospel  be  not  blamed ;  by  nin- 
ning  with  patience  the  race  set  before 
them,  denying  themselves,  and  taking 
up  their  ci-oss  daily;  submitting  to  bear 
the  reproach  of  Christ;  to  be  as  the 
filth  and  offscouring  of  the  world,  and 
looking  that  men  should  say  all  mamier 
of  evil  of  them  falsely  for  the  Lord's 
sake. 

"  It  is  expected  of  all  who  desire  to 
continue  in  these  societies,  that  they 
should  continue  to  evidence  their  desire 
of  salvation, 

"  Thirdly,  By  attending  on  all  the  or- 
dinances of  God :  such  are, — The  pub- 
lic worship  of  God ;  the  ministry  of  the 
woi'd,.  either  read  or  expounded ;  the 
supper  of  the  Lord  ;  family  and  private 
prayer;  searching  the  Scriptures;  and 
fasting  and  abstinence. 

"  These  are  the  general  rules  of  our 
societies,  all  which  we  are  taught  of 
God  to  observe,  even  in  his  written 
word ;  the  only  rule,  and  the  sufficient 
nile,  both  of  our  faith  and  practice ;  and 
all  these  we  know  his  Spirit  writes  on 
every  truly  awakened  heart.  If  there 
be  any  among  us  whool3ser\e  them  not, 
who  habituaflv  break  any  of  them,  let  it 
be  made  known  unto  them  who  watch 
over  that  soul,  as  they  who  must  give 
an  account.    We  will  admonish  him  of 


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^lET 


the  error  of  his  ways;  we  will  bear 
with  him  for  a  season ;  but  then,  if  he 
repent  not,  he  hath  no  more  place 
among  us:  we  have  delivered  our  own 
souls. 

,r      1    iT<o  John  Wesley. 

May  1,  1743.  (^./^^^,.^^^  Wesley." 

In  Mr.  Wesley's  connexion,  they  have 
circuits  and  conferences,  which  we  find 
.were  thus  formed : — When  the  preach- 
ers at  first  went  out  to  exhort  and 
pre'ach,  it  was  by  Mr.  Wesley's  per- 
mission and  direction ;  some  from  one 
part  of  the  kingdom,  and  some  from 
another ;  and  though  frequently  stran- 
gers to  each  other,  and  those  to  whom 
they  were  sent,  yet  on  his  cretlit  and 
sanction  alone  they  were  received  and 
pro\^ded  for  as  friends  by  the  societies 
wherever  they  came.  But,  having  little 
or  no  communication  or  intercourse 
with  one  another,  nor  any  subordination 
among  themselves,  they  must  have  been 
under  the  necessity 'of  recurring  to  Mr. 
Wesley  for  directions  how  and  where 
they  were  to  labour.  To  remedy  this  in- 
convenience, he  conceived  the  design  of 
calling  them  together  to  an  annual  con- 
ference :  by  this  means  he  brought  them 
into  closer  union  with  each  other,  and 
made  them  sensible  of  the  utility  of  act- 
ing in  concert  and  harmony.  He  soon 
found  it  necessary,  also  to  bring  their 
itinerancy  under  certain  regulations,  and 
reduce  it  to  some  fixed  order,  both  to 
prevent  confusion,  and  for  his  own  ease : 
he  therefore  took  fifteen  or  twenty  so- 
cieties, more  or  less,  which  lay  round 
some  principal  society  in  those  parts, 
and  which  were  so  situated,  that  the 
greatest  distance  from  one  to  tlie  other 
was  not  much  more  than  twenty  miles, 
and  united  them  into  what  was  called  a 
circuit.  At  the  yearly  conference  he  ap- 
pointed two,  three,  or  four  preachers,  to 
one  of  these  circuits,  according  to  its 
extent,  which  at  first  was  often  very 
considerable,  sometimes  taking  in  a  part 
of  three  or  four  counties.  Here,  and 
here  only,  were  they  to  labour  for  one 
year,  that_  is  until  the  next  conference. 
One  of  the  preachers  on  every  circuit 
was  called  the  assistant,  because  he  as- 
sisted Mr.  Wesley  in  superintending  the 
societies  and  other  preacliers ;  he  took 
charge  of  the  societies  within  the  limits 
assigned  him;  he  enforced  the  rules 
every  where,  and  directed  the  labours 
of  the  preachers  associated  with  him. 
Having  received  a  list  of  the  societies 
forming  his  circuit,  he  took  his  own  sta- 
tion in  it,  ga\  e  to  tlie  other  preachers 
a  plan  of  it,  and  pointed  out  the  day 
when  each  should  be  at  the  place  fixetl 
for  him,  to  begin  a  progressive  motion 


round  it,  in  such  order  as  the  plan  di- 
rected. They  now  followed  one  another 
through  all  the  societies  belonging  to 
that  circuit,  at  stated  distances  of  time, 
all  being  governed  by  the  same  rules, 
and  undergoing  the  same  lalwur.  By 
this  plan,  every  preacher's  daily  worfc 
was  appointed  beforehand  ;  each  knew, 
every  clay,  where  the  others  were,  and 
each  society  when  to  expect  the  preach- 
er, and  how  long  he  would  stay  with 
them. — It  may  be  obsei^ved,  however, 
that  Mr.  Wesley's  design  in  calling  the 
preachers  together  annually,  was  not 
merely  for  the  regulation  of  the  circuits, 
but  also  for  the  review  of  their  doctrines 
and  discipline,  and  for  the  examination 
of  their  moral  conduct ;  that  those  who 
were  to  administer  with  him  in  holy 
things  might  be  thoroughly  furnished 
for  every  good  work. 

The  first  conference  was  held  in  June 
1744,  at  which  Mr.  Wesley  met  his 
brother,  two  or  three  other  clergymen, 
and  a  few  of  the  preachers  whom  he 
had  appointed  to  come  from  various 
parts,  to  confer  with  them  on  the  aifairs 
of  the  societies. 

"Monday,  June  25,"  observes  Mr. 
Wesle^',  "  and  the  five  following  days, 
we  spent  in  conference  witli  our  preach- 
ers, seriously  considering  by  what  means 
we  might  the  most  effectually  save  our 
own  souls,  and  them  that  heard  us  ;  and 
the  result  of  our  consultations  we  set 
down  to  be  the  rule  of  our  future  prac- 
tice/' 

Since  that  time  a  conference  has  been 
held  annually,  Mr.  Wesley  himself 
having  presided  at  forty-seven.  The 
sulijects  of  their  deliberations  were  pro- 
posed in  the  form  of  questions,  which 
were  amply  discussed;  and  the  ques- 
tions, with  the  answers  agreed  upon, 
were  afterwards  printed  under  the  title 
of  "Minutes  of  several  Conversations 
between  the  Rev.  Mr.  Wesley  and 
others,"  commonly  called  Minutes  of 
Conference. 

As  to  their  preachers,  the  following 
extract  from- the  above-mentioned  Mi- 
nutes of  Conference  will  show  us  in  what 
manner  they  are  chosen  and  designated : 
Q.  "  How  shall  we  try  those  who  think 
they  are  moved  by  the  Holy  Cihost.  to 
preach?"  A.  "Inquire  1.  Do' they  know 
God  as  a  pardoning  God  ?  Have  they 
the  love  of  God  abiding  in  them  ?  Do 
they  desire  and  seek  nothing  biit  God  ? 
And  are  they  holy  in  all  manner  of 
conversation  ? — 2.  Have  they  gifts.,  as 
well  as  grace,  for  the  work  ?  Have 
they,  in  some  tolerable  degree,  a  clear, 
sound  understanding  ?  Have  they  a  righ'; 
judgment  in  the  things  of  God.'    Have 


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they  a  just  conception  of  salvation  by 
faith  ?•  And  has  God  given  them  any  de- 
gree of  utterance  ?  Do  they  speak  justly, 
readily,  clearly  ? — 3;  Have  they  fruit  ? 
Are  any  ti-uly  convinced  of  sin,  and  con- 
verted to  God,  by  tlieir  preaching  ? 

"  As  long  as  these  three  marks  con- 
cur in  any  one,  we  believe  he  is  called 
of  God  to  preach.  These  AVe  receive 
as  sufficient  proof  that  he  is  moved 
thereto  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Q.  "What  method  may  we  use  in 
receiving  a  new  helper?"  A.  "  A  proper 
time  for  doing  this  is  at  a  conference, 
after  solemn  tasting  and  prayer ;  every 
pei-son  proposed  is  then  to  be  present, 
and  each  of  them  may  be  asked, 

" Have  ijou  faith  in  Christ?  Are  7/07^ 
g'oing  071  to  perfection  ?  Do  you  expect 
to  be  pei'fected  in  love  in  this  life  ?  Are 
you  groaning  after  it  ?  Are  you  resolved 
to  devote  yourself  wholly  to  God  and  to 
his  work?  H^ve  you  considered  the 
iTiles  of  a  helfier'^  Will  you  keep  them 
for  conscience'  sake  ?  Are  you  deter- 
mined to  employ  all  your  time  in  the 
work  of  God  ?  Will  you  pi-ea'ch  every 
morning  and  evening?  Will  you  dili- 
gently instruct  the  children  in  every 
place  ?  Will  you  visit  from  house  to 
house?  Will  you  recommend  fasting 
both  by  precept  and  example  ? 

"  We  then  may  receive  him  as  a  pro- 
bationer, by  giving  him  the  Minutes  of 
the  Conference,  inscribed  thus  : — '  To 
A.  B.  You  think  it  your  duty  to  call 
sinners  to  repentance.  Make  full  proof 
hereof,  and  we  shall  rejoice  to  receive 
you  as  a  fellow-labourer.'  Let  him  then 
read  and  carefully  weigh  what  is  con- 
tained therein,  that  if  he  has  any  doubt 
it  may  be  removed." 

"To  the  above  it  maybe  useful  to 
add,"  says  Mr.  Benson,  "  a  few  remai-ks 
on  the  method  pursued  in  the  choice  of 
the  itinerant  preachers,  c\^  many  have 
formed  the  most  eiToneous  ideas  on  the 
subject,  imagining  they  are  employed 
with  hardly  any  prior  preparation.  1. 
They  are  received  as  private  members 
of  the  society  on  trial. — 2.  After  a  quar- 
ter of  a  year,  if  they  are  found  deserv- 
ing, they  are  admitted  as  proper  mem- 
bers.— ".  When  their  grace  and  abilities 
arfe  sufhciently  manifest,  they  are  ap- 
pointed leaders  of  classes. — 4.  If  they 
then  discover  talents  for  more  important 
services,  they  are  employed  to  exhort 
occasionally  in  the  smaller  congrega- 
tions, when  tlie  preachers  cannot  attend. 
— 5.  If  ap;)roved  in  this  line  of  duty, 
they  are  allowed  to  preach. — 6.  Out  of 
these  men  who  are  called  local  /ircaih- 
ers,  are  selected  t\v:  itinerant  prrarhcrs, 
who  ai'c  first  prc)post'd  at  a  (juarterl^ 


meeting  of  the  stewards  and  local 
preachers  of  the  ciiT,uit;  then  at  a 
meeting  of  the  travelling  preachers  of 
the  district ;  and,  lastly,  in  the  confer- 
ence ;  and,  if  accepted,  are  nominated 
for  a  circuit. — 7.  1  heir  characters  and 
conduct  are  examined  annually  in  the 
conference;  and,  if  they  continue  faith- 
ful for  four  years  of  trial,  they  are  re- 
ceived into  full  connection.  At  these 
conferences,  also,  strict  enquiry  is  made 
into  the  conduct  and  success  of  eveiy 
preacher,  and  those  who  ai'e  found  deii- 
cient  in  abilities  are  no  longer  employed 
as  itinerants;  while  those  whose  con- 
duct has  not  been  agreeable  to  the  Gos- 
pel are  expelled,  and  thereby  detMived 
of  all  the  privileges  e\'en  of  private 
members  of  the  society." 

IV.  Methodists,  new  connection  of. 
Since  Mr. Wesley's  death,  his  people 
have  been  divided  ;  but  this  divisioli,  it 
seems,  respects  discipline  more  than 
sentiment.  Mr.  Wesley  professed  a 
strong  attachment  to  the  established 
church  of -England,  and  exhorted  the 
societies  under  his  care  to  attend  her 
service,  and  receive  the  Lord's  supper 
from  the  regular  clergy.  But  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  his  time  he  thought  proper 
to  ordain  some  bishops  and  priests  for 
America  and  Scotland  ;  but  as  one  or 
two  of  the  bishops  have  never  been  out 
of  England  since  their  appointment  "to 
the  ofince,  it  is  probable  that  he  intended 
a  regular  ordination  should  take  place 
when  the  state  of  the  connection  might 
render  it  necessary.  During  his  life, 
some  of  the  societies  petitioned  to  have 
preaching  in  their  own  chapels  in  church 
hours,  and  the  Lord's  supper  admi- 
nistered by  the  travelling  preachers. 
This  i-equest  he  generally  rerused,  and, 
where  it  could  be  c;invenie!itly  done, 
sent  some  of  the  clci-gymen  who  offi- 
ciated at  the  New  Chapel  in  London  to 
perform  these  solemn  services.  At  the 
first  conference  after  his  death,  which 
was  held  at  Manchester,  the  preachers 
published  a  declaration,  in  which  they 
said  that  they  would  "  take  up  the  Plan 
as  Mr.  Wesley  had  left  it."  This  was 
by  no  means  satisfactory  to  many  of  t'.ie 
preachers  and  people,  wlio  thouglit  that 
religious  liberty  ought  to  be  extende'd 
to  all  the  societies  which  desired  it.  In 
order  to  favour  this  cause,  so  agreeable 
to  the  spirit  of  Christianity  and  the 
rights  of  Englishmen,  several  rcspecta." 
bie  preachers  came  forwavl;  and  by 
tlie  ■  writings  which  the  v  circulated' 
tlirough  the  connection,  paved  the  way  . 
for  a  jilan  of  pacification;  by  which  it  , 
was  stipulated,  tlr^t  in  every  society  ■ 
where   a  threefold  majority  of  class- 


MET 


369 


MET 


leaders,  stewards,  and  trustees  desired  j 
it,  the  people  should  have  preaching  in  { 
church  hours,  and  the  sacraments  of  bap-  { 
tism  and  the  Lord's  supper  administered  i 
to  them.     The  spirit  of  inquiry  being 
roused   did  not  stop  here ;  for   it  ap- 1 
peared  agreeable  both  to  reason  and 
the  customs  of  the  primitive   church, 
that  the  people  should  ha\e  a  voice  in 
the  temporal  concerns  of  the  societies, 
vote  in  the  election  of  church  officers, 
and  give  their  suffi'ages  in  spiritual  con- 
cerns.   This  subject  produced  a  variety 
of  arguments  on  both  sides  of  the  ques- 
tion :  many  of  the  preachers  and  peo- 
ple thought  that  an  annual  delegation  of 
the  general  stewards  of  the  circuits,  to 
sit  either  in  the  conference  or  the  dis- 
trict meetings,  in  order  to  assist  in  the 
disbursement  of  the  yearly  collection, 
the  Kingswood  School   collection,   and 
the    preachers'  fund,    and  in  making 
new  or  revising  old  laws,  would  be  a 
bond  of  union  between  the  conference 
and  connection  at  lai'ge,  and  do  away 
the  very  idea  of  arbitrary  power  among 
the  travelling  preachers.    In  order  to 
facilitate  this  good  work,  many  societies, 
in  various  pai'ts  of  the  kingdom,   sent 
delegates   to   the    conference   held    at 
Leeds  in  1797 ;  they  were  instinicted  to 
request,  that  the  people  might  have  a 
voice  in  the  formation  of  their  own  laws, 
the  choice  of  their  own  officers,  and  the 
distribution  of  their  own  property.  The 
preachers  proceeded  to  discuss  two  mo- 
tions :  Shall  delegates  from  the  societies 
be  admitted  into  the  Conference  ?    Shall 
circuit  stewards  be  admitted  into  the 
district  meetings.''   Both  motions  were 
negatived,  and  consequently  all  hopes  of 
accommodation    between    the    parties 
were  given  up.    Several  friends  of  re- 
ligious liberty  proposed  a  plan  for  a  new 
itinei'ancy.    In  order  that  it  might  be 
carried  into  immediate  effect,  they  form- 
ed themselves  into  a  regular  meeting, 
in    Ebenezer    Chapel,    Mr.    William 
Thorn  being  chosen  pi'esident,  and  Mr. 
Alexander    KiUiam,    secretary.      The 
meeting  proceeded  to  arrange  the  plan 
for   supplying  the  circuits  of  the  new 
connection  with  preachers  ;  and  desired 
the  president  and  secretaiy  to  draw  up 
the  rules  of  church  government,  in  or- 
der   that    they    might    be    circulated 
through  the  societies  for  their  appro- 
bation.   Accordingly,  a  form  of  church 
government,  suited  to  an  itinerant  mi- 
nistry, was  printed  by  these  two  breth- 
ren, under  the  title  of  "Outlines  of  a 
Constitution  proposed  for  the  Examina- 
tion, Amendment,   and  Acceptance   of 
the  INIembers  of  the  Methodist  new  Iti- 
nerancy."   The  plan  was  examined  by 


select  committees  in  the  different  cir- 
cuits of  the  connection,  and,  with  few 
alterations,  was  accepted  by  the  con- 
ference of  preachers  and  delegates. 
The  preachers  and  people  are  incor- 
porated in  all  meetings  for  business,  not 
by  temporary  concession,  but  bv  the  es- 
sential principles  of  their  constitution ; 
for  the  private  members  choose  the 
class-leaders  ;  the  leaders'  meeting  no- 
minates the  stewards;  and  the  society 
confirms  or  I'ejects  the  nomination. 
The  quai'terly  meetings  are  composed 
of  the  general  stewards  and  representa- 
tives chosen  by  the  different  societies  of 
the  circuits,  and  the  fourth  quarterly 
meeting  of  the  year  appoints  the  preach- 
er and  delegate  of  eveiy  circuit  that 
shall  attend  the  general  conference. 
For  a  farther  account  of  their  princi- 
ples and  discipline,  we  must  refer  the 
reader  to  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Gene- 
ral Rules  of  the  United  Societies  of  Me- 
thodists in  the  new  Connection." 

The  Calvinistic  Methodists  are  not 
incoi-porated  mto  a  body  as  the  Armi- 
nians  are,  but  are  chiefly  under  the  di- 
rection or  influence  of  their  ministers  or 
patrons. 

It  is  necessaiy  to  observe  here,  that 
there  are  many  congregations  in  Lon- 
don, and  elsewhere,  who,  although  they 
are  called  Methodists,  yet  are  neither 
in  Mr.  Wesley's,  Mr.  Whitfield's,  nor 
the  new  connection.  Some  of  these  are 
supplied  by  a  variety  of  ministers ;  and 
others,  bordering  more  upon  the  con- 
gregational plan,  have  a  resident  minis- 
ter. The  clergy  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land who  strenuously  preach  up  her^oc- 
tiines  and  articles,  are  called  Metho- 
dists. A  distinct  connection  upon  Mr. 
Whitfield's  plan,  was  formed  and  pa- 
tronized by  the  late  Lady  Huntingdon, 
and  which  still  subsists.  The  term 
Methodist,  also,  is  applied  by  way  of 
reproach  to  almost  every  one  who 
manifests  more  than  common  concern 
for  the  interests  of  religion,  and  the 
spiritual  good  of  mankind. 

V.  Methodists,  numbers,  and  success 
of.  Notwithstanding  the  general  con- 
tempt that  has  been  thrown  upon  them, 
and  the  opposition  they  have  met  with, 
yet  their  numbers  are  very  considerable. 
From  the  minutes  of  the  conference 
of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  held  in 
London,  July  30,  1810,  it  appears  that 
the  number  of  persons  in  then-  societies 
is  as  follows.  In  Great  Britain,  137,997; 
Gibraltar  50  ;  in  the  West  Indies,  No- 
va Scotia,  and  Newfoundland,  13,580. 
The  Methodists  in  America  are  not  in 
immediate  connection  with  the  Wes- 
leyans  here.  Their  Qhurch  is  Episcopal, 
3  A 


MIL 


370 


MIL 


and  according  to  tlieh'  account  in  1809, 
cont:iins  163,033  persons.     Among  the 
Cahmistic   Methodists,  there  are   also 
a  considerable   numljer   of   preachers, 
Avhnse  congregations  and  societies   are 
verv  extensive :  some  of  their  chapels  in 
I^oiidon  are  the  largest  and  Ijest  attend- 
ed in  the  world :  it  is  almost  uicredible  j 
to  see  the  numbers  of  people  who  flock  I 
to  these  places.    As  to  their  success  in  I 
doing  good,  it  is  evident,  that   though  j 
many  ignorant  enthusiasts   have    been  ; 
founcl  among  them,  yet  no  people  have  , 
done  more  to  moralize  mankind   than  j 
tliey :  nor  have  they  rested  there ;  they  j 
]ia\  e    not   only  contributed   to  render 
thousands   better  members  of  society, ! 
but  been  the  instruments  of  promoting  j 
their    spiritual    and    eternal    interests,  j 
Their  simplicity  of  langua.^e,  fei-x^our  of : 
address,  patience  in  opposition,  unwea- 1 
riedness  m  labour,  piety  of  conduct,  and 
dependence  on  Almighty  God,  are  cer- 
tainly worthy  of  the    greatest   praise, 
and  call  for  the  imitation  of  many  who 
unjustly  condemn  them.     See  History 
of  Methodism  ;  Gil/i^s's  Life  of  JVhit- 
^field,  and  Works;  Coke's  Life  of  Wes- 
leii ;    Macgowan's    Shaver;     Jresley's 
Works;  Benson's  Vindication  and  ^4fio- 
InQ-y    for    the    AFethodists ;    Fletcher's 
Works  ;  Bogue  and  Bennett's  Hist,  of 
the  Dissenters,  vol.  iii.  ;    Walker's  Ad- 
dress to  the  Methodists. 

METROPOLITAN,  a  bishop  of  a 
mother  church,  or  of  the  chief  church 
in  the  chief  city.  An  archbishop.  See 
articles  Bishop,  Episcopacy. 

MILITANT,  from  militans,  fight- 
ing ;  a  term  applied  to  the  church  on 
earth,  as  engaged  in  a  warfare  with  the 
-world,  sin,  and  the  devil ;  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  church  triumphcuit  in 
heaven. 

MILLENARIANS,  or  Shii.ianists, 
a  name  given  to  those  who  believe  that 
the  saints  will  I'eign  on  eaith  with 
Christ  a  thousand  years.  See  next  ai'- 
ticle. 

MILLENNIUM, «  a  thousand  years;" 
genei'ally  employed  to  denote  the  thou- 
sand years,  during  which,  according  to 
an  ancient  tradition  in  the  church, 
grounded  on  some  doubtful  texts  in  the 
Apocalypse  and  other  scriptures,  our 
blessed'  Saviour  shall  reign  with  the 
faithful  upon  earth  after  the  first  resur- 
rection, before  the  final  completion  of 
beatitude. 

Though  there  have  been  no  age  of 
the  church  in  which  the  millennium  was 
not  admitted  by  individual  divines  of  the 
first  eminence,  it  is  yet  evident,  from 
the  writings  of  Eusebius,  Irensus,  Ori- 
gcn,  and  othei's,  among  the  ancients,  as 


well  as  from  the  histories  of  Dupin, 
Mosheim,  and  all  the  moderns,  that  it 
was  never  adopted  by  the  whole  church, 
or  made  an  article  of  the  established 
creed  in  any  nation. 

About  the  middle  of  the  foui-th  cen- 
tur\-  the  Millenarians  held  the  following 
tenets : 

1st,  That  the  city  of  Jerusalem  should 
be  rebuilt,  and  that  the  land  of  Judea 
should  be  the  habitation  of  those  who 
were  to  reign  on  the  earth  a  thousand 
yeai's. 

2dly,  That  the  first  rcsuiTCction  was 
not  to  be  confined  to  the  martyrs,  but 
that,  after  the  fall  of  Antichrist,'  all  the 
just  were  to  rise,  and  all  that  were  on 
the  earth  wei'e  to  continue  for  that  space 
of  time. 

odly,  That  Christ  shall  t>\eii  come 
down  from  heaven,  and  be  seen  on  earth, 
and  reign  there  with  his  servants. 

4thly,  That  the  saints,  during  this  pe- 
riod, shall  enjoy  all  the  delights  of  a  ter- 
restrial paradise. 

These  opinions  were  founded  upon 
several  passages  in  Scripture,  which  the 
Millenarians,  among  the  fathers,  under- 
stood in  no  other  than  a  literal  sense ; 
but  which  the  moderns,  who  hold  that 
opinion,  consider  as  partly  literal  and 
partly  metaphorical.  Of  these  passages, 
that  upon  which  the  greatest  stress  has 
been  laid  w^e  believe  to  be  the  follow- 
ing : — "  And  I  saw  an  angel  come 
down  from  heaven,  having  the  key  of 
the  bottomless  pit,  and  a  great  chain  in 
his  hand.  And  he  laid  hold  on  the  dra- 
gon, that  old  seipent,  which  is  the  devil 
and  Satan,  and  bound  him  a  thousand 
years,  and  cast  him  into  the  bottomless 
pit,  and  shut  him  up,  and  set  a  seal  upon 
him,  that  he  should  deceive  the  nations 
no  more,  till  the  thousand  rjears  should 
be  fulfilled  ;  and,  after  that,  he  must  be 
loosed  a  little  season.  And  I  saw  thrones, 
and  they  sat  upon  them,  and  judgment 
was  given  unto  them ;  and  I  saw  the 
souls  of  them  that  were  beheaded  for 
the  witness  of  Jesus  and  for  the  word  of 
God,  and  which  had  not  worshipped  the 
beast,  neither  liis  image,  neither  had 
received  his  mark  upon  their  foreheads, 
nor  in  their  hands ;  and  they  lived  and 
reigned  with  Christ  a  thousa?id  years. 
But  the  rest  of  the  dead  lived  not  again 
till  the  thousand  years  were  finished. 
This  is  the  first  resurrection."  liev.  xx. 
1 — 6.  This  passage  all  the  ancient  Mil- 
lenarians took  in  a  sense  grossly  literal, 
and  taught,  that,  during  the  Millen- 
nium, the  saints  on  earth  were  to  enjoy 
every  bodily  delig'nt.  The  modems,  on 
tlie  other  hand,  consider  the  power  and 
pleasures  of  this  kingdom  as  wholly  spi- 


MIL 


371 


MIL 


ritual ;  and  they  represent  them  as  not 
to  commence  till  after  tlie  conflagration 
of  the  present  earth.  But  that  this  last 
supposition  is  a  mistake,  tlie  veiy  next 
verse  but  one  assures  us ;  for  we  are 
there  told,  that,  "when  the  thousand 
years  are  expired,  Satan  shall  be  loosed 
out  of  his  prison,  and  shall  go  out  to  de- 
ceive the  nations  which  are  in  the  four 
quarters  of  the  earth  ;"  and  we  have  no 
reason  to  believe  that  he  will  have  such 
power  or  such  liberty  in  "  the  new  hea- 
vens and  the  new  earth,  wherein  dwell- 
eth  righteousness."  We  may  observe, 
however,  the  following  things  respect- 
ing it :  1.  That  the  Sci'iptures  afford  us 
ground  to  belie\e  that  the  church  will 
arrive  to  a  state  of  prosperity  which  it 
never  has  vet  enjoyed.  Rev.  xx.  4,  7. 
Psal.  Ixxii.  11.  Is.  ii.  2,  4.  xi.  9.  xlix.  23. 
Ix.  Dan.  vii.  27. — 2.  That  this  will  con- 
tinue at  least  a  thousand  years,  or  a  con- 
sidei'able  space  of  time,  in  which  the 
work  of  salvation  may  be  fully  accom- 
plished in  the  utmost  extent  and  glory 
of  it.  In  this  time,  in  which  the  Avorld 
will  soon  be  filled  with  real  Chi'istians, 
and  continue  full  by  constant  pi'ojiaga- 
tion  to  supply  the  place  of  those  v/ho 
leave  the  world,  there  will  be  man)^ 
thousands  bom  and  live  on  the  earth, 
to  each  one  that  has  been  born  and  lived 
in  the  preceding  six  thousand  years; 
so  that,  if  they  who  shall  be  born  in  that 
thousand  years  shall  be  all,  or  most  of 
them  saved  (as  they  will  be,)  there  will, 
on  the  whole,  be  many  thousands  of 
mankind  saved  to  one  that  shall  be  lost. 
— 3.  This  will  be  a  state  of  great  hap- 
piness and  glory.  Some  think  that 
Christ  will  reign  pei^onally  on  earth, 
and  that  there  will  be  a  literal  resur- 
rection of  the  saints.  Rev.  xx.  4,  7 ;  but 
I  rather  suppose  that  the  reign  of  Christ 
and  resuiTection  of  saints  alluded  to  in 
that  passage,  is  only  figurati\'e  ;  and  that 
nothing  more  is  meant  than  that,  before 
the  general  judgment,  the  Jews  shall  be 
converted,  genuine  Christianity  be  dif- 
fused through  all  nations,  and  that  Christ 
.^hall  reign,  by  his  spiritual  presence,  in 
a  glorious  maimer.  It  will,  however, 
be  a  time  of  eminent  holiness,  clear 
light  and  knowledge,  lo\e,  peace,  and 
friendship,  agreement  in  doctrine  and 
worship.  Human  life,  perhaps,  will 
rarely  be  endangered  by  the  poisons  of 
the  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  king- 
doms. Beasts  of  prey,  perhaps  will  he 
extiipated,  or  tamed  by  the  power  of 
man.  The  inhabitants  of  every  place 
•will  rest  secure  from  fear  of  robbery  and 
murder.  War  shall  be  entirely  ended. 
Capital  crimes  and  punishments  be 
keard  of  no  more.   Governm  ents  placed 


on  fair,  just,  and  humane  foundations. 
The  torch  of  civil  discord  will  be  ex- 
tinguished. Perhaps  Pagans,  Turks, 
Deists,  and  Jews,  will  be  as  few  in  mun- 
ber  as  Clir'^stians  are  now.  Kings,  no- 
bles, magistrates,  and  i-ulers  in  churches 
shall  act  with  principle,  and  be  forward 
to  promote  the  best  interests  of  men  : 
tyranny,  oppression,  persecution,  bi- 
gotry, and  cruelty,  shall  cease.  Busi- 
ness will  be  attended  to  without  con- 
tention, dishonesty,  and  covetousness. 
Trades  and  manufactories  will  be  car- 
ried on  with  a  design  to  promote  the 
general  good  of  mankind,  and  not  with 
selfish  interests,  as  nov\r.  Merchandise 
between  distant  countries  will  be  con- 
ducted without  fear  of  an  enemy ;  and 
works  of  ornament  and  beauty,  perhaps, 
shall  not  be  wanting  in  those  days. 
Learning,  which  has  always  flourished 
in  proportion  as  religion  has  sprea;!, 
shall  then  greatly  increase,  and  be  era- 
ployed  for  the  best  of  purposes.  As- 
tronomy, geography,  natural  history, 
metaphysics,  and  all  the  useful  sciences, 
will  be  better  understood,  and  conse- 
crated to  the  service  of  God ;  and  I 
cannot  help  thinking  that  by  the  im- 
pro\'ements  which  have  been  made,  and 
are  making,  in  ship-building,  navigation, 
electricity,  medicine,  &c.  that  "the 
tempest  will  lose  half  its  force,  the 
lightning  lose  half  its  terrors,"  and  the 
human  frame  not  near  so  much  exposed 
to  danger.  Above  all,  the  Bible  will  be 
more  highly  appreciated,  its  hamaony 
percei\'ed,  its  superiority  owned,  ani 
its  energy  felt  by  millions  of  human  be- 
ings. In  fact,  the  earth  shall  be  filled 
with  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  as  the 
waters  cover  the  sea. — 4.  The  time 
when  the  Millennium  will  commence 
cannot  be  fully  ascertained ;  but  the 
common  idea  is,  that  it  will  be  in  the 
seven  thousandth  year  of  the  world.  It 
will,  most  probably,  come  on  by  de- 
grees, and  be  in  a  manner  introduced 
years  before  that  time.  And  who 
knows  but  the  present  convulsions 
among  diiferent  nations ;  the  overthrow 
which  popery  has  had  in  places  where 
it  has  been  so  dominant  for  hundreds  of 
years ;  the  fiilfilment  of  prophecy  re- 
specting infidels,  and  the  falling  away 
of  many  in  the  last  times ;  and  yet  in 
the  midst  of  all,  the  number  of  missiona- 
ries sent  into  different  parts  of  the  world, 
together  with  the  increase  of  Gospel 
ministers;  the  thousands  of  ignorant 
children  that  have  been  taught  to  read 
the  Bible,  and  the  vast  number  of  dif- 
ferent societies  that  have  been  lately 
instituted  for  the  benevolent  pur]50se  of 
informing  the  minds  and  impressing  the 


MIN 


372 


MIN 


hearts  of  the  ignorant;  who  knows,  I 
say,  but  what  these  things  are  the  fore- 
runners of  events  of  the  most  delightful 
nature,  and  which  may  usner  in  the 
happy  morn  of  that  bright  and  glorious 
day  when  the  whole  world  shall  be  filled 
Avith  his  glory,  and  all  the  ends  of  the 
eaith  see  the  salvation  of  our  God  ?  Sec 
Hofikins  on  the  Millen. ;  WhUby''s  Trea- 
tise on  it,  at  the  end  of  the  2d  Vol.  of 
his  ./Annotations  07i  the  JSTew.  Tes.;  Ro- 
bert Gray's  Discourses,  dis.  10;  Bisho/i 
Menvton's  Twenty-Jifth  Diss,  on  the 
Profih.;  Bellamy's  Treat.on  the  Millen- 
nium. There  are  four  admirable  pa- 
pers of  Mr.  Shrubsole's  on  the  subject, 
in  the  6th  vol.  of  the  Theol.  Miscellany ; 
Lardner's  Cred.  4th,  5th,  7th,  and  9th 
vols.;  Mosheim's  Eccl,  Hist.  cent.  3,  p. 
11,  ch.  12;  Taylor's  Sermons  on  the 
Millennium;  Illustrations  of  Profihecy, 
ch.  31. 

MIND,  a  thinking,  intelligent  being ; 
otherwise  called  spirit,  or  soul.  See 
Soul.  Dr.  Watts  has  given  us  some 
admirable  thoughts  as  to  the  imfiro-ve- 
ment  of  the  mind.  "  There  are  Ji-ve 
eminent  means  or  methods,"h.e  observes, 
"whereby  the  inind  is  improved  in  the 
knowledge  of  things ;  and  these  are,  ob- 
servation, reading,  instruction  by  lec- 
tures, conversation,  and  meditation; 
which  last,  in  a  most  peculiar  manner, 
is  called  study.  See  Watts  on  the  Mind, 
a  book  which  no  student  should  be 
without. 

MINIMS,  a  religious  order  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  founded  by  St.  Francis 
de  Paula,  towards  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Their  habit  is  a  coarse 
black  woollen  stuff,  with  a  woollen  girdle 
of  the  same  colour,  tied  in  five  knots. 
They  are  not  permitted  to  quit  their 
habit  and  girdle  night  nor  day.  Formerly 
they  went  barefooted,  but  are  now  al- 
lowed the  use  of  shoes. 

MINISTER,  a  name  applied  to  those 
who  are  pastors  of  a  congregation,  or 
preachers  of  God's  word.  They  are 
also  called  divines,  and  may  be  distin- 
guished into  jxolemic,  or  those  who  pos- 
sess controversial  talents ;  casuistic,  or 
those  who  resolve  cases  of  conscience  ; 
experimental,  those  who  address  them- 
selves to  the  feelings,  cases,  and  circum- 
stances of  their  hearers ;  and,  lastly, 
practical,  those  who  insist  upon  the  per- 
formance of  all  those  duties  which  the 
word  of  God  enjoins.  An  able  minister 
will  have  something  of  all  these  united 
in  him,  though  he  may  not  excel  in  all ; 
and  it  becomes  every  one  who  is  a  cim- 
didate  for  the  ministry  to  get  a  clear 
idea  of  each,  that  he  may  not  be  defi- 
cient in  the   discharge  of  that  work 


which  is  the  most  important  that  can 
be  sustained  by  mortal  beings.  Many  vo- 
lumes have  been  written  on  this  subject, 
but  we  must  be  content  in  this  place  to 
offer  only  a  fev/  remarks  relative  to  it. 
In  the  first  place,  then,  it  must  be  ob- 
served, that  ministers  of  the  Gospel 
ought  to  be  sound  as  to  their  firincifiles. 
They  must  be  men  whose  hearts  are 
renovated  by  divme  grace,  and  whose 
sentiments  are  derived  from  the  sacred 
oracles  of  divine  truth.  A  minister 
without  prhiciples  will  never  do  any 
good ;  and  he  who  professes  to  believe 
in  a  system,  should  see  to  it  that  it  ac- 
cortls  v/ith  the  word  of  God.  His  mind 
should  clearly  perceive  the  beauty,  har- 
mony, and  utility  of  the  doctrines,  while 
his  heart  should  be  deeply  impressed 
with  a  sense  of  their  value  and  impor- 
tance.— 2.  They  should  be  mild  and  af- 
fable us  to  their  dispositions  and  deport- 
ment.— A  haughty  imperious  spirit  is  a 
disgrace  to  the  ministerial  character, 
and  generally  brings  contempt.  They 
should  leai'n  to  bear  injuries  with  pa- 
tience, and  be  ready  to  do  good  to  every 
one ;  be  courteous  to  all  without  ci'Lng- 
ing  to  any ;  be  affable  without  levity, 
and  humble  without  pusillanimity ;  con- 
ciliating the  affections  without  violating 
the  truth  ;  connecting  a  suavity  of  man- 
ners with  a  dignity  of  character; 
obliging  without  flattery ;  and  throwing 
off  all  reserve  without  running  into  the 
opposite  exti'eme  of  volubility  and  tri- 
flmg. — 3.  They  should  be  superior  as  to 
their  knowledge  and  talents.  Though 
many  have  been  useful  without  what  is 
called  learning,  yet  none  have  been  so 
without  some  portion  of  knowledge  and 
wisdom.  Nor  has  God  Almighty  ever 
sanctified  ignoi*ance,  or  consecrated  it 
to  his  service  ;  since  it  is  the  effect  of 
the  fall,  and  the  consequence  of  our  de- 
parture from  the  Fountain  of  intelli- 
gence. Ministei's,  therefore,  especially, 
should  endeavour  to  break  these  shac- 
kles, get  their  minds  enlarged,  and 
stored  with  all  useful  knowledge.  The 
Bible  should  be  well  studied,  and  that, 
if  possible,  in  the  original  language. 
The  scheme  of  salvation  by  Jesus  Christ 
should  be  well  understood,  with  all  the 
various  topics  connected  with  it.  Nor 
will  some  knowledge  of  history,  natural 
philosophy,  logic,  mathematics,  and 
rhetoric,  be  useless.  A  clear  judgment, 
also,  with  a  retentive  memory,  inven- 
tive faculty,  and  a  facility  of  communi- 
cation, should  be  obtained. — 4.  JViey 
should  be  diligent  as  to  their  studies. 
Their  time  especially  should  be  im- 
proved, and  not  lost  by  too  much  sleep, 
formal  visits,  indolence,  reading  useless 


MIN 


373 


MIN 


books,  studying  useless  subjects.  Every 
dav  should  have  its  woi-k,  and  every 
subject  its  due  attention.  Some  advise 
a  chapter  in  the  Hebrew  Biljle,  and  ano- 
ther ni  the  Greek  Testament,  to  be 
read  every  day.  A  well-chosen  system 
of  divinity  should  be  accurately  studied. 
The  best  definitions  should  be  obtained, 
and  a  constant  regard  paid  to  all  those 
studies  which  savour  of  religion,  and 
have  some  tendency  to  public  work. — 5. 
Ministers  should  be  eocte7isive  as  to 
their  benevolence  and  candour.  A  con- 
tracted bigoted  spii'it  ill  becomes  those 
who  preach  a  Gospel  which  breathes  the 
purest  benevolence  to  mankind.  This 
spirit  has  done  more  harm  among  all 
parties  than  many  imagine ;  and  is, 
m  my  opinion,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
engines  the  devil  makes  use  of  to  oppose 
the  best  interests  of  mankind  ;  and  it  is 
really  shocking  to  observe  how  sects  and 
parties  have  all,  in  their  turns,  anathe- 
matized each  other.  Now,  while  minis- 
ters ought  to  contend  eaniestly  for  the 
faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints,  they 
must  remember  that  men  always  will 
think  different  from  each  other;  that 
prejudice  of  education  has  great  influ- 
ence ;  that  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
non-essential  things  is  not  of  such  im- 
portance as  to  be  a  ground  of  dislike. 
Let  the  ministers  of  Christ,  then,  pity 
the  weak,  forgive  the  ignorant,  bear 
with  the  sincere  though  mistaken  zea- 
lot, and  love  all  who  love  the  Lord  Je- 
sus Christ. — 6.  Miiiisters  should  be 
zealous  and  faithful  in  their  public 
•work.  The  sick  must  be  visited  ;  chil- 
dren must  be  catechised;  the  ordinances 
administered ;  and  the  word  of  God 
preached.  These  things  must  be  taken 
up,  not  as  a  matter  of  duty  only,  but  of 
pleasure,  and  executed  with  faithfulness ; 
and,  as  they  are  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance, ministers  should  attend  to  them 
with  all  that  sincerity,  eai-nestness, 
and  zeal  which  that  importance  de- 
mands. An  idle,  frigid,  indifferent  mi- 
nister is  a  pest  to  society,  a  disgrace  to 
his  profession,  an  injury  to  the  church, 
and  offensive  to  God  himself. — 7.  Lastly, 
viinisters  should  be  uniform  as  to  their 
conduct.  No  brightness  of  talent,  no  su- 
periority of  intellect,  no  extent  of  know- 
ledge, will  ever  be  a  substitute  for  this. 
They  should  not  only  possess  a  luminous 
mind,  but  set  a  good  example.  This 
will  procure  dignity  to  themselves,  give 
energy  to  what  they  say,  and  prove  a 
blessing  to  the  circle  m  which  they 
move.  In  fine,  they  should  be  men  of 
prudence  and  prayer,  light  and  love, 
zeal  and  knowledge,  courage  and  hu- 
mility,  humanity    and   religion.      See 


Declamation,  Eloquence,  Preach- 
ing, and  Sermons,  in  this  work;  Dr. 
Smith's  Lect.  on  the  Sacred  Office; 
Gerard's  Pastoral  Care;  Macgill's 
Address  to  Young  Clerg^ymen;  Chry- 
sostom  on  the  Priesthood ;  Baxter's 
Reformed  Pastor ;  Burnett's  Pastoral 
Cai-e ;  Watts's  Humble  Attempt;  Dr. 
Echva7-ds's  Preacher ;  Mason's  Student 
and  Pastor;  Gibboii's  Christian  Mi- 
nister; Mather's  Student  and  Preach- 
er;  Osterwald's  Lectures  on  the  Sacred 
IMinistry ;  Robinson's  Claude;  Dod- 
dridge's Lectures  on  Preaching  and  the 
Ministe)  ial  Office. 

MINISTRY,  GOSPEL,  an  ordinance 
appointed  for  the  puipose  of  instructing 
men  in  the  pi-inciples  and  knowledge  oi 
the  Gospel,  Eph.  iv.  8,  11.  Rom.  x.  15. 
Heb.  v.  4.  That  the  Gospel  ministry- 
is  of  divine  origin,  and  intended  to  be 
kept  up  in  the  church,  will  evidently 
appear,  if  we  consider  the  promises, 
that  in  the  last  and  best  times  of 
the  New  Testament  dispensation  there 
would  be  an  instituted  and  regular  mi- 
nistry in  her,  Eph.  iv.  8,  11.  Tit.  i.  5. 
1  Pet.  v.  1  Tim.  i. ;  also  from  the  names 
of  office  peculiar  to  some  members  in 
the  church,  and  not  commr ..  to  all,  Eph. 
iv.  8,11;  from  the  duties  which  are  re- 
presented as  reciprocally  binding  on  mi- 
nisters and  people,  Heb.  xiii.  7.  17.  1 
Pet.  V.  2,  3,  4  ;  from  tlie  promises  of  as- 
sistance which  were  given  to  the  first 
ministers  of  the  new  dispensation.  Matt, 
xxviii.  20 ;  and  from  the  importance  of 
a  Gospel  Ministry,  which  is  represented 
in  the  Scripture  as  a  very  great  blessing 
to  them  who  enjoy  it,  and  the  removal 
of  it  as  one  of  the  gi-eatest  calamities 
which  can  befall  any  people.  Rev.  ii.  and 
iii.    See  books  under  last  article. 

MINISTERIAL  CALL,  a  term  used 
to  denote  that  right  or  authority  which 
a  person  receives  to  preach  the  Gospel. 
This  call  is  considered  as  twofold,  di- 
vine and  ecclesiastical.  The  following 
things  seem  essential  to  a  divine  call : 
1.  A  holy,  blameless  life. — 2.  An  ardent 
and  constant  inclination  and  zeal  to  do 
good. — 3.  Abilities  suited  to  the  work  : 
such  as  knowledge,  aptness  to  teach, 
courage,  &c. — 4.  An  opportunity  af 
forded  in  Providence  to  be  useful.  An 
ecclesiastical  call  consists  in  the  election 
which  is  made  of  anv  person  to  be  a 
pastor.  But  here  the  Episcopalian  and 
the  Dissenter  differ;  the  former  be- 
lieving that  the  choice  and  call  of  a  mi- 
nister rest  with  the  superior  clergy,  or 
those  who  have  the  gift  of  an  ecclesias- 
tical benefice ;  the  latter  supposes  that 
it  should  rest  on  the  suffrage  of  the  peo- 
ple to  whom  he  is  to  ministei'.     The 


MIR 


374 


MIR 


Churchman  reasons  thus :  "  Though 
the  people  may  be  competent  judges 
of  the  abilities  of  their  tradesmen,  they 
cannot  be  allowed  to  have  an  equal 
discernment  in  matters  of  science  and 
erudition.  Daily  experience  may  con- 
vince us  how  injudiciously  preferment 
would  be  distributed  by  popular  elec- 
tions. The  modesty  of  genius  would 
stand  little  chance  of  being  distinguish- 
ed by  an  ignorant  multitude.  The  most 
illiterate,  the  most  impudent,  those  who 
could  most  dexterously  play  the  hypo- 
crite, who  could  best  adapt  their  preach- 
ing to  the  fanaticism  of  the  vulgar, 
would  be  the  only  successful  candidates 
for  public  favour.  Thus  moderation 
and  literature  would  soon  be  banished, 
and  a  scene  of  coiTuption,  confusion,  and 
madness,  would  prevail."  But  specious 
as  these  arguments  seem,  they  have 
but  Uttle  force  on  the  mind  of  the  Con- 
gregationalist,  who  thus  reasons :  "  The 
church  being  a  voluntai^'  society,  none 
imposed  upon  her  members  by  men 
can  be  related  to  them  as  their  pastor 
without  their  own  consent.  None  can 
so  well  judge  what  gifts  are  best  suit- 
ed to  their  spiritual  edification  as  Chris- 
tians themselves.  The  Scriptures  al- 
low the  election  of  pastors  in  ordinarv 
cases  to  adult  Christians,  and  to  none 
else,  Acts  i.  15,  26.  Acts  vi.  1,  6.  Acts 
xiv.  23.  Christ  requires  his  people  to 
try  the  spirits,  which  supposeth  their 
ability  to  do  so,  and  their  power  to 
choose  such  only  as  they  find  most  pro- 
per to  edify  their  souls,  and  to  refuse 
others,  1  John  iv.  1.  The  introduction  of 
ministers  into  their  office  by  patronage, 
of  whatever  form,  hath  its"  origin  fi'om 
popery,  tends  to  establish  a  tyranny 
over  men's  conscience,  which  and  whom 
Christ  hath  made  free,  and  to  fill  pul- 
pits with  wicked  and  indolent  clergy- 
men. Whoever  will  attentively  examuie 
the  history  of  the  primitive  times,  will 
find  that  all  ecclesiastical  officers  for 
the  first  three  hundred  vears  were 
•elected  by  the  people."  We  must  re- 
fer the  reader  for  more  on  this  sul)ject 
to  the  articles  Church,  Episcopacy, 
and  Independents. 

MIRACLE,  in  its  original  sense,  is  a 
word  of  the  same  import  with  wonder; 
but,  in  its  usual  and  more  appropriate 
signification,  it  denotes  "an  effect  con- 
trary to  the  established  constitution  and 
course  of  things,  or  a  sensible  deviation 
from  the  known  laws  of  natiu'e." 

"That  the  visible  worJd,"  says  Dr. 
Gleig,  "  is  governed  by  stated  general 
j-ules,  or  that  there  is  an  order  of  causes 
and  effects  established  in  every  part  of 
t)»e  system  of  nature  which  falls  under] 


our  observation,  is  a  fact  wliich  cannot 
be  controverted.  If  the  Supreme  Being, 
as  some  ha\e  supposed,  be  thconly  real 
agent  in  the  universe,  we  have  the 
evidence  of  experience,  that  in  the  par- 
ticular system  to  which  we  belong  he 
acts  by  stated  I'ules.  If  he  employs  in- 
ferior agents  to  conduct  the  various 
motions  from  wliich  the  phenomena  re- 
sult, we  have  the  same  evidence  that 
he  has  subjected  those  agents  to  certain 
fixed  laws,  commonly  called  the  laws  of 
nature.  On  either  hypothesis,  effects 
which  are  produced  by  the  regular 
operation  of  these  laws,  or  which  are 
conformable  to  the  established  coui'se  of 
events,  are  properly  called  natural; 
and  every  contradiction  to  this  consti- 
tution of  the  natural  system,  and  the 
correspondent  course  of  events  in  it,  is 
called  a  7niracle. 

"  If  this  definition  of  a  miracle  be  just, 
no  event  can  be  deemed  miraculous 
merely  because  it  is  strange,  or  even 
to  us  unaccountable :  since  it  may  be 
nothing  more  than  a  regular  effect  of 
some  unknown  law  of  nature.  In  this 
country  earthquakes  are  rare  ;  and  for 
monstrous  births,  perhaps,  no  particu- 
lar and  satisfactory  account  can  be 
given  :  yet  an  earthquake  is  as  regular 
an  effect  of  the  established  laws  of  na- 
ture as  any  of  those  with  which  we  are 
most  intimately  acquainted  :  and,  under 
circumstances  in  which  there  would 
always  be  the  same  kmd  of  production, 
the  monster  is  nature's  genuine  issue. 
It  is  therefore  necessary,  before  we  can 
pronounce  any  effect  to  be  a  true  mira- 
cle, that  the  circumstances  under  which 
it  is  produced  be  known,  and  that  the 
common  course  of  natui-e  be  in  some 
degi-ee  understood ;  for  in  all  those 
cases  in  which  we  are  totally  ignorant 
of  nature,  it  is  hnpossible  to  determine 
what  is,  or  what  is  not,  a  deviation  from 
its  course.  Miracles,  therefore,  are  not, 
as  some  have  represented  them,  appeals 
to  our  ignorance.  They  suppose  some  an- 
tecedent knowledge  of  the  course  of  na- 
ture, without  which  no  proper  judgment 
can  be  foi-med  concerning  them ;  .though 
with  it  their  reality  may  be  so  apparent 
as  to  prevent  all  possibility  of  a  dispute. 

"  Thus,  were  a  physician  to  cure  a 
blind  man  of  a  cataj'act,  by  ariointing 
his  eyes  with  a  chemical  preparation 
which  we  had  never  before  seen,  and 
to  the  nature  and  effects  of  which  we 
are  absolute  strangers,  the  cure  would 
undoubtedly  be  wonderful ;  but  we 
could  not  pronounce  it  miraculous,  be- 
cause, foi-  any  thing  known  to  us,  it 
might  be  the  natural  effect  of  the  opei-a- 
tion  of  the  unguent  on  the  eye.  But  were 


MIR 


375 


MIR 


he  to  recover  his  patient  merely  by 
commanding  him  to  see,  ci-  by  anoint- 
ing his  eyes  with  spittle,  we  should  with 
the  utmost  confidence  pronounce  the 
cure  to  be  a  miracle ;  because  we  know 
perfectly  that  neither  the  human  voice 
nor  human  spittle  have,  by  the  establish- 
ed constitution  of  things,  any  such  pow- 
er over  the  diseases  of  the  eye. 

"If  mii-acles  be  effects  conti-ary  to 
the  established  constitution  of  things, 
we  are  certain  that  they  will  ne\"er  be 
performed  on  ti-ivial  occasions.  The 
constitution  of  things  was  establisiied 
by  the  Ci-eator  and  Governor  of  the 
universe,  and  is  undoubtedly  the  off- 
spi-ing  of  infinite  wisdom,  pursuing  a 
plan  for  the  best  of  pui"poses.  From 
this  plan  no  deviation  can  be  made  but 
by  God  himself,  or  by  some  powerful 
being  acting  with  his  pei'mission.  The 
plans  devised  by  wisdom  are  steady  in 
proportion  to  their  perfection,  and  the 
plans  of  infinite  wisdom  must  be  abso- 
lutelv  perfect.  From  this  considei-ation, 
some  men  have  ventured  to  conclude 
that  no  miracle  was  ever  wrought,  or 
can  rationally  be  expected;  but  maturer 
reflection  must  soon  satisfy  us  that  all 
such  conclusions  are  hasty. 

"  Man  is  unq^uestionably  the  principal 
creature  in  this  world,  and  apparently 
the  only  one  in  it  who  is  capable  of  being 
made  acquainted  with  the  relation  in 
which  he  stands  to  his  Creator.  We 
cannot,  therefore,  doubt,  but  that  such 
of  the  laws  of  nature  as  extend  not  their 
operation  beyond  the  limits  of  this  earth 
were  established  chiefly,  if  not  solely, 
for  the  good  of  mankind ;  and  it^  in  any 

E articular  circumstances,  that  good  can 
e  more  effectually  promoted  by  an  oc- 
casional deviation  from  those  laws,  such 
a  deviation  may  be  reasonably  expected. 
"  We  know  from  history,  that  almost 
all  mankind  were  once  sunk  into  the 
grossest  ignorance  of  the  most  impor- 
tant ti'uths ;  that  they  knew  not  the 
Being  by  whom  they  were  created  and 
supported  ;  that  they  paid  divine  adora- 
tion to  stocks,  stones,  and  the  vilest 
reptiles ;  and  that  thev  were  slaves  to 
the  most  impious,  cruel,  and  degrading 
superstitions. 

"  From  this  depraved  state  it  was 
surely  not  unworthy  of  the  Divine 
Being  to  rescue  his  helpless  creatures, 
to  enlighten  their  understandings  that 
they  might  perceive  what  is  right,  and 
to  present  to  them  motives  of  sufficient 
force  to  engage  them  in  the  practice  of 
it.  But  the  understandings  of  ignorant 
bai-barians  cannot  be  enlightened  by 
arguments;  because  of  the  force  of 
such  arguments  as  regard  moral  science 


they  are  not  qualified  to  judge.  Tlie 
philosophers  of  Athens  and  Home  in- 
culcated, indeed,  many  excellent  moral 
precepts,  and  they  sometimes  ventured 
to  expose  the  absurdities  of  the  reign- 
ing superstitions ;  but  their  lectures  had 
no  influence  upon  the  multitude;  and 
they  had  themselves  imbibed  such  erro- 
neous notions  i*especting  the  attiibutes 
of  tlie  Supreme  Being,  and  the  nature 
of  the  human  soul,  and  con\-erted  those 
notions  into  first  principles,  of  which 
they  would  not  permit  an  examination, 
that  even  among  them  a  thorough  re- 
formation was  not  to  be  expected  from 
the  powers  of  reasoning.  It  is  likewise 
to  be  obsen^ed,  that  there  are  many 
truths  of  the  utmost  importance  to  man- 
kind, Vv'hich  unassisted  reason  could 
never  have  discovered.  Amongst  these, 
we  may  confidently  reckon  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  the  terms  upon  which 
God  will  save  sinners,  and  the  manner 
in  which  that  all  perfect  Being  may  be 
acceptably  worsliipped ;  about  all  of 
which  philosophers  were  in  such  un- 
certainty, that,  accoi'ding  to  Plato, 
'  ^^"hatever  is  set  riglit,  and  as  it  should 
be,  in  the  present  evil  state  of  the  -world, 
can  be  so  only  by  the  pai-ticular  inter- 
position of  God.' 

"  An  immediate  revelation  from  hea- 
ven, therefore,  was  the  only  method 
by  which  infinite  wisdom  and  perfect 
goodness  could  reform  a  bewildei-ed  and 
vicious  race.  But  this  revelation,  at 
whatever  time  we  suppose  it  given, 
must  have  been  made  directly  either  to 
some  chosen  individuals  commissioned 
to  instnict  others,  or  to  every  man  and 
woman  for  whose  benefit  it  was  ultimate- 
ly intended.  W'ere  every  person  in- 
structed in  the  knowledge  of  his  duty 
by  immediate  inspiration,  and  were  the 
motives  to  practise  it  brought  home  to 
his  mind  by  God  himself,  human  nature 
would  be  wholly  changed;  men  would 
not  be  moral  agents,  nor  by  Qonse- 
quence  be  capable  either  of  reward  or 
of  punishment.  It  i*emains,  therefore, 
that,  if  God  has  been  graciously  pleased 
to  enlighten  and  reform  mankind,  with- 
out destroying  that  moral  nature  which 
man  possesses,  he  can  have  done  it  only 
by  revealing  his  truth  to  certain  chosen 
instiniments,  who  wei-e  the  immediate 
instructors  of  their  contemporaries,  and 
through  them  have  been  the  instnictors 
of  succeeding  ages. 

"  Let  us  suppose  this  to  have  been 
actually  the  case,  and  consider  how 
those  inspired  teachers  could  communi- 
cate to  others  every  truth  whicli  had  been 
rev'ealed  to  themselves.  They  might 
easily,  if  it  were  part  of  their  duty,  to 


MIR 


376 


MIR 


deliver  a  sublime  divine  system  of  natu- 
ral and  moral  science,  and  establish  it 
upon  the  common  basis  of  experiment 
and  demonstration :  but  what  foundation 
could  they  lay  for  those  truths  which 
unassisted  reason  cannot  discover,  and 
which,  when  they  are  revealed,  appear 
to  have  no  necessary  relation  to  any 
thing  previously  known  ?  To  a  bare 
affirmation  that  they  had  been  imme- 
diately received  from  God,  no  rational 
being  could  be  expected  to  assent.  The 
teachers  might  be  men  of  known  vera- 
city, whose  simple  assertion  would  be 
admitted  as  sufticient  evidence  for  any 
fact  in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  na- 
ture ;  but  as  every  man  has  the  evidence 
of  his  own  consciousness  and  experience 
that  revelations  from  heaven  are  devia- 
tions from  these  laws,  an  assertion  so 
apparentlv  extravagant  would  be  re- 
jected as  false,  unless  supported  by  some 
Better  proof  than  the  mere  affirmation 
ef  the  teacher.  In  this  state  of  things 
we  can  conceive  no  evidence  sufficient 
to  make  such  doctrines  be  received  as 
the  truths  of  God,  but  the  power  of 
Avorking  miracles  committed  to  him 
who  taught  them.  This  would,  indeed, 
be  fully  adequate  to  the  purpose :  for 
if  there  were  nothing  in  the  doctrines 
themselves  impious,  immoral,  or  con- 
trary to  truths  already  known,  the  only 
thing  which  could  render  the  teacher's 
assertion  incredible,  would  be  its  imply- 
ing such  an  intimate  communion  with 
God  as  is  contrary  to  the  estalilished 
course  of  things,  by  which  men  are  left 
to  acquire  all  their  knowledge  by  the 
exercise  of  their  own  faculties.  Let  us 
now  suppose  one  of  those  inspired  teach- 
ers to  tell  his  countrymen,  that  he  did  not 
desire  them,  on  his  i/ise  dixit,  to  believe 
that  he  had  any  preternatural  commu- 
nion with  the  i)eity,  but  that,  for  the 
truth  of  his  assertion,  he  would  give 
them  the  evidence  of  their  own  senses  ; 
and  after  this  declaration,  let  us  suppose 
him  immediately  to  raise  a  person 
from  the  dead  in  their  presence,  mere- 
ly by  calling  upon  him  to  come  out  of 
his  grave.  \Vould  not  the  only  possible 
objection  to  the  man's  veracity  be  re- 
moved by  this  miracle  ?  and  his  asser- 
tion that  he  had  received  such  and  such 
doctrines  from  God  be  as  fully  credited 
as  if  it  related  to  the  most  common  oc- 
cuiTence?  Undoubtedly  it  would;  for 
when  so  much  preternatural/; 9 wpr  was 
visibly  communicated  to  this  person,  no 
one  could  have  reason  to  question  his 
having  received  an  equal  portion  of  pre- 
ternatural knowledge.  A  palpable  de- 
viation from  the  known  laws  of  nature 
in  one  instance,  is  a  sensible  proof  that 


such  a  deviation  is  possible  in  another; 
and  in  such  a  case  as  this,  it  is  the  wit- 
ness of  God  to  the  truth  of  a  man. 

"  Mii'acles,  then,  under  which  we  in- 
clude prophecy,  are  the  only  direct  evi- 
dence which  can  be  given  of  divine  in- 
spiration. \\^hen  a  religion,  or  any  re- 
ligious tnith,  is  to  be  revealed  from 
heaven,  they  appear  to  be  absolutely 
necessary  to  enforce  its  reception  among 
men  ;  and  tliis  is  the  only  case  in  which 
we  can  suppose  them  necessary,  or  be- 
lieve for  a  moment  that  they  ever  have 
been  or  will  be  performed. 

"The  history  of  almost  every  reli- 
gion abounds  with  relations  of  prodigies 
and  wonders,  and  of  the  intercourse  of 
men  with  the  gods ;  but  we  know  of  no 
religious  system,  those  of  the  Jews  and 
Christians  excepted,  which  appealed  to 
miracles  as  the  sole  evidence  of  its  truth 
and  divinity.  The  pretended  miracles 
mentioned  by  Pagan  historians  and 
poets,  are  not  said  to  have  been  public- 
ly wrought  to  enforce  the  truth  or  a  new 
religion,  contrary  to  the  reigning  idola- 
try. Many  of  them  may  be  clearly 
shown  to  have  been  mere  natural 
events ;  others  of  them  are  represented 
as  having  been  performed  in  secret  on 
the  most  trivial  occasions,  and  in  ob- 
scure and  fabulous  ages  long  prior  to 
the  era  of  the  writers  by  whom  they 
are  recorded ;  and  such  of  them  as  at 
first  view  appear  to  be  best  attested, 
are  evidently  tricks  contrived  for  in- 
terested ]3urposes,  to  flatter  power,  or 
to  promote  the  prevailing  superstitions. 
For  these  reasons,  as  well  as  on  account 
of  the  immoral  character  of  the  divini- 
ties by  whom  they  are  said  to  have  been 
wrought,  tl\ey  are  altogether  unworthy 
of  examination,  and  carry  in  the  verv 
nature  of  them  the  completest  proofs 
of  falsehood  and  imposture. 

"But  the  miracles  recorded  of  Mo- 
ses and  of  Christ  I)ear  a  very  different 
character.  None  of  them  are  repre- 
sented as  wrought  on  trivial  occasions. 
The  wi'iters  who  mention  them  wei'e 
eye-witnesses  of  the  facts  ;  which  they 
affirm  to  have  been  performed  publicly, 
in  attestation  of  the  truth  of  their  re- 
spective systems.  They  are,  indeed, 
so  incorporated  with  these  systems, 
that  the  miracles  cannot  be  separated 
from  the  doctrines  ;  and  if  the  miracles 
be  not  really  performed,  the  doctrines 
CcUinot  possibly  be  true.  Besides  all  this, 
they  were  wrought  in  support  of  reve- 
lations which  opposed  all  the  religious 
systems,  sujierstitions,  and  prejudices, 
of  the  age  in  which  they  were  given ; 
a  circumstance  which  of  itself  sets  them, 
in  point  of  authority,  infinitely  above 


MIR  31 

tlie  Pagan  prodigies,  as  well  as  the  ly- 
ing wonders  of  tlie  Romish  church. 

'"  It  is  indeed,  we  believe,  nnivevsally 
admitted,  that  the  miracles  mentioned 
in  the  book  of  Exodus,  and  in  the  four 
Gospels,  might,  to  those  who  saw  them 
performed,  be  sufficient  evidence  of  the 
divine  inspiration  of  Moses  and  of  Christ ; 
but  to  us  it  may  be  thought  that  they  are 
no  evidence  whatever,  as  we  must  be- 
lieve in  the  miracles  themselves,  if  we 
believe  in  them  at  all,  upon  the  bare 
authority  of  human  testimony.  \\'h3%  it 
has  been  sometimes  asked,  are  not  mi- 
racles wrought  in  all  ages  and  coun- 
tries ?  If  the  religion  of  Christ  was  to  be 
of  pei'petual  duration,  eveiy  generation 
of  men  ought  to  have  complete  evidence 
of  its  ti-uth  and  divinity. 

"  To  the  performance  of  miracles  in 
every  age  and  in  every  country,  per- 
haps the  same  objections  lie,  as  to  the 
immediate  inspiration  of  every  indi- 
vidual. Were  those  miracles  univer- 
sally received  as  such,  men  would  be  so 
overwhelmed  with  the  number  rather 
than  with  the  force  of  their  authority, 
as  hardly  to  remain  masters  of  their 
own  conduct ;  and  in  that  case  the  very 
end  of  all  miracles  would  be  defeated  by 
their  frequency.  The  truth,  however, 
seems  to  be,  that  miracles  so  frequently 
repeated  would  not  be  received  as  such, 
and  of  course  would  have  ?zo  authority  ; 
because  it  would  be  difficult,  and  in 
many  cases  impossible,  to  distinguish 
them  from  natural  events.  If  they  re- 
curred regularly  at  certain  intervals,  Ave 
could  not  prove  them  to  be  deviations 
from  the  known  laws  of  nature,  because 
we  should  have  the  same  experience 
for  one  series  of  events  as  for  the  other ; 
for  the  regular  succession  of  preterna- 
tural effects,  as  for  the  established  con- 
stitution and  course  of  things. 

"  Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  we 
shall  take  the  liberty  to  affirm,  that  for 
the  reality  of  the  Gospel  miracles,  we 
have  evidence  as  convincing  to  the  re- 
tiecting  mind,  though  not  so  striking  to 
vidgar  apprehension,  as  those  had  who 
were  contemporary  with  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  and  actually  saw  the  mighty 
w  orks  which  he  performed.  Mr.  Hume, 
indeed,  endeavoured  to  prove,  that  '  no 
testimony  is  sufficient  to  establish  a 
miracle  ;'  and  the  reasoning  employed 
for  this  purpose  is,  that '  a  miracle  being 
a  violation  of  the  laws  of  nature,  which 
a  firm  and  unalterable  experience  has 
established,  the  proof  against  a  miracle, 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  fact,  is  as 
entire  as  any  argument  from  experience 
can  be :  whereas  our  experience  of  hu- 
man veracit}%  which  (according  to  him) 


r  MIR 

is  the  sole  foundation  of  the  evidence  of 
testimony,  as  far  from  being  uniform, 
and  can  therefore  nc^"cr  preponderate 
against  that  experience  which  admits  of 
no  exception.'  This  boasted  and  plau- 
sible argument  has  with  equal  candour 
and  acuteness  been  examined  by  Dr. 
Campbell,  in  his  Disseitation  on  Mira- 
cles, who  justly  observes,  that  so  far  is 
experience  from  being  th«  sole  founda- 
tion of  the  evidence  of  testimony,  that, 
on  the  contrary,  testimony  is  the  sole 
foundation  of  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
what  Mr.  Hume  calls  firm  and  unalter- 
able experience  ;  and  that  if,  in  certain 
circumstances,  we  did  not  give  an  im- 
plicit faith  to  testimony,  our  knowledge 
of  events  would  be  confined  to  those 
which  had  fallen  under  the  immediate 
observation  of  our  own  senses. 

"We  need  not  waste  time  here  in 
pi-oving  that  the  miracles,  as  they  are 
presented  in  the  writings  of  the  New 
Testament,  were  of  such  a  nature,  and 
performed  before  so  many  witnesses, 
that  no  imposition  could  possibly  be 
practised  on  the  senses  of  those  who  af- 
firm that  they  were  present.  From 
every  page  of  the  Gospel  this  is  so  evi- 
dent, that  the  philosophical  adversaries 
of  the  Christian  faith  never  suppose 
the  apostles  to  have  been  themselves 
deceived,  but  boldly  accuse  them  of 
bearing  false  witness.  But  if  this  accu- 
sation be  well  founded,  their  testimony 
itself  is  as  great  a  miracle  as  any  which 
they  record  of  themselves,  or  of  their 
Master.  For  if  they  sat  down  to  fabri- 
cate Iheir  pretended  revelation,  and  to 
contrive  a  series  of  miracles  to  which 
they  were  unanimously  to  appeal  for  its 
truth,  it  is  plain,  since  they  proved  suc- 
cessful in  their  daring  enteiprise,  that 
they  must  have  clearly  foreseen  every 
possible  circumstance  in  which  they 
could  be  placed,  and  have  prepared 
consistent  answers  to  every  question 
that  could  be  put  to  them  by  their  most 
inveterate  and  most  enlightened  ene- 
mies ;  by  the  statesman,  the  lawyer,  the 
philosopher,  and  the  priest.  That  such 
foreknowledge  as  this  would  have  been 
miraculous,  will  not  surely  be  denied  : 
since  it  forms  the  \ery  attribute  which 
we  find  it  the  most  difficult  to  allow 
even  to  God  himself.  It  is  not,  however, 
the  only  miracle  which  this  supposition 
would  compel  us  to  swallow.  The  very 
resolution  of  the  apostles  to  propagate 
the  belief  of  false  miracles  in  support  of 
such  a  religion  as  that  which  is  taught 
in  the  New  Testament,  is  as  great  a  mi- 
racle as  human  imagination  can  easily 
conceive. 

"  When  they  formed  this  design,  ei- 
3  B 


MIR 


378 


MIR 


ther  they  must  have  hoped  to  succeed, 
or  they  must  have  foreseen  that  they 
should  fail  in  their  undertak'uig ;  and,  in 
either  case,  they  chose  evil  for  its  own 
sake.  They  could  not,  if  they  fore- 
saw that  they  should  fail,  look  for  any 
thing  but  that  contempt,  disgrace,  and 
persecution,  which  were  then  the  inevi- 
table consequences  of  an  unsuccessful 
endeavour  t»  overthrow  the  established 
religion.  Nor  could  their  prospects  be 
brighter  upon  the  supposition  of  their 
success.  As  they  knew  themselves  to  be 
false  witnesses,  and  impious  deceivers, 
they  could  have  no  hopes  beyond  the 
grave  ;  and  by  detennniing  to  oppose 
all  the  religious  systems,  superstitions, 
and  prejudices  of  the  age  in  which  they 
lived,  they  wilfully  exposed  themselves 
to  inevitable  misery  in  the  present  life, 
to  insvdt  and  imprisonment,  to  stripes 
and  death.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  they 
might  look  forward  to  power  and  atRu- 
ence,  when  they  should  through  suf- 
ferings have  converted  their  countrv- 
men ;  for  so  desirous  were  they  of  ob- 
taining nothing  but  misci-y,  as  the  end  of 
their  mission,  that  they  made  their  own 
persecution  a  test  of  the  truth  of  their 
doctrines.  They  introduced  the  Mas- 
ter fi'om  whom  they  pretended  to  have 
received  these  doctrines  as  telling  tliem, 
that  '  they  were  sent  forth  as  sheep  in 
the  midst  of  wolves :  that  they  should 
be  delivered  up  to  councils,  and  scourg- 
ed in  synagogues ;  that  they  should  be 
hated  of  all  men  for  his  name's  sake  ; 
that  the  bi'other  should  deliver  up  the 
brother  to  death,  and  the  father  the 
child  ;  and  that  he  who  took  not  up  his 
cross,  and  followed  after  him,  was  not 
worthy  of  him.'  The  veiy  system  of 
religion,  therefore,  which  they  invented 
and  resolved  to  impose  upon  mankind, 
was  so  contrived,  that  the  worldly  pi'osr- 
perity  of  its  first  preachers,  and  even 
tlieir  exemption  from  persecution,  was 
incompatible  with  its  success.  Had 
these  clear  predictions  of  the  Author  of 
tliat  religion,  under  whom  the  apostles 
acted  only  as  ministers  not  been  \eri- 
fied,  all  mankind  must  have  instantly 
percei^■ed  that  their  pretence  to  inspi- 
ration was  false,  and  that  Christianity 
was  a  scandaloiui  and  impudent  impos- 
ture. All  this  the  apostles  could  not 
but  foresee  when  they  formed  their 
plan  for  deluding  the  world.  Wlience 
It  follows,  that  when  they  resolved  to 
support  their  pretended  revelation  by^ 
an  appeal  to  forged  miracles,  they  wil- 
iullv,  and  with  their  eyes  open,  exposed 
tlieniselvesto  inevitable  misery,  whether 
they  should  succeed  or  fail  in  their  en- 
terprise ;  and  that  they  concerted  their 


measures  so  as  not  to  admit  of  a  possi- 
bility of  recompence  to  themselves, 
either  in  this  life  or  in  that  which  is  to 
come.  But  if  there  be  a  law  of  nature, 
for  the  reality  of  which  we  have  better 
evidence  than  we  have  for  others,  it  is, 
that '  no  man  can  choose  misery  for  its 
oiun  sake,'  or  make  the  acquisition  of  it 
the  ultimate  end  of  his  pursuit.  The 
existence  of  other  laws  of  nature  we 
know  by  testimony,  and  our  own  obser- 
vation of  the  regularity  of  their  effects. 
The  existence  ot  this  law  is  made  known 
to  us  not  only  by  these  means,  but  also 
by  the  still  clearer  and  more  conclusive 
evidence  of  our  own  consciousness. 

"  Thus,  then,  do  miracles  force  them- 
selves upon  our  assent  in  every  possible 
view  which  we  can  take  of  this  inte- 
resting subject.  If  the  testimony  of  the 
first  preachers  of  Christianity  were 
true,  the  miracles  recorded  in  the  Gos- 
pel were  certainly  performed,  and  the 
doctrines  of  our  religion  are  derived 
from  heaven.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
that  testimony  were  false,  either  God 
must  have  miraculously  effaced  from 
the  minds  of  those  by  whom  it  was 
given,  all  the  associations  formed  be- 
tween their  sensible  ideas  and  the  words 
of  language,  or  he  must  have  endowed 
those  men  with  the  gift  of  prescience, 
and  have  impelled  them  to  fabricate  a 
pretended  re^•elation  for  the  purpose  of 
deceiving  the  world,  and  involving  them- 
selves in  certam  and  foreseen  destruc- 
tion. 

"The  power  necessary  to  perform 
the  one  series  of  these  miracles  may, 
for  any  thing  known  to  us,  be  as  great 
as  that  which  would  be  requisite  for  the 
performance  of  the  other ;  and,  con- 
sidered merely  as  exertions  of  preter- 
natural power,  they  may  seem  to  ba- 
lance each  other,  and  to  hold  the  mind 
in  a  state  of  suspense  ;  but  when  we 
take  into  consideration  tlie  different 
purposes  for  which  these  opposite  and 
contending  miracles  were  wrought,  the 
balance  is  instantly  destroyed.  'Fhe  mi- 
racles recorded  in  the  Gospels,  if  real, 
were  wrought  in  support  of  a  revelation 
which,  in  the  opinion  of  all  by  whom  it 
is  received,  has  brought  to  light  many 
important  truths  which  could  not  other- 
wise have  been  made  known  to  men ; 
and  which,  by  the  confession  of  its  ad- 
versaries, coutaJTis  the  purest  moral  pre- 
cepts })y  which  the  conduct  of  mankind 
was  ever  directed.  The  opposite  series 
of  miracles,  if  real,  was  peiformed  to 
enable,  and  even  to  compel,  a  company 
of  Jews,  of  the  lowest  rank  and  of  the 
nari-owe.st  education,  to  fabricate,  with 
the   view  of  inevitable  destruction  to 


MIR 


379 


MIS 


themselves,  a  consistent  scheme  of 
falseliood,  and  by  an  appeal  to  fori^ed 
miracles  to  impose  it  upon  the  world  as 
a  revelation  from  heaven.  Tlie  object 
of  the  former  miracles  is  worthy  of  a 
God  of  infinite  wisdom,  t!;oodness,  and 
power ;  the  object  of  the  latter  is  abso- 
lutely inconsistent  with  wisdom  and 
goodness,  whicli  are  demonstrably  at- 
tributes of  that  Being  by  whom  alone 
miracles  can  be  performed.  Whence 
it  follows,  thai  the  supposition  of  the 
apostles  bearing  false  testimony  to  the 
miracles  of  then*  Master,  implies  a  se- 
ries of  deviations  from  the  laws  of  na- 
ture infinitely  less  probable  in  them- 
selves than  those  miracles  :  and  there- 
foi'e,  by  Mr.  Hume's  maxim,  we  must 
necessarily  reject  the  supposition  of 
falsehood  in  the  testimon}^,  and  admit 
the  reality  of  the  miracles.  So  true  it  is, 
that  for  the  reality  of  the  Gospel  mira- 
cles we  have  evidence  as  convincing  to 
the  reflecting  mind  as  those  had  who 
were  contemporary  with  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  and  were  actual  witnesses  to 
their  mighty  works." 

The  povver  of  working  miracles  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  conti- 
nued no  longer  than  the  apostles'  days. 
Others  think  that  it  was  continued  long 
after.  It  seems  pretty  clear,  liowever, 
that  miracles  universally  ceased  before 
Chrvsostom's  time.  As  for  what  Au- 
gustine says  of  those  wrought  at  the 
tombs  of  the  martyrs,  and  some  other 
places,  in  his  time,  the  evidence  is  not 
always  so  convincing  as  might  be  de- 
sired hi  facts  of  importance.  The  con- 
troversy concerning  the  time  when  mi- 
raculous powers  ceased  was  carried  on 
by  Dr.  Middlcton,  in  his  Free  Enquiry 
into  the  Miraculous  Powers,  6vC.  by 
Mr.  Yate,  Mr.  Toll,  and  others,  who 
suppose  that  miracles  ceased  with  tlic 
apostles.  On  the  conti-ary  side  appear- 
ed Dr.  Stebbing,  Dr.  Chapman,  Mr. 
Parker,  Mr.  Brooke,  and  others. 

As  to  the  miracles  of  the  Romish 
church,  it  is  evident,  as  Doddridge  ob- 
sei-ves,  that  many  of  them  were  ridicu- 
lous tales,  according  to  their  own  his- 
torians; others  were  performed  with- 
out any  credible  witnesses,  or  in  circum- 
stances where  the  performer  had  the 
greatest  opportunity  of  juggling;  and  it 
is  particularly  remarkable,  that  they 
■were  hardly  ever  wrought  where  they 
seem  most  necessary,  i.  e.  in  countries 
Avhere  those  doctrines  are  renounced 
which  that  church  esteems  of  the  high- 
est importance.  See  Fleetwood,  Clara- 
fiede,  Conybeare,  Camfibcll,  Lardner, 
Farmer,  Adams,  ^vA  Weston,  on  Mira- 
cksy  article  Miracle,  Enf:.  Brit.  Dod- 


dridc^e^s  LrctAec.  101  and  135;  Leland's 
j  V ifiv  of  Dcistical   Writers,  letter  3,  4, 
7 ;  Hurrion  on  the  Spirit,  p.  299,  ficc. 

MIRTH,  joy,  gaiety,  merriment.  It  is 
distinguished  from  cheerfulness  thus  : 
Mirth  is  considered  as  an  act ;  cheer- 
fulness an  habit  of  the  mind.  Mirth 
IS  short  and  transient ;  cheerfulness 
fixed  and  permanent.  "  Those  are  of- 
ten raised  into  the  greatest  transports 
of  mirth  who  are  subject  to  the  greatest 
depressions  of  melancholy  ;  on  the  con- 
trary, cheerfulness,  though  it  does  not 
give  such  an  exquisite  gladness,  pre- 
vents us  from  falhng  into  an)-  depths  of 
sorrow.  Mirth  is  like  a  flash  of  light- 
ning, that  breaks  through  a  gloom  of 
clouds,  and  glitters  for  a  moment ; 
cheerfulness  keeps  up  a  kind  of  day- 
light in  the  mind,  and  fills  it  with  a 
steady  and  perpetual  serenity."  Mirth 
is  siniul,  1.  When  men  rejoice  in  that 
which  is  evil.  2.  When  unreasonal)le. 
3.  When  tending  to  commit  sin.  4. 
When  a  hindrance  to  duty.  5.  When 
it  is  l^lasphemous  and  pi'ofane. 

MISAKTHROPIST,      M,crave?07rot,      a 

hater  of  mankind  ;  one  that  abandons 
society  from  a  prmciple  of  discontent. 
The  consideration  of  the  depravity  of 
human  natui'e  is  certainly  enough  to 
raise  emotions  of  sorrow  in  the  breast 
of  every  man  of  the  least  sensibility ; 
yet  it  is  our  duty  to  bear  with  the  follies 
of  mankind ;  to  exercise  a  degree  of 
candour  consistent  with  tnitli ;  to  lessen, 
if  possible,  by  our  exertions,  the  sum  of 
moral  and  natural  evil ;  and  by  con- 
necting ourselves  with  society,  to  add 
at  least  something  to  the  general  in- 
tei-ests  of  mankind.  The  misanthropist, 
therefore,  is  an  ungenerous  and  dis- 
honourable character.  Disgusted  with 
life,  he  seeks  a  retreat  from  it :  like  a 
coward,  lie  flees  from  the  scene  of  ac- 
tion, while  he  increases  his  own  misery 
by  liis  natural  discontent,  and  leaves 
others  to  do  what  they  can  for  them- 
selves. 

The  following  is  his  character  more 
at  large. 

"  He  is  a  man,"  says  Saurin,  "  who 
avoids  society  only  to  free  himself  from 
the  ti-ouble  o'f  being  useful  to  it.  He  is 
a  man,  who  considers  his  neighbours 
only  on  the  side  of  their  defects,  not 
knowing  the  art  of  combining  their  vir- 
tues with  their  vices,  and  of  rendering 
the  imperfections  of  other  people  tole- 
rable by  reflecting  on  his  own.  He  is  a 
man  more  employed  in  finding  out  and 
inflicting  punishnients  on  the  guilty  than 
in  devising  means  to  reform  them".  He 
is  a  man,  who  talks  of  nothing  but  ba- 
nishing and  executing,  and  who,  becaiuse 


MIS 


380 


MIS 


Tie  thinks  his  talents  are  not  sufficiently  jl 
vahied  and  employed  by  his  fellow-citi-  | 
zens,  or  ratlier  because  they  know  his . 
foibles,  and  do  not  choose  to  be  subject  \ 
to  his  caprice,  talks  of  quitting  cities,  j 
towns,  and  societies,  and  of  living  in 
dens  or  deserts."  | 

MISER,  a  term  formerly  used  in  re-  i 
ference  to  a  person  in  wretchedness  or  j 
calamity  ;  but  now  denotes  a  parsimo-  i 
iiious  person,  or  one  who  is  co\'etous  to  i 
extremity  ;  who  denies  himself  even  the  ] 
comforts  of  life  to  accumulate  wealth., 
Avarice,  says  Saurin,  may  be  considered  i 
in  two  different  points  of  light.  It  may  I 
be  considei-ed  in  those  men,  or  rather  | 
those  public  blood-suckers,  or,  as  the ; 
officers  of  the  Roman  emperor  Vespa-  j! 
sian  were  called,  those  s/iong-es  of  socie-  ]' 
t)%  who,  infatuated  with  this  passion,  seek  j 
after  riches  as  the  supreme  good,  deter-  | 
mine  to  acquire  it  by  any  methods,  and  I 
consider  the  ways  that  lead  to  wealth,  j 
legal  or  illegal,  as  the  only  road  for; 
them  to  travel. 

Avarice,  however,  must  be  consi- 1 
dered  in  a  second  point  of  light.  It  not 
only  consists  in  committing  bold  crimes, ' 
but  in  entertaining  mean  ideas  and  prac-  i 
tislng  low  methods,  incompatible  with  , 
such  magnanimity  as  our  condition  \ 
ought  to  inspire.  It  consists  not  only  in 
omitting  to  serve  God,  but  in  trying  to 
associate  the  service  of  God  with  that 
of  mammon. 

How  many  forms  doth  a^'arice  take 
to  disg-uise  itself  from  the  man  who  is 
guilty  of  it,  and  who  will  be  drenched 
in  the  giiilt  of  it  till  the  day  he  dies ! 
Sometimes  it  is  firiidence  which  re- 
quires him  to  provide  not  only  for  his 
present  wants,  but  for  such  as  he  may 
have  in  future.  Sometimes  it  is  charity 
which  requires  him  not  to  give  society 
examples  of  prodigality  and  parade. 
Sometimes  it  is  parental  lox<e  obliging 
him  to  save  something  for  his  children. 
Sometimes  it  is  circumsfiectioti,  which 
requires  him  not  to  supply  people  who 
make  an  ill  use  of  what  they  get.  Some- 
times it  is  ricces.iity,  which  obliges  him 
to  repel  artifice  by  artifice.  Sometimes 
it  is  conscience,  which  convinces  him, 
good  man,  that  he  hatii  already  exceed- 
ed in  compassion  and  alms-giving,  and 
done  too  much.  Sometimes  it  is  e(/niti/, 
for  justice  requires  that  every  one 
should  enjoy  the  fruit  of  his  own  la- 
bours, and  those  of  his  ancestors.  Siich, 
alas !  are  the  awful  pretexts  and  subter- 
fuges of  the  miser.  Sauriii^s  Her.  vol.  v. 
ser.    12.      See  Avarick,  Covktous- 

NESS. 

MISERY,  such  a  state  of  wretch- 
edness, unhappincss,    or    calamity,  as 


renders  a  person  an  object  of  compas- 
sion. 

INIISCHNA,  or  Misna  (from  ruty, 
itcravit,)  a  part  of  the  Jewish  Talmud. 
The  Mischna  contains  the  text ;  and 
the  Gemara,  which  is  the  second  part 
of  the  Talmud,  contains  the  commenta- 
ries: so  that  the  Gemara  is,  as  it  were, 
a  glossary  on  the  Mischna. 

The  Mischna  consists  of  various  tra- 
ditions of  the  Jews,  and  of  explanations 
of  several  passages  of  Scripture  :  these 
traditions  serving  as  an  explication  of 
the  written  law,  and  supplement  to  it, 
are  said  to  have  been  delivered  to  Mo- 
ses during  the  time  of  his  abode  on  the 
Mount ;  which  he  afterwards  communi- 
cated to  Aaron,  Eleazar,  and  his  ser- 
vant Joshua.  By  these  they  were  trans- 
mitted to  the  seventy  elders ;  by  them 
to  the  pi-ophets,  who  communicated 
them  to  the  men  of  the  great  sanhe- 
drim, from  whom  the  wise  men  of  Je- 
rusalem and  Babylon  received  them. 
Accoi'ding  to  Prideaux's  account,  they 
passed  from  Jeremiah  to  Banich,  from 
him  to  Ezra,  and  from  Ezra  to  the  men 
of  the  great  synagogue,  the  last  of  whom 
was  Simon  the  Just,  who  delivered 
them  to  Antigonus  of  Socho :  and  from 
ihim  they  came  down  in  regular  suc- 
j  cession  to  Simeon,  who  took  our  Saviour 
in  his  arms  ;  to  Gamaliel,  at  whose  feet 
Paul  was  educated ;  and  last  of  all,  to 
Rabbi  Judah  the  Holy,  who  committed 
them  to  writing  in  the  Mischna.  But 
Dr.  Prideaux,  rejecting  the  Jewish  fic- 
j  tion,  observes,  that  after  the  death  of 
j  Simon  the  Just,  about  299  years  before 
j  Christ,  the  Mischnical  doctors  ai'ose, 
who  by  their  comments  and  conclusions 
added  to  the  number  of  those  tracUtions 
j  which  had  been  received  and  allowed 
I  by  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  great  syna- 
gogue ;  so  that  towards  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  after  Christ,  under 
the  empire  of  Antoninus  Pius,  it  was 
I  found  necessary  to  commit  these  tradi- 
i  tions  to  writing ;  more  especially  as 
j  their  country  had  considerably  suffered 
!  under  Adrian,  and  many  of  their  schools 
ihad  been  dissolved,  and  their  learned 
:men  cut  off;  and  therefore  the  usual 
I  method  of  preserving  their  traditions 
'  had  failed.  Raljbi  Judah  on  this  occa- 
I  sion  being  rector  of  the  school  of  Tibe- 
rias, and  president  of  the  sanhedrim  in 
that  place,  undertook  the  work,  and 
I  compiled  it  in  six  books,  each  consisting 
I  of  several  tracts,  which  altogether  make 
I  up  the  number  of  sixty-three.  Prid. 
I  C'onnex.  vol.  ii.  p.  468,  &c.  ed.  9.  This 
learned  author  computes,  that  the 
I  Mischna  was  composed  about  the  150th 
lyear  of  our  Lordj  but  Dr.  Lightfoot 


MIS 


331 


MIS 


saj's  that  the  Rabbi  Judali  compiled  the  ' 
Mischna  about  the  year  of  Christ  190,  in  ; 
the  latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Commo- 
dus  ;  or,  as  some  compute,  in  the  year  of 
Christ  220.    Dr.  Lardner  is  of  opinion  , 
that  this   work   could   not   have   been , 
finished  before  the  year  190,  or  later. ' 
C'eliection  of  Jewish  aiid  Heathtn  Tes-  •. 
timoniea,  vol.  i.  p.  178.    Thus  the  book  ' 
called  the  Alisc/nia  was  formed  ;  a  book  : 
which   the    Jews   have    generally    re- ' 
ceived    with   the    gi'eatest  veneration. 
The  original  has  been  published  with  a 
Latin  translation  by  Surenhusius,  with  i 
notes  of  his  own  and  others  from  tlie 
learned  Maimonides,  Sec.  in  six  vols.  fol. 
Amster.  A.  D.  1698—1703.    See  Tal-  : 
I*IUD.     It  is  written  in  a  much  purer  ■ 
style,  and  is  not  near  so  full  of  dreams  , 
and  visions  as  the  Gemara.  I 

MISREPRESENTATION,  the  act : 
of  wilfully  representing  a  thing  other-  \ 
wise  than  it  is.    "  This,"  as  aii  elegant ' 
writer  observes,  "  is  one  of  the  greatest 
mischiefs  of  conversation.    Self-love  is 
continually  at  w-ork  to  give  to  all  we  say  ; 
a  bias  in  our  own  favour.     How  often  in 
societ}',  otherwise  respectable,  are  we  i 
pained  with  narrations  in  which  preju-  j 
dice  warps,  and  self-love  blinds  ! — How  ' 
often  do  we  see  that  withholding  part  of  i 
a  truth   answers  the  worst  ends  of  a  i 
falsehood  !   Hovvf  often  regret  the  unfair  ; 
turn  given  to  a  cause,  by  placing  a  senti-  | 
ment  in  one  point  of  view,  which  the  I 
speaker  had  used  in  another !  the  letter  j 
of  tinith  preserved,  where  its  spii'it  is  i 
violated  !  a  superstitious  exactness  scru- 
pulously maintained  in  the  under  parts  ' 
of  a  detail,  in  order  to  impress  such  an  i 
idea  of  integi'ity  as  shall  gain  credit  for  ! 
the  misrepresenter,  while  he  is  design-  ! 
edly  mistaking  the   leading  principle  ! 
How  may  we  observe  a  new  character 
given  to  a  fact  by  a  different  look,  tone,  i 
or  emphasis,  which  alters  it  as  much  as 
words  could  have  done  I  the  false  im-  \ 
pression  of  a  sermon  conveyed,  when  i 
we  do  not  like  the  preacher,  or  when 
through  him  we  wish  to  make  religion  \ 
itself  ridiculous !  the  care  to  avoid  lite-  ' 
i-al  untniths,  while  the  mischief  is  bet-  ; 
ter  effected  by  the  unfair  quotation  of  a 
passage   divested  of  its  context !    the 
bringing  together  detached  portions  of  a 
subject,  and  making  those  parts  ludi- 
crous, when  connected,  which  wei'e  se- 
rious in  their  distinct  position !  the  in-  ' 
sidious  use  made  of  a  sentiment  by  re- 
presenting  it  as  the  opinion  of  him'who 
had  only  brought  it  forward  in  order  to 
expose  it !  the  relating  opinions  which 
had  merely  been  put  hypothetically,  as  : 
if  they  were  the  avowed  principles  of 
him  we  would  discredit '   that  subtle 


falsehood  which  is  so  made  to  incoi-pcv- 
rate  with  a  certain  quantity  of  truth, 
that  the  most  skilful  moral  chemist 
cannot  analyze  or  separate  them  !  for  a 
good  misrejircsenter  knows  that  a  suc- 
cessful lie  must  have  a  certain  infusion 
of  tiiith,  or  it  will  not  go  down.  And 
this  amalgamation  is  the  test  of  his 
skill ;  as  too  much  truth  would  defeat 
the  end  of  his  mischief,  and  too  little 
would  destroy  the  belief  of  the  hearer. 
All  that  indefinable  ambiguity  and  equi- 
\ocation  ;  all  that  pradent  deceit,  which 
is  rather  implied  than  expressed  ;  those 
more  delicate  artifices  of  the  school  of 
Loyala  and  of  Chesterfield,  which  al- 
low us,  when  we  dare  not  deny  a  truth, 
yet  so  to  disguise  and  discolour  it,  that 
the  tioith  we  relate  shall  not  resemble 
the  truth  we  heard  ;  these,  and  all  the 
thousand  shades  of  simulation  and  dis- 
simulation, will  be  carefully  guarded 
against  in  the  conversation  of  vigilant 
Christians." — Miss  H.  More  on  Educ. 
vol.  ii.  p.  91. 

MISSAL,  the  Romish  mass-book, 
containing  the  several  masses  to  be  said 
on  particular  days.  It  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  word  missa,  which  in  the  an- 
cient Christian  church  signified  eveiy 
part  of  divine  seiwice. 

MISSION,  a  power  or  commission 
to  preach  the  Gospel.  Thus  Jesus 
Christ  gave  his  disciples  their  mission, 
when  he  said,  "  go  ye  into  all  the  world, 
and  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  crea- 
ture. '    See  next  article. 

MISSION,  an  establishment  of  peo- 
ple zealous  for  the  gloiy  of  God  and  the 
salvation  of  souls,  who  go  and  preach 
the  Gospel  in  remote  countries,  and 
among  infidels.  No  man  possessed  of 
the  least  degree  of  feeling  or  compas- 
sion for  the  human  race  can  deny  the 
necessity  and  utility  of  Christian  mis- 
sions. Whoever  considers  that  the  ma- 
jor part  of  the  woi-ld  is  enveloped  in  the 
grossest  darkness,  bound  with  the  chains 
of  savage  barbarity,  and  immersed  in 
the  awful  chaos  of  bnital  ignorance, 
must,  if  he  be  not  destitute  of  every 
principle  of  religion  and  humanity,  con- 
cur with  the  design  and  applaud  the 
principles  of  those  who  engage  in  so  be- 
nevolent a  work.  We  shall  not,  how- 
ever, in  this  place,  enter  into  a  defence 
of  missions,  but  shall  present  the  reader 
with  a  short  view  of  those  that  have 
been  established. 

In  the  sixteenth  centun',  the  Romish 
church  particularly  exerted  herself  for 
the  propagation  of  their  religion.  The 
Portug^iese  and  Spaniards  pretend  to 
have  done  mighty  exploits  in  the  spi-ead 
of  the  Christian  faith  in  Asia,  Africa, 


MIS 


582 


MIS 


and  America ;  but,  when  we  consider  | 
the  superstitions  they  imposed  on  some, ' 
and  the  di-eadful  ci-uelties  they  inflicted 
on  others,  it  more  than  counterbalances  ■ 
any  good  that  was  done.  For  a  time, , 
the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  aud  other 
religious  orders,  wei'e  very  zealous  in  j 
the  conversion  of  the  heathen  ;  but  the  , 
Jesuits  outdid  them  all  ui  their  attempts  i 
in  the  convei-sion  of  African,  Asian,  and  I 
American  infidels.  Xavier  spread  some 
hints  of  the  Romish  religion  through  the  , 
Portuguese  settlements  in  the  East  In-  ; 
dies,  through  most  of  the  Indian  conti-  ] 
nent,  and  of  Ceylon.  In  1549  he  sailed 
to  Japan,  and  laid  the  foundation  of; 
a  church  there,  which  at  one  time  | 
■was  said  to  have  consisted  of  about  j 
600,000  Christians.  After  him,  others! 
penetrated  into  China,  and  founded  a  1 
church  which  continued  about  170  years.  I 
About  1580.  others  penetrated  into  Chili 
and  Pern,  in  South  America,  and  con- ; 
verted  the  natives.  Others  bestirred 
themselves  to  convert  the  Greeks,  Nes- 
torians,  Monophysites,  Abyssinians,  the 
Egyptian  Copts.  "  It  is,  however,"  as 
one  observes,  "a  matter  of  doubt  whe- 
ther the  disciples  of  a  Xavier,  or  the  con- 
verts of  a  Loyola  and  Domuiic,  with 
their  partisans  of  the  Romish  church, ' 
should  be  admitted  among  the  number , 
of  Christians,  or  their  labours  be  thought 
lo  have  contributed  to  the  promotion  or  i 
to  the  hindrance  of  the  religion  of; 
Christ.  Certain  it  is,  that  the  methods 
these  men  pursued  tended  much  more 
to  make  disciples  to  themselves  and 
the  pontiffs  of  Rome,  than  to  form  the 
mind  to  the  reception  of  evangelical 
tnitli."  \Mth  ardent  zeal,  however,  and 
unwearied  industry,  these  apostles  la- 
boured in  this  work.  In  1622  we  find 
the  pope  established  a  congi'egation  of 
cardinals,  de  jirofiui^anda  Jide,  and  en- 
dowed it  with  ample  revenues,  and 
every  thing  which  could  forward  the 
missions  was  liberally  supplied.  In  1627, 
also,  E'^rban  added  the  college  for  the 
firopagation  of  the  faith;  in  which  mis- 
sionaries were  taught  the  languages  of 
the  countries  to  which  they  were  to  be 
sent.  France  copied  the  example  of 
Rome,  and  formed  an  establishinent  for 
the  same  purposes.  The  Jesuits  claim- 
ed the  first  rank,  as  due  to  their  zeal, 
learning,  and  devotedness  to  the  holy 
sec.  The  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  and 
others,  disputed  the  palrn  with  them. 
The  new  world  and  the  Asiatic  regions 
were  the  chief  field  of  their  labours. 
They  penetrated  into  the  uncultivated 
recesses  of  America.  Thev  a  isited  the 
untried  regions  of  Siam,  'ronquin,  and 
Cochin  Ckiiw.    TUev  entered  the  vast 


empire  of  China  itself,  and  numbered 
millions  among  their  converts.  They 
dared  affront  the  dangers  of  the  tyran- 
nical government  of  Japan.  In  India 
they  assumed  the  garb  and  austerities 
of  the  Brahmins,  and  boasted  on  the 
coasts  of  Malabar  of  a  thousand  con- 
■\erts  baptized  in  one  year  by  a  single 
missionary.  Their  sufferings  however, 
were  very  great,  and  in  China  and  Ja- 
pan they  were  exposed  to  the  most 
dreadful  persecutions,  and  many  thou- 
sands were  cut  off,  with,  at  last,  a  final 
expulsion  from  the  empires.  In  Africa 
the  Capuchins  were  chiefly  employed, 
though  it  does  not  appear  that  they 
had  any  considerable  success.  And  in 
America  their  laborious  exertions  have 
had  but  little  influence,  we  fear  to  pro- 
mote the  real  conversion  of  the  natives 
to  the  tinith. 

In  the  year  1621,  the  Dutch  opened 
a  church  in   the   city  of  Batavia,   and 
from  hence  ministers  were  sent  to  Am- 
boyna.   At  Leyden,  ministei's  and  assis- 
tants were  educated  for  the  purpose  of 
missions  under  the  famous  W'alxus,  and 
sent  into  the  East,  where  thousands  em- 
braced the  Christian  religion  at   For- 
mosa, Columba,  Java,  Malabar,  &c.  and 
though    the    work    declined    in    some 
j  places,  yet  there  are  still  churches  in 
I  Ceylon,  Sumatra,  Ambovna,  &c. 
I     About  1705,  Frederick  IV.  of  Den- 
I  mark,  applied  to  the  uniyersity  of  Halle, 
j  in  Germany,  for  missionaries  to  preach 
;  the  Gospel  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  in 
j  the  East  Indies;  and  Messrs.  Ziegenbalg 
and  Plutsche  were  the  first  employed 
on   this    important    mission ;    to   them 
I  others  w-ere  soon  added,  who  laboured 
I  with   considerable  success.    It  is    said 
!  that  upwards  of  18,000  Gentoos  ha\e 
been  brought  to  the  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

A  great  work  has  been  caiTied  on 
among    the    Indian    nations   in   N'orth 
'  America.    One   of  the   first   and  most 
eminent  instmmcnts  in  this  work  was 
the   excellent   Mr.   Elliott,    commonly 
called  the   Indian   apostle,  who,  from 
the  time  of  his  going  to  New  England, 
in  1631,  to  his  deatli,  in  1690,  devoted 
himself  to  this  great  work  by  his  lips 
mid  pen,  tr;\nslating  the  Bible  and  other 
'  books  into  the  natic  dialect.  Some  years 
;  after  this,  Thomas  Mahcw,  esq.  gover- 
;  nor  and  patentee  of  the  islands  of  Mar- 
tha's Vineyard,  and  some  neighbouring 
'  islands,  greatly  exerted  himself  in  the 
I  attempt  to  convert  the  Indians  in  that 
part  of  America.     His  son  John  gather- 
i!  ed  and  founded  an  Indian  church,  which, 
,■  after  his  death,  not  being  able  to  pay  a 
\  minister,  the  old  gentleman  himself,  at 


JNIIS 


583 


MIS 


seventy  years  of  age,  became  their  in- 
stnictor  for  more  than  twenty  years, 
and  his  grandson  and  gi-eat  grandson 
both  succeeded  him  in  the  same  work. 
Mr.  D.  Brainard  was  also  a  truly  pious 
and  successful  missionaiy  among  the 
Susquehannah  and  Delaware  Indians. 
His  journal  contains  instances  of  very 
extraordinary  conversions. 

But  the  Moravians  have  exceeded 
all  in  their  missionary  exertions.    They 
have   various  missions :   and,  by  their 
persevering  zeal,  it  is  said,  upwards  of 
23,000  of  the  most  destitute  of  mankind, 
in  different  regions  of  the  earth,  have 
been  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
truth.    Vast   numbers   in   the    Danish 
islands  of  St.  Thomas,  St.  Jau,  and  St. 
Croix,  and  the   English  islands  of  Ja- 
maica, Antigua,  Nevis,  Barbadoes,  St. 
Kitts,  and  Tobago,  have  by  their  minis- 
try been  called  to  worship  God  in  spirit 
and  in  truth.  In  the  inhospitable  climes 
of  Greenland  and  Labrador  they  have 
met  with  wonderful  success,  after  un- 
dergoing the  most  astonishing  dangers 
and  difficulties.  The  Arrowack  Indians, 
and  the  negixies  of  Surinam  and   Ber- 
bice,  have  been  collected  into  bodies  of 
faithful  people  by  them.    Canada  and 
the  United  States  of  North  America, 
have,  by  their  instinimentality,  afforded 
happ^r   evidences  of  the  power  of  the 
Gospel.     Even  those  esteemed  the  last : 
of  human  beings,   for  brutishness  and  i 
ignorance,  the   Hottentots,  have  been  | 
formed   into  their  societies ;    and   up-  j 
wards  of  seven  hundred  are  said  to  be  ■ 
worshipping  God    at    Bavian's    Cloof,  1 
near  the    Cape   of  Good  Hope.    We  j 
•  might  also  mention  their  efforts  to  illu-  ] 
f  mine   the    distant   East,   the  coast  of! 
|i  Coromandel,  and  the  Nicobar  islands ; ' 
7  their  attempts  to  penetrate  into  Abys-  j 
f  sinia,  to  carry  the  Gospel  to  Persia  and 
.'    Egypt,  and  to  ascend  the  mountains  of 
Caucasus.    In  fact,  where  shall  we  find 
the  men  who  have  laboured  as  these 
have  ?    Their  invincible  patience,  their 
well-regulated   zeal,    their    self-denial, 
their  constant  prudence,   deserve  the 
meed  of  highest  approbation.    Nor  are 
they  -wearied  in   so  honourable  a  ser- 
vice ;  for  they  have  numerous  mission- 
aries still  employed  in  different  parts  of 
the  world.    See  Moravians. 

Good  has  been  also  done  by  the  Wes- 
leyan  Methodists,  who  are  certainly  not 
the  least  in  missionary  work.  They  have 
several  missionaries  in  the  British  do- 
minions in  America  and  in  the  West 
>    Indies.    They  have  some  thousands  of 
,    members    in    their   societies   in   those 
i  parts.    See  Methodists. 

In    1791,    a    society    was    instituted  ] 


among  the  Ba/itists,  called,  "  The  Par^ 
ticular  Baptist  Society  for  propagating 
the  Gospel  among  the  Heathen ;"  un- 
der the  auspices  of  which  missionaries 
were  sent  to  India,  and  favourable  ac- 
counts of  their  success  have  been  re- 
ceived. W^e  learn,  with  pleasure,  that 
througli  their  indefatigable  industry,  the 
New  Testament,  and  part  of  the  Bible 
have  been  translated  and  printed  in  the 
Bengalee  ;  and  that  parts  of  the  Scrip- 
tures have  been  translated  into  ten  of 
the  languages  spoken  in  the  East.  See 
J-'eriodica!  .Accounts  of  this  society. 

In  the  year  1795,  The  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  was  formed. — This  is 
not  confined  to  one  body  of  people,  but 
consists  of  Episcopalians,  Prestn'terians^ 
Seceders,  Methodists,  and  Indepen- 
dents, who  hold  an  annual  meeting  in 
London  in  May.  As  the  state  of  this  so- 
ciety is  before  the  public,  it  would  be 
unnecessary  here  to  enlarge  ;  suffice  it 
to  say,  that  it  is  now  on  the  most  per- 
manent and  respectable  footing.  "  It 
has  assumed  consistency  and  order;  it 
combines  integrity  of  character,  forti- 
tude of  mind,  and  fixedness  of  resolu- 
tion, with  a  continued  progression  of  ef- 
fort for  the  exalted  purpose  of  present- 
ing the  doctrines  of  the  blessed  Gospel 
to  the  acceptance  of  the  perishing  hea- 
then, and  of  exhibiting  an  imcorrupt 
example  of  their  tendencies  and  effects 
in  then-  own  characters  and  conduct." 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  societies, 
others  have  been  formed  of  less  note.  In 
1699,  a  society  was  instituted  in  England 
ioY  firomoting  Christian  Knowledge.  In 
1701,  another  was  formed  for  the  pro- 
pagation of  the  Gospel  in  foreign  parts. 
In  Scotland,  aliout  the  year  1700,  a  so- 
ciety was  instituted  for  the  Propagation 
of  Christian  Knowledge.  Recently,  some 
clergymen  of  the  established  church 
have  formed  one  among  themselves^ 
Societies  for  spreading  the  Gospel  also 
have  been  instituted  in  various  other 
places.  From  the  whole,  it  seems  evi- 
dent that  the  light  and  knowledge  of  the 
glorious  Gospel  will  be  more  diffused 
than  ever  throughout  the  earth.  And 
who  is  tliere  that  has  any  concern  for 
the  souls  of  men,  any  love  for  truth  and 
religion,  but  what  must  rejoice  at  the 
formation,  number,  and  success  of  those 
institutions,  which  have  not  the  mere 
temporal  concerns  of  men,  but  theit- 
everlasting  welfare  as  their  object  ?  My 
heai't  overflows  with  joy,  and  mine  eyes 
with  tears,  when  I  consider  the  happy 
and  extensive  effects  which  are  likely 
to  take  place.  The  untutored  mind  will 
receive  the  peaceful  principles  of  reli- 
gion and  virtue ;  the  savage  barbanan 


MOL 


384 


MON 


will  rejoice  in  the  copious  blessings,  and 
feel  the  benign  effects  of  civilization  ; 
the  igriorant  idolatei'  will  be  directed  to 
offer  n\i  his  prayers  and  praises  to  the 
true  God,  and  leai'n  the  way  of  salva- 
tion through  Jesus  Christ.  The  habita- 
tions of  cruelty  will  become  the  abodes 
of  peace  alid  securit)-,  >v]iile  ignorance 
and  superstition  shall  give  way  to  the 
celestial  blessings  of  intelligence,  purity, 
and  joy.  Happy  men,  who  are  cm- 
ployed  as  instruments  in  this  cause : 
■who  forego  your  personal  comforts,  re- 
linquish your  native  country,  and  volun- 
tarily devote  yourseh'cs  to  the  most  no- 
ble and  honourable  of  services  !  Peace 
and  prosperity  be  with  you  !  Miller''s 
History  of  (he  Prohagation  of  Christ ; 
Kenneths  ditto  ;  Gil/ics's  Historical  Col- 
lection ;  Cai'ey's  Eywuiry  respecting 
Missions  ;  Losfciell's  history  of  the  Mo- 
ravian Mif-sions  ;  C7'a?itz's  Histort/  of 
Grecnkwd  ;  Home's  Letters  on.  3lis- 
sions;  Sermons  and  Reports  of  the  Lon- 
don Missionarv  Society. 

MODERATION,  the  state  of  keep- 
ing a  due  mean  between  extremes : 
calmness,  temperance,  or  equanimity. 
It  is  sometimes  used  with  reference  to 
our  opinions,  Rom.  xii.  3.  but  in  general 
it  respects  our  conduct  in  that  state 
which  comes  under  the  description  of 
ease  or  prosjjcrity  ;  and  ought  to  take 
place  in  our  wishes,  pursuits,  expecta- 
tions, pleasures,  and  passions.  See  Bp. 
Hall  on  Moderation,  ser.  16  ;  Blair's 
Sermons,  vol.  iii.  ser.  12 ;  Toplady's 
IVorks,  vol.  iii.  ser.  10. 

MODESTY  is  sometimes  used  to  de- 
note humility,  and  sometimes  to  ex- 
press chastity.  The  Greek  word  Koo-mos 
viodcstiis,  signifies  neat  or  clean.  Mo- 
desty, therefore,  consists  in  purity  of 
sentiment  and  manner.?,  inclining  us  to 
abhor  the  least  appearance  of  vice  and 
indecency,  and  to  fear  doing  any  thing 
which  will  incur  censure.  An  excess  of 
modesty  may  be  called  bashfulness,  and 
the  want  of  It  impertinence.  There  is  a 
false  or  vicious  modesty,  which  influ- 
ences a  man  to  do  any  thing  that  is  ill  or 
indiscreet ;  such  as,  through  fear  of  of- 
fending his  companions  he  runs  into 
their  follies  or  excesses  ;  or  it  is  a  false 
modesty  wliich  restrains  a  man  from 
doii.g  what  is  good  or  laudalile ;  such 
as  being  ashamed  to  speak  of  religion, 
and  to  be  seen  in  the  exercises  of  piety 
and  devotion. 

MOLINISTS,  a  sect  in  the  Romish 
church  who  follow  the  doctrine  and  sen- 
timents of  the  Jesuit  Molina,  relating  to 
sufficient  and  efficacious  grace.  He 
taught  that  the  operations  of  divine 
grace  were  entirely  consiiitent  with  the 


freedom  of  the  human  will  ;  and  intro- 
duced  a  new  kind  of  hypothesis  to  re- 
move the  difficulties  attending  tlie  doc- 
trines of  predestination  and  liberty,  and 
to  reconcile  the  jan-ing  opinions  of  Au- 
gustines,  Thomists,  Semi-Pelagians,  and 
other  contentious  divines.  He  affirmed 
that  the  decree  of  predestination  to  eter- 
nal glory  was  founded  upon  a  previous 
knowledge  and  consideration  of  the 
merits  of  the  elect;  that  the  grace,  from 
whose  operation  these  merits  are  de- 
rived, is  not  efficacious  by  its  own  intrin- 
sic power  only,  but  also  by  the  consent 
of  our  own  will,  and  because  it  is  admi- 
nistered in  those  circumstances  in  which 
the  Deity,  by  that  branch  of  his  know- 
ledge which  is  called  scientia  media, 
foresees  that  it  will  be  efficacious.  The 
kind  of  prescience,  denominated  in  the 
schools  scientia  media,  is  that  forekiiow- 
ledge  of  future  contingents  that  arises 
from  an  acquaintance  with  the  nature 
and  faculties  of  rational  beings,  of  the 
circumstances  in  which  they  shall  be 
placed,  of  the  objects  that  shall  be  pre- 
sented to  them,  and  of  the  influeme 
which  their  circumstances  and  objects 
must  have  on  their  actions. 

MONARCHIANS,  the  same  as  the 
Patripassians ;  which  see. 

MONASTERY,  a  convent  or  house 
built  for  the  reception  of  religious ; 
whether  it  be  abbe)-,  priory,  nunnery, 
or  the  like. 

Monastery  is  only  properly  applied  to* 
the  houses  of  monks,  mendicant  friars, 
and  nuns :  tl\e  rest  are  more  properly 
called  religious  houses.  For  the  origin 
of  monasteries,  see  Monastic,  and 
Monk. 

The  houses  belonging  to  the  several 
religious  orders  which  obtained  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  were  cathedrals,  col- 
leges,   abbeys,    priories,    prcceptorie.s, 
commandries,   hospitals,    friaries,   her- 
j  mitages,  chantries,  and  free  chapels 
I  These   were  under  the  direction  and 
I  management  of  various  officers.    The 
I  dissolution  of  houses  of  this  kind  began 
j  so  early  as  the  year  1312,  when  the 
I  Templars  were  suppressed ;  and  in  1323, 
their  lands,  churches,  advow.sons,   and 
liberties,  here  in  England,  were  given, 
by  17  Edw.  II.  stat.  3,  to  the  prior  and 
brethren  of  the  hospital  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem.    In    the    years   1390,  1437, 
1441,  1-159,  1497,  1505,  1508,  and  151.^ 
several  other  houses   were   dissolved, 
and  their  revenues  settled  on  different 
colleges    in    Oxford    and    Cambridge. 
Soon    after    the   last   pei-iod,   cardinal 
Wolsey,   bv  licence  of  the   king  and 
pope,   obtained  a  dissolution  of  above 
i  thirty  religious  houses  for  the  founding 


MON 


385 


]y;oN 


u 


and  endowing  his  colleges  at  Oxford 
and  Ipswich.  About  the  same  time  a 
bull  was  granted  by  the  same  pope  to 
cardinal  \\'olsey  to  suppress  monaste- 
ries, where  there  wei'C  not  above  six 
monks,  to  the  value  of  eight  thousand  i 
ducats  a  year,  for  endowing  Windsor 
and  King's  College  in  Cambridge ;  and 
two  other  bulls  were  granted  to  cardi- 
nals Wolsey  and  Campeius,  where  there 
■were  less  than  twelve  monks,  and  to  an- 
nex them  to  the  greater  monasteries; 
and  another  bull  to  the  same  cardinals 
to  inquire  about  abl)e}"s  to  be  suppi'ess- 
ed  in  order  to  be  made  cathedrals.  Al- 
though nothing  appears  to  have  been 
done  in  consequence  of  these  bulls,  the 
motive  which  induced  Wolsey  and  many 
others  to  suppress  these  houses  was  the 
desire  of  promoting  learning ;  and  arch- 
bishop Cranmer  engaged  in  it  with  a 
iiew  of  carrying  on  the  reformation. 
There  were  other  causes  that  concur- 
red to  bring  on  their  ruin  :  many  of  the 
religious  wei'e  loose  and  vicious ;  the 
monks  were  generally  thought  to  be  in 
their  hearts  attached  to  the  pope's  su- 
premacy ;  their  revenues  were  not  em- 
ployed according  to  the  intent  of  the 
donors  ;  many  cheats  in  images,  feigned 
miracles,  and  counterfeit  relics,  had 
been  discovered,  which  brovight  the 
monks  into  disgrace;  the  observant 
friars  had  opposed  the  king's  divorce 
from  queen  Catharine ;  and  these  cir- 
cumstances operated,  in  concurrence 
with  the  king's  want  of  a  supply  and  the 
people's  desire  to  save  their  money,  to 
forward  a  motion  in  parliament,  that,  in 
order  to  support  the  king's  state,  and 
supply  his  wants,  all  the  religious  houses 
might  be  conferred  upon  the  crown, 
which  were  not  able  to  spend  above 
200/.  a  year ;  and  an  act  was  passed  for 
that  purpose,  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  28.  By 
this  act  about  three  hundred  and  eighty 
houses  were  dissolved,  and  a  revenue  of 
30,000/.  or  32,000/.  a  year  came  to  the 
crown ;  besides  about  100,000/.  in  plate 
and  jewels.  The  suppression  of  these 
houses  occasioned  discontent,  and  at 
length  an  open  rebellion:  when  this 
was  appeased,  the  king  resolved  to  sup- 
press the  rest  of  the  monasteries,  and 
appointed  a  new  visitation,  which  caus- 
ed the  greater  abbeys  to  be  surrendered 
apace :  and  it  was  enacted  by  31  Henry 
\  III.  c.  13,  that  all  monasteries  which 
have  been  surrendered  since  the  4th  of 
Febi-uary,  in  the  twenty-seventh  year 
of  his  majesty's  reign,  and  which  here- 
after shall  be  surrendered,  shall  be 
vested  in  the  king.  The  knights  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem  were  also  suppi'essed 
by  the  32d  Henry  VIII.  c.  34.   llie  sup- 


pression of  these  greater  houses  by  these 
two  acts  produced  a  revenue  to  the  king 
of  above  100,000/.  a  year,  besides  a  large 
sum  in  plate  and  jewels.  The  last  act 
of  dissolution  in  this  king's  reign  was  the 
act  of  37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4,  for  dissolving 
colleges,  free  chapels,  chantries,  &c. 
which  act  was  farther  enforced  by  1 
Edw.  VI.  c.  14.  By  this  act  were  sup- 
pressed 90  colleges,  110  hospitals,  and 
2,374  chantries  and  free  chapels.  The 
number  of  houses  and  places  suppressed 
from  first  to  last,  so  far  as  any  calcula- 
tions appear  to  have  been  made,  seems 
to  be  as  follows  : 

Of  lesser  monasteries,  of  which 

we  have  the  valuation,      -  -    374 

Of  greater  monasteries,    -  -         186 

Belongmg  to  the  hospitallers,  -      48 

Colleges,           -        _        -  .           90 

Hospitals,    -        -        -        -  -     110 

Chantries  and  free  chapels,  -       2374 

Total,  3182 

Besides  the  friars'  houses,  and  those  sup- 
pressed by  Wolsey,  and  many  small 
houses  of  which  we  have  no  particular 
account. 

The  sum  total  of  the  clear  yearly  re- 
venue of  the  several  houses  at  the  time 
of  their  dissolution,  of  which  we  have 
any  account,  seems  to  be  as  follows : 

Of  the  great  monaste- 
ries,      -        -        -     /.  104,919  13    3 

Of  all  those  of  the  lesser 
monasteries  of  which 
we  have  the  valuation,     29,702     1  10 

Knights  hospitallers, 
head  house  in  Lon- 
don,      -        -        -        _  2,385  12    8 

We  have  the  valuation 
of  onlji[  28  of  their 
houses  in  the  country,  26    9    5 

Friars'  houses  of  Avhich 
we  have  the  valuation,  751    2    0 


Total,  /.  140,784  19    2 

If  proper  allowances  are  made  for  the 
lesser  monasteries  and  houses  not  in- 
cluded in  this  estimate,  and  for  the  plate, 
&c.  which  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
king  by  the  dissolution,  and  for  the  value 
of  money  at  that  time,  which  was  at 
least  six  times  as  much  as  at  present, 
and  also  consider  that  the  estimate  of 
the  lands  was  generally  supposed  to  be 
much  under  the  real  worth,  Ave  must 
conclude  their  whole  revenues  to  have 
been  immense. 

It  does  not  appear  that  any  compu- 
tation hath  been  made  of  the  number  of 


MON 


3S6 


MON 


persons     contained    iu     the     religious 
lioubcs. 

Those  of  the  lesser  monas- 
teries dissolved  by  27  Hen. 
VIII.  were  x'eckoncd  at 
about        -        .        -         -  10,000 

If  we  suppose  tlie  colleges 
and  hospitals  to  have  con- 
tained a  proportionable 
number,  these  will  make 
about       -        -        -        -  5,347 

If  we  reckon  the  number  in 
the  greater  monasteries  ac- 
cording to  the  proportion 
of  their  revenues,  they  will 
be  about  35,000 ;  but  as 
probably  they  had  larger 
allowances  in  proportion  to 
their  number  than  tliose  of 
the  lesser  monasteries,  if 
we  abate  upon  that  ac- 
count 5,000,  they  will  then 
be 30,000 

One  for  each  chantry  and 
free  chapel       -        -        -  2,374 


Total,  47,721 

\  But  as  there  were  probably  more  than 
one  person  to  ofhciate  in  several  of  tlie 
free  chapels,  and  there  were  other 
houses  which  ai'e  not  included  within 
this  calculation,  perhaps  they  may  be 
computed  in  one  general  estimate  at 
about  50,000.  As  there  were  pensions 
paid  to  almost  all  those  of  the  greater 
monasteries,  the  king  did  not  imme- 
diately come  into  the  full  enjoyment  of 
their  whole  revenues ;  however,  by 
means  of  what  he  did  receive,  he  found- 
ed six  new  bishoprics,  viz.  those  of 
Westminster,  (which  was  changed  by 
queen  Elizabeth  into  a  deanery,  with 
twelve  prebends  and  a  school,)  Peter- 
borough, Chester,  Gloucester,  Bristol, 
and  Oxford.  And  in  eight  other  sees 
he  founded  deaneries  and  chapters,  by 
converting  the  ]3i'iors  and  monks  into 
deans  arnl  prebendaries,  viz.  Canter- 
bury, Winchester,  Durliam,  Worcester, 
Rocliester,  Norwich,  Ely,  and  Carlisle. 
He  founded  also  the  colleges  of  Christ 
Church  in  Oxford,  and  Tnnity  in  Cam- 
bridge, and  finished  King's  College 
there.  He  likewise  founded  professor- 
ships of  divinity,  law,  physic,  and  of  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek  tongtu^s  in  both  the 
said  Universities.  He  ga\e  the  house 
of  Grey  Fi-iars  and  St.  Bartholomew's 
Hospital  to  the  city  of  London,  and  a 
pei-pctual  pension  to  the  jioor  knights 
of  v\'iudsor,  and  laid  out  great  sums  in 
building  and  fortifying  many  ports  in  the 
channel.     It  is  observable,   upon  the 


whole,  that  the  dissolution  of  these 
houses  was  not  an  act  of  the  church, 
but  of  the  state,  in  the  period  preceding 
the  reformation,  by  a  king  and  parlia- 
ment of  the  Roman  Catholic  communion 
in  all  points,  except  the  king's  supre- 
macy ;  to  which  the  pope  himself,  by 
his  bulls  and  licences,  had  led  the  way. 

As  to  the  merits  of  these  institutions, 
authors  are  much  divided.  While  some 
have  considered  them  as  beneficial  to 
learning,  piety,  and  benevolence,  othei-s 
have  thought  them  very  injurious.  We 
may  form  some  idea  of  them  from  the 
following  remarks  of  Mr.  Gilpin. 

He  is  speaking  of  Glastonbury  Abbev, 
which  possessed  the  aniplest  revenues 
of  any  religious  house  in  England.  "Its 
fraternity,"  says  he,  "is  said  to  have 
consisted  of  five  hundred  established 
monks,  besides  nearly  as  many  retain- 
ers on  the  abbey.  Alcove  four  liundredl 
children  were  not  only  educated  in  it^ 
but  entirely  maintained.  Strangei*s 
from  all  parts  of  Europe  were  liberally 
received,  classed  according  to  their  sex 
and  nation,  and  might  consider  the  hos- 
pitable roof  under  which  they  lodged  as 
their  own.  Five  hundred  travellers, 
with  their  horses,  have  been  lodged  at 
once  within  its  walls ;  while  the  poor 
from  every  side  of  the  country,  waiting 
tlie  ringing  of  the  alms  bell ;  when  they 
flocked  in  crowds,  young  and  old,  to  the 
gate  of  the  monastery,  where  they  re- 
cei\'ed,  every  morning,  a  plentiful  pro- 
vision for  themselves  and  their  families  : 
— all  this  appears  great  and  noble. 

"On  the  other  liand,  when  we  con- 
sider five  hundred  persons  bixd  up  in 
indolence  and  lost  to  the  common- 
wealth ;  when  we  consider  that  these 
houses  were  the  great  nurseries  of  su- 
perstition, bigotry,  and  ignorance;  the 
stews  of  sloth,  stupidity,  and  perhajis 
intemperance  ;  when  we  consider  tlu.t  ' 
the  education  received  in  them  had  not 
the  least  tincture  of  useful  learning,  good 
manners,  or  true  religion,  but  tended 
rather  to  vilifv  and  disgrace  the  human 
mind ;  when  we  consider  that  the  ])il- 
grims  and  strangers  who  resorted  thi- 
tlicr  were  idle  vagabonds,  who  got  no- 
thing abroad  tliat  was  equivalent  to  the 
occupations  they  left  at  home;  and 
when  wc  consider,  lastly,  that  indis- 
criminate alms-giving  is  not  real  cha- 
rity, but  an  avocation  from  labour  and 
industry,  checking  every  idea  of  exer- 
tion, and  fil'ing  the  mind  with  abject 
notions,  we  are  kd  to  acquiesce  in  the 
fate  of  these  foundations,  and  view  their 
ruins,  not  only  with  a  picturesque  eye, 
but  with  moral  and  religious  satisfaction." 
Giljiiiis  Obsei'vations  on  the  Western 


MON 


387 


MON 


Parts  of  England,  p.  138,  139;   Biff- 
land's  L,etters  on  Hist.  p.  313. 

MONASTIC,  something  belonc;mg 
to  monks,  or  the  monkish  life. — ^The 
monastic  pi-ofession  is  a  kind  of  civil 
death,  wliich  in  all  worldly  matters  has 
the  same  eflfect  with  the  natural  death. 
The  council  of  Trent,  Sec.  fix  sixteen 
years  the  age  at  which  a  person  ma}' 
be  admitted  into  the  monastical  state. 

St.  Anthony  is  the  person  who,  in  the 
fourth  century,  first  instituted  the  mo- 
nastic life ;  as  St.  Pachomius,  in  the 
same  century,  is  said  to  have  first  set 
on  foot  the  coenobite  life,  i.  c.  regular 
communities  of  religious.  In  a  short 
time  the  deserts  of  Egypt  became  in- 
habited by  a  set  of  solitaries,  who  took 
upon  them  the  monastic  pi-ofession.  St. 
Basil  carried  the  monkish  liumour  into 
the  East,  where  he  composed  a  iTile 
which  afterwards  obtained  through  a 
gi'eat  part  of  the  West. 

In  the  eleventh  century,  the  monastic 
discipline  was  gi'own  very  remiss.  St. 
Oddo  first  began  to  retrieve  it  in  the 
monastery  of  Cluny :  that  monastery, 
by  the  conditions  of  its  erection,  was 
put  under  the  immediate  protection  of 
the  lioly  see ;  with  a  prohibition  to  all 
powens,  both  secular  and  ecclesiastical, 
to  disturb  the  monks  in  the  possession 
of  their  effects  or  the  election  of  their 
abbot.  In  virtue  hereof  they  pleaded 
an  exemption  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  bishop,  and  extended  this  privi- 
lege to  all  the  houses  dependent  on 
Cluny.  This  made  the  first  congrega- 
tion of  several  houses  under  one  chief 
immediately  siiljject  to  the  pope,  so  as 
to  constitute  one  body,  or  as  they  now 
call  it,  one  religious  order.  Till"  then, 
each  monastery  was  independent,  and 
subject  to  the  bishop.    See  Monk. 

MONK  anciently  denoted,  "  a  person 
who  retired  from  the  world  to  give  him- 
self wholly  to  God,  and  to  live  in  soli- 
tude and  abstinence."  The  word  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  monachus,  and 
that  from  the  Greek  uoi-axoj,  "solitary;" 
of  (10V3I  solus,  "  alone." 

The  original  of  monks  seems  to  have 
been  this :  The  persecutions  which  at- 
tended the  first  ages  of  the  Gospel 
forced  some  Christians  to  retire  from 
the  world,  and  live  in  deserts  and  places 
most  private  and  unfrequented,  in  hopes 
of  finding  that  peace  and  comfort  among 
beasts,  which  were  denied  them  among 
men ;  and  this  being  the  case  of  some 
very  extraordinary  persons,  their  ex- 
ample gave  such  reputation  to  retire- 
ment, that  the  practice  was  continued 
•when  the  reason  of  its  commencement 
eeased.      After   tlie    empire    became 


Cliristian,  instances  of  this  kind  were 
numerous:  and  those  whose  security- 
had  obliged  them  to  live  separately  and 
apart,  became  afterwards  united  into 
societies.  We  may  also  add,  that  the 
mystic  theology,  which  gained  ground 
towards  the  close  of  the  third  century, 
contributed  to  produce  the  same  effect, 
and  to  drive  men  into  solitude  for  the 
purposes  of  devotion. 

The  mo)iks,  at  least  the  ancient  ones, 
were  distinguished  into  solitaries,  asno- 
bites,  and  sarabites. 

The  solitaries  are  those  who  live  alone, 
in  places  reninie  from  all  towns  and  ha- 
bitations of  men,  as  do  still  some  of  the 
hermits.  The  ciznobites  are  those  who 
live  in  community  with  several  others 
in  the  same  house,  and  under  the  same 
superiors.  T\\q  sarabites  \s&x&  sti-oUing 
monks,  having  no  fixed  rule  or  resi- 
dence. 

The  houses  of  monks,  again,  were 
of  two  kinds,  viz.  inonasteries  and 
lanrx. 

Those  who  are  now  called  monks, 
are  coenobites,  who  live  together  in  a 
convent  or  monastery,  who  make  vows 
of  living  according  to  a  certain  rule  es- 
tablished by  the  founder,  and  wear  a 
habit  which  distinguishes  their  order. 

Those  that  are  endowed,  or  have  aj 
fixed  revenue,  are  most  properly  called; 
monks,  monachi;  as  the  Chartreux,  Be- 
nedictines, Bernardines,  Sec.  The  Men- 
dicants, or  those  that  beg,  as  the  Capu- 
chins and  Franciscans,  ai-e  more  pro- 
perly called  religious  and y/'/f/?-."?,  though 
the  names  are  frequently  confounded. 

The  first  monks  were  those  of  St. 
Anthony,  who,  towards  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century,  formed  them  into  a 
regular  body,  engaged  them  to  live  in 
society  with  each  other,  and  prescribed 
to  them  fixed  rules  for  the  direction  of 
their  conduct.  These  regulations,  which 
Antliony  had  made  in  EgrjDt,  were  soon 
introduced  into  Palestine  and  Syria  by 
his  disciple  Hilarion.  Almost  about 
the  same  time,  Aones,  or  Eugenius, 
with  their  companions  Gaddanas  and 
Azyzas,  instituted  the  monastic  order 
in  Mesopotamia,  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
tries ;  and  their  example  was  followed 
with  such  rapid  success,  that  in  a  short 
time  the  whole  east  was  filled  with  a 
lazy  set  of  mortals,  who  abandoning  all 
human  connexions,  advantages,  plea- 
sures, and  concerns,  wore  out  a  languish- 
ing and  miserable  existence  amidst  the 
hardships  of  want  and  various  kinds  of 
suffering,  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  more 
close  and  rapturous  communication  with 
God  and  angels. 

From  the  East  this  gloomy  disposi- 


MON 


3S8 


MON 


tion  passed  into  the  West,  and  first  in- 
to Italy  and  its  neighbouring  islands ; 
though  it  is  uncertain  who  transplanted 
it  thither.  St.  Martin,  the  celebrated 
bishop  of  Tours,  erected  the  first  mo- 
nasteries in  Gaul,  and  reccmmended 
this  religious  solitude  with  such  power 
and  efficacy  both  by  his  instructions 
and  his  example,  that  his  funeral  is  said 
to  have  been  attended  by  no  less  than 
two  thousand  monks.  From  hence  the 
monastic  discipline  extended  gradually 
its  progress  thi'ough  the  other  provin- 
ces and  countries  of  Europe.  There 
were,  besides  the  monks  of  St.  Basil  (call- 
ed in  the  East  Colo^eri,  fi*om  xa\os  ysjuv, 
"a  good  old  man,  )  and  those  of  St. 
Jerome,  the  hermits  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  afterwards  those  of  St.  Benedict 
and  St.  Bernard :  at  length  came  those 
of  St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominic,  with  a 
legion  of  others ;  all  which  see  under 
their  pi'oper  heads. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  centu- 
ry, the  monks,  who  had  formerly  lived 
only  for  themselves  in  solitary  retreats, 
and  had  never  thought  of  assuming 
any  rank  among  the  sacerdotal  order, 
were  now  gradually  distinguished  from 
the  populace,  and  endowed  with  such 
opulence  and  honourable  privileges, 
that  thqy  found  themselves  in  a  condi- 
tion to  claim  an  eminent  station  among 
the  pillars  and  supporters  of  the  Chris- 
tian community.  The  fame  of  their 
piety  and  sanctity  was  so  great,  that 
bishops  and  presbyters  were  often  cho- 
sen out  of  their  order ;  and  the  passion 
of  erecting  edifices  and  convents,  in 
which  the  monks  and  holy  virgins  might 
sei've  God  in  the  most  commodious  man- 
ner, was  at  this  time  carried  beyond 
all  bounds.  However,  their  licentious- 
ness, even  in  this  century,  was  become 
a  proverb ;  and  they  are  said  to  have 
excited  the  most  dreadful  tumults  and 
seditions  in  various  places.  The  mo- 
nastic orders  were  at  first  under  the  im- 
mediate jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  from 
which  they  were  exempted  by  the  Ro- 
man pontiff  about  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century ;  and  the  monks,  in  return,  de- 
voted themselves  wholly  to  advance  the 
interests  and  to  maintain  the  dignity  of 
the  bishop  of  Rome.  This  immunity 
which  they  obtained  was  a  fi-uitful 
source  of  licentiousness  and  disorder, 
and  occasioned  the  greatest  part  of  the 
vices  with  which  they  were  afterwards 
so  justly  charged.  In  the  eighth  cen- 
tury the  monastic  disfeipline  was  ex- 
tremely relaxed,  both  in  the  eastern 
and  western  jirovinces,  and  all  eff(«-ts  to 
restore  it  were  inefl'ectual.  Nevertlie- 
less,  this  kind  of  institution  was  in  the 


highest  esteem ;  and  nothing  could  equal 
the  veneration  that  was  paid  about  the 
close  of  the  ninth  centuiy  to  such  as  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  sacred  gloom 
and  indolence  of  a  convent.  This  ve- 
neration caused  several  kings  and  em- 
perors to  call  them  to  their  courts,  and 
to  employ  them  in  civil  affairs  of  the 
greatest  moment.  Their  reformation 
was  attempted  by  Louis  the  Meek,  but 
the  effect  was  of  short  duration.  In  the 
eleventii  century  they  were  exempted 
by  the  popes  from  the  authority  es- 
tablished ;  insomuch,  that  in  the  council 
of  Lateral!  that  was  held  in  the  year 
1215,  a  decree  was  passed,  by  the  ad- 
vice of  Innocent  III.  to  prevent  any 
new  monastic  institutions ;  and  several 
were  entirely  suppressed.  In  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries,  it  ap- 
pears, from  the  testimony  of  the  best 
writers,  that  the  monks  wei'e  generally 
lazy,  illiterate,  profligate,  and  licentious 
epicures,  whose  views  in  life  wei'c  con- 
fined to  opulence,  idleness,  and  plea- 
sure. However,  the  reformation  had  a 
manifest  influence  in  restraining  their 
excesses,  and  rendering  them  more 
circumspect  and  cautious  in  their  ex- 
ternal conduct. 

Monks  are  distinguished  by  the  co- 
lour of  their  habits  into  black,  ivhite^ 
grey,  8cc.  Among  the  monks,  some  are 
called  monks  of  the  choir,  others  firo- 
fessed  inonks,  and  others  lay  monks; 
which  last  are  destined  for  the  service 
of  the  convent,  and  have  neither  cleri- 
cate  nor  literature. 

Cloistered  monks  are  those  who  ac- 
tually reside  in  the  house ;  in  opposition 
to  extra  monks,  who  have  benefices  de- 
pending on  the  monastery. 

Monks  are  also  distinguished  into  re- 
formed,  whom  the  civil  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal authority  have  made  masters  of  an- 
cient converts,  and  put  in  their  power 
to  retrieve  the  ancient  discipline,  which 
had  been  relaxed ;  and  ancient,  who  re- 
main in  the  convent,  to  live  in  it  ac- 
cording to  its  establishment  at  the 
time  when  they  made  their  vows,  with- 
out obliging  themselves  to  any  new  re- 
form. 

Anciently  the  monks  were  all  laymen, 
and  were  only  distinguished  from  the 
rest  of  the  people  by  a  peculiar  habit, 
and  an  extraordinary  devotion.  Not 
only  the  monks  were  prohibited  the 
priesthood,  but  even  priests  were  ex- 
pressly prohibited  From  becoming 
monks,  as  appears  from  the  letters  of 
St.  Gregory.  Pope  Siricius  was  the  first 
who  called  them  to  the  clericate,  on 
occasion  of  some  great  scarcity  of  priests 
that  the  church  was  then  supposed  to 


MON 


389 


MON 


labour  under;  and  since  that  time  the 
priesthood  has  been  usuall)'  united  to 
the  monastical  profession.  Enc.  Brit. ; 
Britifili  Alonachism,  or  JMatmers  and 
Ouftfoms  of  ]\Ionko  awl  A'lais  of  Etig- 
land ;  Moshchn's  Ecc.  Hint. 

MONOPHYSITES,  (from  n.v.n,  so- 
lus, and  (puo-is  natura,')  a  general  name 
given  to  all  those  sectaries  in  the  Le- 
vant, who  only  own  one  nature  in  Jesus 
Christ;  and  who  maintain  that  the  di- 
vine and  human  nature  of  Jesus  Christ 
were  so  united  as  to  form  only  one  na- 
ture, yet  without  any  change,  confusion, 
or  mixture  of  the  two  natures. 

The  JMotwphysites,  however,  pro- 
perly so  called,  are  the  followers  of 
Sevenis,  a  learned  monk  of  Palestine, 
who  was  created  patriarch  of  Antioch, 
in  513,  and  Petrus  FuUensis. 

The  Monophysites  were  encouraged 
by  the  emperor  Anastasius,  but  sup- 
pressed by  Justin  and  succeeding  em- 
perors. However,  this  sect  was  restored 
by  Jacob  Baradaius,  an  obscure  monk, 
insomuch  that  when  he  died  bishop  of 
Edessa,  A.  D.  588,  he  left  it  in  a  most 
flourishing  state  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia, 
Armenia,  Egypt,  Nubia,  Abyssuiia,  and 
other  covuitries.  The  laborious  efforts 
of  Jacob  were  seconded  in  Eg-}  pt  and 
the  adjacent  countries  by  Theodosius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria ;  and  he  became 
so  famous,  that  all  the  Monophysites  of 
the  East  considered  him  as  their  second 
pai'ent  and  foimder,  and  are  to  this  day 
called  Jacobites,  in  honour  of  their  new 
chief.  The  Monophysites  are  divided 
into  two  sects  or  parties,  the  one  Afri- 
can and  the  other  Asiatic ;  at  the  head 
of  the  latter  is  the  patriarch  of  Antioch, 
who  resides  for  the  most  part  in  the  mo- 
nastery of  St.  Athanias,  near  the  city  of 
Merdin:  the  former  are  under  tlie  ju- 
risdiction of  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
who  generally  resides  at  Grand  Cairo, 
and  are  subdivided  into  Cophts  and 
Abyssinians.  From  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tuiy  downwards,  all  the  patriarchs 
of  the  Monophysites  have  taken  the 
name  of  Ignatius,  in  order  to  show  that 
they  are  the  lineal  successors  of  Igna- 
tius, who  was  bishop  of  Antioch  in'  the 
first  century,  and  consequently  the  law- 
ful patriarch  of  Antioch.  In  the  se- 
venteenth centuiy,  a  small  body  of  Mo- 
nophysites, in  Asia,  abandoned  for  some 
time  the  doctrine  and  institution  of  their 
ancestors,  and  embraced  the  communion 
of  Rome;  but  the  African  Monophy- 
sites, notwithstanding  that  poverty  and 
ignorance  which  exposed  them  to  the 
seductions  of  sophistry  and  gain,  stood 
firm  in  their  principles,  and  made  an 
obstinate    resistance   to   the   promises. 


presents,  and  attempts  employed  by  the 
l>apal  missionaries  to  bring  them  under 
the  Roman  yoke :  and  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  those  of  Asia  and  Africa  have 
persisted  in  their  refusal  to  enter  into 
the  communion  of  the  Romish  church, 
notwithstanding  the  earnest  entreaties 
and  alluring  offers  that  have  been  made 
from  time  to  time  by  tlie  pope's  legates, 
to  conquer  their  inflexible  constancy. 

MONOTHELITES,  (compounded 
of  navos  "  single,"  and  5£\Tma,  Sato,  volo, 
"  I  will,")  an  ancient  sect  which  sprung 
out  of  the  Eutvchians ;  thus  called,  as 
only  allowing  of  one  will  in  Jesus  Christ. 

The  opinion  of  the  Monothelites  had 
its  rise  in  930,  and  had  the  emperor 
Heraclius  for  an  adherent :  it  was  the 
same  with  that  of  the  acephalous  Seve- 
rians. — The)'^  allowed  of  two  -wills  in 
Christ,  considered  with  regard  to  the 
two  natures ;  but  reduced  them  to  one, 
b}'  reason  of  the  union  of  the  two  na- 
tures, thinking  it  absurd  that  there 
should  be  two  free  wills  in  one  and  the 
same  person.  They  were  condemned 
by  tlie  sixth  general  council  in  680,  as 
being  supposed  to  destroy  the  perfection 
of  the  humanity  of  Jesus  Christ,  de- 
priving it  of  will  and  operation.  Their 
sentiments  were  afterwards  embraced 
by  the  Maronites. 

'  MONTANISTS,  a  sect  which  sprunff 
up  about  the  year  171,  in  the  reign  of 
the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius.  They 
were  so  called  from  their  leader  Mon- 
tanus,  a  Phiygian  by  birth :  whence 
they  are  sometimes  called  Phrygians 
and  Catafihrijgians. 

Montanus,  it  is  said,  embraced  Chris- 
tianity in  hopes  of  rising  to  the  digni- 
ties of  the  church.  He  pretended  to 
inspiration  ;  and  gave  out  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  had  instinicted  him  in  several 
points  which  had  not  been  revealed  to 
the  apostles.  Priscilla  and  Maximilla, 
two  enthusiastic  women  of  Phrygia« 
presently  became  his  disciples,  and  in  a 
short  time  he  had  a  great  number  of 
followers.  The  bishops  of  Asia,  being 
assembled  together,  condemned  his 
prophecies,  and  excommunicated  those 
that  dispersed  them.  Afterwards  they 
wrote  an  account  of  what  had  passed  to 
the  western  churches,  where  the  pre- 
tended prophecies  of  Montanus  and  his 
followers  were  likewise  condemned. 

The  Montanists,  finding  themselves 
exposed  to  the  censure  of  the  whole 
church,  formed  a  schism,  and  set  up  a 
distinct  society  under  the  direction  of 
those  who  called  themselves  prophets. 
— Montanus,  in  conjunction  with  Pris- 
cilla and  Maximilla,  were  at  the  head 
of  the  sect. 


MOR 


390 


MOR 


These  sectaries  made  no  alteration  jj  Horsley^s  Charge,  1790 ;  Palei/s  and 
in  the  creed.  They  only  held  that  the  j  Grove's  Moral  Fhilosofihy ;  Beanie's 
Holy  Spirit  made  Montanus  his  ox'^2lx\.\\  Elements  of  JMoral  Science;  Evans's 
for  delivering  a  more  perfect  form  of  i|  Sermons  on  Christian  Temjier;  Watts's 
disciplhie  than  what  was  delivered  by  |  Sermons  on  Christian  Morals;  Mason's 
his  apostles.  They  refused  cominunio'n  jl  C/?77.s//a?i  Morals;  H.  More's  Hints, 
for   ever   to  those  who  were  guilty  of  ;  vol.  ii.  p.  245 ;  Gisborne's  Sermons  de- 


notorious  crimes,  and  believed  that  the 
bishops  had  no  authority  to  reconcile 
them.  Thev  held  it  unlawful  to  fly  in 
time  of  persecution.  They  condemned 
second  marriages,  allowed  the  dissolu- 
tion of  marriage,  and  observed  three 
lents. 

MORAL,  relating  to  the  actions  or 
conduct  of  life,  or  that  which  deter- 
mines an  action  to  be  good  or  virtuous. 
— 2.  A  moral  agent  is  a  being  that  is 
capable  of  those  actions  that  have  a 
moral  quality,  and  which  can  properly 


signed  to  illustrate  and  enforce  Chris- 
I  tian  Morality. 

I  IN'IORAVIANS,  a  sect  generally  said 
\  to  have  arisen  under  Nicholas  Lewis, 
i  coiuit  of  Zinzendorf,  a  German  noble- 
!  man  of  the  last  centuiy,  and  thus  called 
I  because  the  first  conveits  to  their  sys- 
!  tern  were  some  Moravian  families.  Ac- 
I  cording  to  the  society's  own  account, 
'•  howe\er,  they  derive  their  origin  from 
I  the  Greek  church  in  the  ninth  century, 
when,  by  the  instrumentality  of  Me- 
thodius and  Cyrillus,two  Greek  monks. 


be  denominated  good  or  evil  in  a  moral  1  the  kings  of  Bulgaria  and  Moravia  be- 
sense. — 3.  A  moral  certainty  is  a  very  ;!  ing  converted  to  the  faith,  were,  to- 
strong  probability,  and  is  used  in  con-  ij  gether  with  their  subjects,   united    in 


tradistinction  to  mathematical  probabi- 
lity.— A:  Moral  fitness  is  the  agreement 
of  the  actions  of  any  intelligent  being 
■with  the  nature,  cu'cumstances,  and  rela- 
tion of  things. — 5.  A  moral  im/iossibility 
is  a  veiy  great  or  insuperable  difficulty  ; 
opposed  to  a  natural  impossibility.    See 


communion  with  the  Greek  church. 
Methodius  was  their  first  bishop,  and 
for  their  use  Cyrillus  translated  the 
Scriptures  into  the  Sclavonian  language. 
The  anti])athy  of  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
man churches  is  well  known,  and  by 
much  the  greater  part  of  the  Brethi'en 


Inability. — 6.  Moral  obligation  is  the  i|  were  in  process  of  time  compelled,  after 
necessity  of  doing  or  omitting  any  action  !  many  struggles,  to  submit  to  the  see  of 
in  order  to  be  happy  and  good.  See  '  Rome.  A  few,  however,  adhering  to 
Obligation. — 7.  Moral  Philosophy  is  ,!  the  rites  of  their  mother  church,  united 
the  science  of  manners,  the  knowledge  11  themselves  in  1170  to  the  Waldenses, 
of  our  duty  and  felicity.  See  Philo-  |j  and  sent  missionaries  into  many  coun- 
SOPHY. — 8.  .Moral  sense,  that  whereby  i!  tries.  In  1547  they  were  called  Eratres 
we  perceive  what  is  good,  virtuous,  and  :'  legis  Christi,  or  Brethren  of  the  Law  of 
beautiful  in  actions,  manners,  and  cha-  !'  Christ ;  because,  about  that  period,  they 
racters ;  or  it  is  a  kind  of  satisfaction  in  !|  had  thrown  off  all  re\erence  for  human 
the  mind  arising  from  the  contemplation  '■■  compilations  of  the  faith,  professing 
of  those  actions  of  rational  agents  wliich  J!  simply  to  follow  the  doctrines  and  pre- 
we  call  good  or  virtuous :  some  call  this  l!  cents  contained  in  the  word  of  God. 
natural  conscience,  others  intuitive  per-  ;|  There  being  at  this  time  no  bishops 
ception  of  right  and  wrong,  8cc.     See  i'  in  the  Bohemian  church  who  had  not 


article    Sense. — 9.    Moral   law.     See 
Law,  Evidence. 

MORALITY  is  that  relation  or  pro- 
portion which  actions  bear  to  a  given 
nile.  It  is  generally  used  in  reference 
to  a  good  life.  Moralitv  is  distinguished 
from  religion  thus :  "  Religion  is  a  stu- 
dious conformity  of  our  actions  to  the 
relations  in  which  we  stand  to  each 
other  in  civil  society.  Morality  compre- 
hends only  a  part  ot  religion  ;  but  reli- 
gion comprehends  the  whole  of  morali- 
ty. Morality  finds  all  her  motives  here 
below ;  I'eligion  fetches  all  her  motives 
from  above.    The  highest  principle  in 


submitted  to  the  pajial  jurisdiction,  three 
priests  of  the  society  of  United  Breth- 
ren were,  about  the  year  1467,  conse- 
crated by  Stephen,  bishop  of  the  Wal- 
denses, in  Austria,  (see  Waldenses;) 
and  these  prelates,  on  their  return  to 
their  own  country,  consecrated  ten  co- 
bishops,  or  co-seniors,  from  among  the 
rest  of  the  presbyters.  In  1523,  the 
United  Brethren  commenced  a  friendly 
cori'espondencc,  first  with  Luther,  and 
afterwards  with  Calvin  and  other  lead- 
ers amon^  the  reformers.  A  persecu- 
tion, wiiicTi  was  brought  upon  them  on 
this  account,  and  some  religious  disputes 


morals  is  a  just  regard  to  the  rights  of  j  which  took  place  among  themselves, 
men  ;  the  first  princhjle  in  religion  is  H  threatened  for  a  -while  the  society  with 
the  love  of  God."  The  various  duties  li  ruin ;  but  the  disputes  were,  in  1570, 
of  morality  are  considered  in  their  re-  I'  put  an  end  to  by  a  synod,  which  decreed 
ipectivc  places  in  this  work.  Sec  Bishop  |i  that    diftcrences    about   non-essentials 


MOR 


S91 


MOR 


should  not  destroy  their  union  ;  and  the 

tersecution  ceased  in  1575,  when  the 
Jnited  Brethren  obtained  an  edict  for 
the  public  exercise  of  their  religion. 
This  toleration  was  renewed  in  1609, 
and  liberty  granted  them  to  erect  new 
churches. '  But  a  civil  war,  which,  in 
1612,  broke  out  in  Bohemia,  and  a  vio- 
lent persecution  which  followed  it  in 
1621,  occasioned  the  dispersion  of  their 
ministers,  and  brought  great  distress 
upon  the  Brethren  in  general.  Some 
oi  them  fled  to  England,  others  to 
Saxony  and  Brandenburg ;  whilst  many, 
overcome  bv  the  severity  of  the  perse- 
cution, conformed  to  the  rites  of  the 
church  of  Rome.  One  colony  of  these, 
who  retained  in  purity  their  original 
principles  and  practice,  was,  in  1722, 
conducted  by  a  brother,  named  Chris- 
tian David,  from  Fulneck,  in  Moravia, 
to  Upper  Lusatia,  where  they  put 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  Ni- 
cholas Lewis,  count  ot  Zinzendorf,  and 
built  a  village  on  his  estate  at  the  foot 
of  a  hill,  called  Hutberg,  or  Watch 
Hill.  The  coimt,  who,  soon  after  their, 
arrival,  removed  from  Dresden  to  his 
estate  in  the  country,  showed  every 
mark  of  kindness  to  the  poor  emigrants  ; 
but  being  a  zealous  member  of  the 
church  established  by  law,  he  endea- 
A  oured  for  some  time  to  prevail  upon 
them  to  unite  themselves  with  it,  by 
adopting  the  Lutheran  faith  and  disci- 
pline. This  they  declined ;  and  the 
count,  on  a  more  minute  inquiry  into 
their  ancient  history  and  distinguishing 
tenets,  not  only  desisted  from  his  first 
pui-pcse,  but  became  himself  a  convert 
to  the  faith  and  discipline  of  the  United 
Brethren. 

The  synod  which,  in  1570,  put  an  end 
to  the  disputes  which  then  tore  the 
church  of  the  Brethren  into  factions, 
had  considered  as  non-essentials  the 
distinguishing  tenets  of  their  o^vn  society, 
of  the  Lutherans,  and  of  the  Calvinists. 
In  consequence  of  this,  many  of  the  re- 
formers of  both  these  sects  had  follow- 
ed the  Brethren  to  Herrnhut,  and  been 
received  by  them  into  communion  ;  but 
not  being  endued  with  the  peaceable 
spirit  of  the  church  which  they  had 
joined,  they  started  disputes  among 
themselves,  which  threatened  the  de- 
stmction  of  the  whole  establishment. 
By  the  indefatigable  exertions  of  count 
Zinzendorf  these  disputes  were  allayed; 
and  statutes  being,  in  1727,  drawn  up 
and  agreed  to  for  the  regulation  both  of 
the  internal  and  of  the  external  con- 
cerns of  the  congregation,  brotherly 
love  and  union  was  again  established"; 
and  no  schism  whatever,  in  point  of 


doctrine,  has  since  that  period  disturbed 
the  church  of  the  United  Brethren. 

In  1735,  the  count,  who,  under  God, 
had  been  the  instrument  of  renewing 
the  Brethren's  church,  was  consecrated 
one  of  their  bishops,  having  the  year 
befoi'e  been  examined  and  received  into 
the  clerical  order  by  the  Theological 
Faculty  of  Tubingen.    Dr.  Potter,  then 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  congi'atula- 
ted  him  upon  this  event,  and  promised 
his  assistance  to  a  church  of  confessors, 
of  whom    he  wrote    in  terms   of    the 
highest  respect,  for  their  having  main- 
tained the  pure  and  primitive  faith  and 
discipline  in  the  midst  of  the  most  te- 
dious and  cruel  persecutions.    That  his 
Grace,   who    had    studied   the  various 
controversies  about  church-government 
with  uncommon  success,  admitted  the 
Moravian     episcopal     succession,     we 
know  from  the  most  unquestionable  au- 
thority ;  -for  he  communicated  his  senti- 
'  ments  on  the    subject  to  Dr.  Seeker, 
,  w)vlp|Ji)ishop  of  Oxford.    In  conformity 
I  wij^rthese  sentiments  of  the  arch-bi- 
i-sliop,  we  are  assured  that  the  parlia- 
;  ment  of  Great-Britain,  after  mature  in- 
I  vestigation,    acknowledged   the    Unilas 
Fratrum  to  be  a  Protestant  episcopal 
I  church ;  and  in  1794  an  act  was  cer- 
tainly passed  in  their  favour. 
j      This  sect,  like  many  others,  has  been 
shamefully  misrepresented,  and  things 
laid  to  their  charge  of  which  they  never 
were  guilty.    It  must,  however,  be  ac- 
knowledged, that  some  of  their  converts 
having  pre\iously  imbibed  extravagant 
notions,    propagated    them    with    zeal 
among  their  new  friends  in  a  phraseo- 
j  logy  extremely  reprehensible  ;  and  that 
I  count    Zinzendorf    himself    sometimes 
adopted  the  very  improper  language  of 
I  those  fanatics,  whom  he  wished  to  re- 
■  claim  from  their  errors  to  the  sober- 
\  ness  of  truth  ;  but  much  of  the  extrava- 
]  gance   and  absurdity   which  has  been 
j  attributed   to    the  count  is  not  to  be 
I  cliarged  to  him,  but  to  those  tiersons 
!  who,  writing  his  extemfiore  serriions  in 
I  short  hand,  printed  and  published  them 
j  without  his  knowledge  or  consent. 

This  eminent  benefactor  to  the  United 
Brethren  died  in  1760,  and  it  is  with 
reason  that  they  honour  his  memory  as 
I  having  been  the  instrument  by  which 
I  God  restored  and  built  up  their  church. 
I  But  they  do  not  regard  him  as  their 
j  head,  nor  take  his  writings,  nor    the 
I  writings  of  any  other  man,  as  the  stand- 
I  ard  of  their  doctrines,  which  they  pro- 
fess   to   derive  immechately  froni  the 
word  of  God. 
It  has  been  already  observed,  that  tlie 
i  church  of  the  L^nited  Brethren  is  epis- 


MOR 


392 


MOR 


copal ;  but  though  they  consider  episco- 
pal oi'dination  as  necessary  to  qualify  the 
servants  of  the  church  for  their  i-espec- 
tive  functions,  they  allow  to  their  bi- 
shops no  elevation  of  rank  or  pre-emi- 
nent authority;  their  church  having 
from  its  first  establishment  been  go- 
verned by  synods,  consisting  of  deputies 
from  all  the  congregations,  and  by  other 
subordinate  bodies,  which  they  call  Con- 
ferences. The  synods,  which  are  ge- 
nerally held  once  in  seven  years,  are 
called  together  by  the  elders  who  were 
in  the  former  synod  appointed  to  super- 
intend the  whole  unity.  In  the  first  sit- 
ting a  president  is  chosen,  and  these  el- 
ders lay  down  their  office  ;  but  they  do 
not  withdraw  from  the  assembly ;  for 
they,  together  with  all  bishops,  seniores 
civiles,  or  lay  elders,  and  those  ministers 
who  have  the  general  care  or  inspection 
of  several  congregations  in  one  province, 
have  seats  in  the  synod  witliout  any  par- 
ticular election.  The  other  members 
are,  one  or  more  deputies  sent  by  each 
congregation,  and  such  ministers  or  mis- 
sionaries as  are  particularly  called  to 
attend.  Women,  approved  by  the  con- 
gregations are  also  admitted  as  hear- 
ers, and  are  called  upon  to  give  their 
advice  in  what  relates  to  the  ministe- 
rial labour  among  their  sex  ;  but  they 
have  no  decisive  vote  in  the  synod.  The 
votes  of  all  the  other  members  are 
equal. 

In  questions  of  importance,  or  of 
which  the  consequences  cannot  be  fore- 
seen, neither  the  majority  of  votes  nor 
the  unanimous  consent  of  all  present  can 
decide ;  but  recourse  is  had  to  the  lot. 
For  adopting  this  unusual  mode  of  de- 
riding in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  the  Breth- 
ren allege  as  reasons  the  practices  of 
the  ancient  Jews  and  the  apostles ;  the 
insufficiency  of  the  human  understanding 
amidst  the  best  and  purest  intentions  to 
decide  for  itself  in  what  concerns  the 
administration  of  Christ's  Kingdom ;  and 
their  own  confident  reliance  on  the 
comfortable  promises  that  the  Lord  Je- 
sus will  approve  himself  the  head  and 
ruler  of  his  church.  The  lot  is  never 
made  use  of  but  after  mature  delibera- 
tion and  fervent  prayer;  nor  is  any 
thing  submitted  to  its  decision  which 
does  not,  after  lacing  thoroughly  weigh- 
ed, appear  to  the  assembly  eligible  in 
itself. 

In  every  synod  the  inward  and  out- 
ward state  of  the  unity,  and  the  con- 
cerns of  the  congregations  and  missions, 
are  taken  into  consideration.  If  errors 
in  doctrine  or  deviations  in  practice 
have  crept  in,  the  synod  endeavours  not 
only  to  remove  them,  but,  by  sahitar)- 


regvdations,  to  prevent  them  for  the  fu- 
ture. It  considers  how  many  bishops 
are  to  be  consecrated  to  fill  up  the  va- 
cancies occasioned  by  death ;  and  every 
member  of  the  synod  Ogives  his  vote  for 
such  of  the  clergy  as  he  thinks  best 
qualified.  Those  who  have  the  ma- 
jority of  votes  are  taken  into  the  lot,  and 
they  who  are  approved  are  consecrated 
accordingly ;  but,  by  consecration,  they 
are  vested  with  no  superiority  over 
their  brethren,  since  it  behoves  him 
who  is  the  greatest  to  be  the  servant  of 
all. 

Towards  the  conclusion  of  eveiy  sy- 
nod a  kind  of  executive  board  is  chosen, 
and  called  The  Elders^  Conference  of  the 
Unity.  At  present  it  consists  of  thir- 
teen elders,  and  is  divided  into  four  com- 
mittees, or  departments. — 1.  The  Mis- 
sions' department,  which  superintends 
all  the  concerns  of  the  missions  into 
Heathen  countries. — 2.  The  Helpers* 
department,  which  watches  over  the 
purity  of  doctrine,  and  the  moral  con- 
duct of  the  diffisrent  congregations. — 3. 
The  Servants'  depailment,  to  which  the 
economical  concerns  of  the  Unity  are 
committed. — 4.  The  Overseers'  depart- 
ment, of  which  the  business  is  to  see 
that  the  constitution  and  disciplme  of 
the  brethren  be  every  where  main- 
tained. No  resolution,  however,  of  any 
of  these  departments  has  the  smallest 
force  till  it  be  laid  before  the  assembly 
of  the  whole  FMlers'  Conference,  and 
have  the  approbation  of  that  body.  The 
powers  of^  the  Elders'  Conference  are, 
mdeed,  very  extensive :  besides  the  ge- 
neral care  which  it  is  commissioned  by 
the  synods  to  take  of  all  the  congrega- 
tions and  missions,  it  appoints  and  re- 
moves every  sei'vant  in  the  Unity,  as 
circumstances  nviy  requii-e  ;  authorizes 
the  bishops  to  ordain  presbyters  or  dea- 
cons, and  to  conseci'ate  other  bishops ; 
and,  in  a  word,  though  it  cannot  abro- 
gate any  of  the  constitutions  of  the  sy- 
nod, or  enact  new  ones  itself,  it  is  pos- 
sessed of  the  supreme  executive  power 
over  the  whole  body  of  the  United 
Brethren. 

Besides  this  general  Conference  of  El- 
ders, which  superintends  "the  affiiirs  of 
the  whole  Unity,  there  is  another  Con- 
ference of  elders  belonging  to  each  con- 
greg  vtlon,  which  directs  its  affairs,  and 
to  which  the  bishops  and  all  other  mi- 
nisters, as  well  as  the  lay  members  of 
the  congi'cgation,  are  suljject.  This 
body,  whicli  is  called  the  Elders'  Con- 
ference of  the  Congregations,  consists,  1. 
Of  the  Minister,  as  president,  to  whom 
the  ordinary  care  of  the  congregation  is 
committed,  except  when  it  is  very  nu- 


3  MOR 

their  subjection  to  their  superiors  and 
elders  is  singular,  and  appears  parti- 
cularly striking  in  their  vmsionf;  and 
marriages.  In  the  tenner,  those  who 
have  offered  themselves  on  the  serAice, 
and  are  approved  as  candidates,  wait 
their  several  calls,  refennng  themselves 
entirely  to  the  decision  of  the  lot ;  and, 
it  is  said,  never  hesitate  when  that  hath 
decided  the  place  of  their  destination. 
(See  above.)  In  marriage,  they  may 
only  form  a  connexion  with  those  of 
their  own  communion.  The  brother 
who  marries  out  of  the  congregations  is 
immediately  cut  off  fi-om  church  fellow- 
ship. Sometimes  a  sister,  by  express 
licence  from  the  Elders'  Conference,  is 
pei-mittedto  many  a  person  of  approved 
piety  in  another  communion,  yet  still  to 
join  in  their  church  ordinances  as  be- 
fore. Abrother  may  make  hisown  choice 
of  a  partner  in  the  society ;  but  as  all  in- 
tercourse between  the  different  sexes  is 
carefully  avoided,  veiy  few  opjiortuni- 
ties  of  forming  particular  attachments 
are  found,  and  they  usually  rather  refer 
their  choice  to  the  church  than  decide 
for  themselves.  And  as  the  lot  must  be 
cast  to  sanction  their  union,  each  re- 
ceives his  partner  as  a  divine  appoint- 
ment; and,  however  strange  this  me- 
thod may  appear  to  those  who  consult 
only  their  passions  or  their  interest,  it 
function  of  the  bishop,  except  ordination,  jj  is  observable,  that  no  where  fewer  uii- 
Deacons  are  assistants  to  the  Presby-  l|  happy  marriages  are  found  than  among 
ters,  much  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  ji  the  Brethren.  But  what  characterises 
Church  of  England;  and  in  the  Breth-  |;  the  Moravians  most,  and  holds  them  up 
ren's  churches,  deaconesses  are  retain-  ii  to  the  attention  of  others,  is  their  mis- 
ed  for  the  purpose  of  privately  admon-  j  sionary  zeal.  In  this  they  are  superior 
■'■■'■  '     •  •^-      .'  toany  other  body  of  people  in  the  world. 

"  Their  missionaries,"  as  one  observes, 


MOR  3 

merous,  and  then  the  genei-al  inspection 
of  it  is  intiusted  to  a  separate  person, 
called  the  Congregation  Hcl/ier. — 2.  Of 
the  Warden,  whose  office  it  is  to  super- 
intend ;  with  the  aid  of  his  council,  all 
outward  concems  of  the  congregation, 
and  to  assist  every  individual  with  his 
advice. — 3.  Of  a  Married  Pair,  who 
care  particularly  for  the  spiritual  wel- 
fare of  the  married  people. — 4.  Of  a 
Single  Clergyjnan,  to  whose  care  the 
young  men  are  more  pai'ticularly  com- 
mitted.— And,  5.  Of  those  Women  who 
assist  in  caring  for  the  spiritual  and 
temporal  welfare  of  their  own  sex,  and 
"who  in  this  conference  have  equal  votes 
■with  the  men.  As  the  Elders'  Confer- 
ence of  each  Congregation  is  answerable 
for  its  proceedings  to  the  Elders''  Confer- 
ence of  the  Unity,  visitations  from  the 
latter  to  the  former  are  held  fi-om  time  \ 
to  time,  that  the  affairs  of  each  congi-e- 
gation,  and  the  conduct  of  its  imme- 
diate governors,  may  be  intimately  i 
known  to  the  supreme  executive  go- 
vernment of  the  whole  church. 

In  their  opinion,  episcopal  consecra- 
tion does  not  confer  any  power  to  pre- 
side over  one  or  more  congregations; 
and  a  bishop  can  discharge  no  office  but 
by-  the  appointment  of  a  sjoiod,  or  of  the 
Elders'  Conference  of  the  Unity.  Pres- 
bvters  among  them  can  perform  every 


ishing  their  own  sex,  and  visiting  them 
in  their  sickness  ;  but  though  they  are 
solemnly  blessed  to  this  office,  they  are 
not  permitted  to  teach  in  public,  and  far 
less  to  administer  the  sacraments.  They 
have  likewise  seniores  crviles,  or  lay  el- 
ders, in  contradistinction  to  spiritual 
elders,  or  bishops,  who  are  appointed  to 
watch  over  the  constitution  and  disci- 


are  all  of  them  volunteers ;  for  it  is 
an  inviolable  maxim  with  them  to  per- 
suade no  man  to  engage  in  missions. 
They  are  all  of  one  mind  as  to  the  doc- 
trines they  teach,  and  seldom  make  an 
attempt  where  there  are  not  half  a 
dozen  of  them  in  the  mission.    Their 


pline  of  the  Unity  of  the  Brethren,  over    zeal  is  calm,  steady,  persevering.  They 


the  observance  of  the  laws  of  the  coun 
try  in  which  congregations  or  missions 
are  established,  and  o\  er  the  privileges 
gi-anted  to  the  Brethren  by  the  govern- 
ments under  which  they  live.  They 
have  economies,  or  choir  houses,  where 
they  live  together  in  community :  the 
single  men  and  single  women,  widows 
and  widowers,  apart,  each  under  the 
superintendence  of  elderly  persons  of 


would  reform  the  world,  but  are  care- 
ful how  thev  quarrel  v,  ith  it.  They  cai'- 
ry  their  point  by  address,  and  the  in- 
sinuations of  modesty  and  luildness, 
which  commend  them  to  all  men,  and 
give  offence  to  none.  The  habits  of  si- 
lence, quietness,  and  decent  reserve, 
mark  their  character.  If  any  of  their 
missionaries  are  carried  off  by  sickness 
or  casualty,  men  of  the  same  stamp  are 


their  own  class.    In  these  houses  ever\-  i!  ready  to  supply  their  place." 


person  who  is  able,  and  has  not  an 
dependent  support,  labours  in  their  own 
occupation,  and  contributes  a  stipulated 
sum  for  their  maintenance.  Their  chil- 
dren aie  educated  ^v ith  peculiar  care ; 


As'  they  stand  first  on  the  list  of  those 
who  have  engaged  in  missionaiy  ex- 
ertions, we  shall  here  insert  a  farther 
account  of  them  and  their  missions,  with 
which  I  have  been  favoured  by  a  most 
3D 


MOR 


S04: 


MOR 


respectable  clergyman  of  their  denomi- 
nation :  "  When  brethren  or  sisters  hnd 
them  selves  disposed  to  serve  God  among 
the  heathen,  they  communicate  their 
wishes  and  views  to  tlie  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  synods  of  the  brethren  to 
superintend  the  missions,  in  a  confiden- 
tial letter.  If  on  particular  inquiry  into 
their  circumstances  and  connexions  no 
objection  is  found,  they  are  considered 
as  candidates.  As  to  mental  qualifica- 
tions, much  erudition  is  not  required  by 
the  brethren.  To  be  well  versed  in  the 
sacred  Scriptures,  and  to  have  an  ex- 
perimental knowledge  of  the  truths  they 
contain,  is  judged  indispensably  ne- 
cessary. And  it  has  been  found  by  ex- 
perience, that  a  good  understanding 
joined  to  a  friendly  disposition,  and, 
above  all,  a  heart  filled  with  the  love  of 
God,  are  the  best  and  the  only  essential 
qualifications  of  a  missionary.  Nor  are 
in  general  the  habits  of  a  student  so  well 
calculated  to  form  his  body  for  a  labo- 
rious life  as  those  of, a  mechanic.  Yet 
men  of  learning  are  not  excluded,  and 
their  gifts  have  been  made  useful  in  va- 
rious ways.  When  vacancies  occur,  or 
new  missions  are  to  be  begun,  the  list 
of  candidates  is  examined  ;  and  those 
who  appear  suitable  are  called  upon, 
and  accept  or  decline  the  call  as  they 
find  themselves  disposed." 

"  The  following  are  the  names  of  the 
settlements  of  the  United  Brethren  in 
heathen  countries. 

"  Begun  in  1732,  in  the  Danish  West 
India  Islands.  Li  St.  Thomas ;  New 
Herrnhut,  Nisky.  hi  St.  Croix;  Fried- 
ensberg,  Friedensthal.  In  St.  Jan; 
Bethany,  Emmaus. — In  1733:  InGree)i- 
land ;  New  Herrnhut,  Litchenfels 
Lichtenau. — 1734  :  In  Monh  America  ; 
Faii-field,  in  Upper  Canada,  Goshen  on 
the  river  Muskingum. — In  1736 :  x\t  tlie 
Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Bavians  Kloof 
(renewed  in  1792.)— In  1738  :  In  South 
America  ;  among  the  negro  slaves  at 
Paramaribo  and  Sommelsdyk ;  among 
the  free  negroes  at  Bambey,  on  the  Sa- 
rameca ;  among  the  native  Indians  at 
Hope,  on  the  river  Corentyn. — In  1754: 
In  Jamaica ;  two  settlements  in  St. 
Elizabeth's  parish. — In  1756 :  In  jin- 
tigua;  at  St.  John's,  Grace  Hill,  Grace 
Bay. — In  1760 :  Near  Tranqnebar,  in 
the  FMst  Indies;  Brethren's  Garden. 
— In  1764  :  On  the  Coast  of  Labrador ; 
Nain,  Okkak,  Hopedale. — In  1765  :  In 
Barbadoes ;  Sharon,  near  Bridgetown. 
— In  1765 :  In  the  Russian  part  of  Asia  ; 
Sarepta. — In  1775:  In  St.  Kitt's ;  at 
Basseterre. — In  1789  :  In  Tobago  ;  Sig- 
nal Hill  (renewed  in  1798.) 
"  The  Brethren  had  three  flourishing 


settlements  on  the  river  Muskingum, 
Salem,    Giiadenhuetten,    and    Schoen- 
briitia,  before  the  late  Amei'ican  war, 
during  which  these  places  were  destroy- 
ed, and  the  inhabitants  partly  murder- 
ed, partly  dispersed.    The   settlement 
Fairfield,  in  Canada,  was  made  by  those 
of  the  Indian  converts,  who  were  again 
collected  by  the  missionaries.    In  1798, 
a  colony  of  Christian  Indians  went  from 
thence  to  take  possession  of  their  for- 
mer settlements  on  the-  Muskingum, 
which  have  been  given  to  them  by  an 
act  of  congress,  and  built  a  new  town, 
called  Goshen.    Part  of  the  Indian  con- 
gregation will  remain  at  Fairfield,  in 
Canada,  as  a  good  seed  ;  our  missiona- 
ries entertaining  hopes  that  the  Gospel 
may  yet  find  entrance  among  the  wild 
Chippeway  tribe  inhabiting  those  parts. 
"  The  Mission  among  the  Hottentots 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  begun  in 
1736,  by  George  Schmidt,  a  man  of  re- 
markable  zeal  and  courage,  who  la- 
boured  successfully  among  these  peo- 
ple, till  he  had  formed  a  small  congre- 
gation of  believers,  whom  he  left  to  the 
care  of  a  pious  man,  and  went  to  Eu- 
rope with  a  view  to  represent  the  pro- 
mising state  of  the  mission,  and  to  re- 
turn with  assistants.     But,  to  his  inex- 
pressible grief  and  disappointment,  he 
was  not  permitted  by  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company  to  resume  his  labours ; 
some  ignorant  people  having  insinuated 
that   the  propagation    of    Christianity 
among  the  Hottentots  would  injure  the 
interests  of  the  colony. — Since  that  time 
to  the  year  1792  the  brethren  did  not 
cease  to  make  application  to  the  Dutch 
government  for  leave  to  send  missiona- 
ries to   the    Cape,    especially  as  they 
heard  that  the  small  Hottentot  congi-e- 
gation  had  kept  together  for  some  time, 
in  earnest  expectation  of  the  return  of 
their  beloved  teacher.    He  had  taught 
some  of  them  to  read,  and  had  left  a 
Dutch  Bible  with  them,  which  they  used 
to  read  together   for  their  edification. 
At  length,  m  1792,  by  the  mercy  of  God, 
and  the  kind  interference  of  friends  in 
the  Dutch  government,  the  opposition 
of  evil-minded  people  was  over-ruled, 
and  leave  granted  to  send  out  three  mis- 
sionaries, wiio,  on  their  arrival,  were 
willing,  at  the  desire  of  the  governor,  to 
go  first  to  Bavians  Kloof,  about  one  hun- 
dred and  sixtv  English  miles  east  from 
Capetown,  and  there  to  commence  their 
labours   on    the    spot    where    George 
Schmidt  had   resided.    Their  instruc- 
tions from  the  government  in  Holland 
granted  them  leave  to  choose  the  place 
of  theif  residence,  wherever  they  might 
find  it  most  convenient  J  but  the  circum- 


MOR 


S95 


MOR 


stances  of  the  colony  at  that  time  would 
not  admit  of  it.  Since  the  English 
have  made  themselves  masters  of  that 
country,  they  have  built  a  new  chapel ; 
and  from  the  favour  and  protection 
which  the  British  government  has  uni- 
formly granted  to  the  brethren's  mis- 
sions, we  have  the  best  hopes  that  they 
will  remain  undisturbed  and  protected 
in  their  civil  and  I'eligious  liberty.  The 
late  Dutch  government  at  the  Cape  de- 
serve also  our  warmest  thanks  for  the 
kind  manner  in  which  they  received 
and  protected  the  missionaries,  pro- 
moting the  views  of  the  mission  to  the 
utmost  of  their  power.- 

"  When  the  missionaries  first  aiTived 
at  Bavians  Kloof,  in  1792,  it  was  a  bar- 
ren, uninhabited  place.  There  are  at 
present  [1811]  twelve  missionaries  re- 
siding there  and  in  the  neighbourhood, 
and  about  1000  Hottentots. 

"The   settlement  near  Tranquebar, 
on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  was  made 
in  the  year  1760,  at  the  desire  of  the  | 
Danish  govei-nment,  chiefly  with  a  view  | 
to  bring  the  Gospel  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the    Nicobar   islands.     After  a  perse- 
vering but  fmitless  attempt  to  form  an 
establishment  at  Nancawery,  one  of  the 
Nicobar  islands,  for  that  purpos'"    the 
whole  plan  was  defeated  by  the  1    low- 
ing  circumstances:     The   Danish   go- 
vernment, finding  the  advantage  gained 
by  their  settlements  on  these  islands  not 
to  answer  the  great  expense  attending 
it,  withdrew  the  people,  who  had  al- 
ready suffered  greatly  by  the  unwhole- 
someness  of  the  climate  ;  and  the  Bre- 
thren residing  there  being  left  alone,  and 
all  communication  cut  off  between  Iran- 
quebar  and  the  Nicobar  islands,  it  be- 
came necessary  to  purchase  a  vessel  to 
convey  provisions  and  other  necessaries 
to  the  missionaries.  This  was  done  with 
gi'eat   expense    and    hazard  for  some 
years,  when,  in  the  American  war,  the 
vessel  was  taken  by  a  French  cniiser, 
thou-gh  belonging  to  a  neutral  state.  No 
redress   could   be   obtained    from    the 
French,  and  the  Brethren  at  Tranque- 
bar were  obliged  immediately  to  pro- 
cure another  vessel,  lest  the  "missiona- 
ries at  Nancawery  should  be  left  desti- 
tute.   The  enormous  expense  and  loss 
incurred  by  these  events,  and  the  sickly 
state  of  the   missionaries,  made  it  ne- 
cessary to  recall  them :   and  thus  not 
only  the  mission  in  these  islands,  but  the 
first  aim  of  the  Brethren's  settling  in  the 
East  Indies,  Avas  frustrated.     Since  that 
time,  no  success  has  attended  the  mis- 
sion near  Tranquebar.    Some  brethren, 
indeed,  went  to  Serampore  and  Patna, 
where  they  resided  for  a  tijne,  watching 


an  opportunity  to  serve  the  cause  of 
God  in  those  places  ;  but  various  cir- 
cumstances occasioned  both  these  set- 
tlements to  be  relinquished.  By  a  late 
resolution,  the  East  India  mission  will 
be  suspended  for  the  present,  the  ex- 
penses attending  it  havmg  of  late  years 
far  exceeded  our  ability. 

"  Serepta,  near  Czarizin,  on  the  Wol- 
ga,  in  Russian  Asia,  was  built  chiefly 
with  a  view  to  bring  the  Gospel  to  the 
Calmuck  Tartars,  and  other  Heathen 
tribes  m  those  vast  regions,  among 
whom  an  opening  might  be  found. 
Hitherto  but  little  success  has  attended 
the  Brethren's  labours,  though  their  ex- 
ertions have  been  gi-eat  and  persevering, 
and  equal  to  those  of  any  of  our  mis- 
sionaries in  other  countries.  Some 
Brethren  even  resided  for  a  considerable 
time  among  the  Calmucks,  conforming 
to  their  manner  of  living  in  tents,  and 
accompanying  them  wherever  they 
moved  their  camp  in  the  Steppe  (im- 
mense plains  covered  with  long  grass.) 
They  omitted  no  opportunity  of  preach- 
ing to  them  Jesus,  and  directmg  them, 
from  their  numberless  idols  and  wretch- 
ed superstitions,  to  the  only  true  God, 
and  the  only  way  of  life  and  happii-ess  ; 
but  though  they  were  heard  and  treated 
with  civility,  little  impression  could  be 
made  upon  the  hearts  of  these  Heathen. 
Four  Kirgess  Tartar  girls,  who  had 
been  ransomed  and  educated  by  the 
Brethren,  have  been  baptized.  These, 
and  one  Calmuck  woman,  have  as  yet 
been  all  the  fruits  of  this  mission.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  Calmucks  have 
quitted  those  parts.  The  Brethren, 
however,  have  been  visited  by  the  Ger- 
man colonists  living  on  the  Wolga  ;  and, 
through  God's  blessing,  societies  have 
been  formed,  and  ministers  of  the  Gos- 
pel provided  for  most  of  the  colonies  by 
their  instruiTientality.  Thus  the  mis- 
sion has  answered  a  very  beneficial 
purpose. 

"  The  most  flourishing  missions  at 
present  are  those  in  Greenland,  Anti- 
gua, St.  Kitt's,  the  Danish  West  India 
islands,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  A 
new  awakening  has  appeared  of  late 
among  the  Arawacks  and  free  negroes 
in  South  America,  the  Esquimaux  on 
the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  in  Bar- 
badoes ;  and  the  latest  accounts  give 
us  the  most  pleasing  hopes  of  success 
in  those  parts.  In  Jamaica  the  pro- 
gress of  the  missions  has  been  slow. 
However,  of  late,  some  of  the  most  con- 
siderable planters  in  that  island,  being 
convinced  of  tlie  utility  of  the  mission, 
generously  undertook  to  provide  for  the 
!  support  of  more  missionaries,  and  mea- 


MOR 


S96 


MOR 


sures  have  been  adopted  accordingly, 
to  which  we  humbly  tnist.  the  Lord  will 
give  success  in  due  time.  Several  at- 
tempts to  carry, the  Gospel  into  other 
parts  of  the  earth  made  by  the  Bre- 
thren have  not  succeeded.  In  1735,  mis- 
sionaries were  sent  to  the  Laplanders 
and  Samojedcs ;  in  1737,  and  again  in 
1768,  to  the  coast  of  Guinea ;  m  1738, 
to  the  negroes  in  Georgia ;  in  1739,  to 
'the  slaves  in  Algiers;  in  1740,  to  Cey- 
lon ;  in  1747,  to  Persia ;  in  1752,  to 
Egypt ;  of  which  we  omit  anj- particu- 
lar account,  for  bre^^ity's  sake.  In  upper 
EgA-pt  there  was  a  prospect  of  their  be- 
ing'usefid  among  the  Copts,  who  were 
visited  for  many  years. 

"A  society  for  "the  furtherance  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Heathen  was  insti- 
tuted bv  the  Brethren  in  London  as  early 
as  the  year  1751,  for  the  more  effectual 
co-operation  with  and  assistance  of  the 
said  missions'  department,  in  caring  for 
those  missionaries  who  might  pass 
through  London  to  their  several  posts. 
The  societv  was,  after  some  interruption 
in  their  meetings,  renewed  in  1766,  and 
took  the  whole  charge  of  the  mission  on 
the  coast  of  Labrador  upon  themselves  ; 
besides  continumg  to  assist  the  other 
missions  as  much  as  lay  in  their  power, 
especially  those  in  the  British  dominions. 
As  no  regular  communication  was  kept 
up  with  the  coast  of  Labrador  by  go- 
vernment, a  small  vessel  was  employed 
to  convev  the  necessaries  of  life  to  the 
missionaries  once  a  year ;  and  here  we 
cannot  help  observing,  with  thanks  to 
God,  that  upwards  of  twenty  years  have 
now  elapsed,  during  which,'  by  his  gi-a- 
cious  pi-eservation,  no  disaster  has  be- 
fallen the  vessel,  so  as  to  interrupt  a 
regular  annual  communication,  though 
tlie  coast  is  very  i-ocky  and  full  of  ice, 
and  the  whole  navigation  of  the  most 
dangerous  kind. 

"  In  Amsterdam  a  similar  society  was 
established  by  the  Brethren  hi  1746,  and 
renewed  in  1793,^t  Zeist  near  Utrecht. 
This  society  took  particular  charge  of 
the  mission  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ; 
but  the  late  troubles  in  Holland  have 
rendered  them  unable  to  lend  much  as- 
sistance for  the  present.  The  Brethren 
in  North  .\merica  established  a  socie- 
tv for  propagating  the  Ciospel  among 
the  Heathen  in  the  year  1787,  which 
was  incorjjorated  by  the  State  of  Penn- 
svlvania,  and  has  l^een  very  acti\  e  in  as- 
sisting the  missions  among  the  Indians. 
These  three  societies  do  all  in  their 
power  to  help  to  support  the  great  and 
accumulated  burdens  of  the  above- 
mentioned  missions'  department,  and 
God  has  laid  a  blessing  upon  their  ex- 


ertions. But  they  have  no  power  to  be- 
gin new  missions,  or  to  send  out  mis- 
sionaries, which,  by  the  s>Tiods  of  the 
Brethren's  church,  is  vested  solely  in  the 
Elders'  Conference  of  the  Unity." 

The  number  of  converts  and  persons 
under  instruction  in  the  different  mis- 
sions amount  to  about  55,150,  and  the 
numbei-  of  missionaries  about  163. 

As  to  the  tenets  of  the  Moravians, 
though  thej^  acknowledge  no  other 
standard  of  truth  than  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures, they  adhere  to  the  Augsburg  con- 
fession [see  that  article.]  They  pro- 
fess to  believe  that  the  kingdom  of 
Christ  is  not  confined  to  any  particular 
party,  commimity,  or  church  ;  and  they 
consider  themselves,  though  united  in 
one  body,  or  visible  church,  as  spiritually 
joined  in  the  bond  of  Christian  love  to 
all  who  are  taught  of  God,  and  belong 
to  the  universal  church  of  Christ,  how- 
ever much  they  may  differ  in  forms, 
which  they  deem  non-essentials. 

The  Moravians  are  called  Herni- 
huters,  fi-om  Hermhuth,  the  name  of 
the  village  where  they  were  first  settled. 
They  also  go  by  the  name  of  Unitas 
Fratrum,  or  United  Brethren.  If  the 
reader  wish  to  have  a  fuller  account  of 
this  society,  he  may  consult  Crantz's 
Ancieiit  and  Modern  History  of  the 
Church  of  the  United  Brethren,  1780 ; 
Sfiandenburg's  £x^iositio7i  of  the  Christ. 
Doctrine,  1784  ;  Dr.  Haweis's  Church 
History,  vol.  iii.  p.  184,  &c. ;  Crantz's 
Histoi'y  of  their  Mission  in  Greenland  ; 
The  Periodical  Accounts  of  their  Mis- 
sions ;  Loskeil's  History  of  the  JVorth 
American  Indian  Missions ;  Olden- 
dorji's  History  of  the  Brethren's  Mis- 
sions ill  the  Da7iish  West  Indian 
Isla7ids. 

MORNING  LECTURES.  See 
Lecture. 

MORTALITY,  subjection  to  death. 
It  is  a  term  also  u-^ed  to  signify  a  con- 
tagious disease  which  destroys  gi'eat 
numbers  of  either  men  or  beasts.  Bills 
of  Mortality  are  accounts  or  registers 
specifying  the  numbers  born,  maiTied, 
and  buried,  in  any  parish,  town,  or  dis- 
trict. In  general,  they  contain  only  these 
numbers,  and  even  when  thus  limited 
are  of  great  use,  by  showing  the  degi-ees 
of  healthiness  and  prolifickness,  and  the 
l)ro,gress  of  population  in  the  place 
where  they  are  kept. 

MORTIFICATION,  any  severe 
penance  observed  on  a  religious  ac- 
count. The  mortification  of  sin  in  be- 
lievers is  a  duty  enjoined  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  Rom.  viii.  13.  Col.  iii.  5.  It 
consists  in  brc.iking  the  league  with  sin  ; 
declai-ation  of  open  hostility  against  it ; 


MOS 


397 


MOU 


and  strong  resistance  of  it,  Eph.  vi.  10, 
■&c.  Gal.  V.  24.  Rom.  viii.  13.  The  means 
to  be  used  in  chis  work  are,  not  mace- 
rating the  body,  seclusion  from  society, 
our  own  resolutions  :  but  tlie  Holy  Spi- 
rit is  the  chief  agent,  Rom.  viii.  13. 
■while  faith,  prayer,  and  dependence  are 
suboi'dinate  means  to  this  end.  The 
Evidences  of  mortification  are,  not  the 
cessation  from  one  sin,  for  that  may  be 
only  exchanged  for  another ;  or  it  may 
be  renounced  because  it  is  a  gi'oss  sin  ; 
or  there  may  not  be  an  occasion  to  prac- 
tise it ;  but  if  sin  be  mortified,  we  shall 
not  yield  to  temptation  ;  our  minds  will 
be  more  spiritual ;  we  shall  find  more 
happiness  in  spiritual  services,  and  bring 
forth  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit.  Dr.  Oivc7i 
071  Mortification  and  on  the  Hulij  Sfii- 
rit,  ch.  viii.  book  4  ;  Charnock's  Works, 
vol.  ii.  p.  1313  ;  Brysori's  Sermons  on 
Rom.  viii.  p.  97,  &c. 

MOSAIC  DISPENSATION,  infe- 
riority of  the,  to  the  Gospel  dispensa- 
tion.   See  Dispensation. 

MOSAIC  LAW,  or  the  law  of  Mo- 
ses, is  the  most  ancient  that  we  know  of 
in  the  world,  and  is  of  three  kinds ;  the 
moral  law,  the  ceremonial  law,  and  the 
judicial  law.  See  Law.  Some  observe, 
that  the  diflerent  manner  in  which  each 
of  these  laws  was  delivered  may  suggest 
to  us  a  right  idea  of  their  different  na- 
tures. The  moral  law,  or  ten  command- 
ments, for  instance,  was  delivered  on 
the  top  of  the  mountain,  in  the  face  of 
the  whole  world,  as  being  of  universal 
influence,  and  obligatory  on  all  mankind. 
The  ceremonial  was  received  by  Moses 
in  private  in  the  tabernacle,  as  being  of  j 
peculiar  concern,  belonging  to  the  Jews 
only,  and  destined  to  cease  when  the 
tabernacle  was  down,  and  the  veil  of  the 
temple  rent.  As  to  the  judicial  law,  n 
was  neither  so  publicly  nor  so  audibly 
given  as  the  moral  law,  nor  yet  so  pri- 
vately as  the  ceremonial ;  this  kind  of 
law  being  of  an  indifferent  nature,  to  be 
observed  or  not  observed,  as  its  rites  suit 
with  the  place  and  government  under 
■which  we  live.  The  five  books  of  Mo- 
ses called  the  Pentateuch,  are  fi'equent- 
ly  styled,  by  way  of  emphasis,  the  ictw. 
This'  was  held  by  the  Jews  m  such  ve- 
neration, that  they  would  not  allow  it  to 
be  laid  upon  the  bed  of  any  sick  person, 
lest  it  should  be  polluted  by  touching 
the  dead.    See  Law. 

MOSQLTE,  a  temple  or  place  of  reli- 
gious worship  among  the  Mahometans. 
All  mosques  are  square  buildings,  ge- 
nerally constructed  of  stone.  Before 
the  chief  gate  there  is  a  square  court 

f)a\'ed  with  white  marljle,  and  low  gal- 
eries  round  it,  whose  roof  is  snijptii-ted 


by  rnarble  pillars.  In  these  galleries 
the  Turks  wash  themselves  before  they 
go  into  mosque.  In  each  mosque  there 
is  a  great  number  of  lamps:  and  be- 
tween these  hang  many  crystal  rings, 
ostrich's  eggs,  and  other  curiosities, 
which,  when  the  lamps  are  lighted, 
make  a  fine  show.  As  it  is  not  lawful 
to  enter  the  mosque  with  stockings  or 
shoes  on,  the  pavements  are  covered 
v.'ith  pieces  of  stuff  sewed  together,  each 
being  wide  enough  to  hold  a  row  of  men 
kneeling,  sitting,  or  prostrate.  The 
women  are  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
mosque,  but  stay  in  the  porches  with- 
out. About  every  mosque  there  are  six 
high  towers,  called  ?ninarets,  each  of 
which  has  three  little  open  galleries, 
one  above  another:  these  towers  as 
well  as  the  mosques  are  covei'ed  with 
lead,  and  adorned  with  gilding  and  other 
ornaments;  and  from  thence,  instead  of 
a  bell,  the  people  are  called  to  prayei-s 
by  certain  officers  appointed  for  that 
purpose.  Most  of  the  mosques  have  a 
kind  of  hospital,  in  which  travellers  of 
what  religion  soever  are  entertained 
three  days.  Each  mosque  has  also  a  place 
called  tarbe,  which  is  the  burying-place 
of  its  founders ;  within  which  is  a  tomb 
six  or  seven  feet  long,  covered  with 
gTeen  velvet  or  satin ;  at  the  ends  of 
which  are  two  taper.s,  and  round  it 
several  seats  for  those  who  read  the 
Koran,  and  pray  for  the  souls  of  the  de- 
ceased. 

MOTIVE,  that  which  moves, excites, 
or  invites  the  mind  to  volition.  It  may 
be  one  thing  singly,  or  many  things  con- 
jiuictly.  Some  call  it  a  faculty  of  the 
mind,  by  which  we  pursue  good  and 
avoid  evil.  See  Will  :  Edwards  on 
the  Will,  p.  7,  8,  124,  259,  384 ;  Tofiia- 
dy's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  41,  42. 

MOURNING,  sorrow,  grief.  See 
Sorrow. 

MOURNING,  a  particular  dress  oi* 
habit  worn  to  signify  grief  on  some  me- 
lancholy occasion,  particularly  the  death 
of  friends,  or  of  great  public  characters. 
The  modes  of  mouming  are  various  in 
various  countries :  as  also  are  the  co- 
lours that  obtain  for  that  end.  In  Eu- 
rope the  ordinary  colour  for  mourning 
is  black ;  in  China,  it  is  white  ;  in  Tur- 
kev,  blue  or  violet ;  in  Egypt,  yellow  ; 
in  Ethiopia,  brown.  Each  people  pre- 
tend to  have  their  reasons  tor  the  par- 
ticular colour  of  their  mourning.  White 
is  supposed  to  denote  purity  ;  yellow, 
that  death  is  the  end  of  human  hopes, 
as  leaves  when  they  fall,  and  flowers 
when  they  fade,  become  yellow  ;  brown 
denotes  the  earth,  whither  the  dead  re- 
'  tiun ;  black,  the  privation  of  life,  as  be- 


MUF 


393 


MUR 


iiigthe  privation  of  light;  blue  expresses 
the  happiness  whicliit  is  hoped  the  de- 
ceased enjoys;  and  purple  or  violet,  sor- 
row on  the  one  side,  and  hope  on  the 
othei',  as  being  a  mixture  of  black  and 
blue.  For  an  account  of  the  mourning 
of  the  Hebrews,  see  Lev.  xix.  and  xxi. 
Jcr.  xvi.  6.  Numbers,  xx.  Deuteronomy, 
xxxiv.  8. 

MOVER'S  LECTURES,  a  course  of 
eight  sermons  preached  annually,  set  on 
foot  by  the  beneficence  of  Lady  Mover, 
about  1720,  who  left  by  will  a  rich  le- 
gacy, as  a  foundation  for  the  same.  A 
great  number  of  English  writers  having 
endeavoured,  in  a  variety  of  ways,  to  in- 
validate the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  this 
opulent  and  orthodox  lady  was  influ- 
enced to  think  of  an  institution  which 
should  produce  to  posterity  an  ample  col- 
lection of  productions  in  defence  of  this 
branch  of  the  Christian  faith. — The  first 
course  of  these  lectures  was  preached 
bv  Dr.  Waterland,  on  the  Divinity  of 
Christ,  and  are  well  worthy  of  perusal. 

MUFTI,  the  chief  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal ordei",  or  primate  of  the  Mussulman 
religion.  The  authority  of  the  Mufti  is 
\  ery  great  in  the  Ottoman  empire  ;  for 
even  the  sultan  himself,  if  he  will  pre- 
serve any  appearance  of  religion,  can- 
not, without  first  h  aring  his  opinion, 
put  any  person  to  death,  or  so  much  as 
niflict  any  corporal  punishment.  In  all 
actions,  and  especially  criminal  ones, 
his  opinion  is  required  by  giving  him  a 
writing  in  which  the  case  is  stated  un- 
der feigned  names,  which  he  subscribes 
with  the  words  Olur,  or  Olmaz,  i.  e.  he 
shall  or  shall  not  be  punished. 

Such  outward  honour  is  paid  to  the 
Mufti,  that  the  grand  seignior  himself 
I'ises  up  to  him,  and  advances  seven 
steps  towards  him  when  he  comes  into 
his  presence.  He  alone  has  the  honour 
of  kissing  the  sultan's  left  shoulder, 
whilst  the  prime  vizier  kisses  only  the 
liem  of  his  garment. 

Allien  the  grand  seignior  addresses 
any  writing  to  the  Mufti,  he  gives  him 
tlie  following  titles  ;  "  To  the  esad,  the 
"  wisest  of  the  wise  :  instructed  in  all 
'■  knowledge  ;  the  most  excellent  of  ex- 
"  cellents ;  abstaining  from  things  un- 
"  lawful ;  the  spring  of  virtue  and  true 
"  science ;  lieir  of  the  prophetic  doc- 
"  trines ;  resolver  of  the  problems  of 
"  faith  ;  revealer  of  the  orthodox  arti- 
"  cles ;  key  of  tiic  treasures  of  truth ;  the 
"  light  to  doubtful  allegories ;  strengtli- 
"encd  with  the  grace  of  the  Supreme 
"  Legislator  of  Mankind,  May  the  Most 
"  High  God  perpetuate  thy  favours." 

The  election  of  the  Mufti  is  solely  in 
the  grand  seignior,  who  "presents  him 


with  a  vest  of  rich  sables,  and  allows 
him  a  salary  of  a  thousand  aspers  a  day, 
which  is  about  five  pounds  sterling.  Be- 
sides this,  he  has  the  disposal  of  certain 
benefi  ces  bel  ongin  g  to  the  royal  mosques, 
which  he  makes  no  scrapie  of  selling  to 
the  best  advantage  ;  and,  on  his  admis- 
sion to  his  office,  he  is  complimented  by 
the  agents  of  the  bashaws,  who  make 
him  the  usual  presents,  which  general- 
ly amomit  to  a  very  considerable  sum. 

Whatever  regard  was  formerly  paid 
to  the  Mufti,  it  is  now  become  veiy  lit- 
tle more  than  form.  If  he  inteiprets  the 
law,  or  gives  sentence  contrary  to  the 
sultan's  pleasure,  he  is  immediately  dis- 
placed, and  a  more  pliant  person  put  in 
his  room.  If  he  is  convicted  of  treason, 
or  any  very  great  crime,  he  is  put  into  a 
mortar  kept  for  that  purpose  in  the  se- 
\er\  towers  of  Constantinople,  and pomid- 
ed  to  death. 

MUGGLETONIANS,  the  followers 
of  Ludovic  Muggleton,  a  journeyman 
tailor,  who,  with  his  companion  Reeves 
(a  person  of  equal  obscurity,)  set  up  for 
gi-eat  prophets,  in  the  time  of  Crom- 
well. They  pretended  to  absolve  .  or 
condemn  whom  they  pleased  ;  and  gave 
out  that  they  were  the  two  last  witnesses 
spoken  of  in  the  Revelation,  who  were 
Co  appear  previous  to  the  final  destnic- 
tion  of  the  world.  They  affirmed  that 
there  was  no  devil  at  all  without  the 
body  of  man  or  woman  ;  that  the  devil 
is  man's  spirit  of  unclean  reason  and 
cursed  imagination  ;  that  the  ministry 
in  tiiis  world,  whether  prophetical  or 
ministerial,  is  all  a  lie  and  abomination 
to  the  Lord ;  with  a  variety  of  other 
vain  and  inconsistent  tenets. 

MLTRDER,  the  act  of  wilfully  and 
feloniously  killing  a  person  upon  malice 
or  forethought.  Heart  murder  is  the 
.secret  wishing  or  designing  the  death 
of  any  man  ;  yea,  the  Scripture  saith, 
"  ^^'hosoever  hateth  his  brother  is  a 
murderer,"  1  John,  iii.  15.  We  have 
instances  of  this  kind  of  murder  in  Ahab, 
1  Kings,  xxii.  9.  Jezebel,  2  Kings,  xix. 
2.  the  Jews,  Mark,  xi.  18.  David,  1 
Samuel,  xxv.  21,  22.  Jonah,  ch.  iv.  1,  4. 
Murder  is  contrary  to  the  authority  of 
God,  the  sovereign  disposer  of  life, 
Deut.  xxxii.  39 ;  to  the  goodness  of 
(iod,  who  gives  it.  Job,  x.  12  ;  to  the 
law  of  nature.  Acts,  xvi.  28  ;  to  the  love 
a  man  owes  to  himself,  his  neighbour, 
and  society  at  large.  Not  but  that  life 
may  be  taken  away,  as  in  lawful  war, 
1  Chron.  V.  22 ;  by  the  hands  of  the 
civil  magistrate  for  capital  crimes,  Deut. 
xvii.  8,  10 ;  and  in  self-defence.  See 
Self-dkff.nce. 

According  to  the  divine  law,  murder 


MUS 


399 


MYS 


is  to  be  punished  witii  death,  Deut.  xix. 
,  11,  12.  1  Kings,  ii.  28,  29.  It  is  re- 
markable tliat  God  often  gives  up  mur- 
derers to  the  terrors  of  a  guilty  con- 
science, Gen.  iv.  13,  15,  23,  24.  Such 
are  followed  with  many  instances  of 
divine  vengeance,  2  Sam.  xii.  9,  10; 
their  lives  are  often  shortened.  Psalm, 
Iv.  23 ;  and  judgments  of  their  sin  are 
oftentimes  transmitted  to  posterity,  Gen. 
xlix.  7.  2  Sam.  xxi.  1. 

MUSSELMAN,  or  Musylman,  a 
title  bj'  which  the  Mahometans  distin- 
giiish  themselves ;  signifying  in  the 
Turkish  language  "  true  believer,  or 
orthodox."  There  are  two  kinds  of 
Musselmen  very  averse  to  each  other ; 
the  one  called  Somiites,  and  the  other 
Shiites.  The  Sonnites  follow  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Alcoran  given  by  Omar ; 
the  Shiites  are  the  followers  of  Ali. 
The  subjects  of  the  king  of  Persia  ai-e 
Shiites,  and  those  of  the  grand  seignior 
Sonnites.    See  Mahoimetaks. 

MYSTERY,   nLjTiijicv,  secret  (from 
jjuEiv  TO  cTTOfia,  to  shut  the  mouth.)     It  is 
taken,  1.  for  a  truth  revealed  by  God 
which  is  above  the  power  of  our  natu- 
ral reason,  or  which  we  could  not  have 
discovered  without  revelation  ;   such  as  ; 
the  call  of  the  Gentiles,  Eph.  i.  9 ;  the 
transforming  of  some   without   dying, 
&c.  1  Cor.  XV.  51. — 2.  The  word  is  also 
used  in  reference  to  things  which  re- 
main in  part  incomprehensible  after  they 
are  revealed  ;  such  as  the  incarnation  of 
Christ,  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  5cc. 
Some  critics,  however,  observe  that  the 
wordMn  Scripture  does  not  import  what 
is  incapable  m  its  own  nature  of  being 
understood,  but  barely  a  secret,  any  thing 
not  disclosed  or  published  to  the  world. 
In  respect  to  the  mystei'ies  of  religion, 
divines  have   run   into   two  extremes. 
"  Some,"  as  one  observes,  "  have  given 
up  all   that  was  mysterious,  thinking 
that  they  were  not  called  to  believe  any 
thing  but  what  they  could  comprehend. 
But  if  it  can  be  proved  that  mysteries 
make  a  part  of  a  religion  coming  from 
God,  it  can  be  no  part  of  piety  to  discard 
them,  as  if  we  were  wiser'  than  he." 
And  besides,  upon  this  principle,  a  man 
must  believe  nothing :  the  various  works 
of  nature,  the  growth  of  plants,  instincts 
of  brutes,  union  of  body  and  soul,  pro- 
perties of  matter,  the  nature  of  spirit, 
and  a  thousand  other  things,  are  all  re- 
plete with  mysteries.    If  so  in  the  com- 
mon works  of  nature,  we  can  hardly 
suppose  tliat  those  things  which  more 
immediately  relate  to  the  Divine  Being 
himself,  can  be  without  mystery.  "  The 
other  extreme.lies  in  an  attempt  to  ex- 
plain the  mysteries  of  revelation,  so  as  to 


free  them  from  all  obscurity.  To  defend 
religion  in  this  manner,  is  to  expose  it  to 
contempt.  The  following  maxim  points 
out  the  proper  way  of  defence,  by  which 
both  extremes  are  avoided.  \Vliere 
the  truth  of  a  doctrine  depends  not  on 
the  evidence  of  the  things  themselves, 
but  on  the  authority  of  him  who  reveals 
it,  there  the  only  way  to  pro\-e  the  doc- 
trine to  be  true  is  to  prove  the  testimony 
of  him  that  revealed  it  to  be  infallible." 
Dr.  South  observes,  that  the  mysterious- 
ness  of  those  parts  of  the  Gospel  called 
the  credenda,  or  matters  of  our  faith,\% 
most  subservient  to  the  great  and  im- 
portant ends  of  religion,  and  that  upon 
these  accounts  :  First,  because  religion, 
in  the  prime  institution  of  it,  was  de- 
signed to  m.ake  impressions  of  awe  and 
reverential  fear  upon  men's  minds. — 2. 
To  humble  the  pride  and  haughtiness 
of  man's  reason. — 3.  To  engage  us  in  a 
closer  and  more  diligent  search  into 
them. — 4.  That  the  full  and  entire 
knowledge  of  divine  things  may  be  one 
principal  part  of  our  felicity  hereafter. 
Robinsoji's  Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  118,  119, 
304,  305  ;  CamfiheWs  Preliminarij  Dis- 
sertation to  the  Gospel,  vol.  i.  p.  383; 
Stilling  fleet^s  Orig-ines  Sacree,  ^'ol.  ii.  c. 
8  ;  Riilgley's  Div.  qu.  11 ;  Calmet's 
Diet.;  CrJi'deti's  Concordarice ;  Soict/i't 
Ser?n.  ser.  6.  vol.  iii. 

MYSTERIES,  a  term  used  to  de- 
note the  secret  rites  of  the  Pagan  su- 
perstition, which  were  carefully  con- 
cealed from  the  knowledge  of  the 
vulgar. 

The  learned  bishop  A\''arburton  sup- 
posed that  the  mysteries  of  the  Pagan 
religion  were  the  invention  of  legislators 
and  other  great  personages,  whom  for- 
tune or  their  own  merit  had  placed  at 
the  head  of  those  civil  societies  which 
were  formed  in  the  earliest  ages  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world. 

Mosheim  was  of  opinion  that  the  mys- 
teries were  entirely  commemorative ; 
that  they  were  instituted  with  a  view  to 
preserve  the  remembrance  of  heroes 
and  great  men  who  had  been  deified  in 
consideration  of  their  martial  exploits, 
useful  indentions,  public  virtues,  and  es- 
pecially in  consequence  of  the  benefits 
by  them  conferred  on  their  contempo- 
raries. 

Others,  however,  suppose  that  the 
mysteries  were  the  offspring  of  bigotry 
and  priestcraft,  and  that  they  originated 
in  Egypt,  the  native  land  of  idolatr)^ 
In  that  country  the  priesthood  ruled 
predominant.  The  kings  were  engraft- 
ed into  their  body  before  they  could  as- 
cend the  throne.  They  were  possessed 
of  a  third  part  of  all  tiie  land  of  Egypt. 


MYS 


'^00 


MYS 


The  sacerdotal  function  was  confined  to 
one  tribe,  and  was  transmitted  unalien- 
able from  father  to  son.  All  the  orien- 
tals, but  more  especially  the  Eg\  jjtians, 
delighted  m  mysterious  and  allegorical 
doctrines.  EA'ery  maxim  of  morality, 
eveiy  tenet  of  theology,  every  dogma  of 
philosophy,  was  wrapt  up  in  a  veil  of 
idlegory  and  mysticism.  This  propen- 
sity, no  doubt,  conspired  with  avarice 
and  ambition  to  dispose  them  to  a  dark 
and  mvsterious  system  of  religion.  Be- 
sides the  Egyptians  were  a  gloomy  race 
of  men ;  they  delighted  in  darkness  and 
solitude.  Their  sacred  rites  Avere  ge- 
nerally celebrated  with  melancholy  airs, 
"weeping,  and  lamentation.  This  gloomy 
and  unsocial  bias  of  mind  must  have 
stimulated  them  to  a  congenial  mode  of 
worship. 

MYSTICS,  a  sect  distinguished  by 
their  professing  pure,  sublime,  and  per- 
fect devotion,  with  an  entire  disinterest- 
ed love  of  God,  free  fi-om  all  selfish  con- 
siderations.— The  authors  of  this  mystic 
science,  which  sprung  up  towards  the 
close  of  the  thu'd  centuiy,  are  not 
known  ;  but  the  principles  from  which 
it  was  formed  are  manifest.  Its  first 
pi'omoters  proceeded  from  the  known 
doctrine  of  the  Platonic  school,  which 
was  also  adopted  by  Origen  and  his 
disciples,  that  the  divine  nature  was 
diflused  through  all  human  souls;  or 
that  the  faculty  of  reason,  from  which 
proceed  the  health  and  vigour  of  the 
mind,  was  an  emanation  from  God  into 
the  human  soul,  and  comprehended  in 
it  the  principles  and  elements  of  all 
tinith,  human  and  divine.  They  denied 
that  men  could,  by  labour  or  study,  ex- 
cite this  celestial  name  in  their  breasts  ; 
and  therefore  they  disapprove  highly 
of  the  attempts  of  those  who,  by  defini- 
tions, abstract  theorems,  and  profound 
specvdations,  endeavoured  to  form  dis- 
tnict  notions  of  truth,  and  to  discover  its 
hidden  nature.  On  the  contrary,  they 
maintained  that  silence,  tranquillity,  re- 
pose, and  solitude,  accompanied  with 
such  acts  as  might  tend  to  extenuate 
and  exhaust  the  body,  were  the  nieans 
by  which  the  hidden  and  internal  word 
was  excited  to  produce  its  latent  vir- 
tues, and  to  instruct  men  in  the  know- 
ledge of  divine  thiTigs.  For  thus  tliey 
reasoned : — Those  who  behold  with  a 
noble  contempt  all  human  affairs  ;  who 
turn  away  their  eyes  from  terrestrial 
vanities,  and  shut  all  the  avenues  of  the 
outward  senses  against  the  contagious 
influence  of  a  material  world,  must  ne- 
cessarily return  to  God  when  the  spirit 
is  thus  disengaged  from  the  impedi- 
Kients  that  prevented  that  happy  union ; 


and  in  this  blessed  frame  thev  not  only 
enjoy  inexpressible  raptures  from  tlieir 
communion  with  the  Supreme  Being, 
but  are  also  invested  with  the  inesti- 
mable privilege  of  contemplating  tnith 
undisguised  and  nncornapted  in  its  na- 
tive purity,  while  others  behold  it  in  a 
vitiated  and  delusn  e  form. 

The  number  of  the  My.stics  increased 
in  the  fourth  centur}',  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Grecian  fanatic,  Avho  gave 
himself  out  for  Dionysius  the  Areopa- 
gite,  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  and  probably 
lived  about  this  period;  and  by  pre- 
tending to  higher  degrees  of  perfection 
than  other  Christians,  and  practising 
greater  austerity,  their  cause  gained 
ground,  especially  in  the  eastern  pro- 
vinces, in  the  fifth  century.  A  copy  of 
the  pretended  works  of  Dionysius  was 
sent  by  Balbus  to  Lewis  the  Meek,  in 
the  year  824,  which  kindled  the  only 
flame  of  mysticism  in  the  western  pro- 
vinces, and  filled  the  Latins  with  the 
most  enthusiastic  admiration  of  this  new 
religion.  In  the  twelfth  century  these 
Mystics  took  the  lead  in  their  method 
of  expounding  the  Scriptures.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  they  were  the  most 
formidable  antagonists  of  the  schoolmen ; 
and  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth, 
many  of  them  resided  and  propagated 
their  tenets  almost  in  every  part  of 
Europe.  They  had,  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, many  persons  of  distinguished 
merit  in  their  number;  and  in  the  six- 
teenth centur)",  previous  to  the  i"eforma- 
tion,  if  any  sparks  of  real  piety  subsisted 
under  the  despotic  empire  of  supersti- 
tion, they  were  only  to  be  found  among 
the  Mystics.  The  celebi^ated  Madame 
Bourii^non,  and  the  amiable  Fenelon, 
archbishop  of  Cambray,  were  of  this 
sect.  Dr.  Haweis,  in  speaking  of  the 
Mystics'  Church  History,  \o\.  iii.  p.  47, 
thus  observes ;  "  Among  those  called 
Mystics,  I  am  persuaded  some  were 
found  who  loved  God  out  of  a  pure 
heart  fervently  ;  and  though  they  were 
ridiculed  and  reviled  for  proposing  a 
disinterestedness  of  love  without  otlier 
motives,  and  as  professing  to  feel  in  the 
cnjojment  of  the  temper  itself  an  abun- 
d;int  reward,  their  holy  and  hea^'enly 
conversation  will  carry  a  stamp  of  i^eiii 
religion  u])on  it." 

As  the  late  Reverend  William  Law, 
who  was  born  in  1687,  makes  a  dis- 
itinguishcd  figure  among  the  modern 
Mystics,  a  brief  account  of  the  outlines 
of  his  system  ma}',  perhaps  be  enter- 
taining to  some  readers. — He  suppo.sed 
that  the  material  world  was  the  very 
region  winch  orignally  belonged  to  the 
fallen  angels.    At  length  the'  light  and 


NAM 


401 


NAT 


Spirit  of  God  entered  into  the  chaos, 
and  tunied  the  angels'  mined  kingdom 
into  a  paradise  on  earth.  God  then 
created  man,  and  placed  him  there. 
He  was  made  in  the  image  of  the  Tri- 
une God,  a  living  min-or  of  the  divine 
nature,  foi-med  to  enjoy  communion 
•with  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  and 
live  on  earth  as  the  angels  do  in  heaven. 
He  was  endowed  with  immortality,  so 
that  the  elements  of  this  outward  world 
could  not  have  any  power  of  acting  on 
his  body ;  but  by  his  fall  he  changed 
the  hght,  life,  and  Spirit  of  God  for  the 
light,  life,  and  spirit  of  the  world.  He 
died  the  very  day  of  his  transgression  to 
all  the  influences  and  operations  of  the 
Spirit  of  God  upon  him,  as  we  die  to  the 
influences  of  this  world  when  the  soul 
leaves  the  body ;  and  all  the  influences 
and  operations  of  the  elements  of  this 
life  were  open  in  him,  as  they  were  in 
any  animal,  at  his  biith  into  this  world : 
he  became  an  earthly  creature,  subject 
to  the  dominion  of  this  outward  world, 
and  stood  only  in  the  highest  rank  of 
animals.  But  the  goodness  of  God  would 
not  leave  man  in  this  condition :  re- 
demption from  it  was  immediately  grant- 
ed, and  the  bruiser  of  the  serpent  brought 
the  light,  hfe,  and  spirit  of  heaven,  once 
more  into  the  human  nature.  All  men, 
in  consequence  of  the  redemption  of 
Christ,  have  in  them  the  first  spark,  or 
seed,  of  the  divine  life,  as  a  treasure  hid 
in  the  centre  of  our  souls,  to  bring  forth, 


iDy  degrees,  a  new  birth  of  that  life  which 
was  lost  in  paradise.  No  son  of  Adam 
can  be  lost,  onh'  by  turning  away  from 
the  Saviour  within  him.  The  only  re- 
ligion which  can  save  us,  must  be  that 
which  can  raise  the  light,  life,  and  Spi- 
rit of  God  in  our  souls.  Nothing  can 
enter  into  the  vegetable  kingdom  till  it 
have  the  vegetable  life  in  it,  or  be  a 
member  of  the  animal  kingdom  till  it 
have  the  animal  life.  Thus  all  nature 
joins  with  the  (iospel  in  affirming  that 
no  man  can  enter  into  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  till  the  heavenly  life  is  born  ia 
him.  Nothing  can  be  our  righteousness 
or  recovery  but  the  divine  n;iture  of  Je- 
sus Christ  derived  to  our  souls.  Lai-fs 
Life  ;  Lmv's  Spirit  of  Prayer  and  Aj\- 
Jieal ;  Law's  Spirit  of  Love,  and  on 
Regeneration. 

MYTHOLOGY,  in  its  original  im- 
port, signifies  any  kind  of  fabulous  doc- 
trine. In  its  more  appropriated  sense, 
it  means  those  faljulous  details  concern- 
ing the  objects  of  worship,  which  were 
invented  and  propagated  by  men  who 
Hved  hi  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  and 
by  them  transmitted  to  succeeding  ge- 
nei'ations,  either  by  written  records  or 
by  oral  tradition.  See  articles  Hea- 
then, Paganism,  and  Gale's  Court  of 
the  Gentiles,  a  work  calculated  to  show 
that  the  pagan  philosophers  derived 
the'r  most  sublime  seritimerts  from  the 
Scriptures.  Bryant's  System  of  Anckn' 
Mythology. 


N. 


NAME  OF  GOD.  By  this  term  we 
are  to  understand,  1.  God  himself,  Ps. 
XX.  1. — 2.  His  titles  peculiar  to  himself, 
Exod.  iii.  13,  14. — 3.  His  word,  Ps.  v. 
11.  Acts,  ix.  15. — 4.  His  works,  Ps.  viii. 
1. — 5.  His  worship,  Exod.  xx.  24. — 6. 
His  perfections  and  excellencies,  Exod. 
xxxiv.  6.  John,  xvii.  26.  The  properties 
or  qualities  of  this  name  are  these  :  1.  A 
glorious  name,  Ps.  Ixxii.  17. — 2.  Trans- 
cendent and  incomparable.  Rev.  xix. 
16.— 3.  Powerful,  Phil.  ii.  10. — 4.  Holy 
and  reverend,  Ps.  cxi.  9. — 5.  Awful  to 
the  wicked. — 6.  Perpetual,  Is.  Iv.  13. 
Cruden's  Concordance;  Hannam's 
Anal.  Comh.  p.  20. 

NATIVITY  OF  CHRIST.  The 
birth  of  our  Saviour  was  exactly  as  pre- 
dicted by  the  prophecies  of  the  Old 
Testament,  Isa.  vii.  14.  Jer.  xxxi.  22. 
He  was  bom  of  a  virgin  of  the  House  of 
David,  and  of  the  tnbe  of  Judali,  Mat- 


thew, 1.  Luke,  i.  27.  His  coming  into 
the  worl-d  was  after  the  manner  of  other 
men,  though  his  generation  and  concep- 
tion were  extraordinan\  The  place  of 
hisbirth  was  Bethlehem,  Mic.  v.  2.  Matt, 
ii.  4,  6,  where  his  parents  were  won- 
derfully conducted  by  pro\'idence,  Luke 
ii.  1,  7.  The  time  of  his  birth  was  fore- 
told by  the  prophets  to  be  before  the 
sceptre  or  civil  go\-ernment  departed 
from  Judah,  Gen.  xlix.  10.  Mai.  iii.  1. 
Hag.  ii.  6,  7,  9.  Dan.  ix.  24;  but  the 
exact  year  of  his  birth  is  not  agreed  on 
by  chronologers,  but  it  was  about  the 
four  thousandth  year  of  the  world ;  nor 
can  the  season  of  the  year,  the  month, 
and  day  in  which  he  was  bora,  be  as- 
certained. The  Egyptians  placed  it  in 
Januaiy  ;  Wagenseil,  in  February ;  Bo- 
chart,  in  March,  some,  mentioned  by 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  in  April;  others, 
in  May ;  Epiphanius  speaks  of  some  who 


NAT 


402 


NAT 


placed  it  in  June,  and  of  others  avTio  sup- 
posed it  to  have  been  in  July  ;  V.'agcn- 
seil,  wlio  was  not  sm-e  of  February  fixed 
it  probably  in  August;  Lightfoot,  on  the 
fifteenth  of  September ;  Scaliger,  Casau- 
bon,  and  (Jalvisius,  in  October ;  othei^s, 
in  November;  and  the  Latin  chmxh  in 
December.  It  does  not,  however,  ap- 
pear probable  that  the  vulgar  account  is 
right;  the  circumstance  of  the  shep- 
herds watching  their  flocks  by  night, 
agrees  not  with  the  winter  season.  Dr. 
Gill  thinks  it  was  more  likely  in  autumn, 
in  the  month  of  Septeml;)er,  at  the  feast 
of  tabei'naclcs,  to  which  there  seems 
some  reference  in  John,  i.  14.  The 
Scripture,  however,  assures  us  that  it 
was  in  the  "fulness  of  tune"  Gal.  iv. 
4;  and,  indeed  the  wisdom  of  God  is 
evidently  displayed  as  to  the  time  when, 
as  well  as  the  end  for  which  Christ 
came. 

It  was  in  a  time  when  the  world  stood 
in  need  of  such  a  Saviour,  and  was  best 
prepared  for  receiving  him.    "  About 
the  time  of  Christ's  appearance,"  says 
Dr.  Robertson,  "  there  prevailed  a  ge- 
neral opinion  that  the  Almighty  would 
send  forth  some  eminent  messenger  to 
communicate  a  more  perfect  discoveiy 
of  his  will  to  mankind.    The  dignity  of 
Chi'ist,  the  virtues  of  his  character,  the 
glory  of  his  kingdom,  and  the  signs  of  his 
commg,  were  described  by  the  ;mcient 
prophets  vrith  the  utmost  perspicuity. — 
Guided  by  the  sure  word  of  prophec}', 
the  Jews  of  that  age  concluded  the  period 
predetermined  by  God  to  be  then  com- 
pleted, and  that  the  promised  Messiah 
would  suddenly  appear,  Luke,  ii.  25  to 
38.    Nor  were  these  expectations  pe- 
culiar to  the  Jews.    By  their  dispersions 
among  so  many  nations,  I)y  their  con- 
versation with  the  learned  "men  among 
the  heathens  and  the  translation  of  their 
inspired  writings  into  a  language  almost 
universal,  the  principles  of  their  reli- 
gion were   spread  all  over  tlie  East ; 
and  it  became  the  common  belief  that  a 
Prince  would  arise  at  that  time  in  Judea, 
who  should  change  the  face  of  the  world, 
and  extend  his  empire  from  one  end  of 
the  earth  to  the  other.  Now,  had  Christ 
been    manifest  at   a    more   early    pe- 
riod, the  world  would  not  have  been 
prepared  to  meet  him  with  the  same 
fondness  and  zeal ;  had  his  appearance 
been  put  oft"  for  any  consideranle  time, 
men's  expectations  would  have  be;j;un 
to  languish,  and  the  warmth  of  desire, 
from  a  delay  of  gratification,  might  have 
cooled  and  died  away. 

"  The  birth  of  Christ  was  also  iu  the 
fulness  of  time,  if  we  consider  the  then 
jiolitical  state  of  the  world.  The  world, 


in  the  most  early  ages,  was  divided  into 
small  independent  states,  differing  from 
each  other  in  language,  manners,  laws, 
and  religion.  The  shock  of  so  many  op- 
posite interests,  the   interfei-ing  of    so 
many   contrary   views,  occasioned  the 
most  violent  convulsions  and  disorders ; 
perpetual    discord    subsisted    between 
these    rival    states,    and    hostility   and 
bloodshed    never   ceased.     Commerce 
had  not  hitherto  united  mankind,  and 
opened  the  communication  of  one  nation 
with  another:  voyages  into  remote  coun- 
tries Avere  veiy  rare;  men  moved  in  a 
narrow  circle,  little  acquainted  with  any 
thing  beyond  the   limits  of  their  OAvn 
small  territory.  At  last  the  Roman  am- 
bition  undertook    the    arduous    entei'- 
prise  of    conquering  the  Avorld:   They 
trod  down  the  kingdoms,  according  to 
Daniel's  prophetic  description,  by  their 
exceeding  strength  J    they  dei'oured  the 
whole  earth,  Dan.  vii.  7,  23.  However, 
by  enslaving  the  world,  they  civihzed 
it,  aild  while  they  oppressed  mankind, 
they  united  them  together :  the  same 
laws  were  every  where  established,  and 
the  same  languages  understood;   men 
approached  nearer  to  one  another  in 
sentiments  and  manners,  and  the  inter- 
course between  the  most  distant  comers 
of  the  earth  was  rendered  secure  and 
agreeable.    Satiated  with  victory,  the 
first  emperors  abandoned  all  thoughts 
of  new  conquests;  peace,  an  unkno-vvn 
blessing,  v^as  enjoyed  through  all  that 
vast  empire;    or  if  a  slight  war  was 
waged  on   an   outlying   and  barbarous 
frontier,  far  from  disturbing  the  tran- 
quillity, it  scarcely  drew  the  attention  of 
mankind.    The  disciples  of  Christ,  thus 
favoured  by  the  union  and  peace  of  the 
Roman   empire,  executed    their  com- 
mission with  great  advantage.  The  suc- 
cess and  rapidity  with  which  they  dif- 
fused the  knowledge  of  his  name  over 
the    world    are    astonishing*.     Nafions 
were  now  accessible  which  formerlvhad 
l)een   unknown.     Lender  this   situation, 
into  which  the  providence  of  God  had 
brought  the  world,  the  Jo;//};/  sound  in 
a  few  years  reached  those  remote  cor- 
ners of  the  earth  into  which  it  could  not 
otherwise  have  penetrated    for  many 
ages.    Thus  the  Roman  ambition  and 
braver}'  pa\'cd  the  way,  and  prepared 
the    world    for    the    reception  of  the 
Christian  doctrine." 

If  we  consider  the  state  of  the  world 
with  regai'd  to  morals,  it  e\'idcntly  ap- 
j)ears  that  the  coniing  of  Christ  was  at 
the  most  appropriate  time.  "  The  Ro- 
mans," continues  our  author,  "  by  sub- 
duing the  world,  lost  their  own  liberty. 
Many  vices,  engendered  ov  nourished 


NAT 


403 


NAT 


>jy  prosperity,  delivered  them  over  to 
the  vilest  race  of  tyrants  thiit  ever  af- 
flicted or  disgraced  human  nature.  The 
colours  are  not  too  strong  which  the 
apostle  employs  in  drawmg  the  charac- 
ter of  that  age.  See  Eph.  iv.  17,  19.  In 
this  time  of  universal  corruption  did  the 
wisdom  of  God  manifest  the  Christian 
revelation  to  the  world.  What  the  wis- 
dom of  men  could  do  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  virtue  in  a  con-upt  world  had 
been  tried  during  several  ages,  and  all 
human  devices  were  found  by  expe- 
rience to  be  of  very  small  avail ;  so  that 
no  juncture  could  be  more  proper  for 
publishing  a  I'eligion,  which,  independent 
of  human  laws  and  institutions,  explains 
the  principles  of  morals  with  admirable 
perspicuity,  and  enfoi-ces  the  practice  of 
them  by  most  persuasive  arguments." 

The  wisdom  of  God  will  still  farther 
appear  in  the  time  of  Christ's  coming, 
if^w^e  consider  the  world  with  regard  to 
its  religions  state.  "  The  Jews  seem  to 
have  Ijeen  deeply  tinctured  with  super- 
stition. Delighted  with  the  ceremonial 
prescriptions  of  the  law,  they  utterly 
neglected  the  moral.  While  the  Pha- 
risees undermined  religion,  on  the  one 
hand,  by  their  vain  traditions  and  wretch- 
ed inteipretations  of  the  law,  the  Sad- 
ducees  denied  the  immortality  of  th.e 
soul,  and  overtui'ned  the  doctrine  of  fu- 
ture rcAvards  and  punishments ;  so  that 
between  them  the  knowledge  and  power 
of  tine  religion  were  entirely  destroyed. 
But  the  deplorable  situation  of  the  hea- 
then world  called  still  more  loudly  for 
an  immediate  interjjosal  of  the  divme 
hand.  The  characters  of  their  heathen 
deities  were  infamous,  and  their  reli- 
gious worship  consisted  frequently  in 
the  vilest  and  most  shameful  rites.  Ac- 
cording to  the  apostle's  observation,  they 
•were  in  all  things  too  su/ierstitious. 
Stately  temples,  expensive  sacrifices, 
pompous  ceremonies,  magnificent  festi- 
vals, with  all  the  other  circumstances  of 
show  and  splendour,  were  the  objects 
which  false  religion  presented  to  its  vo- 
taries; but  just  notions  of  God,  obe- 
dience to  his  moral  laws,  purity  of 
heart,  and  sanctity  of  life,  were  not 
once  mentioned  as  ingredients  in  reli- 
gious ser\  ice.  Rome  adopted  the  gods 
of  almost  every  nation  whom  she  had 
conquered,  and  opened  her  temples  to 
the  gi-ossest  superstitions  of  the  most 
barbarous  people.  Her  foolish  heart 
being  dai'kened,  she  changed  the  glory 
of  the  incoiTuptible  God  into  an  image 
made  like  to  corruptible  man,  and  to 
birds,  and  four-footed  beasts,  and  creep- 
ing things,  Rom.  i.  21,  23.  No  period, 
therefore,  can  be  mentioned  when  in- 


structions would  have  been  more  sea- 
sonable and  necessav\- ;"  and  no  won- 
der that  those  who  were  looking  for  sal- 
vation should  joyfully  exclaim,  "  Bless- 
ed be  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  for  he 
hath  visited  and  redeemed  his  people." 

The  nati\-ity  of  Christ  is  celebrated 
among  us  on  the  twenty-fifth  dav  of  De- 
cember, and  divine  service  is  performed 
in  the  church,  and  in  many  places  of 
worship  among  dissenters;  but,  alas! 
the  day,  we  fear,  is  more  generally  pro- 
faned than  impro\ed.  Instead  of' being 
a  season  of  real  devotion,  it  is  a  season 
oi great  diversion.  The  luxury,  extra- 
vagance, intemperance,  obscene  plea- 
sures, and  drunkenness  that  abound,  are 
striking  proofs  of  the  immoralities  of 
the  age.  "It  is  matter  of  just  com- 
plaint," says  a  divine,  "  that  such  in'e- 
gular  and  extravagant  things  are  at  this 
time  commonly  done  bj'  many  who  call 
themselves  Christians;  as  if,  because 
the  Son  of  God  was  at  this  time  made 
man,  it  were  fit  for  men  to  make  them- 
selves beasts."  Manners  Dissertaiioi^on 
the  Birth  of  Christ ;  Lardner's  &td. 
p.  i.  vol.  ii.  p.  796,  963 ;  Gill's  Bod^^f 
Divinity  on  Incarnation  ;  Bishofi  La~D's 
Theory  of  Religion  ;  Dr.  Fodertson\<t 
admirable  Sertnon  on  the  Situation  of 
the  World  at  Christ's  a/i/iearance ; 
Edwards's  Redemption,  3Jo,  516  ;  Ro- 
binsoji's  Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  276,  317; 
John  Kdivards's  Survcij  of  all  the  Dis- 
jiensaiions  and  Methods  of  Religion 
chap.  13,  vol.  i. 

ISATURE,  the  essential  properties 
of  a  thmg,  or  that  by  which  it  is  dis- 
tinguished from  all  others.  It  is  used 
also,  for  the  system  of  the  world,  and 
the  Creator  of  it ;  the  aggregate  powers 
of  the  human  body,  and  common  sense, 
Rom.  i.  26,  27.  1  Cor.  xi.  14.  The 
word  is  also  used  in  reference  to  a  va- 
riety of  other  objects  which  we  shall 
here  enumerate.  1.  The  divine  nature  is 
not  any  external  fonn  or  shape,  but  his 
glorv',  excellency,  and  perfections,  pe- 
culiar to  himself. — 2.  Human  nature 
signifies  the  state,  properties,  and  pecu- 
liarities of  man. — 3.  Good  nature  is  a 
disposition  to  please,  and  is  compound- 
ed of  kindness,  forbearance,  forgiveness, 
and  self-denial. — 4.  The  luvj  of  nature  va 
the  will  of  God  relating  to  human  ac- 
tions, grounded  in  the  moral  difiisrences 
of  things.  Some  understand  it  in  a  more 
comprehensive  sense,  as  signifjang  those 
stated  orders  by  which  all  the  parts  of 
the  material  world  are  governed  in 
their  several  motions  and  operations. — 
5.  The  light  of  nature  does  not  consist 
merely  in  those  ideas  which  heathens 
have  actually  attained,  but  those  wMch 


NAZ 


404 


NEC 


are  presented  to  men  by  the  works  of 
creation,  and  wliich,  by  the  exertion  of 
reason,  they  may  obtain,  if  they  be  de- 
sirous of  retaining  God  in  their  mind. 
See  Religion. — 6.  By  the  dictates  of 
nature,  with  regard  to  right  and  wrong, 
we  understand  those  things  which  ap- 
pear to  the  mind  to  be  natural,  fit,  or 
reasonable. — 7.  The  state  of  nature  is 
that  in  which  men  have  not  by  nmtual 
engagements,  implicit  or  express,  enter- 
ed communities. — 8.  Depraved  nature 
is  that  corrupt  state  in  which  all  man- 
kind are  born,  and  which  inclines  them 
to  evil. 

NAZARENES,  Christians  convert- 
ed from  Judaism,  whose  chief  error  con- 
sisted in  defending  the  necessity  or  ex- 
pediency of  the  works  of  the  law,  and 
who  obstinately  adhered  to  the  practice 
of  the  Jewish  ceremonies.  The  name 
of  Nazarenes,  at  .first,  had  nothing 
odious  in  it,  and  it  was  often  given  to 
tlie  first  Christians.  The  fathers  fre- 
quently mention  the  Gospel  of  the  Na- 
zarenes, which  difters  nothing  from  that 
of  St.  Matthew,  which  was  either  in 
Hebrew  or  Syriac,  for  the  use  of  the 
first  converts,  but  was  afterwards  cor- 
rupted by  the  Ebionites.  These  Naza- 
renes preserved  their  first  Gospel  in  its 
primitive  purity.  Some  of  them  were 
still  in  being  in  the  time  of  St.  Jei-ome, 
who  does  not  reproach  them  with  any 
errors.  They  were  veiy  zealous  ob- 
Rei-\^ers  of  the  law  of  Moses,  but  held 
the  traditions  of  the  Pharisees  in  very 
grep-t  contempt. 

The  word  A''azarene  was  given  to  Je- 
sus Christ  and  his  disciples  ;  and  is  com- 
monly taken  in  a  sense  of  derision  and 
contempt  in  such  authors  as  have  writ- 
ten -igamst  Christianity. 

NAZARITES,  those  under  the  an- 
cient law  who  made  a  vow  of  observing 
a  more  than  ordinary  degree  of  purity, 
as  Samson  and  John  the  Baptist.  The 
Nazarites  engaged  by  a  vow  to  abstain 
from  wine  and  all  intoxicating  liquors; 
to  let  their  hair  grow  without  cutting  or 
sha^'ing ;  not  to  enter  into  any  hxiuse 
that  was  polluted  by  having  a  dead 
r.orpsc  in  it ;  nor  to  be  present  at  any 
funeral.  And  if  by  chance  any  one 
should  have  died  in  their  presence,  they 
began  again  the  whole  ceremony  of 
their  consecration  and  Nazariteship. — 
This  cerem')ny  generally  lasted  eight 
days,  sometimes  a  month,  and  some- 
tinnes  their  whole  lives.  When  the  time 
of  their  Nazariteship  was  accomplished, 
t1ie  priest  brought  the  person  to  the 
door  of  the  temple,  who  there  offered  to 
the  Lord  a  he-lamb  for  a  bumt-offering, 
a  she-lamb  for  an  expiatory  saci'lfice, 


and  a  ram  for  a  peace  offering.  They 
offered  likewise  loaves  and  cakes,  with 
wine  necessary  for  the  libations.  After 
all  this  was  sacrificed  and  offered  to  the 
Lord,  the  priest  or  some  other  person, 
shaved  the  head  of  the  Nazarite  at  the 
door  of  the  tabernacle,  and  burnt  his 
hair,  throwing  it  upon  the  fire  of  the  al- 
tar. Then  the  priest  put  into  the  hand 
of  the  Nazarite  the  shoulder  of  the 
rain,  roasted,  with  a  loaf  and  a  cake, 
which  the  Nazarite  returning  into  the 
hands  of  the  priest,  he  offered  them  to 
the  Lord,  lifting  them  up  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  Nazarite.  And  from  this 
time  he  might  again  drink  Avine,  his 
Nazariteship  being  now  accomplished. 
Numb.  vi.  Amos  ii.  11,  12. 

Those  that  made  a  vow  of  Nazarite- 
ship out  of  Palestine,  and  could    not 
come  to  the  temple  when  their  vow  was 
exjjired,  contented  themselves  with  ob- 
serving the  abstinence  required  by  the 
law,  and  after  that,  cutting  their  hair  in 
tlie  place  where  they  were :  as  to  the 
offerings  and  sacrifices  prescribed  by 
Moses,  which  were  to  be  offered  at  the 
temple  by  themselves,  or  by  others  for 
them,  they  deferred  this  till  they  could 
have  a  convenient  opportunity.    Hence 
it  was  that  St.  Paul,  being  at  Corinth, 
and  having  made  a  vow  of  a  Nazarite, 
had  his  hair  cut  off  at  Cenchrea,  and 
put  off  fulfilling  the  rest  of  his  vow  till 
he  should  arrive  at    Jerusalem,  Acts 
xviii.  18.    When  a  person  found  that  he 
was  not  in  a  condition  to  make  a  vow  of 
Nazariteship,  or  had  not  leisui'e  to  per- 
form the  ceremonies  belonging  to  it,  he 
contented  himself  by  contributing  to  the 
expense  of  the  sacrifice  and  offermgs  of 
those  that  had  made  and  fulfilled  this 
vow;  and  by  this  means  he  became  a 
partaker  in  the  merit  of  such  Nazarite- 
ship.   When  St.  Paul  came  to  Jerusa- 
lem, in  the  year  of  Christ  5o,  the  apos- 
tle St.  James  the  Less,  with  the  other 
brethren,  said  to  him   (Acts  xxi.  23, 
24,)  that  to  quiet  the  muids  of  the  con- 
verted Jews,  who  had  been   informed 
that  he  every  where  preached  up  the 
entire  abolition  of  the  law  of  Moses,  he 
ought  to   join   himself  to  four  of  the 
faithful  who  had  a  vow  of  Nazariteship 
upon  them,  and  contribute  to  the  charge 
of  the  ceremony  at  the  shaving  of  their 
heads;   by   which    the    new    converts 
would  perceive  that   he  continued  to 
keep  the  law,  and  that  what  they  had 
heard  of  him  was  not  true. 

NECESSARIANS,  an  appellation 
which  may  be  given  to  all  who  maintain 
tliat  moral  agents  act  from  necessity. 
See  next  article,  and  Materialists. 

NECESSITY,  whatever  is  done  by  a 


NEC 


405 


NEO 


cause  or  power  that  is  irresistible,  in 
which  sense  it  is  opposed  to  freedom. 
Man  is  a  necessaiy  agent,  if  all  his  ac- 
tions be  so  determined  by  the  causes 
preceding  each  action,  that  not  one  past 
action  could  possibly  not  have  come  to 
pass,  or  have  been'  otherwise  than  it 
nath  been,  nor  one  future  action  can 
possibly  not  come  to  pass,  or  be  other- 
wise than  it  shall  be.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  asserted,  that  he  is  a  free 
agent,  if  he  be  able  at  any  time,  under 
the  causes  and  circumstances  he  then 
is,  to  do  different  things ;  or,  in  other 
words,  if  he  be  not  unavoidably  deter- 
mined in  even"  point  of  time  by  the  cir- 
cumstances he  is  in,  and  the  causes  he 
is  under,  to  do  any  one  thing  he  does, 
and  not  possibly  to  do  any  other  thing. 
Whether  man  is  a  necessaiy  or  a  free 
agent,  is  a  question  which  has  been  de- 
bated bv  writers  of  the  first  eminence. 
Hobbes',  Collins,  Hume,  Leibnitz,  Kaims, 
Hartley,  Priestley,  Edwards,  Crombie, 
Toplady,  and  Belsham,  have  written  on 
the  side  of  necessity ;  while  Clarke, 
King,  Law,  Reid,  Butler,  Price,  Biyant, 
Wollaston,  Horslev,  Beattie,  Gregory, 
and  Butterworth,  Iiave  written  against 
it.  To  state  all  their  arguments  in  this 
place,  would  take  up  too  much  I'oom ; 
suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  Anti-necessa- 
rians suppose  that  the  doctrine  of  ne- 
cessity charges  God  as  the  author  of 
sin;  that  it  takes  away  the  freedom  of 
the  will,  renders  man  unaccountable, 
makes  sin  to  be  no  evil,  or  morality  or 
virtue  to  be  no  good  ;  precludes  the  use 
of  means,  and  is  of  the  most  gloomy  ten- 
dency. The  Necessarians  deny  these 
to  be  legitimate  consequences,  and  ob- 
ser\-e  that  the  Deity  acts  no  more  im- 
morally in  decreeing  -sacious  actions, 
than  in  permittmg  all  those  irregulari- 
ties which  he  could  so  easily  have  pre- 
vented. The  difficulty  is  the  same  on 
each  hj^othesis.  All  necessity,  say 
they,  doth  not  take  away  freedom. 
The  actions  of  a  man  may  be  at  one 
and  the  same  time  free  and  necessaiy 
too.  It  was  infallibly  certain  that  Judas 
would  betray  Christ,  yet  he  did  it  vo- 
luntarily. Jesus  Christ  necessarily  be- 
came man,  and  died,  yet  he  acted  freely. 
A  good  man  doth  naturally  and  neces- 
sarily love  his  children,  yet  voluntai-ily. 
It  is  "part  of  the  happiness  of  the  blessed 
to  love  God  unchangeably,  yet  freely, 
for  it  would  not  be  their' happiness  if 
done  by  compulsion.  Nor  does  it,  says 
the  Necessarian,  render  man  unac- 
countable, smce  the  Divine  Being  does 
no  injuries  to  his  rational  faculties ;  and 
man,  as  his  creature,  is  answerable  to 
bim;  besides  he  has  a  right  to  do  what 


he  Avill  with  his  own.  That  necessity 
doth  not  render  actions  less  morally 
good,  is  evident ;  for  if  necessaiy  virtue 
be  neither  moral  nor  praise-worthy,  it 
will  follow  that  God  himself  is  not  a 
moral  being,  because  he  is  a  necessary 
one ;  and  the  obedience  of  Christ  can- 
not be  good  because  it  was  necessary. 
Farther,  say  they,  necessity  does  not 
preclude  the  use  of  means ;  for  means 
are  no  less  appointed  than  the  end.  It 
was  ordained  that  Christ  should  be  de- 
livered up  to  death ;  but  he  could  not 
ha^e  been  betrayed  without  a  betrayer, 
nor  crucified  without  cnicifiers.  That 
it  is  not  a  gloomy  doctrine,  they  allege, 
because  nothing  can  be  more  consola- 
tory than  to  believe  that  all  things  are 
under  the  direction  of  an  all-wise  Being; 
that  his  kingdom  iiileth  over  all,  and 
that  he  doth  all  things  well.  So  far 
from  its  being  inimical  to  happiness 
they  suppose  there  can  be  no  sohd  tru« 
happiness  without  the  l^elief  of  it ;  tha' 
it  inspires  gratitude,  excites  confidence 
teaches  resignation,  produces  humiMtj, 
and  draws  the  soul  to  God.  It  is  alsi 
observed,  that  to  deny  necessity  is  t» 
deny  the  foreknowledge  of  God,  and  t» 
wrest  the  sceptre  from  the  hand  of  th« 
Creator,  and  to  place  that  capriciou, 
and  undefinable  piinciple — The  self-de- 
termining power  of  man,  upon  the 
throne  of  the  universe.  Beside,  sa} 
they,  the  Scripture  places  the  doctrine 
beyond  all  doubt.  Job  xxiii.  13,  14.  Job 
xxxiv.  29.  Prov.  xvi.  4.  Is.  xlv.  7.  Acts 
xiii.  48.  Eph.  i.  11.  1  Thess.  iii.  3.  Matt, 
x.  29,  30.  Matt,  xviii.  7.  Luke  xxiv.  26. 
John  vi.  37.  See  the  works  of  the 
above-mentioned  writers  on  the  subject; 
and  articles  Materialists,  and  Pre- 

DESTIXATION. 

NECROLOGY,  formed  of  v£«f.s,  dead, 
and  A0701,  discourse,  or  enumeration;  a 
book  anciently  kept  in  churches  and 
monasteries,  wherem  were  registered 
the  benefactors  of  the  same,  the  time  of 
their  deaths,  and  the  days  cf  their  com- 
memoration; as  also  the  deaths  of  the 
priors,  abbots,  religious  canons,  &c. 
This  was  otherwise  called  calendar  and 
obituary. 

NECROMANCY,  the  art  of  reveal- 
ing fiiture  events,  by  conversing  with  the 
dead.    See  Divination. 

NEONOMIANS,  so  called  from  the 
Greek  veos,  new,  and  vo\iis,  law ;  signi- 
fying a  new  law,  the  condition  whereof 
is  imperfect,  though  sincere  and  perse- 
vering obedience. 

Neonomianism  seems  to  be  an  essen- 
tial part  of  the  Arminian  system.  "  The 
new  covenant  of  grace  which,  through 
the  medium  of  Christ's  death,  the  Fa- 


NEO 


406 


NEO 


ther  made  with  men,  consists  according 
to  this  system,  not  in  our  being  justified 
by  faith',  as  it  apprehends  the  righte- 
ousness of  Christ,  out  in  this,  that  God, 
abrogating  the  exaction  of  perfect  legal 
{  I  obedience,  reputes  or  accepts  of  faith 
itself,  and  the  imperfect  obedience  of 
faith,  instead  of  the  perfect  obedience 
of  the  law,  and  graciously  accounts  them 
Avorthy  of  the  reward  of  eternal  life." — 
This  opinion  was  examined  at  the  synod 
k)f  Dort,  and  has  been  canvassed  be- 
tween the  Calvinists  and  Arminians  on 
Ivarious  occasions. 

':  Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
bentury  a  controversy  was  agitated 
imongst  the  English  dissenters,  in  which 
*,he  one  side,  who  were  partial  to  the 
vritings  of  Dr.  Crisp,  were  ch'arged 
nth  Antinomianism,  imd  the  other,  who 
iivoured  Mr.  Baxter,  were  accused  of 
]|^eonomianism.  Dr.  Daniel  ^^'illiams, 
%(ho  was  a  principle  writer  on  what  was 
dilled  the  Neonomian  side,  after  many 
tlings  had  been  said,  gives  the  foUow- 
iijg  as  a  summary  of  his  faith  in  refer- 
■etce  to  those  subjects. — "  1.  God  has 
e'ernally  elected  a  certain  definite  num- 
br  of  men  whom  he  will  infallibly  save 
h-  Christ  in  that  way  prescribed  by  the 
Cospel. — 2.  These  Very  elect  are  not 
jirsonally  justified  until  they  receive 
Clirist,  and  yield  up  themselves  to  him, 
nit  they  remain  condemned  whilst  un- 
c?)nverted  to  Christ. — 3.  By  the  ministry 
ft  the  Gospel  there  is  a  serious  offer  of 
fardon  and  glory,  upon  the  terms  of  the 
gospel,  to  all  that  hear  it ;  and  God 
iiereby  requires  them  to  comply  with 

}ie  said  terms. — 4.  Ministers  ought  to  use 
lese  and  other  Gospel  benefits  as  mo- 
ives,  assuring  men  tliat  if  they  believe 
ley  shall  be  justified ;  if  they  turn  to 
rod,  they  shall  live  ;  if  they  repent, 
leir  sins  shall  be  blotted  out ;  and 
yhilst  they  neglect  these  duties,  they 
jannot  have  a  personal  interest  in  these 
jespective  benefits. — 5.  It  is  by  the 
.  jOAver  of  the  Spirit  of  Christ  freely  ex- 
erted, and  not  by  the  power  of  free- 
yill,  that  the  Gospel  becomes  eftectual 
pr  the  con\ersion  of  any  soul  to  the 
Obedience  of  faith. — 6.  When  a  man  be- 
ieves,  yet  is  not  that  xcry  faith,  and 
ifiuch  less  any  other  work,  the  matter 
tf  that  righteousness  for  which  a  sinner 
8  justified,  i.  e.  entitled  to  pardon,  ac- 
ceptance and  eternal  glory,  as  righteous 
l)etore  God  ;  and  it  is  the'iniputed  rigli- 
tsousness  of  Christ  alone,  for  which  the 
Gospel  gi\-es  the  believer  a  right  to 
these  and  all  saving  blessings,  who  in 
this  respect  is  justified  by  Christ's  righ- 
teousness alone.  By  both  this  and  the 
fifth  head  it  appears  that  all  boasting  is 


excluded,  and  we  are  saved  by  free 
grace. — 7.  Faith  alone  receives  the 
Lord  Jesus  and  his  righteousness,  and 
the  subject  of  this  faith  is  a  convinced 
penitent  soul ;  hence  we  are  justified  by 
faith  alone,  and  yet  the  impenitent  are 
not  forgiven. — 8.  God  has  freely  pro- 
mised that  all  whom  he  predestinated 
to  salvation  shall  not  only  savingly  be- 
lieve, but  that  he  by  his  power  shall 
preserve  them  from  a  total  or  a  final 
apostacy. — 9.  Yet  the  believer,  whilst 
he  lives  in  this  world,  is  to  pass  the 
time  of  his  sojourning  here  with  fear, 
because  his  wai'fare  is  not  accomplish- 
ed, and  that  it  is  true,  that  if  he  draw 
back,  God  will  have  no  pleasure  in  him. 
\^'^lich  with  the  like  cautions  Godbless- 
eth  as  means  to  the  saints  perseve- 
rance, and  these  by  ministers  should  be 
so  urged. — 10.  The  law  of  innocence,  or 
moral  law,  is  so  in  force  still,  as  that 
every  precept  thereof  constitutes  duty, 
even  to  the  believer;  eveiy  breach 
thereof  is  a  sin  deserving  of  death  :  this 
law  binds  death  by  its  curse  on  every 
unbeliever,  and  the  I'ighteousness  for  or 
by  which  we  are  justified  before  God,  is 
a  righteousness  (at  least)  adequate  to 
that  law  which  is  Christ's  alone  righ- 
teousness: and  this  so  imputed  to  the 
believer  as  that  God  deals  judicially 
with  him  according  thereto. — 11.  Yet 
such  is  the  grace  of  the  Gospel,  that  it 
promisetli  in  and  Ijy  Christ  a  freedom 
from  the  curse,  forgiveness  of  sui,  and 
eternal  life,  to  e^■ery  sincere  believer ; 
which  promise  God  will  cei-tainly  per- 
fo?"m,  notwithstanding  the  threa'tenmg 
of  tlie  law." 

Dr.  Williams  maintains  the  condi- 
tionality  of  the  covenant  of  grace ;  but 
admits,  with  Dr.  Owen,  who  also  uses 
the  term  conditio?!,  that  "  Christ  under- 
took that  those  who  were  to  be  taken 
into  this  covenant  should  receive  grace 
enabling  them  to  coni]>ly  with  the  terms 
of  it,  fulfil  its  conditions,  and  yield  the 
obedience  whicli  God  required  therein." 

On  this  subject  Dr.  W  illiams  further 
says,  "  The  question  is  not  whether  the 
first  (viz.  regenerating)  grace,  by  which 
we  are  enabled  to  perform  the  condition, 
be  abs-olutely  given.  This  I  affirm, 
though  that  be  dispensed  ordinarily  in  a 
due  use  of  means,  and  m  a  way  discoun- 
tenancing idleness,  and  fit  encourage- 
ment given  to  tlie  use  of  means." 

The  following  objection,  among  others, 
was  made  b\"  several  ministers  in  1692 
against  Dr.  "Williams's  Gospel  Truth 
Staled,  is'c.  "  To  .supply  the  room  of 
the  moral  law,  vacated  by  him,  he  turns 
the  Gospel  into  a  new  Law,  in  keeping 
of  which  we  shall  be  justified  for  the 


NEO 


407 


NES 


sake  of  Christ's  righteousness,  making 
quahfications  and  acts  of  ours  a  disposing 
subordinate  righteousness,  whereby  we 
become  capable  of  being  justified  by 
Christ's  i-ignteousness." 

To  this  among  other  things  he  an- 
swers, "  The  difference  is  not,  1. 
Whether  the  Gospel  be  a  new  law  in 
the  Socinian,  Popish,  or  Arminian  sense. 
This  I  deny.  Nor,  2.  Is  faith,  or  any 
other  grace  or  act  of  ours,  any  atone- 
ment for  sin,  satisfaction  to  justice,  merit- 
ing qualification,  or  any  part  of  that 
righteousness  for  which  we  are  justified 
at  God  our  Creator's  bar.  This  I  deny 
in  places  innumerable.  Nor,  3.  Whether 
the  Gospel  be  a  law  more  new  than  is 
implied  in  the  first  promise  to  fallen 
Adam,  proposed  to  Cain,  and  obey- 
ed by  Abel,  to  the  differencing  him 
from  his  unbehe\  ing  brother.  This  I 
deny.  4.  Nor  whether  the  Gospel  be  a 
law  that  allows  sin,  when  it  accepts  such 
graces  as  true,  though  short  of  per- 
fection, to  be  the  conditions  of  our  per- 
sonal interest  in  the  benefits  purchased 
by  Christ.  This  I  deny.  5.  Nor  whether 
the  Gospel  be  a  law,  the  promises 
whereof  entitle  the  performers  of  its 
conditions  to  the  benefits  as  of  debt. 
This  I  denv. 

"  The  difference  is,  1.  Is  the  Gospel 
a  law  in  this  sense ;  viz.  God  in  Christ 
thereby  commandeth  sinners  to  repent 
of  sin,  and  receive  Christ  by  a  true 
operative  faith,  promising  that  there- 
upon thev  shall  be  united  to  him,  justi- 
fied by  his  righteousness,  pardoned,  and 
adopted ;  and  that,  persevering  m  faith 
and  true  hoUness,  they  shall  be  finally 
saved ;  also  threatening  that  if  any 
shall  die  impenitent,  unbelieving,  un- 
godly, rejecters  of  his  grace,  they  shall 
perish  without  relief,  and  endure  soi'er 

Eunishments  than  if  these  offers  had  not 
een  made  to  them  ? — 2.  Hath  the  Gos- 
pel a  sanction,  i.  e.  doth  Christ  therein 
enforce  his  commands  of  faith,  repent- 
ance and  perseverance,  by  the  afore- 
said promises  and  threatenings,  as  mo- 
tives of  our  obedience  ?  Both  of  these  I 
affirm,  and  they  deny  ;  saying  the  Gos- 
pel in  the  largest  sense  is  an  absolute 
promise  without  precepts  and  conditions, 
and  the  Gospel  threat  is  a  bull. — 3.  Do 
the  Gospel  promises  of  benefits  to  cer- 
tain graces,  and  its  threats  that  those 
benefits  shall  be  withheld  and  the  con- 
trary evils  inflicted  for  the  neglect  of 
such  graces,  render  those  graces  the 
condition  of  our  personal  title  to  those 
benefits'* — This  they  deny,  and  I  af- 
firm," &c. 

It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a 
question  in  this  controversy,  whether 


God  in  his  word  commands  sinners  td 
repent  and  believe  in  Christ,  nor  whether 
he  promises  life  to  believers,  and  threat- 
ens death  to  unbelievers ;  but  whether 
it  be  the  Gospel  under  the  form  of  a 
new  law  that  thus  commands  or  threat- 
ens, or  the  moral  law  on  its  behalf,  an^ 
whether  its  promises  to  believing  ren- 
der such  believing  a  condition  of  the 
things  promised.  In  another  contro- 
versy, however,  which  arose  about  forty 
years  afterwards  among  the  same  de- 
scription of  people,  it  became  a  question. 
whether  God  did  by  his  word  (call  it 
law  or  Gospel)  command  unregeneratt 
sinners  to  repent  and  believe  in  Christy 
or  to  do  any  thing  ivhich  is  sfiiritually, 
good.  Of  those  who  took  the  affimia-i 
tive  side  of  this  question,  one  party  atj 
tempted  to  maintain  it  on  the  gromid  oi 
the  Gospel  being  a  new  law,  consisting 
of  commands,  promises,  and  threat-t 
enings,  the  terms  or  conditions  of  Avhicl) 
were  repentance,  faith,  and  sincere  obe' 
dience.  But  those  who  first  engaged  it 
the  controversy,  though  they  ailowcj 
the  encouragement  to  repent  and  be> 
lieve  to  arise  merely  from  the  grace  a 
the  Gospel,  yet  considered  the  formjl 
obligation  to  do  so  as  arising  merely  froiji 
the  moi-al  law,  which,  requiring  sii- 
preme  love  to  God,  requires  acquies- 
cence in  any  revelation  which  he  shaa 
at  any  time  make  known.  WitsiusS 
Irenicum;  Kdivards  on  the  Will,  p.  220, 
Williams^s  Gospel  Truth ;  £,drjards\ 
Crispianism  Unmasked;  Chaimccy'i 
JVeonomianism  Uninasked ;  Adams'i 
View  of  Religio7is.  \ 

NESTORIANS,  the  followers  ofl 
Nestorius,  the  bishop  of  Constantino- 
ple, who  lived  in  the  fifth  century^ 
They  believed  that  in  Chi-ist  there  were! 
not  only  two  natures,  but  two  persons,  or 
uTTocTToa-Eij ;  of  whlch  the  one  w"as  divine,, 
even  the  eternal  word ;  and  the  other, 
which  was  hiiman,  v/a.'i  the  man  Jesus  :| 
that  these  two  persons  had  only  one 
aspect :  that  the  union  between  the  Son 
of  God  and  the  son  of  man  was  formed 
in  the  moment  of  the  virgin's  conception, 
and  was  never  to  be  dissolved :  that  it 
was  not,  however,  an  union  of  nature  or 
of  person,  but  only  of  will  and  affection. 
(Nestorius,  however,  it  is  said,  denied 
the  last  position :)  that  Christ  was  there- 
fore to  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
God,  who  dwelt  in  him  as  in  his  temple  ; 
and  that  Mary  was  to  be  called  the  mo- 
ther of  Chi'ist,  and  not  the  mother  of 
God. 

One  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the 
Nestorian  cause  was  Barsumas,  created 
bishop  of  Nisibis,  A.  D.  435.  Such  was 
his  zeal  and  success,  that  the  Nesto- 


NES 


40S 


NEW 


S-ians  wlio  still  remain  in  Chaldea,  Per- 
sia, Assyria,  and  the  adjacent  countries, 
consider  him  alone  as  their  parent  and 
founder.  By  him  Pherozes,  the  Per- 
sian monarch,  was  persuaded  to  expel 
those  Christians  who  adopted  the  opi- 
3nions  of  the  Greeks,  and  to  admit  tne 
iNestoriansin  their  place,  putting  them  in 
possession  of  the  principal  seat  of  ec- 
■clesiastical  authority  in  Persia,  the  see 
■of  Seleucia,  Avhich  the  patriarch  of  the 
!l^estorians  had  always  hlled  even  do\vn 
"to  our  time.  Barsumas  also  erected  a 
school  at  Nisibis,  from  which  proceeded 
those  Nestorian  doctors  who  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries  spread  abroad  their 
"tenets  through  Egj'pt,  Syria,  Arabia, 
3ndia,  Taitary,  and  China. 

In  the  tenth  century,  the  Nestorians 
3n  Chaldea,  whence  they  are  sometimes 
called  Chaldeans,  extended  their  spi- 
Titual  conquests  beyond  Mount  Imaus, 
and,  introduced  the  Christian  religion  in- 
to Taitary  properly  so  called,  and  espe- 
cially into  that  country  called  Karit, 
bordering  on  the  northern  part  of  China. 
The  prince  of  that  country,  whom  the 
Nestorians  converted  to  the  Christian 
Taith,  assumed,  according  to  the  vulgar 
i-adition,  the  name  ef  John  after  his 
japtism,  to  which  he  added  the  sur- 
aame  of  Presbyter,  from  a  principle  of 
inodesty;  whence,  it  is  said,  his  suc- 
cessors were  each  of  them  called  Pres- 
ier  John  until  the  time  of  Gengis  Khan. 
But  Mosheim  observes,  that  the  famous 
Prester  John  did  not  begin  to  reign  in 
that  part  of  Asia  before  the  conclusion 
of  the  eleventh  century.  The  Nesto- 
rians formed  so  considerable  a  body  of 
Christians,  that  the  missionaries  of 
Rome  were  industrious  in  their  endea- 
vours to  reduce  them  under  the  papal 
yoke.  Innocent  IV.  in  1246,  and  Ni- 
cholas IV.  m  1278,  used  their  utmost  ef- 
forts for  this  purpose,  but  without  suc- 
cess. Till  the  time  of  pope  Julius  III. 
the  Nestorians  acknowledged  but  one 
patriarch,  who  resided  first  at  Bagdad, 
and  afterwards  at  Mousul ;  but  a  divi- 
sion ai'ising  among  them,  in  1551  the  pa- 
triarchate became  divided,  at  least  for 
a  time,  and  a  new  patriarch  was  conse- 
crated by  that  pope,  whose  successors 
fixed  their  residence  in  the  city  of  Or- 
mus,  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Per- 
sia, where  they  still  continue,  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  Simeon  ;  and  so 
tar  down  as  the  seventeenth  century, 
these  patriarchs  persevered  in  their 
communion  with  the  church  of  Rome, 
but  seem  at  present  to  have  witlidrawn 
themselves  from  it.  The  great  Nesto- 
rian pontiffs,  who  form  the  opposite 
party,  and  look  Avith  a  hostile  eye  on 


this  little  patriarch,  have,  since  the 
year  1559,  been  distinguished  by  the  ge- 
neral denomination  of  Elias,  aiid  reside 
constantly  in  the  city  of  Mousul.  Their 
spiritual  dominion  is  very  extensive, 
takes  in  a  great  part  of  Asia,  and  com- 
prehends also  within  its  circuit  the  Ara- 
bian Nestorians,  and  also  the  Christians 
of  St.  Thomas,  who  dwell  along  the 
coast  of  Malabar.  It  is  observed,  to  the 
lasting  honour  of  the  Nestorians,  that  of 
all  the  Christian  societies  established  in 
the  East,  they  have  been  the  most  cai*e- 
ful  and  successful  in  avoiding  a  multi- 
tude of  superstitious  opinions  and  prac- 
tices that  have  infected  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches.  About  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  Romish 
missionaries  gained  over  to  their  com- 
munion a  small  number  of  Nestorians, 
whom  they  formed  into  a  congregation 
or  church ;  the  patriai-chs  or  bishops  of 
which  reside  in  the  city  of  Amida,  or 
Diarbeker,  and  all  assume  the  deno- 
mination of  Joseph.  Nevertheless,  the 
Nestorians  in  general  persevere  to  our 
own  times  in  their  refusal  to  enter  into 
the  communion  of  the  Romish  church, 
notwithstanding  the  earnest  entreaties 
and  alluring  offers  that  have  been  made 
by  the  pope's  legate  to  conquer  their  in- 
flexible constancy 
NEW   JERUSALEM    CHURCH. 

See  SwEDENBORGIANS. 

NEW  PLATONICS,  or  Ammoni- 
ANS,  so  called  from  Ammonius  Saccas, 
who  taught  with  the  highest  applause 
in  the  Alexandrian  school,  about  the 
conclusion  of  the  second  century.  This 
learned  man  attempted  a  general  re- 
conciliation of  all  sects,  whether  philo- 
sophical or  religious.  He  maintained 
that  the  great  principles  of  all  philoso- 
phical and  religious  truth  were  to  be 
found  equally  in  all  sects,  and  that  tlicy 
differed  from  each  other  only  in  their 
method  of  expressing  them,  in  some 
opinions  of  little  or  no  importance ;  and 
that  by  a  proper  intci-pretation  of  their 
respective  sentiments  they  might  easily 
be  united  in  one  body. 

Ammonius  supposed  that  true  philo- 
sophy derived  its  origin  and  its  con- 
sistence from  the  eastern  nations,  that 
it  was  taught  to  the  Eg\'ptians  by  Her- 
mes, that  it  was  brought  from  them  to 
the  fir^ks,  and  preserved  in  its  ori,e;i- 
nal  purity  by  Plato,  who  Avas  the  best  in- 
terpreter of  Hermes  and  the  other  ori- 
ental sages.  He  maintained  that  all  the 
different  religions  which  prev.iiled  in 
the  world  were  in  their  original  integri- 
ty, conformable  to  this  ancient  philoso- 
phy :  but  it  unfortunately  happened  that 
the  symbols  and  fictions  under whiil;. 


NIC 


according  to  the  ancient  manner,  the 
ancients  delivered  their  precepts  and 
doctrines,  were  in  process  of  time  er- 
roneously understood,  both  by  priests 
and  people,  in  a  literal  sense  ;  that  in 
consequence  of  this,  the  invisible  beings 
and  demons  whom  the  Supreme  Deity 
had  placed  in  the  different  parts  of  the 
universe  as  the  ministers  of  his  pro^^- 
dwice,  were  by  the  suggestions  of  super- 
stition converted  into  gods,  and  wor- 
shipped with  a  multiplicity  of  vain  ce- 
remonies. He  thereiore  msisted  that 
all  the  religions  of  all  nations  should  be 
restored  to  their  primitive  standard : 
viz.  The  ancient  philosophy  of  the  east : 
and  he  asserted  that  his  project  was 
agreeable  to  the  intentions  of  Jesus 
Christ,  whom  he  acknowledged  to  be  a 
most  excellent  man,  the  friend  of  God; 
and  affii-med  that  his  sole  view  in  de- 
scending on  earth,  was  to  set  bounds  to 
the  reigning  superstition,  to  remove  the 
errors  which  had  crept  into  the  religion 
of  all  nations,  but  not  to  abolish  the  an- 
cient theology  from  which  they  were 
derived. 

Taking  these  principles  for  granted, 
Ammonius  associated  the  sentiments  of 
the  Eg}T)tians  with  the  doctrines  of 
Plato;  and  to  finish  this  conciliatory 
scheme,  he  so  interpreted  the  doctrines 
of  the  other  philosophical  and  religious 
sects,  by  art,  invention,  and  allegoiy, 
that  they  seemed  to  bear  some  sem- 
blance to  the  Egyptian. and  Platonic 
systems. 

W'ith  regard  to  moral  discipline, 
Ammonius  permitted  the  people  to  live 
according  to  the  law  of  their  country, 
and  the  dictates  of  nature ;  but  a  more 
sublime  rule  was  laid  down  for  the  v/ise. 
They  were  to  raise  above  all  terrestrial 
things,  by  the  towering  efforts  of  holy 
contemplation,  those  souls  whose  origin 
was  celestial  and  divine.  They  were 
ordered  to  extenuate  by  hunger,  thirst, 
and  other  mortifications,  the  sluggish 
body,  which  restrains  the  liberty  of  the 
immortal  spirit,  that  in  this  life  they 
might  enjoy  communion  with  the  Su- 
preme Bemg,  and  ascend  after  death, 
active  and  unencumbered,  to  the  uni- 
versal Parent,  to  live  in  his  pi-esence  for 
ever. 

NEW  TESTAMENT.  See  Inspi- 
ration, and  Scripture. 
NICENE  CREED.  See  Creed. 
NICOLAITANS,  heretics  who  as- 
sumed this  name  from  Nicholas  of  An- 
tioch ;  who,  being  a  Gentile  by  birth, 
first  embraced  Judaism  and  then  Chris- 
tianity ;  when  his  zeal  and  devotion  re- 
commended him  to  the  church  of  Jeini- 
salem,  by  whom  he  was  chosen  one  of 


409  NON 

the  first  deacons.  Many  of  the  primi- 
ti\  e  writers  believed  that  Nicholas  was 
rather  the  occasion  than  the  author  of 
the  infamous  practices  of  those  who  as- 
sumed his  name,  who  w'erc  expressly 
condemned  by  the  Spirit  of  God  him- 
self, Rev.  ii.  6.  And,  indeed,  their 
opinions  and  actions  were  highly  extra- 
vagant and  criminal.  They  allowed  a 
community  of  wives,  and  made  no  dis- 
tinction between  ordinary  meats  and 
those  offered  to  idols.  Accoi'ding  to 
Eusebius,  the)'  subsisted  but  a  short  time ; 
but  TertuUian  says,  that  they  only 
changed  their  name,  and  that  their 
heresies  passed  into  the  sect  of  the 
Cainites. 

NOETIANS,  Christian  heretics  in 
the  third  century,  followers  of  Noetius, 
a  philosopher  of  Ephesus,  who  pretend- 
ed that  he  was  another  Moses  sent  by 
God,  and  that  his  brother  was  a  new 
Aaron.  His  heresy  consisted  in  affirm- 
ing that  there  was  but  one  pei-son  in  tlie 
Godhead  ;  and  that  the  Word  and  tlie 
Holy  Spirit  wei'e  but  external  denomi- 
nations given  to  God  in  consequence  of 
different  operations;  that,  as  Creator, 
he  is  called  Father;  as  incaiTiate,  6b«,- 
and  as  descenduig  on  the  apostles,  Holy 
Ghost. 

NONCONFORMISTS,    those  who 
refuse  to  join  the  estabhshed  church. 
Nonconformists  m  England  may  be  con- 
sidered of  three  sorts.     1.  Such  as  ab- 
sent themselves  from  divine  worship  in 
the  established  church  through  total  ir- 
religion,  and  attend  the  service  of  no 
other  persuasion. — 2.  Such  as    absent 
themselves  on  the  plea  of  conscience ; 
as   Presbyterians,  Independents,    Bap- 
tists, &c. — 3.  Internal  Nonconformists, 
or    unprincipled   clergymen,   who  ap- 
plaud and  propagate  doctrines  quite  in- 
consistent with  several  of  those  articles 
they  promised  on  oath  to  defend.    The 
word  is  generally  used  in  reference  to 
those  ministers  who  Avere  ejected  from 
their  livings  by  the  act  of  Uniformity, 
in  1662.     The   number   of   these  was 
about  two    thousand.    However   some 
affect  to  treat  these  men  with  indiffer- 
ence, and  suppose  that  their  consciences 
were  more  tender  than  they  need  be,  it 
must  be  remembei-ed,  that  they  were 
men  of  as  extensive  learning,  great  abili- 
ties, and  pious  conduct  as  ever  appear- 
ed.   Mr.  Locke,  if  his  opinion  have  any 
weight,  calls  them  "  worthy,  learned, 
pious,  orthodox  divines,  who   did   not 
throw  themselves  out  of   sei-vice,  but 
were    forcibly    ejected."    Mr.    Bogue 
thus   draws  their    character:  "As    to 
their  public  7nini8tration"  he  says, "  they 
were  orthodox,  experimental,  serious, 
3F 


NON 


410 


NON 


affectionate,  regular,  faithful,  able,  and 
popular  pi'eachers.  As  to  their  moral 
qualities,  they  were  devout  and  holy ; 
faithful  to  Christ  and  the  souls  of  men  ; 
wise  and  pnident;  of  great  liberality 
and  kindness  ;  and  strenuous  advocates 
for  liberty,  ci\il  and  religious.  As  to 
their  intellectual  qualities,  they^  were 
learned,  eminent,  and  laborious."  These 
men  were  dri\en  from  their  houses, 
from  the  society  of  their  friends,  and 
exposed  to  the  greatest  difficulties. 
Their  burdens  were  gi-eatiy  increased  by 
the  Conventical  act,  whereby  they  Avere 
prohibited  from  meeting  for  any  exer- 
cise of  religion  (above  five  in  number) 
in  any  other  manner  than  allowed  by 
the  liturgy  or  practice  of  the  Church  of 
England.  For  the  first  offence  the  pen- 
alty was  three  months  imprisonment,  or 
pay  five  poimds  ;  for  the  second  offence, 
six  iTtonths  imprisonment,  or  ten  pounds; 
and  for  the  third  offence,  to  be  banish- 
ed to  some  of  tlie  American  plantations 
for  seven  years,  or  pay  one  hundred 
pounds;  and  in  case  they  returned,  to 
suffer  death  without  benefit  of  clergy. 
By  virtue  of  this  act,  the  gaols  were 
quickly  filled  with  dissenting  Protes- 
tants, and  the  trade  of  an  informer  was 
very  gainful.  So  great  was  the  severity 
of  these  times,  says  Neale,  that  they 
were  afraid  to  pray  m  their  families,  if 
abo\  e  four  of  their  acquaintance,  who 
came  only  to  visit  them,  were  present : 
some  families  scrupled  asking  a  bless- 
ing on  their  meat  if  five  strangers  were 
at  table. 

But  this  was  not  all  (to  say  nothing  of 
the  Test  act:)  in  1665,  an  act  was 
brought  into  the  House  to  banish  them 
from  their  friends,  commonly  called  the 
Oxford  Five  Mile  Act,  by  Avhich  all 
dissenting  ministers,  on  the  penalty  of 
forty  pounds,  who  Avould  not  take  an 
oath  (that  it  was  not  lawful,  upon  any 
pretence  ivhatever,  to  take  arms  against 
the  king,  8cc.)  were  prohibited  from 
coming  within  five  miles  of  any  city, 
town  corporate,  oi*  borough,  or  any  place 
where  they  had  exercised  their  ministr}', 
and  from  teaching  any  school.  Some 
few  took  the  oath ;  others  could  not, 
consequently  suffered  the  penalty. 

In  1673,  "the  mouths  of  the  high 
church  pulpiteers,  were  encouraged  to 
open  as  loud  as  possible.  One,  m  his 
sermon  before  the  House  of  Commons, 
told  them,  that  the  Nonconformists 
ought  not  to  be  tolerated,  but  to  be  cur- 
ed by  vengeance.  He  urged  them  to 
set  fii-e  to  the  faggot,  and  to  teach  them 
by  scourges  or  scorpions,  and  open  their 
eyes  with  gall." 

Svich  were  the  dreadful  consequences 


of  this  intolerant  spirit,  that  it  is  sup- 
posed near  eiglit  thousand  died  in  prison 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  It  is  said, 
that  Mr.  Jeremiah  "VA^hite  had  carefully 
collected  a  list  of  those  who  had  suffer- 
ed between  Charles  II.  and  the  revolu- 
tion, which  amounted  to  sixty  thousand. 
The  same  persecutions  were  canned  on 
in  Scotland ;  and  there,  as  well  as  in 
England,  many,  to  avoid  persecutiSn, 
fled  from  their  country. 

But,  notwithstanding  all  these  dread- 
ful and  furious  attacks  upon  the  Dis- 
senters, ,  they  were  not  extirpated. 
Their  very  persecution  was  in  their  fa- 
vour. The  mfamous  characters  of  their 
informers  and  persecutors;  their  piety, 
zeal,  and  fortitude,  no  doubt,  had  influ- 
ence on  considerate  minds ;  and,  indeed, 
they  had  additions  from  the  established 
church,  which  "  several  clergymen  in 
this  reign  deserted  as  a  persecutinc 
church,  and  took  their  lot  among  them. 
In  addition  to  this,  king  James  suddenly 
altered  his  measures,  granted  a  univer- 
sal toleration,  and  preferred  Dissenters 
to  places  of  trust  and  profit,  though  it 
was  e\idently  with  a  view  to  restore 
popery. 

King  William  coming  to  the  throne, 
the  famous  Toleration  Act  passed,  by 
which  they  were  exempted  from  suffer- 
ing the  penalties  above-mentioned,  and 
permission  given  them  to  worship  God, 
according  to  the  dictates  of  their  own 
consciences.  In  the  latter  end  of  Queen 
Anne's  reign  they  began  to  be  a  little 
alarmed.  An  act  of  parliament  passed, 
called  the  Occasional  Conformity  Bill, 
which  prevented  an)'  person  in  office 
vuider  tne  government  entering  into  a 
meeting-house.  Another,  called  the 
Schism  Bill,  had  actually  obtained  the 
royal  assent,  which  suffered  no  Dis- 
senters to  educate  their  own  children, 
but  required  them  to  be  put  into  the 
hands  of  Conformists ;  and  which  for- 
bade all  tutors  and  schoolmasters  being 
present  at  any  conventicle,  or  dissent- 
ing place  of  worship ;  but  the  a  ery  day 
this  iniquitous  act  was  to  have  taken 
place,  the  Queen  died  (August  1,  1714.) 

But  his  majesty  king  George  I.  being 
fully  satisfied  that  these  hardships  were 
brought  ujjon  the  Dissenters  for  their 
steady  adherence  to  the  Protestant  suc- 
ce.';sion  in  his  illustrious  house  against 
a  tory  and  jacobite  ministry,  who  were 
paving  the  way  for  a  popish  pretender, 
procured  the  repeal  of  them  m  the  fifth 
year  of  his  reign  ;  though  a  clause  was 
left  that  forbade  the  mayor  or  other 
magistrate  to  go  into  any  meeting  for 
religious  worship  with  the  ensigns  of  his 
oifice.      See  Bogue's    Chart^c  at  Mr. 


NOV 


411 


NUN 


Knig/it^s  Ordinatioji ;  Aeak-'s  History 
of  ilie  Puritans;  De  Laime^s  Plea  fur 
trie  A^'onconformists;  Palmer'n  jYoncon- 
formists'  Mem.  Martiii's  Letters  on 
Nonconformity;  Robinso7i's  Lectures; 
Cornish's  History  of  JSTonconforinity; 
Dr.  Calamy^s  Life  of  Baxter;  Pierce's 
Vindication  of  the  Dissenters;  Bogue 
and  Bennetts  History  of  the  Dissenters. 

NONJURORS,  those  who  refused  to 
take  the  oaths  to  government,  and  who 
were  in  consequence  under  certain  in- 
capacities, and  liable  to  certain  severe 
penalties.  It  can  scarcely  be  said  that 
there  are  any  Nonjurors  now  in  the 
kingdom ;  and  it  is  well  known  that 
all  penalties  have  been  removed  both 
from  Papists  and  Protestants,  former!}^ 
of  that  denomination,  as  well  in  Scot- 
land as  in  England. — The  members  of 
the  Episcopal  chuixh  of  Scotland  have 
long  been  denominated  Nonjurors ;  but 
perhaps  they  are  now  called  so  im- 
properly, as  the  gi-ound  of  their  dif- 
ference from  the  establishment  is  more 
on  account  of  ecclesiastical  than  politi- 
cal principles. 

NON-RESIDENCE,  the  act  of  not 
residing  on  an  ecclesiastical  benefice. 
Nothing  can  reflect  greater  disgrace  on 
a  clergyman  of  a  parish,  than  to  receive 
the  emolument  without  ever  visiting  his 
parishioners,  and  being  unconcerned  for 
the  welfare  of  their  souls ;  yet  this  has 
been  a  reigning  eA'il  in  our  land,  and 
proves  that  there  are  too  many  who 
care  little  about  the  flock,  so  that  they 
may  but  live  at  ease.  Let  such  remem- 
ber what  an  awful  account  they  will 
have  to  give  of  talents  misapplied,  time 
wasted,  souls  neglected,  and  a  saci-ed 
office  abused. 

NOVATIANS,  A'ovatiani,  a  sect  of 
ancient  heretics  that  arose  towards  the 
close  of  the  third  century  ;  so  called 
from  Novatian,  a  priest  of  Rome.  They 
were  also  called  Cathari,  from  xaSojos, 
pure,  q.  d.  Puritans. 

Novatian  first  separated  from  the 
communion  of  pope  Cornelius,  on  pre- 
tence of  his  being  too  easy  in  admittmg 
to  repentance  those  who  had  fallen  off 
in  times  of  persecution.  He  indulged 
his  inclination  to  severity  so  far,  as  to 
deny  that  such  as  had  fallen  into  gross 
sins,  especially  those  who  had  aposta- 
tized from  the  faith  under  the  persecu- 
tion set  on  foot  by  Decius,  were  to  be 
again  received  into  the  l^osom  of  the 
church;  grounding  his  opinion  en  that 
of  St.  Paul :  "  It  is  impossible  for  those 
"  who  were  once  enlightened,  and  have 
"  tasted  of  the  heavenly  gift,  &c.  if  they 
"  shall  fall  away,  to  renew  them  again 
''unto  repentance,"  Heb.  \\,  4  to  6. 


The  Novatians  did  not  deny  but  a 
person  falling  into  any  sin,  how  grievous 
soever,  might  obtain  pardon  by  repent- 
ance ;  for  they  themselves  recommended 
repentance  in  the  strongest  terms ;  but 
their  doctiine  was,  that  the  church  had 
it  not  in  its  power  to  recei\e  sinners 
into  its  comnmnion,  as  having  no  way 
of  remitting  sins  but  by  baptism  :  whicn 
once  received  could  not  be  repeated. 

In  process  of  time  the  J\'ovatians 
softened  and  moderated  the  rigour  of 
their  master's  doctrine,  and  only  refused 
absolution  to  very  great  sinners. 

The  two  leaders,  Novatian  and  No- 
vatus,  were  proscribed,  and  declared 
heretics,  not  for  excluding  penitents 
from  communion,  but  for  denying  that 
the  church  had  the  power  of  remitting 
sins. 

NOVITIATE,  a  year  of  probation 
appointed  for  the  trial  of  religious, 
whether  or  no  they  have  a  vocation, 
and  the  necessary  qualities  for  li^'ing  up 
to  the  nde,  the  observation  whereof 
they  are  to  bind  themselves  to  by  vow. 
The  novitiate  lasts  a  year  at  least; 
in  some  houses  more.  It  is  esteemed 
the  bed  of  the  civil  death  of  a  no- 
vice, who  expires  to  the  world  by  pro- 
fession. 

NUN,  a  woman,  in  several  Christian 
countries,  who  devotes  herself,  in  a  clois- 
ter or  nunnery,  to  a  religious  life.  See 
article  Monk. 

There  were  women  in  the  ancient 
Christian  church,  who  made  public  pro- 
fession of  virginity  before  the  monastic 
life  was  known  in  the  world,  as  appears 
from  the  writings  of  Cyprian  and  Ter- 
tullian.  These,  for  distinction's  sake, 
are  sometimes  called  ecclesiastical  vir- 
gins, and  were  commonly  enrolled  in 
the  canon  or  matricula  of  the  church. 
They  differed  from  the  monastic  vir- 
gins chiefly  in  this,  that  they  lived  pin- 
vately  in  their  father's  houses,  where- 
as the  others  lived  in  communities : 
but  their  profession  of  virginity  was 
not  so  strict  as  to  make  it  criminal 
for  tViem  to  many  aftei'wards,  if  they 
thought  fit.  As  to  the  consecration  of 
virgins,  it  had  some  things  peculiar  in  it  : 
it  was  usually  performed  publicly  in  the 
church  by  the  bishop.  The  virgin  made 
a  public  profession  of  her  resolution, 
and  then  the  bishop  put  upon  her  the  ac- 
customed habit  of  sacred  virgins.  One 
part  of  this  Iiabit  was  a  veil,  called  the 
sacrum  valamen;  another  was  a  kind 
of  mitre  or  coronet  worn  upon  the  head. 
At  pi'esent,  when  a  woman  is  to  be 
made  a  nun,  the  habit,  veil,  and  ring  of 
the  candidate  are  carried  to  the  altar ; 
and  siie  hei'self,  accompanied  by  her 


OAT 


413 


OAT 


nearest  relations,  is  conducted  to  the 
bishop,  who,  after  mass  and  an  anthem 
(the  subject  of  which  is  "  that  she  ought 
to  have  her  lamp  lighted,  because  the 
bridegroom  is  coming  to  meet  her") 
pronounces  the  benediction  :  then  she 
rises  up,  and  the  bishop  consecrates  the 
new  habit,  sprinkling  it  with  holy  water. 
When  the  candidate  has  put  on  her  re- 
ligious habit,  she  presents  herself  before 
the  bishop,  and  sings  on  her  knees 
Ancilla  Christi  sum,  8cc.  then  she  re- 
ceives the  veil,  and  afterwards  the  ring, 
by  which  she  is  married  to  Christ ;  and, 
lastly,  the  crown  of  virginity.  When 
she  is  crowned,  an  anathema  is  de- 


nounced against  all  who  shall  attempt  to 
make  her  break  her  vows.  In  some 
few  instances,  perhaps,  it  may  have 
happened  that  nunneries,  monasteries, 
&c.  may  have  been  useful  as  well  to 
morality  and  religion  as  to  literature ; 
in  the  gross,  however,  they  have  been 
highly  prejudicial;  and  however  well 
they  might  be  supposed  to  do  when 
viewed  in  theory,  in  fact  they  are  un- 
natural and  impious.  It  was  surely  far 
from  the  intention  of  Pi-ovidence  to  se- 
clude youth  and  beauty  in  a  cloister,  or 
to  deny  them  the  innocent  enjoyment 
of  their  years  and  sex.  See  Monas- 
tery. 


o. 


OATH,  a  solemn  affirmation,  where- 
in we  appeal  to  God  as  a  witness  of  the 
truth  of  what  we  say,  and  with  an  im- 
pi'ecation  of  his  vengeance,  or  a  renun- 
ciation of  his  favoui",  if  what  we  affirm 
be  false,  or  what  we  promise  be  not 
performed. 

"  The  forms  of  oaths"  says  Dr.  Paley, 
"like  other  religious  ceremonies,  have 
in  all  ages  been  various ;  consisting, 
however,  for  the  most  part,  of  some  bo- 
dily action,  and  of  a  prescribed  form  of 
words.  Amongst  the  Jews,  the  juror 
held  up  his  right  hand  towards  heaven, 
Psal.  cxliv.  8.  Rev.  x.  5.  (The  same 
form  is  retained  m  Scotland  still.) 
Amongst  the  Jews,  also,  an  oath  of  fi- 
delitv  was  taken  by  the  servant's  put- 
ting his  hand  under  the  thigh  of  his  lord. 
Gen.  xxiv.  2.  Amongst  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  the  form  varied  witli  the  sub- 
ject and  occasion  of  the  oath:  in  pri- 
vate contracts,  the  paities  took  hold  of 
each  other's  liand,  whilst  they  swore  to 
the  performance ;  or  they  touched  the 
altar  of  the  god  by  whose  divinity  they 
swore.  Upon  more  solemn  occasions  it 
was  the  custom  to  slay  a  victim,  and  the 
beast  being  struck  down,  witli  cei'- 
tain  ceremonies  and  invocations,  gave 
birth  to  the  expressions,  n^vtiv  o^xov,  fa-ire 
pactum;  and  to  our  Englisli  phrase 
translated  from  these,  of  ^  striking  a 
hurgain.'  The  forms  of  oaths  in  Chris- 
tian countries  are  also  very  diftcrent ; 
l)ut  in  no  country  in  the  world  worse 
contrived,  either  to  convey  the  meaning, 
or  impress  the  obligation  of  an  oatli 
than  in  our  own.  The  juror  with  us 
after  repeating  the  promise  or  affirma- 
tion which  the  oath  is  intended  to  con- 
firm, adds,  '  So  help  me  Godj'  or  more 


frequently  the  substance  of  the  oath  is 
repeated  to  the  juror  by  the  magistrate, 
who  adds  in  the  conclusion,  'So  help 
you  God.'  The  energy  of  the  sentence 
resides  in  the  particle  so;  so,  that  is, 
hac  lege,  upon  condition  of  my  speak- 
mg  the  truth,  or  performmg  this  pro- 
mise, and  not  otherwise,  may  God  help 
me.  The  juror,  whilst  he  hears  or  re- 
peats the  words  of  the  oath,  holds  his 
right  hand  upon  the  Bible,  or  other  book 
containing  the  four  Gospels,  and  at  the 
conclusion  kisses  the  book.  This  ob- 
scure and  eliptical  form,  together  with 
the  levity  and  frequency  with  which  it 
is  administered,  has  brought  about  a 
general  inadvertency  to  the  obligation 
of  oaths,  which  both  in  a  religious  and 
political  view  is  much  to  be  lamented : 
and  it  merits  public  consideration," 
continues,  Mr.  Paley,  "  whether  the  re- 
quiring of  oaths  on  so  many  frivolous 
occasions,  especially  in  the  customs,  and 
in  the  qualification  for  petty  offices,  has 
any  other  effect  than  to  make  them 
cheap  in  the  minds  of  the  people.  A 
pound  of  tea  cannot  travel  regularly 
from  the  ship  to  the  consumer  without 
costing  half  a  dozen  oaths  at  least ;  and 
the  same  security  for  the  due  discharge 
of  their  office,  namely,  that  of  an  oath, 
is  required  from  a  churchwarden  and 
an  archbishop,  from  a  petty  constable, 
and  the  chief  justice  of  England.  Oaths, 
however,  are  lawful;  and,  whatever  be 
the  form,  the  signification,  is  the  same." 
It  is  evident  that  so  far  as  atheism  pre- 
vails, oaths  can  be  of  no  use.  "  Remove 
God  once  out  of  heaven,  and  there  will 
never  be  any  gods  upon  earth.  If  man's 
nature  had  not  something  of  subjection 
ill  it  to  a  Supreme   Being,  and  inhe- 


OAT 


413  OBE 


rent  principles,  obliging  him  how  to 
behave  himself  towai'd  God  and  toward 
the  rest  of  the  world,  government  could 
never  have  been  introduced,  nor  thought 
of.  Nor  can  there  be  the  least  mutual 
security  between  governors  and  govern- 
ed, where  no  God  is  admitted.  For  it 
is  acknowledging  of  God  in  his  supi'eme 
judgment  over  the  world,  that  is  the 
ground  of  an  oath,  and  upon  which  the 
validity  of  all  human  engagements  de- 
pend." Historians  have  justly  remark- 
ed, that  when  the  reverence  for  an  oath 
began  to  be  diminished  among  the  Ro- 
mans, and  the  loose  Epicurian  system, 
■which  discarded  the  belief  of  Provi- 
dence, was  introduced,  the  Roman  ho- 
nour and  prosperity  from  that  period 
began  to  decline.  "The  Quakers  re- 
fuse to  swear  upon  any  occasion,  found- 
ing their  sciniples  concerning  the  law- 
fulness of  oaths,  upon  our  Saviour's 
prohibition,  'Swear  not  at  all.'  Matt. 
V.  34.  But  it  seems  our  Lord  there  re- 
feiTcd  to  the  \'icious,  wanton,  and  un- 
authorized swearing  in  common  dis- 
course, and  not  to  judicial  oaths ;  for  he 
himself  answered  when  inten-ogated 
upon  oath,  Matt.  xxvi.  63,  64.  ^lai-k 
XIV.  61.  The  apostle  Paul  also  makes 
use  of  expressions  which  contain  the 
nature  of  oaths,  Rom.  i.  9.  1  Cor.  xv.  31. 
2  Cor.  i.  18.  Gal.  i.  20.  Heb.  vi.  13,  17. 
Oaths  are  nugatory,  that  is,  carry  with 
them  no  proper  force  or  obligation, 
unless  we  believe  that  God  will  punish 
false  swearing  with  more  severity  than 
a  simple  lie  or  bi-each  of  pivmise ;  for 
which  belief  there  are  the  following 
reasons:  1.  Perjury  is  a  sin  of  gi-eater 
deliberation. — 2.  It  violates  a  superior 
confidence. — 3.  God  directed  the  Israel- 
ites to  swear  by  his  name,  Deut.  vi.  13. 
X.  20.  and  was  pleased  to  confinn  his 
covenant  with  that  people  by  an  oath ; 
neither  of  which  it  is  probable  he  would 
have  done,  had  he  not  intended  to  re- 
present oaths  as  having  some  meaning 
and  effect  beyond  the  obhgation  of  a 
barepromise. 

"  Promissory  oaths  are  not  binding 
where  the  promise  itself  would  not  be  so. 
See  Promises.  As  oaths  are  designed 
for  the  security  of  the  imposer,  it  is 
manifest  that  they  must  be  interpreted 
and  performed  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
imposer  intends  them."  Oaths,  also, 
must  never  be  taken  but  in  matters  of 
importance,  nor  irreverently,  and  with- 
out godly  fear.  Paleu's  Mor.  Phil.  ch. 
16.  vol.  1.  Grot,  de  Jure,  1.  11.  c.  13.  .^ 
21 ;  Barrow's  Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  15 ; 
Burnet's  Exfiosition  of  the  39th  Article 
of  the  Church  of  England;  Herjiort's 
tm   of  imjiortance,  and 


Jassaij  on  truth 


Doctrine  of  Oaths ;  Doddridge's  Lec- 
tures, lect.  189;  Tillotson's  '22d  Ser- 
mon ;  Wolsehfs  Unreasonableness  of 
Atheism,  p.  152. 

Oath  of  allegiayice  is  as  follows  ;  "  I, 
A.  B.  do  sincerely  promise  and  swear, 
that  I  will  be  faithful,  and  bear  tnie  al- 
legiance to  his  Majest)',  King  George. 
So  help  me  God."  This  is  taken  by 
Protestant  dissenting  ministers,  when 
licensed  by  the  civil  magistrate ;  as  is 
also  the  following : 

Oath  of  siifiremacy  ;  "  I,  A.  B.  do 
swear,  that  I  do  from  my  heart  abhor, 
detest,  and  abjure,  as  impious  and  he- 
retical, that  damnable  doctrine  and  po- 
sition, that  princes  excommunicated  or 
deprived  by  the  Pope,  or  any  authority 
of  the  see  of  Rome,  may  be  deposed  or 
murdered  by  their  subjects,  or  any  other 
whatsoever.  And  I  do  declare,  that  no 
foreign  prince,  person,  prelate,  state,  or 
potentate,  hath,  or  ought  to  have,  any 
jurisdiction,  power,  pre-eminence,  or 
authority,  ecclesiastical  or  spiritual, 
within  this  realm.  So  help  me  God." 

OBEDIENCE,  the  performance  of 
the  commands  of  a  superior.  Obedi- 
ence to  God  may  be  considered,  1.  As 
-virtual,  which  consists  in  a  belief  of  the 
Gospel,  of  the  holiness  and  equity  of  its 
precepts,  of  the  tiiith  of  its  promises, 
and  a  true  repentance  of  all  our  sins. 
— 2.  Actual  obedience,  which  is  the  pi'ac- 
tice  and  exercise  of  the  several  graces 
and  duties  of  Christianity. — 3.  Perfect 
obedieyxce,  which  is  the  exact  confor- 
rnitv  of  our  hearts  and  lives  to  the  law 
i  of  God,  without  the  least  imperfection. 
This  last  is  only  pecuhar  to  a  glorified 
state.  The  obligation  lue  are  under  to 
obedience  arises,  1.  From  the  relation  we 
stand  in  to  God  as  creatures.  Psalm 
xcv.  6. — 2.  From  the  law  he  hath  re- 
vealed to  us  in  his  word.  Psalm  cxix.  3. 
2  Peter,  i.  5,  7. — 3.  From  the  blessings 
of  his  providence  we  are  constantly  re- 
ceivmg,  i\cts  xiv.  17.  Psalm  cxlv.— 
4.  From  the  love  and  goodness  of  God 
in  the  grand  work  of  redemption,  1  Cor. 
vi.  20.  As  to  the  nature  of  this  obedi- 
ence, it  must  be,  1.  Active,  not  only 
avoiding  what  is  prohibited,  but  per- 
forming what  is  commanded.  Col.  hi.  8, 
10. — 2.  Personal ;  for  though  Christ  has 
obeyed  the  law  for  us  as  a  covenant  of 
works,  yet  he  hath  not  abrogated  it  as 
a  rule  of  life,  Rom.  vii.  22.  Rom.  iii.  31. 
— 3.  Sincere,  Psalm  li.  6.  1  Tim.  i.  5. — 
4.  Affectionate,  springing  from  love,  and 
not  from  terror,  1  John  v.  19.  1  John 
ii.  5.  2  Cor.  v.  14. — 5.  Diligent,  not 
slothfully,  Gal.  i.  16.  Psalm  xviii.  44. 
Rom.  xii.  11. — 6.  Cons/iicuous  and  open, 
Phil.  ii.  15.  Matt.  v.  16.— 7.  Unirversal; 


OBL 


414 


OBS 


not  one  duty,  but  all  must  be  perform- 
ed, 2  Pet.  i.'o,  10.— 8.  Ferfietual,  at  all 
times,  places,  and  occasions,  Rom.  ii.  7. 
Gal.  vi.  9.  The  advantages  of  obedience 
are  these,  1.  It  adorns  the  Gospel,  Tit. 
ii.  10. — 2.  It  is  evidential  of  grace.  2  Cor. 
V.  17. — 3.  It  rejoices  the  hearts  of  the 
ministers  and  people  of  God,  3  John  2. 
2  Thess.  i.  19,  20. — 4.  It  silences  gain- 
sayers,  2  Pet.  i.  11,  12. — 5.  Encourages 
the  saints,  while  it  reproves  the  luke- 
warm. Matt.  V.  16. — 6.  Affords  peace  to 
the  subject  of  it.  Psalm  xxv.  12,  13. 
Acts  xxiv.  16. — 7.  It  powerfully  recom- 
mends religion,  as  that  which  is  both  de- 
lightful and  practicable.  Col.  i.  10.— 8.  It 
is  the  forerunner  and  evidence  of  eternal 
glory,  Rom.  vi.  22.  Rev.  xxii.  14.  See 
Holiness,  Sanctification;  Char- 
7!0ck's  7rorA-s,  vol.  xi.  p.  1212;  Tillot- 
son's  Sermo}7S,  sev.  122,  123;  Saurin's 
Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser.  4 ;  Ridgly's  Body 
of  Divvutu,  qu.  92. 

OBEDIENCE  OF  CHRIST  is  ge- 
nerally divided  mto  active  and  passive. 
His  active  obedience  implies  wliat  he 
did  ;  \\\s/ia8sive  what  he  suffered.  Some 
divines  distinguish  these.  They  refer 
our  pardon  to  his  passive,  and  our  title 
to  glory  to  his  active  obedience  :  though. 
Dr.  Owen  observes,  that  it  cannot  be 
clearly  evinced  that  there  is  any  such 
thing  in  propriety  of  speech  as  /lassive 
obedience :  obeying  is  doing,  to  which 
passion  or  suffeiing  doth  not  belong. 
Of  the  active  obedience  of  Christ  the 
Scn]3tures  assure  us  that  he  took  upon 
him  the  form  of  a  servant,  and  really  be- 
came one,  Is.  xlix.  3.  Phil.  ii.  5.  Heb. 
viii.  He  was  subject  to  the  law  of  God. 
"He  was  made  vmder  the  law;"  the 
judicial  or  civil  law  of  the  Jews :  the 
ceremonial  lav\',  and  the  moral  law, 
iVIatt.  xvii.  24,  27.  Luke  ii.  22.  Psalm 
xl.  7,  8.  He  was  obedient  to  the  law  of 
nature ;  he  was  in  a  state  of  subjection 
to  his  parents ;  and  he  fulfilled  the  com- 
mands of  his  heavenly  Father  as  it  i-e- 
spected  the  first  and  second  table.  His 
obedience,  1.  Was  voluntar)-,  Psalm  xl. 
6. — 2.  Complete,  1  Peter  ii.  22. — 3. 
\^'rought  out  in  the  room  and  stead  of 
his  people,  Rom.  x.  4.  Rom.  v.  19. — 
4.  Well  pleasing  and  arxeptable  in  the 
sight  of  God.  See  Atonkment  ;  Death 
and  Sufferings  of  Christ. 

OBLATI,  secular  persons  who  de- 
voted themselves  and  their  estates  to 
some  monastery,  into  which  they  were 
admitted  as  a  kind  of  lay-brothers.  The 
form  of  their  admission  was  jiutting  the 
bell-ropes  of  the  church  round  their 
necks,  as  a  mark  of  servitude.  They 
wore  a  religious  habit,  but  diffei'ent  frorh 
that  of  the  monks. 


OBLIGATION  is  that  by  which  wc 
are  bound  to  the  performance  of  any  ac- 
tion, 1.  Rational  obligation  is  that  which 
arises  from  reason,  abstractly  taken,  to 
do  or  forbear  certain  actions. — 2.  Aii- 
thoritatrve  obligation  is  that  which  arises 
from  the  commands  of  a  superior,  or  one 
who  has  a  right  or  authority  to  prescribe 
i-ules  to  others. — 3.  Moral  obligation  is 
that  by  which  we  are  bound  to  perform 
that  which  is  right,  and  to  avoid  that 
which  is  wrong.  It  is  a  moral  necessity 
of  doing  actions  or  forbearing  them; 
that  is,  such  a  necessity  as  whoever 
breaks  through  it,  is,  ipso  facto,  worthy 
of  blame  for  so  doijig.  Various,  however, 
ha\e  been  the  opinions  concerning  the 
ground  of  moral  obligation,  or  what  it 
arises  from.  One  says,  from  the  moral 
fitness  of  things ;  another,  because  it  is 
conformable  to  reason  and  nature  ;  ano- 
ther, because  it  is  conformable  to  tnjth ; 
and  another,  because  it  is  expedient,  and 
promotes  the  public  good.  A  late  writer 
has  defined  obligation  to  be  "  a  state  of 
mind  perceiving  the  reasons  for  acting, 
or  forbearing  to  act."  But  I  confess 
this  has  a  difficulty  in  it  to  me ;  because 
it  carries  with  it  an  idea  that  if  a  man 
shoidd  by  his  habitual  practice  of  iniqui- 
ty be  so  hardened  as  to  lose  a  sense  of 
dut)%  and  not  perceive  the  reasons  why 
he  should  act  moi'ally,  then  he  is  under 
no  obligation.  And  thus  a  depraved 
man  might  say  he  is  under  no  obligation 
to  obey  the  laws  of  the  land,  because, 
through  his  desire  of  liAing  a  licentious 
life,  he  is  led  to  suppose  that  there 
should  be  none.  In  my  opinion,  a  dif- 
ference should  be  made  between  obliga- 
tion and  a  sense  of  it.  iXIoi'al  oljligation, 
I  think,  arises  from  the  will  of  God,  as 
I'eAcaled  m  the  light  and  law  of  nature, 
and  in  his  word.  This  is  binding  upon 
all  men,  because  there  is  no  situation  in 
which  mankind  ha\e  not  either  one  oi- 
the  other  of  these.  W^e  find,  however, 
that  the  generality  of  men  are  so  far 
sunk  in  depravity,  that  a  sense  of  obli- 
gation is  nearly  or  quite  lost.  Still,  how- 
e\'er,  their  losing  the  sense  does  not  ren- 
der tlie  obligation  less  strong.  "  Obli- 
gation to  virtue  is  eternal  and  immuta- 
ble, but  the  sense  of  it  is  lost  by  sin." 
See  Warburton^s  Legation,  vol.  i.  p.  38, 
46,  8cc.  Fairy's  Mar.  Phil.  p.  54,  vol.  i. 
Robinson's  fireface  to  the  Fourth  Volume 
of  Saurin's  Sermons  ;  Mason's  Chris- 
tian Morals,  ser.  23,  p.  256,  vol.  ii.  Dod- 
dridge's Lect.  lect.  52;  Grove's  Phil. 
vol.  li.  p.  66. 

OBSERVATIONS.  See  Mind. 

CECONOMY.  See  Dispensation. 

(ECONOMISTS,  a  sect  of  philoso- 
phers in  France,  who  have  made  a  great 


OME 


415 


OMN 


noise  in  Europe,  and  are  i^enerally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  unfriendly  to  reli- 
c;ion.  The  founder  of  this  sect  was  Dr. 
Uuquesnoi,  who  had  so  well  insinuated 
himself  into  the  favour  of  Louis  XV. 
that  the  king  used  to  call  him  his  Think- 
er. The  sect  was  called  JEconomists, 
because  the  economy  and  order  to  be 
introduced  into  the  finances,  and  other 
means  of  alleviating  the  distresses  of 
the  people,  were  pei-petually  in  their 
mouths.  The  abbe  Barruel  admits  that 
there  may  have  been  some  few  of  them 
who  directed  their  speculations  to  no 
other  object ;  but  he  brings  verj"  suffi- 
cient proof  that  the  aim  of  the  majority 
of  the  sect  was  to  distribute  the  wri- 
tings of  Voltaire,  Diderot,  and  others, 
and  thus  to  eradicate  from  the  minds 
of  the  people  all  re\erence  for  divine 
revelation.    See  Philosophists. 

OFFERING,  or  Oblation,  denotes 
whatever  is  sacrificed  or  consumed  in 
the  worship  of  God.  For  an  account  of 
the  various  offerings  under  the  law.  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  book  of  Levi- 
ticus. See  also  Sacrifice. 
OFFICERS  CHURCH.  SeeCnuRCH, 
Deacon,  Elder. 

OFFICES  OF  CHRIST  are  gene- 
rally considered  as  threefold.  1.  A 
prophet  to  enlighten  and  instruct,  John 
vi.  14.  John  iii.  2. — 2.  A  priest  to  make 
atonement  for  his  people,  Isaiah  liii. 
Heb.  vii. — 3.  A  king  to  reign  in,  and 
rule  over  them,  Zech.  xi.  9.  Psal.  ii.  6. 
See  articles  Intercession,  Media- 
tor, &c. 

OMEN  is  a  word  which,  in  its  pro- 
per sense,  signifies  a  sign  or  indication 
of  some  future  event,  especially  of  an 
alarming  nature.  Against  the  beUef 
of  omens  it  is  obser\ed,  that  it  is  con- 
ti'ary  to  eveiy  principle  of  sound  phi- 
losophy ;  and  whoever  has  studied  the 
writmgs  of  St.  Paul  must  be  convinced 
that  it  is  inconsistent  with  the  spirit  of 
genuine  Clunstianity.  We  cannot  pre- 
tend to  discuss  the  subject  here,  but 
will  pi-esent  the  reader  with  a  quota- 
tion on  the  other  side  of  the  question. 
"Tliough  it  be  true,"  says  Mr.  Toplady, 
"  that  all  omens  are  not  v/orthv  of  ob- 
sei-%^ation,  and  though  they  should  never 
be  so  regarded  as  to  shock  our  fortitude, 
or  diminish  our  confidence  in  God,  still 
they  are  not  to  be  constantlv  despised. 
Small  incidents  have  sometimes  been 
prelusive  to  gi-eat  events ;  nor  is  there 
any  superstition  in  noticing  these  appa- 
rent prognostications,  though  there  may 
be  much  superstition  in  beuig  either  too 
indiscriminately  or  too  deeply  swayed 
by  them." — Top/ady's  Works,  vol.  iv. 
p.  192, 


OMNIPOTENCE  OF  GOD  is  his 

almighty  power.  This  is  essential  to 
his  nature  as  an  infinite,  independent, 
and  perfect  being.  The  power  of  God 
is  divided  into  absolute,  and  ordinate  or 
actual.  ./Absolute,  is  that  whereby  God 
is  able  to  do  that  which  he  will  not  do, 
but  is  possible  to  be  done.  Ordinate  is 
that  whereby  he  doetli  that  which  he 
hath  decreed  to  do.  The  power  of  God 
may  be  more  especially  seen,  1.  In  cre- 
ation, Rom.  i.  20.  Genesis  i.— 2.  In  the 
preservation  of  his  creatures,  Heb.  i.  3. 
Col.  i.  16,  17.  Job  xxvi. — 3.  In  the  re- 
demption of  men  by  Christ,  Luke  i. 
35,  37.  Eph.  i.  19. — 4.  in  the  conver- 
sion of  sinnners,  Psal.  ex.  3.  2  Cor.  iv.  7. 
Rom.  i.  16. — 5.  In  the  continuation  and 
success  of  the  Gospel  in  the  world. 
Matt.  xiii.  31,  32. — 6.  In  the  final  per- 
severance of  the  saints,  1  Pet.  i.  5. — 7. 
In  the  resun-ection  of  the  dead,  1  Cor. 
XV. — 8.  In  making  the  righteous  happy 
for  ever,  and  punishing  tlie  wicked, 
Plul.  iii.  21.  Matt.  xxv.  34,  &c.  See 
GilPs  Body  of  Dixu  vol.  i.  oct.  edit.  p. 
77;  Charnoclcs  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  423; 
Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  p.  157  ;  Til- 
lotson^s  Sermons,  ser.  152. 

OMNIPRESENCE  OF  GOD,  is 
his  ubiquity,  or  his  being  present  in 
every  place.  This  may  be  argued  from 
his  nifinity,  Ps.  cxxxix.  his  power, 
which  is  every  where,  Heb.  i.  3;  his 
providence.  Acts  xvii.  27,  28.  which 
supplies  all.  As  he  is  a  spirit,  he  is  so 
omnipresent  as  not  to  be  mixed  with 
the  creature,  or  divided,  part  m  one 
place,  and  part  in  another ;  nor  is  he  mul- 
tiplied or  extended,  but  is  essentially 
present  e^■ery  where.  From  the  conside- 
ration of  this  attribute  we  should  learn  to 
fear  and  reverence  God,  Psal.  Ixxxix. 
7.  To  derive  consolation  in  the  hour  of 
distress,  Is.  xliii.  2.Ps.  xlvi.  1.  To  be  ac- 
tive and  diligent  in  holy  services,  Psal. 
cxix.  168.  See  Charnock's  Works,  vol. 
i.  p.  240;  Abemetbyy  Ser?nons,  ser.  7 ; 
l/owe's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  108, 110  ;  Sau- 
rin's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser.  3  ;  GilPs  Bo- 
dy of  Dix\  b.  i ;  Sjiect.  vol.  viii.  No. 
565,  571 ;   Tillotson's  Sermons,  ser.  154. 

OMNISCIENCE  OF  GOD  is  that 
perfection  by  which  he  knows  all  things, 
and  is,  1.  Infinite  knowledge,  Ps.  cxlvi. 
5. — 2.  Eternal,  generally  called  fore- 
knowledge. Acts  XV.  18.  Isa.  xlvi.  10. 
Eph.  i.  4.  Acts  ii.  23.-3.  Universal, 
extending  to  all  persons,  times,  places, 
and  things,  Heb.  iv.  13.  Psalm  1.  10.  &c. 
— 4.  perfect,  relating  to  what  is  past, 
present,  and  to  come.  He  knov/s  all  by 
his  own  essence,  and  not  derived  fi'om 
any  other ;  not  successively,  as  we  do, 
but  independently,  distinctly,  infallibly. 


ORA 


416 


ORA 


and  perpetually,  Jer.  x.  6,  7.  Rom.  xi. 
33. — 5.  Tliis  knowledge  is  peculiar  to 
himself,  M-rk  xiii.  32.  Job  xxxvi.  4. 
and  riot  communicable  to  any  creature. 
— 6.  It  is  incomprehensible  to  us  _  how 
God  -zuoAvs  all  things,  yet  it  is  evident 
that  he  does ;  for  to  suppose  other\vise 
is  to  suppose  him  an  imperfect  being, 
and  directly  contrary  to  the  revelation 
he  has  given  of  himself,  1  John  iii.  20. 
Job  xxviii.  24.  Job  xxi.  22.  See  Char- 
nocki's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  271  \  Ahernethif  s 
Sermons,  vol.  i.  p.  290,  306;  Howe's 
Works,  vol.  i.  p.  102,  103;  GUI's  Div. 
vol.  i.  p.  85,  Oct. 
OPHITES.  See  Serpentinians. 
OPINION  is  that  judgment  which 
the  mmd  forms  of  any  proppsiticn,  for 
the  tiTith  or  falsehood  oi  which  there  is 
not  sufficient  evidence  to  produce  abso- 
lute belief. 

ORACLE,  among  the  Heathens,  was 
the  answer  which  the  gods  were  sup- 
posed to  give  to  those  v.'ho  consulted 
them  upon  any  affair  of  importance. 
It  is  also  used  for  the  god  who  Avas 
thought  to  give  the  answer,  and  for 
the  space  where  it  was  given.  Learn- 
ed men  are  mucii  di.  /idea  as  to  the  source 
of  these  oracies.  Some  suppose  that 
they  were  only  the  invention  of  priests ; 
while  others  conceive  that  there  was  a 
diabolical  agency  emplo'/ed  in  the  busi- 
ness. There  are,  as  one  observes,  se- 
veral circumstances  leading  to  the  for- 
mer hypothesis :  such  as  the  gloomy  so- 
lemnity with  which  many  of  them  were 
delivered  in  caves  and  subterraneous 
caverns ;  the  numerous  and  disagreea- 
ble ceremonies  enjoined,  as  sometimes 
sleeping  in  the  skins  of  beasts,  bathing, 
and  expensive  sacrifices ;  the  ambigu- 
ous and  unsatisfactory  answers  fre- 
quently retui'ned  :  these  look  very  much 
like  the  contrivances  of  artful  priests  to 
disguise  their  villany;  the  medium  of 
priests,  speaking  images,  vocal  groves, 
occ.  seem  much  to  confirm  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  we  may  credit  the  rela- 
tion of  ancient  writers,  eitlier  among 
Heathens  or  Christians,  this  hy]:)othesis 
will  hardly  account  for  many  of  tlie  in- 
stances they  mention.  And  since  it  can- 
not be  proved  either  impossil)le  or  un- 
sci'iptural,  is  it  not  probable  that  God 
sometimes  permits  an  intercourse  with 
infernal  spu'its,  with  a  design,  in  the 
end,  to  tui'n  this  and  every  other  cir- 
cumstance to  his  own  glory  ? 

Respecting  the  cessation  of  these  ora- 
cles, tnere  have  been  a  variety  of  opi- 
nions. It  has  been  generally  held,  in- 
deed, that  oracles  ceased  at  the  birth  of 
Jesus  Christ :  yet  some  have  endeavoui'- 
ed  to  maintain  the  contrary,  by  show- 


ing that  they  were  in  being  in  the  days 
of  Julian,  commonly  called  the  ajtosta'te, 
and  that  this  emperor  himself  consulted 
them;  nay,  farther,  say  they,  histoiy 
makes  mention  of  several  laws  publish- 
ed by  the  Christian  emperors,  Theodo- 
sius,  Gratian,  and  Valentmian,  to  punish 
persons  who  interrogated  them,  e*en  in 
their  days;  and  that  the  Epicureans 
were  the  first  who  made  a  jest  of  this 
superstition,  and  exposed  the  roguery 
of  its  priests  to  the  people. 

But  on  the  other  side  it  is  observed, 
1.  That  the  question,  properly  stated,  is 
not.  Whether  oracles  became  extinct 
immediately  upon  the  birth  of  Ch7'ist,  or 
from  the  very  moment  he  was  born; 
but.  Whether  they  fell  gradually  into 
disesteem,  and  ceased  as  Christ  and  his 
Gospel  became  known  to  mankind.' 
And  that  they  did  so  is  most  certain 
from  the  concurrent  testimonies  of  the 
fathers,  which  whoever  would  endea- 
vour to  invalidate,  may  equally  gi\e  up 
the  most  respectable  traditions  and  re- 
lations of  every  kind. 

2dly,  But  did  not  Julian  the  apostate 
consult  these  oracles  ?  We  answer  in 
the  negative  :  he  had,  indeed,  recourse 
to  magical  operations,  but  it  was  because 
oracles  had  already  ceased  ;  for  he  be- 
wailed the  loss  of  them,  and  assigned 
pitiful  reasons  for  it ;  which  St.  Cyril 
has  vigorously  refuted,  saying,  that  he 
7iever  could  have  oj^red  such,  out  from 
an  i^nvjillingncss  wSiZknoiv ledge,  that, 
when  the  world  had  I'eteiued  the  light  of 
Christ,  the  dominion  of  the  devil  was  at . 
an  end.  ^ 

3dly,  The  Christian  emperors  do,  in- 
deed, seem  to  condemn  the  superstition 
and  idolatry  of  those  who  were  still  for 
consulting  oracles ;  but  the  edicts  of 
those  princes  do  not  prove  that  oracles 
actually  existed  in  their  times,  any 
more  than  that  they  ceased  in  conse- 
quence of  their  laws.  It  is  certain  that 
they  were  for  the  most  part  extinct  be- 
fore the  conversion  of  Constantine. 

4thly,  Some  Epicureans  might  make 
a  jest  of  this  siifierstition  ;  however,  the 
Epicurean  pliilosopher  Celsus,  in  the 
second  century  of  the  church,  was  for 
crying  up  the  excellency  of  several  ora- 
cles, as  appears  at  large  from  Origen's 
seventh  book  against  him. 

Among  the  Jews  there  were  several 
sorts  of  real  oracles.  They  had,  first, 
oi'acles  that  were  delivered  viva  voce  ; 
as  when  God  spake  to  Moses  face  to 
face,  and  as  one  friend  speaks  to  ano- 
ther, Numb.  xii.  8.  Secondly,  Prophe- 
tical dreams  sent  by  God ;  as  the  dreams 
which  God  sent  to  Joseph,  and  which 
foretold  his  future  greatness.  Gen.  xxvii. 


ORA 


41- 


ORA 


5,  6.  Thirdly,  Visions;  as  when  a  pro- 
phet in  an  ec'stacy,  being  neither  proper- 
ly asleep  nor  awake,  had  supematural 
revelations.  Gen.  xv.  1.  Gen.  xha.  2. 
Fourthh^  The  oracle  of  the  Urim  and 
Thiimniim,  which  was  accompanied 
with  the  ephod,  or  the  pectoral  worn  by 
the  high  priest,  and  which  God  had  en- 
dued with  the  gift  of  foretelling  things 
to  come,  Numb.  xii.  6.  Joel.  ii.  28.  This 
manner  of  inquiring  of  the  Lord  was  of- 
ten made  use  of,  from  Joshua's  time  to 
the  erection  of  the  temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem. Fifthly,  After  the  building  of  the 
temple,  they  generally  consulted  the 
prophets,  who  were  frequent  in  the 
kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel.  From 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  who 
are  the  last  of  the  prophets  that  have 
any  of  their  writings  remaining,  the 
Jev%?s  pretend  that  God  gave  them  what 
they  call  Bathkol,  the  Daughter  of 
the  Voice,  which  was  a  supernatural 
manifestation  of  the  A\ill  of  God,  which 
was  performed  either  by  a  strong  in- 
spiration or  internal  voice,  oi'  else  by  a 
sensible  and  external  voice,  which  was 
heard  by  a  number  of  persons  sufficient 
to  bear  testimony  of  it.  For  example, 
such  was  the  voice  that  was  heard  at  the 
baptism  of  Jesus  Chi-ist,  saying,  This  is 
my  beloved  Son,&;c.  Matt.  iii.  17. 

The  scripture  aiFords  us  examples 
like^v^se  of  profane  oracles.  Balaam,  at 
the  instigation  of  his  own  spirit,  and 
urged  on  by  his  avarice,  fearing  to  lose 
the  recompence  that  he  was  promised 
by  Balak,  kmg  of  the  Moabites,  suggests 
a  diabolical  expedient  to  this  prince  of 
making  the  Israelites  fall  into  idolatry 
and  fornication,  (Numb.  xxiv.  14.  Numb, 
xxxi.  16.)  by  which  he  assures  him  of  a 
certain  victory,  or  at  least  of  considera- 
ble advantage  against  the  people  of 
God. 

Micaiah,  the  son  of  Imlah,  a  prophet 
of  the  Lord,  says  (1  Kings  xxii.  20, 
&c.)  that  he  saw'  the  Almighty,  sitting 
upon  his  throne,  and  all  the  host  of  hea- 
■\en  round  about  him ;  and  the  Lord  said, 
A\'ho  shall  tempt  Ahab,  king  of  Israel, 
that  he  may  go  to  war  with  Ramoth 
Gilead,  and  fall  in  the  battle  .*  One  an- 
swered after  one  manner,  and  another 
in  another.  At  the  same  time  an  evil 
spirit  presented  himself  before  the  Lord, 
and  said,  I  will  seduce  him.  And  the 
Lork  asked  him.  How  ?  To  which  Sa- 
tan answered,  I  will  go  and  be  a  lying 
spmt  in  the  mouth  of  his  prophets.  And 
the  Lord  said.  Go,  and  thou  shalt  pre- 
vail. This  dialogue  clearly  proves  these 
two  things  ;  first,  that  the  devil  could  do 
nothing  by  his  own  power ;  and,  second- 
ly, that,  with  the  permission  of  God,  he 


j  could  inspire  the  false  prophets,  sorcer 
I  ers,  and  magicians,  and  make  tlicm  de 
liver  false  oracles.  See  Fcmdale  and 
Fontenetle's  Hist,  de  Orac ;  Potter'^s 
Greek  Antiquities,  aoI.  i.  b.  2.  ch.  7; 
Edrjardjs's  Hist,  of  Red.  p.  408 ;  Far- 
mer on  Mir.  p.  281,  285 ;  Enc.  Brit. 
article  Oracle. 

ORAL,  delivered  by  the  mouth,  not 
written.    See  Tradition. 

ORATORY,  a  name  given  by  Chris- 
tians to  certain  places  of  religious  wor-' 
ship. 

In  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  the  term 
oiKci  EuxTnpior,  houses  of  pravei",  or  ora- 
tories, is  frequently  given  to  churches 
in  general,  of  which  there  are  innumera- 
ble instances  in  ancient  Christian  writers. 
But  in  some  canons  the  name  oratory 
seems  confined  to  private  chapels  or 
places  of  Avorship  set  up  for  the  conve- 
nience of  private  families,  yet  still  de- 
pending on  the  parochial  churches,  and 
differing  from  them  in  this,  that  they 
were  only  places  of  prayer,  but  not  for 
celebrating  the  communion  ;  for  if  that 
were  at  any  time  allowed  to  private  fa- 
milies, yet,  at  least,  upon  the  great  and 
solemn  festivals,  they  were  to  resort  for 
communion  to  the  parish  churches. 

Oratory  is  used  among  the  Romanists 
for  a  closet,  or  little  apartment  near  a 
bed-chamber,  furnished  with  a  little  al- 
tar, crucifix,  &c.  for  private  devotion. 

Oratory,  Priests  of  the.  There  w^ere 
two  congregations  of  rehgious,  one  in 
Italy,  the  other  in  France,  which  were 
called  by  his  name. 

The  Priests  of  the  Orator}'  in  Italy 
had  for  their  founder,  St.  Philip  de  Nei'i, 
a  native  of  Florence,  who,  in  the  year 
1548,  founded  at  Rome  the  Confrater- 
nity of  the  Holy  Trinity.  This  Society 
originally  consisted  of  but  fifteen  poor 
persons,  who  assembled  in  the  church 
of  St.  Saviour,  in  campo,  eveiy  first 
Sunday  in  the  month,  to  pi-actise  the  ex- 
ei'cises  of  piety  described  by  the  holy 
foimder.  Afterwards  their  number  in- 
creasing by  the  addition  of  several  per- 
sons of  distinction  to  the  society,  St. 
Philip  proceeded  to  establish  a  hospital 
for  the  reception  of  poor  pilgrims,  who, 
coming  to  Rome  to  visit  the  tombs  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  wei-e  obliged,  for 
want  of  a  lodging,  to  lie  in  the  streets, 
and  at  the  doors  of  churches.  For  this 
charitable  puipose,  pope  Paul  IV.  gave 
to  the  society  the  parochial  church  oH 
St.  Benedict,  close  by  which  was  built 
a  hospital,  so  large,  that  in  the  Jubilee 
year  1600,  it  received  444,500  men,  and 
25,500  women,  who  came  in  pilgrimage  ' 
to  Rome.  , 

The  Priests  of  the  Oratory  m.  Franc 
3  G 


ORD 


418 


ORD 


were  estalilished  on  the  model  of  those 
in  Italy,  and  owe  their  rise  to  cardinal 
BeruUe,  a  native  of  Champagne,  who 
resolved  npon  this  foundation  in  order  to 
revive  the  splendour  of  the  ecclesiastical 
state,  which  was  greatly  sunk  through 
the  miseries  of  the  civil  wars,  the  in- 
crease of  heresies,  and  a  general  cor- 
ruption of  manners.  To  this  end  he  as- 
sembled a  comnumity  nf  ecclesiastics, 
in  1611,  in  the  suburb  of  St.  James. 
They  ol^tained  the  king's  letter  patent 
for  their  establishment;  and,  in  1613, 
pope  Paul  V.  approved  this  congrega- 
tion, under  the  title  of  the  Oratrtrij  of 
Jesus. 

This  congregation  consisted  of  two 
sorts  of  persons;  the  one,  as  it  were,  in- 
corporated; the  other  only  associates: 
the  former  governed  the  houses  of  this 
institute ;  the  latter  were  only  employed 
in  forming  themselves  to  tlie  lite  and 
manners  of  ecclesiastics.  And  this  was 
the  true  spirit  of  this  congregation,  in 
which  they  taught  neither  human  learn- 
ing nor  theology,  but  only  the  virtues  of 
the  ecclesiastical  life. 

ORDER,  method;  the  established 
manner  of  performing  a  thing.  Nothing 
can  be  more  beautiful  in  religion  and 
morals  than  order.  The  neglect  of  it 
exposes  us  to  the  ini'oads  of  vice,  and 
often  brings  upon  us  the  most  perplex- 
ing events.  Whether  we  consider  it  in 
reference  to  ourselves,  our  families,  or 
the  church,  it  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance. As  to  the  first,  oi'der  should  be 
attended  to  as  it  respects  our  principles, 
Heb.  xiii.  9.  James  i.  8:  our  tempers, 
Prov.  xvii.  14.  Eph.  iv.  31 ;  our  con- 
versation, Col.  iv.  6  ;  our  business,  Prov. 
xxii.  29;  our  time,  Ps.  xc.  12.  Eccl.  iii. 
1 ;  our  recreations ;  and  our  general 
conduct,  Phil.  i.  27.  2  Pet.  i.  5,  Sec— • 
2.  ./^s  it  regards  our  families,  there 
should  be  order ;  as  to  the  economy  or 
management  of  its  concerns,  Matt.  xii. 
25  ;  as  to  devotion,  and  the  time  of  it, 
Jos.  xxiv.  15  ;  as  to  the  instruction 
t1\ereof,  Eph.  vi.  1.  Gen.  xviii.  19.  2 
Tim.  i.  5. — 3.  In  resfiect  to  the  church, 
oi'der  should  be  observed  as  to  the  ad- 
mission of  members,  2  Cor.  vi.  15  ;  as 
to  the  admhiistration  of  its  ordin;uices, 
1  Cor.  xiv.  33,  40;  as  to  the  attendance 
on  its  worship,  Ps.  xxvii.  4 ;  as  to  our 
behaviour  therein.  Col.  i.  10.  Matt.  v. 
16.  To  excite  us  to  the  firaclice  of  this 
duty,  we  should  consider  that  God  is  a 
God  of  order,  1  Cor.  xiv.  33  ;  his  works 
are  all  in  the  exactest  order,  E])h.  i.  11. 
iPsalm.civ.  25.  Eccl.  iii.  11;  heaven  is  a 
iplacc  of  order,  Rev.  vii.  9.  Jesus  Christ 
dvas  a  most  beautiful  example  of  regu- 
Jeritjr.  The  advantages  of  order  are 
ed 


numerous.  "  The  observance  of  it,"  says 
Dr.  Blair,  "  serves  to  correct  that  negli- 
gence which' makes  us  omit  some  duties, 
and  that  hurry  and  precipitancy  which 
makes  us  perform  others  imperfectly. 
Our  attention  is  thereby  directed  to  its 
jn-oper  objects.  We  follow  tlie  straight 
path  which  Providence  has  pointed  out 
to  us  ;  in  the  course  of  which  all  the  dif- 
ferent business  of  life  presents  itself  re- 
gularly to  us  on  every  side.  Ser.  vol.  ii. 
p.  23. 

ORDERS,  by  way  of  eminency,  or 
holy  orders,  denote  a  character  peculiar 
to  ecclesiastics,  whereby  they  are  set 
apart  for  the  ministry.  This  the  Ro- 
manists make  their  sixth  sacrament.  In 
no  reformed  church  are  there  more  than 
three  orders,  viz.  bishops,  priests,  and 
deacons.  In  the  Romish  church  thefe 
are  seven,  exclusive  of  the  episcopate  ; 
all  which  the  council  of  Trent  enjoins 
to  be  received  and  believed  on  pain  of 
anathema.  They  are  distmguished  into 
petty  or  secular  orders,  and  major  or 
sacred  orders.  Orders,  the  petty  or  mi- 
nor, are  four,  viz.  those  of  door-keep- 
ers, exorcist,  reader,  and  acolyth.  Sa- 
cred, or  major,  are  deacon,  priest,  and 
bishop. 

ORDERS,  RELIGIOUS,  are  con- 
gregations or  societies  of  monasteries 
li\ing  under  the  same  superior,  in  the 
same  manner,  and  wearing  the  same 
habit.  Religious  orders  may  be  reduced 
to  five  kinds,  viz.  monks,  canons,  knights, 
mendicants,  and  regular  clerks.  White 
order  denotes  the  order  of  regular 
canons,  of  St.  Augustine.  Black  order 
denotes  the  order  of  St.  Benedict.  Or- 
ders religious  jnilitary  are  tliose  insti- 
tuted in  defence  of  the  faith,  and  pri- 
vileged to  say  mass,  and  who  are  pro- 
hibited marriage.  Sec.  Of  this  kind  are 
the  knights  of  Malta,  or  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem.  Such  also  were  the  knights 
templars,  the  knights  of  Calatrave,  of 
St.  Lazanis,  Teutonic  knights.  &c. 

ORDINANCES  OF  THE  GOS- 
PEL, are  institutions  of  divine  authority 
relatmg  to  the  worship  of  God;  such 
as  baptism,  Matt,  xxviii.  19. — 2.  The 
Lord's  supper,  1  Cor.  xi.  24,  &c. — 
3.  Public  ministry,  or  preaching  and 
reading  the  word,  Rom.  x.  15.  Eph.  iv. 
13.  Mark,  xvi.  15. — 4.  Hearing  the  Gos- 
pel, Mai'k,  iv.  24.  Rom.  x.  17.— 5.  Pub- 
lic prayer,  1  Cor.  xvi.  15,  19.  Matt.  vi. 
6.  Psal.  v.  1,  7. — 6.  Singing  of  psalms. 
Col.  iii.  16.  Eph.  v.  19. — 7.  Fasting,  James 
iv.  9.  Matt.  ix.  15.  Joel  ii.  12— 8.  So- 
lemn thanksgiving,  Ps.  1.  14. 1  Thess.  v. 
18. — See  these  different  articles;  also 
Mr.ANs  OF  Grace. 

ORDINATION,  the  act  of  confer- 


ORD 


419 


ORD 


I  ing  holy  orders,  oi-  of  initiating  a  person 
into  the'  priesthood  bj-  prayer  and  the 
laying  on  of  hands.  Among  the  Dissen- 
ters, ordination  is  the  pul)Hc  setting  apart 
of  a  minister  to  his  work,  or  over  the 
people  whose  call  he  has  accepted.  In 
the  church  of  England,  ordination  has 
always  been  esteemed  the  principal 
prerogative  of  bishops,  and  they  still  re- 
tain the  function  as  a  mark  of  their  spi- 
ritual sovereignty  in  their  diocess.  With- 
out ordination  no  person  can  i-eceive  any 
benefice,  parsonage,  vicarage,  &c.  A 
person  must  be  twenty-three  years  of 
age,  or  near  it,  before  he  can  be  ordain- 
ed deacon,  or  have  any  share  in  the  mi- 
nistry; and  full  twenty-four  before  he 
can  be  ordained  priest,  and  by  that 
means  be  permitted  to  administer  the 
holy  communion.  A  bishop,  on  the  or- 
dination of  clerg)'men,  is  to  examine 
them  in  the  presence  of  the  ministers, 
■who  in  the  ordination  of  priests,  but  not 
of  deacons,  assist  liim  at  the  imposition 
of  hands ;  but  this  is  only  done  as  a  mark 
of  assent,  not  because  it  is  thought  ne- 
cessary. In  case  any  crime,  as  ditinken- 
ness,  perjury,  forgery,  &c.  is  alleged 
against  an\-  one  that  is  to  l)e  ordained 
either  priest  or  deacon,  the  bishop  ought 
to  desist  from  ordaining  him .  1  he  per- 
son to  be  ordained  is  to  bi-ing  a  testimo- 
nial of  his  life  and  doctrine  to  the  bi- 
shop, and  to  give  account  of  his  faith  in 
Latin ;  and  both  priests  and  deacons  are 
obliged  to  subscribe  to^the  thirty-nine 
articles.  In  the  ancient  discipline  there 
was  no  such  thing  as  a  vague  and  abso- 
lute ordmation;  but  every  one  was  to 
have  a  church,  whereof  he  was  to  be 
ordained  clerk  or  priest.  In  the  twelfth 
century  they  grew  more  remiss,  and  oi-- 
dained  without  any  title  or  benefice. 
The  council  of  Trent,  however,  re- 
stored the  ancient  discipline,  and  ap- 
pointed that  none  should  be  ordained 
but  those  who  were  provided  with  a  be- 
nefice; which  practice  still  obtains  in 
England.  The  times  of  oi-dination  are 
the  four  Sundays  immediately  following 
the  Ember  weeks;  being  the  second 
Sunday  in  Lent,  Trinity  Simda\',  and  the 
Sundays  following  the  first  ^^'''ednesday 
after  September  14  and  December  13. 
These  are  the  stated  times ;  but  ordi- 
nation may  take  place  at  any  other  time, 
according  to  the  discretion  of  the  bi- 
shop, or  circumstances  of  the  case. 
Among  Seceders  or  Dissenters,  oi'dina- 
tions  vnrv.  In  the  establishment  of 
Scotland,  where  there  are  no  bishops, 
the  power  of  ordination  is  lodged  in  the 
presbj'tery.  Among  the  Calvmistic  Me- 
thodists, ordination  is  perforaied  by  the 
sanction  and  assistance  of  their  own  mi- 


nisters. Among  the  Independents  and 
Baptists,  the  power  of  ordination  lies  in 
the  suftVage  of  the  people.  The  quali- 
fications of  the  candidates  are  first 
known,  tried,  and  approved  by  the 
church.  After  which  trial,  the  church 
proceeds  to  give  him  a  call  to  be  their 
minister;  which  he  accepting,  the  pub- 
lic acknowledgment  thereof  is  signified 
by  ordination,  the  mode  of  which  is  so 
well  known,  as  not  to  need  recital  here. 

Though  the  Dissenters  practice  ordi- 
nation, we  find  they  are  not  agi'eed  re- 
specting it.  Some  contend  for  the  power 
of  ordination  as  belonging  to  the  people ; 
the  exercise  of  which  right  by  them  con 
stitutes  a  minister,  and  confers  validity 
on  his  pubhc  ministrations.  Others  sup- 
pose it  belongs  to  those  w^ho  are  already 
in  ofiice.  \\  ithout  pretending  to  detei-- 
mine  the  question,  we  shall  here  gi\e  an 
outline  of  the  arguments  on  both  sides. 

According  to  the  former  opinion,  it  i.s 
argued  that  the  word  ordain  was  ori- 
ginally equal  to  choose  or  appoint;  so 
that  if  twenty  Christians  nominated  a 
man  to  instruct  them  once,  the  man  was 
appointed  or.  ordained  a  preacher  for 
the  time.    The  essence  of  ordination 
lies  in  the  voluntary  choice  and  call  of 
the  people,  and  in  the  voluntary  accep- 
tance of  that  call  by  the  person  chosen 
and  called;  for  this  affair  must  be  by 
mutual  consent  and  agreement,  which 
joins  tliem  together  as  pastor  and  peo- 
ple. And  this  is  to  be  done  among  them- 
selves ;  and  public  ordination,  so  called, 
is  no  other  than  a  declaration  of  that. 
Election  and  ordination  are  spoken  of  as 
the  same;  the  latter  is  expressed  and 
explained  by  the  former.    It  is  said  of 
Christ,  that  he  ordained  twelve,  Mark 
iii.  14.  that  is,  he  chose  them  to  the  of- 
fice of   apostleship,  as  he  himself  ex- 
plains it,  John  vi.  70.    Paul  and  Barna- 
bas are  said  to  ordain  ciders  i?i  every 
church  (Acts   xiv.  23.)   or  to    choose 
them  ;  that  is,  tiiey  gave  orders  and  di- 
rections to  every  church  as  to  the  choice 
of  elders  over  them :  for  sometimes  per- 
sons are  said  to  do  that  which  they  give 
ordei's  and  directions  for  doing ;  as  Mo- 
ses and  Solomon,  with  respect  to  build- 
ing the  tabernacle  and  temple,  though 
done  by  others ;  and  Moses  particularly 
is  said  to  choose  the  judges,  Exod.  xviii. 
25.  the  choice  being  made  under  his  di- 
rection and  guidance.    The  word  that 
is  used   in  Acts  xiv.  23.  is  translated 
chosen  in  Cor.  ii.  8,  19.  where  the  apos- 
tle speaks  of  a  brother,  x£i?oTovi);>fij.  who 
was  chosen  of  (he  churches  to  travel 
with  us,  and  is  so  rendered  when  ascribed 
to  God,  Acts  x.  41.    This  clioice  and 
ordination,  in  primitive  times,  was  made 


OKD 


420 


URD 


two  v.'avs;   by  ciisting  lots  and  giving 
votes,   signified   by    stretching   out   of  ; 
hands.    Matthias  was  chosen   and   cr-:; 
dained  to  be  an  apostle  m  the  room  o:^,'! 
Judas  by  casting  lots:  that  being  an  ex^^^ 
ti'aordinary  oflfice,  required  an  imme- 
diate inteiposition  of  the  Divine  Being, 
a  lot  l)eing  nothing  more  nor  less  than  an 
appeal  to  God  for  the  decision  of  an  af- 
fair.   But  ordinary   officers,   as   elders 
and  pastors  of  churches,  were  chosen 
and  ordained  by  the  votes  of  the  peo- 

f)le,  expi-essed  by  stretchmg  out  their 
lands ;  thus  it  is  said  of  the  apostles,  Acts 
xiv.  23.  When  they  had  ordamed  them 
elders  in  every  chvirch,  xE'JoTovxuavTfs, 
by  taking  the  suffrages  and  votes  of  the 
members  of  the  churches,  shown  by  the 
stretching  out  of  their  hands,  as  the 
word  signifies;  and  which  they  direct- 
ed them  to,  and  upon  it  declared  the 
elders  duly  elected  and  ordained. 

Some,  however,  on  this  side  of  the 
question,  do  not  go  so  far  as  to  say,  that 
the  essence  of  ordination  lies  in  the 
choice  of  the  people,  but  in  the  solemn 
and  p  lib  lie  separation  to  office  by  prayer : 
still,  however,  they  thinkj^hat  ordina- 
tion by  either  bishops,  presbyters,  or  any 
superior  character,  cannot  oe  necessary 
to  make  a  mmister  or  ordain  a  pastor  in 
any  paiticular  churcli^;  for  Jesus  Christ, 
say  they,  would  never  leave  the  sub- 
sistence of  his  churches,  or  the  efficacy 
of  his  word  and  sacraments,  to  depend 
on  the  uninterrupted  succession  of  any 
office  or  officer :  for  then  it  would  be 
impossible  for  any  church  to  know 
whether  they  ever  have  had  any  au- 
thentic minister ;  for  we  could  never  be 
assured  that  such  ordinations  had  been 
rightly  transmitted  through  1700  years. 
A  whole  nation  might  be  corrupted,  and 
every  bishop  and  elder  therein  might 
have'  apostatized  from  the  faith,  as  it 
was  in  England  in  the  days  of  popery. 
To  say,  therefore,  that  the  right  of  or- 
daining lies  in  men  who  are  already  in 
office,  would  drive  us  to  hold  the  above- 
mentioned  untenable  position  of  uninter- 
rupted succession. 

On  the  other  side  it  is  oljserved,  that, 
although  Christians  have  the  liberty  of 
choosing  their  own  pastor,  jet  they  have 
no  power  or  right  to  confer  the  office  it- 
self Scripture  represents  ordination  to 
be  the  setting  apart  of  a  person  to  the 
holy  ministry,  by  the  authority  of  Jesus 
hiniself  acting  bj  the  medium  of  men  in 
office;  and  this  solemn  investing  act  is 
necessary  to  his  being  lawfidly  account- 
ed a  minister  of  Christ.  The  original 
word,  Acts  vi.  3.  is  xaTao-TTiauiiM,  whicli 
according  to  Scapula,  and  the  best 
wiitcrs  on  the  sacred  language,  signifies 


■to  put  one  in  nde,  or  to  give  him  au- 
thority. Now  did  this  power  lodge  in 
the  people,  how  happens  it  that  in  all 
the  epistles,  not  a  single  word  is  to  be 
found  giving  them  any  directions  about 
constituting  ministers  ?  On  the  other 
handi  in  the  epistles  to  Timothy  and 
Titus,  who  were  persons  in  office,  we 
find  paiticular  instructions  given  them 
to  lay  hands  suddenly  on  no  man,  to  ex- 
amine his  qualifications  before  they  or- 
dain him,  and  to  take  care  that  they 
commit  the  office  only  to  faithful  men, 
who  shall  be  able  to  teach  others  also, 
Titus  i.  5.  2  Tim.  iv.  14.  Acts  xiv.  23. 

Besides,  it  is  said,  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians evidently  viewed  this  matter  in  the 
same  light.  There  is  scarcely  a  single 
ecclesiastical  Aviiter  that  does  not  ex- 
pressly mention  ordination  as  the  work 
of  the  elders,  and  as  being  regarded  as  a 
distinct  thing  from  the  choice  of  the 
people,  and  subsequent  to  it. 

Most  of  the  foregoing  remarks  apply 
chiefly  to  the  supposition,  that  a  person 
cannot  be  ordamed  in  any  other  way 
than  as  a  pastor  over  a  church.  But 
here,  also,  we  find  a  difference  of 
opinion.  On  the  one  side  it  is  said,  that 
there  is  no  Scripture  authority  what- 
ever for  a  person  being  ordained  with- 
out being  chosen  or  nominated  to  the 
office  of  a  minister  by  a  church.  Elders 
and  bishops  were  ordained  in  every 
church,  not  -without  any  church.  To 
ordaui  a  man  originally,  says  Dr. 
Campbell,  was  nothing  else  but  in  a 
solemn  manner  to  assign  him  a  pastoral 
charge.  To  give  him  no  charge,  and 
not  to  ordain  him,  were  perfectly  iden- 
tical. On  the  other  side  it  is  con- 
tended, that  from  these  words,  "  Go  ye 
into  all  the  world,  and  preach  the  Gos- 
pel to  eA'ery  creatnre;  and,  lo,  I  am 
with  you  always,  even  unto  the  end  of 
the  world,"  it  is  evident  that  missiona- 
ries and  itinerants  must  be  employed  in 
the  important  work  of  the  ministry; 
that,  as  such  cannot  be  ordained  over 
any  particular  church,  there  cannot  be 
the  least  impropriety  in  ordaining  them 
for  the  church  iiniversal.  Allowing 
that  they  have  all  those  talents,  gifts, 
and  grace,  that  constitute  a  minister  in 
tlie  sight  of  God,  who  will  dare  say 
they  should  not  be  designated  by  their 
brethren  for  the  administration  of  those 
ordinances  Christ  has  appointed  in  the 
church  ? — Without  allowing  this,  how 
man)'  thousands  would  be  destitute  of 
these  ordinances  ?  Besides,  these  are  the 
\  ery  men  whom  God  m  general  honours 
as  the  first  instilments  in  raising 
churches,  over  which  stated  pastors  are 
I  afterwards  fixed.    The   separation  of 


ORl 


421 


ORI 


Saul  and  Barnabas,  saj-  they,  was  an  or- 
dination to  missionary  work,  including 
the  administration  of  sacraments  to  the 
converted  Heathen,  as  well  as  public 
instruction,  Acts  xiii.  1,  3.  So  Timothy 
was  ordained,  1  Tim.  iv.  14.  Acts  xvi. 
3,  and  there  is  equal  reason,  by  analogy, 
to  suppose  that  Titus  and  other  com- 
panions of  Paul  were  similarly  ordain- 
ed, without  any  of  them  having  a  par- 
ticular church  to  take  under  his  pasto- 
val  care.  So  that,  they  appear  to  have 
been  ordained  to  the  work  of  the  Chris- 
tian ministry  at  large. 

On  reviewuig  the  whole  of  this  con- 
troversy, I  would  say  with  Dr.  Watts, 
"  that  smce  there  are  some  texts  in  the 
New  Testament,  wherein  single  per- 
sons, either  apostles,  as  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas, ordained  ministers  in  the  church- 
es; or  evangelists,  as  Timothy  and 
Titus ;  and  since  other  missions  or  or- 
dinations are  intimated  to  be  perfomn- 
ed  by  several  persons,  viz.  prophets, 
teachers,  elders,  or  a  presbytery,  as  in 
Acts  xiii.  1.  and  1  Tim.  iv.  14;  since 
there  is  sometimes  mention  made  of  the 
imposition  of  hands  in  the  mission  of  a 
minister,  and  sometimes  no  mention  of 
it ;  and  since  it  is  evident  that  in  some 
cases  popular  ordinations  are  and  must 
be  valid  without  any  bishop  or  elder; 
I  think  none  of  these  differences  should 
be  made  a  matter  of  violent  contest 
among  Christians ;  nor  ought  any  words 
to  be  pronounced  against  each  other  by 
those  of  the  episcopal,  presbyterian,  or 
independent  way.  Surely,  all  may 
agree  thus  far,  that  various  forms  or 
modes,  seeming  to  be  used  m  the  mis- 
sion or  ordination  of  ministers  in  primi- 
tive times,  may  give  a  reasonable  occa- 
sion or  colour  for  sincere  and  honest 
searchers  after  truth  to  follow  different 
opinions  on  this  head,  and  do  therefore 
demand  our  candid  and  charitable  sen- 
timents concerning  those  who  differ 
fi'om  us."  See  articles  Episcopacy, 
Imposition  of  Hands,  Indepen- 
dents, and  Ministerial  Call,  in 
this  work;  James  Owen's  Plea  for 
Scri/iture  Ordination ;  Doddridge's 
Tracts,v.  ii.  p.  253 — 257;  Dr.  Owen's 
True  JYature  of  a  Gospel  Church,  p. 
78,  83;  BrekeWs  Essay  on  Ordination; 
Watts'  Rational  Foundation  of  a 
Christian  Church,  sec.  3;  Dr.  Camp- 
bell's Lectures  on  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory, vol.  i.  p.  345;  Gill's  Body  qf  Di- 
vinity, p.  246.  vol.  iii.  8vo.  ed.  Theolo- 
gical Magazine  for  1802,  p.  33,  90,  167  ; 
Ewing's  Remarks  on  Dick's  Ser?non, 
preached  before  the  Edinburgh  Mis- 
sionary  Society,  in  1801. 

ORIGENISTS,  a  denomination  which 


appeared  in  the  third  centuiy,  who  de- 
rived their  opinions  from  the  writings 
of  Origen,  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria, 
and  a  man  of  vast  and  uncommon  abili" 
ties,  who  interpreted  the  divine  truths 
of  religion  according  to  the  tenor  of  the 
Platonic  philosophy.  He  alleged,  that 
the  source  of  many  evils  lies  in  adhering 
to  the  litei-al  and  external  part  of  Scrip- 
tui'e :  and  that  the  true  meaning  of  the 
sacred  writers  was  to  be  sought  in  a 
mysterious  and  hidden  sense,  arising 
from  the  nature  of  things  themselves. 

The  principal  tenets  ascribed  to  Ori- 
gen, together  with  a  few  of  the  rea- 
sons made  use  of  in  their  defence,  are 
comprehended  in  the  following  sum- 
mary : — 

1.  That  there  is  a  pre-existent  state 
of  human  souls.  For  the  natui-e  of  the 
soul  is  such  as  to  make  her  capable  of 
existing  eternally,  backward  as  well 
as  forward,  because  her  spii-itual  es- 
sence, as  such,  makes  it  impossible  that 
she  should,  either  through  age  or  vio- 
lence, be  dissolved:  so  that  nothing  is 
wanting  to  her  existence  but  the  good 
pleasure  of  him  from  whom  all  things 
proceed.  And  if,  according  to  the  Pla- 
tonic scheme,  we  assign  the  production 
of  all  things  to  the  exuberant  fulness  of 
life  in  the  Deityj  which,  through  the 
blessed  necessity  of  his  communicative 
nature,  empties  itself  into  all  possibili- 
ties of  being,  as  into  so  many  capable 
receptacles,  we  must  suppose  her  exis- 
tence in  a  sense  necessary,  and  in  a  de- 
gree co-eternal  with  God. 

2.  That  souls  were  condemned  to  ani- 
mate mortal  bodies,  in  order  to  expiate 
faults  they  had  committed  in  a  pre- 
existent  state :  for  we  may  be  assured, 
from  the  infinite  goochaess  of  their  Crea- 
tor, that  they  were  at  first  joined  to  the 
purest  matter,  and  placed  m  those  re- 
gions of  the  universe  which  were  most 
suitable  to  the  purity  of  essence  they 
then  possessed.  For  that  the  souls  of 
men  are  an  order  of  essentially  incorpo- 
rate spirits,  their  deep  immersion  mto 
terrestrial  matter,  the  modification  of 
all  their  operations  by  it,  and  the  hea- 
venly body  promised  in  the  Gospel,  as 
the  highest  perfection  of  our  renewed 
nature,  clearly  evince.  Therefore  if 
our  souls  existed  before  they  appeared 
inhabitants  of  the  earth,  they  were 
placed  in  a  purer  eiement,  and  enjoyed, 
far  greater  degrees  of  happiness.  And. 
certainly  he,  whose  ovemowing  good- 
ness brought  them  into  existence,  would 
not  deprive  them  of  their  felicity,  till  by 
their  mutability  they  rendered  them- 
selves less  pure  in  the  whole  extent  of 
their  powers,  and  became  disposed  for 


ORI 


422 


ORI 


die  susception  of  such  a  dcg!*ee  of  cov- 
jjoreal  life  as  was  exactly  answerable  to 
their  present  disposition  of  spirit.  Hence 
it  was  necessary  that  they  should  be- 
come terrestrial  men. 

3.  That  the  soul  of  Christ  was  united 
to  the  Word  before  the  incarnation.  For 
the  Scriptures  teach  us  that  the  soul  of 
the  Messiah  was  created  before  the 
beginning  of   the  world,  Phil.  ii.  5,  7. 

I  This  text  must  be  understood  of 
Christ's  human  soul,  because  it  is 
unusual  to  propound  the  Deity  as  an  ex- 
ample of  humility  in  Scripture.  Though 
the  humanity  of  Christ  was  so  God-like, 
he  emptied' himself  of  this  fulness  of 
life  and  glory,  to  take  upon  him  the 
form  of  a  seri'cint.  It  was  this  Messiah 
who  conversed  with  the  patriarchs  un- 
der a  human  form:  it  was  he  who  ap- 
peared to  Moses  upon  the  Holy  Mount  : 
It  was  he  who  spoke  to  the  prophets 
under  a  visible  appearance  ;  and  it  is  he 
who  will  at  last  come  in  triumph  upon 
the  clouds  to  restore  the  universe  to  its 
primiti\e  splendour  and  felicity. 

4.  That  at  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead  we  shall  be  clothed  with  ethereal 
bodies.  For  the  elements  of  our  ter- 
restrial compositioriS  are  such  as  almost 
fatally  entangle  us  in  vice,  passion,  and 
misery.  The  pui-er  the  vehicle  the  soul 
is  united  with,  the  more  perfect  is  her 
life  and  operations.  Besides,  the  Su- 
preme Goodness  \\  ho  made  all  things, 
assures  us  he  made  all  things  best  at 
tirst,  and  therefore  his  recovery  of  us 
to  our  lost  happiness  (which  is  the  de- 
sign of  the  Gospel,)  must  restore  us  to 
our  better  bodies  and  happier  habita- 
tions, wliich  is  evident  from  1  Cor.  xv. 
49.  2  Cor.  v.  1.  and  other  texts  of 
Scripture. 

5.  That,  after  long  pei'iods  of  time, 
the  damned  shall  be  released  from  their 
tomients,  and  restored  to  a  new  state  of 
probation.  For  the  Deity  has  such  re- 
serves in  his  gracious  providence,  as 
will  vindicate  his  stnereign  goodness 
and  wisdom  from  all  disparagement. 
Expiatory  pains  are  a  part  of  his  ado- 
rable plan  ;  for  this  sharper  kind  of  fa- 
vour has  a  righteous  place  in  such  crea- 
tures as  are  by  nature  mutable.  Though 
sin  has  extinguished  or  silenced  the  di- 
vine life,  yet  it  has  not  destroyed  the 
faculties  of  reason  and  understanding, 
consideration  and  memory,  which  will 
.serve  the  life  which  is  most  powerful. 
If,  therefore,  the  vigorous  attraction  of 
the  sensual  nature  l)e  aljated  by  a  cease- 
less pain,  these  powers  may  resume  the 
seeds  of  a  better  life  and  nature.  As  in 
tlie  material  system  there  is  a  gravita- 
tion of  the  less  bodies  towards  the  great- 


er, there  must  of  necessity  be  something 
analogous  to  this  in  the  intellectual  sys- 
tem ;  and  since  the  spirits  created  by 
God  are  emanations  and  streams  fi-om 
his  own  abyss  of  being,  and  as  self-ex- 
istent power  must  needs  subject  all  be- 
ings to  itself,  the  Deity  could  not  but 
impress  upon  her  intimate  natures  and 
substances  a  central  tendency  towards 
himself;  an  essential  principle  of  re- 
union to  their  great  original. 

6.  That  the  earth  atter  its  conflagra- 
tion shall  become  habitable  again,  and 
be  the  mansion  of  men  and  anunals,  and 
that  in  eternal  vicissitudes.  For  it  is 
thus  expressed  in  Isaiali:  Behold  I 
make  neiv  heavens,  and  a  new  earth; 
&c.  and  in  Heb.  i.  10,  12.  Thou,  Lord, 
in  the  begmning.  hast  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  the  earth;  as  a  vesture  shalt 
thou  change  them,  and  they  shall  be 
changed,  &c.  Where  there  is  only  a 
change  the  substance  is  not  destroyed, 
this  change  being  only  as  that  of  a  gar- 
ment worn  out  and  deca}ing.  The 
fashion  of  the  world  passes  away  like 
a  turning  scene,  to  exhiljit  a  fresh  and 
new  representation  of  things;  and  if 
only  the  present  dress  and  appearance 
of  thmgs  go  off,  the  substance  is  sup- 
posed to  remain  entire. 
ORIGINAL  SIN.  See  Fall,  Sin. 
ORIGIN  OF  EVIL.  See  Sin. 
ORTHODOXY,  soundness  of  doc- 
trine or  opinion  in  matters  of  religion. 
The  doctrines  which  are  generally  con- 
sidered as  oi'thodox  among  us,  are  such 
as  were  generally  pi-ofessed  at  the  time 
of  the  reforiuation,  viz.  the  fall  of  man, 
regeneration,  atonement,  repentance, 
justification  by  Iree  gTace,  &c. 

Some  have  thought,  that,  in  order  to 
keep  error  out  ot  the  church,  there 
should  be  some  human  form  as  a  stan- 
dard of  orthodoxy,  wherein  certain 
disputed  doctrines  shall  be  expressed  in 
such  determinate  phrases  as  may  be  di- 
rectly le\'elled  ag;xuiist  such  errors  as 
shall  prevail  fi"om  time  to  time,  requirmg 
those  especially  who  ai"e  to  be  public 
teachers  m  the  church  to  subscribe  or 
virtually  to  declare  tlieir  assent  to  such 
formularies.  But  as  Dr.  Doddridge  ob- 
serves, 1.  Had  this  been  requisite,  it  is 
probable  that  the  Scriptures  would  have 
given  us  some  such  formularies  as  these, 
or  some  directions  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  they  should  be  drawn  up,  pro- 
posed, and  received. — 2.  It  is  impossi- 
ble that  weak  and  passionate  men,  who 
have  perhaps  been  heated  in  the  very 
controversy  thus  decided,  should  ex- 
press themselves  with  greater  propriety 
than  the  apostles  did. — 3.  It  is  plain,  in 
fact,  tliat  this  practice  has  been  the 


PAC 


423 


PAC 


cause  of  great  contention  in  the  Cliris- 
tian  church,  and  such  formularies  have 
been  the  grand  engine  of  dividing  it,  in 

Eroportion  to  the  degree  in  wliich  they 
ave  been  nuikiphed  and  ui'ged. — 4. 
Tliis  is  laying  a  great  temptation  in  the 
way  of  such  as  desire  to  undertake  the 
office  of  teachers  in  the  churcii,  and 
will  be  most  likely  to  deter  and  af- 
flict those  who  have  the  greatest  ten- 
derness of  conscience,  and  therefore 
=  [ccet  ftar.)  best  deserve  encourage- 
ment.— 5.  It  is  not  likely  to  answer  the 
end  proposed,  viz.  the  preserving  an 
uniformity  of  opinion,  since  persons  of 
little  integrity  may  satisf)'  their  con- 
sciences, in  subscribing  what  they  do 
not  at  all  believe  as  articles  of  /leace,  or 
in  putting  the  most  unnatural  sense  on 
the  words.  And  whereas,  in  answer  to 
all  these  inconveniences,  it  is  pleaded, 
that  such  forms  ai'e  necessary  to  keep 
the  church  from  heresy,  and  it  is  better 
there  should  i)e  some  hypocrites  under 
such  forms  of  orthodoxy,  than  that  a 
freedom  of  debate  and  opinion  sliould 
be  allowed  to  all  teachers ;  the  answer 
is  plain,  that,  when  any  one  begins  to 
preach  doctiines  which  appear  to  those 
who  attend  upon  him  dangerous  and 
STibversive  of  Christianity,  it  will  be 
time  enough  to  proceed  to  such  animad- 
version as  the  nature  of  his  error  in 
their  apprehension  will  require,  and  his 
relation  to  them  Will  admit.  See  arti- 
cles Establishment  and  Subscrip- 
tion ;  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee. 
174;  Watts's  Orthodoxy  and  Charity 
United. 


OSIANDRIANS,  a  denomination 
among  the  Lutherans,  which  was 
founded  in  the  year  1550,  by  Andrew 
Osiander,  a  celebrated  German  divine, 
whose  doctrine  amounted  to  the  follow- 
ing propositions  : — 

1.  That  Christ,  considered  in  his  hu- 
man nature  only,  could  not,  by  his  obe- 
xlience  to  the  divine  law,  obtain  justifi- 
cation and  pardon  for  sinners ;  neither 
can  we  be  justified  before  God,  by  em- 
bracing and  applying  to  ourselves, 
through  faith,  the  righteousness  and 
obedience  of  the  man  Christ.  It  is  only 
through  that  eternal  and  essential  righ- 
teousness which  dwells  in  Christ,  con- 
sidered as  God,  and  which  resides  in  his 
divine  nature,  that  is  united  to  the  hu- 
man, that  mankind  can  obtain  complete 
justification. 

2.  That  a  man  becomes  a  partaker  of 
this  divine  righteousness  by  faith,  since 
it  is  in  consequence  of  tl\is  uniting 
principle  that  Christ  dwells  in  the  heart 
of  man  with  his  divine  righteousness. 
Now,  wherever  this  divine  i-ighteous- 
ness  dwells,  there  God  can  behold  no 
sin  ;  therefore,  when  it  is  present  with 
Chi-ist  in  the  hearts  of  the  regenerate, 
they  are  on  its  account  considered  by 
the  Deity  as  righteous,  although  they 
be  sinners.  Moreover,  this  divine  and 
justifying  righteousness  of  Christ  excites 
the  faithful  to  the  pursuit  of  holiness, 
and  to  the  practice  of  virtue. 

OSSENl ANS,  a  denomination  of  the 
first  century,  which  taught  that  faith 
may  and  ought  to  be  dissembled. 


P. 


PACIFICATION,  Edicts  of,  were 
decrees,  granted  by  the  kings  of  France 
to  the  Protestants,  for  appeasing  the 
troubles  occasioned  by  their  persecution. 
The  first  Edict  of  Pacification  was 
gi-anted  by    Charles  IX.    in  January 

1562,  permitting  the  free  exercise  of 
the  reformed  religion  near  all  the  cities 
and  towns  of  the  realm.      March    19, 

1563,  the  same  king  gi-anted  a  second 
Edict  of  Pacification,  at  Amboise,  per- 
mitting the  free  exercise  of  the  reform- 
ed religion  in  the  houses  of  gentlemen 
and  lords  high  justiciaries  (or  those  who 
had  the  power  of  life  and  death,)  to 
their  families  and  dependents  only ; 
and  allowing  other  Protestants  to  have 
their  sermons  in  such  to\vns  as  they  had 
them  in  before  the  seventh  of  March ; 


obliging  them  withal  to  quit  the  ehurches 
they  had  possessed  themselves  of  during 
the  troubles.  Another,  called  the  Edict 
of  Lonjumeau,  ordering  the  execution 
of  that  of  Amboise,  was  published 
March  27,  1558,  after  a  treaty  of  peace. 
This  pacification  was  but  of  short  con- 
tinuance ;  for  Charles  perceiving  a  ge- 
neral insurrection  of  the  Huguenots,  re- 
voked the  said  edicts  in  September,  1568, 
forbidding  the  exercise  of  the  Protestant 
religion,  and  commanding  all  the  mi- 
nisters to  depart  the  kingdom  in  fifteen 
days.  But  on  the  eighth  of  August,  1570, 
he  made  peace  with  them  again,  and 
published  an  edict  on  the  eleventh, 
allowing  the  lords  high  justiciaries  to 
have  sermons  in  their  houses  for  all 
comers,  and  gi-anting  other  Protestants. 


PiED 


424 


PAG 


two  public  exercises  in  each  govern- 
ment.  He  likewise  gave  them  four 
cautionary  towns,  viz.  Rochelle,  Mon- 
taubon,  Cognal,  and  Im  Churite,  to  be 
places  of  security  for  them  during  the 
space  of  two  years. 

Nevertheless,  in  August,  1572,  he  au- 
thorised the  Bartholomcio  massaci^e, 
and  at  the  same  tijne  issued  a  declara- 
tion, forbidding  the  exercise  of  the  Pro- 
testant religion. 

Henry  III.  in  April,  1576,  made  peace 
with  the  Protestants ;  and  the  Edict  of 
Pacification  was  published  in  parlia- 
ment. May  14,  pemiitting  them  to  buiid 
churches  and  have  sermons  where  they 
pleased.  The  Guisian  faction,  em-aged 
at  this  general  liberty,  began  the  famous 
league  for  defence  of  the  Catholic  I'e- 
ligion,  which  became  so  formidable, 
that  it  obliged  the  king  to  assemble  the 
states  of  the  kingdom  at  Blois,  in  De- 
cember, 1576,  where  it  was  enacted 
that  there  should  be  but  one  i-eligion  in 
France,  and  that  the  Protestant  mi- 
nisters should  be  all  banished.  In  1577, 
the  king,  to  pacify  the  troubles,  publish- 
ed an  edict  in  parhament,  October  8th, 
granting  the  same  liberty  to  the  reform- 
ed which  they  had  before.  However, 
in  July  1585,  the  league  obliged  him.  to 
publish  another  edict,  revoking  all  for- 
mer edicts  granted  to  the  Protestants, 
sind  ordering  them  to  depart  the  king- 
dom in  six  months,  or  turn  Papists. 
This  edict  was  followed  by  more  to  the 
same  purpose. 

Henry  IV.  coming  to  the  crown,  pub- 
lished a  declaration,  July  4,  1591,  abo- 
liehingthe  edicts  against  the  Protestants. 
This  edict  was  verified  in  the  parlia- 
ment of  Chalons  ;  but  the  troubles  pre- 
vented the  veriScaLion  of  it  in  the  par- 
liaments of  the  other  provinces ;  so  that 
the  Protestants  had  not  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion  in  any  place  but 
where  they  were  masters,  and  had  ba- 
nished the  Romish  religion.  In  April 
1598,  the  king  published  a  new  Edict  of 
Pacification  at  Nantz,  gi'anting  the  Pro- 
testants the  free  exercise  of  their  reli- 
gion in  all  places  where  they  had  the 
same  in  1596  and  1597,  and  one  exer- 
cise in  each  bailiwick. 

This  Edict  of  JVantz  was  confirmed 
bv  Lewis  XIII.  in  1610,  and  by  Lewis 
XIV.  1652.  But  the  latter  abolished  it 
entirely  in  1685.  See  Huguknots,  and 
Pkrsecution. 

P^DOBAPTISTS,  those  who  bap- 
tise their  children.  The  word  comes 
from  nioif,  infant,  and  paTTTio-noi,  baptism. 
See  Baptism. 

PAGANISM,  the  religious  worship 
and  discipline  of  Pagans,  or  the  adora- 


tion of  idols  and  false  gods.  Ihe 
theology  of  the  Pagans  according  to 
themselves,  as  Scxvola  and  Varra,'was 
of  three  sorts.  The  first  of  these  may 
well  be  called  fabulous,  as  treating  of 
the  theology  and  genealogy  of  their 
deities,  in  which  they  say  such  things 
as  are  unworthy  of  deit)- ;  ascribing  to 
them  thefts,  murders,  adulteries,  and 
all  manner  of  crimes ;  and  therefore 
this  kind  of  theology  is.  condemned  by 
the  wiser  sort  of  heathens  as  nugatoiy 
and  scandalous :  the  writers  of  this  sort 
of  theology  were  Sancho-niatho,  the 
Phoenician;  and  of  the  Grecians,  Or- 
pheus, Hesiod,  Pherecyde,  8cc.  The 
second  sort,  called  p/iijsic,  or  natural, 
was  studied  and  taught  by  the  philoso- 
phers, who,  rejecting  the  multiplicity  of 
gods  introduced  by  the  poets,  lirought 
their  theology  to  a  more  natural  and  ra- 
tional form,  and  supposed  that  there 
was  but  one  Supreme  God,  which  they 
conmnonly  make  to  be  the  sun  ;  at  least, 
an  emblem  of  him,  but  at  too  great  a 
distance  to  mind  the  atfairs  of  the  world, 
and  therefore  devised  certain  demons, 
which  they  considered  as  mediators  be- 
tween the  Supreme  God  and  man  ;  and 
the  doctrines  of  these  demons,  to  which 
the  apostle  is  thought  to  allude  in  1 
Tim.  iv.  1.  were  what  the  philosophers 
had  a  concern  with,  and  who  ti'cat  of 
their  nature,  office,  and  regard  to  men  ; 
as  did  Thales,  Pythagoras,  Plato,  and 
the  Stoics.  The  third  part  called /^a//- 
tic,  or  civil,  was  instituted  by  legislators, 
statesmen,  and  politicians:  the  first 
among  the  Romans  was  Numa  Pompi- 
lius ;  this  chiefly  respected  their  gods, 
temples,  altars,  sacrifices,  and  rites  of 
\\orship,  and  was  properly  their  idola- 
try, the  care  of  wliich  belonged  to  the 
priests ;  and  this  was  enjoined  the  com- 
mon people,  to  keep  them  in  obedience 
to  the  civil  state.  Thus  things  continued 
in  the  Gentile  world,  until  tlie  light  of 
the  Gospel  was  sent  among  them :  the 
times  before  were  times  of  ignorance,  as 
the  apostle  calls  them  :  they  were  igno- 
I'ant  of  the  true  God,  and  of  the  wor- 
ship of  him ;  and  of  the  Messiah,  and 
sahation  by  him.  Their  state  is  truly 
described,  Eph.  ii.  12.  that  they  were 
\.\\cn  ivithoiit  Chrifit ;  aliens  from  the 
conwionivealth  of  Israel;  strangers 
from  the  covenants  of  /iromisc  ;  having 
no  hope,  and  without  God  in  the  world  ; 
and,  consequently,  their  theology  was 
insuflficiciit  for  their  salvation.  The 
reader  will  find  some  admirable  reflec- 
tions on  the  growth  of  heathenism  amon^ 
modem  Christians,  in  the  3d  volume  ot 
the  Rev.  W.  Jones's  Works.  See  Hea- 
thens, Idolatry,  Polytheism. 


PAN 


425 


PAR 


PAGODA,  or  Pagod,  a  name  given 
by  the  East  Indians  to  their  temples, 
■\vhere  thev  worship  their  gods. 

PALM 'SUNDAY,  the' Sunday  next 
before  Easter,  so  called  from  palm 
branches  being  strewed  on  the  road  by 
the  multitude,  when  our  Sa\  iom*  made 
his  triumi)hal  entiy  into  Jenisalem. 

PANTHEISM,  a  philosophical  spe- 
cies of  idolatry,  leading  to  atheism,  in 
whicli  the  universe  was  considered  as 
the  Supreme  God.  Who  was  the  in- 
ventor of  this  absurd  system,  is,  per- 
liaps,  not  knoAvn,  but  it  was  of  earh'  ori- 
g-in,  and  differently  modified  by  different 
philosophers.  Some  held  the  universe 
to  be  one  immense  animal,  of  %vhich  the 
incoi-poreal  soul  Avas  properly  their 
god,  and  the  heavens  and  the  earth  the 
body  of  that  god ;  whilst  othei-s  held 
but  one  substance,  partly  active  and 
jjartly  passive,  and  therefore  looked 
upon  the  A'isible  universe  as  the  only 
JK'umen.  The  earhest  Grecian  pan- 
theist of  whom  we  read  was  Orpheus, 
\vho  called  the  world  the  body  of  God, 
and  its  several  parts  his  members, 
making  the  whole  universe  one  dh'ine 
animal.  According  to  Cudworth,  Or- 
pheus and  his  followers  believed  in  the 
immaterial  soul  of  the  world:  therein 
agreeing  with  Aristotle,  who  certainly 
held  that  God  and  matter  ai-e  co-eter- 
nal ;  and  that  there  is  some  such  union 
between  them,  as  subsists  between  the 
souls  and  bodies  of  men.  An  institution, 
imbibing  sentiments  nearly  of  this  kind, 
"Was  set  on  foot  about  eighty  or  ninet\^ 
years  ago,  in  this  kingdom,  by  a  society 
of  philosophical  idolaters,  who  called 
themselves  Pantheists,  because  they 
professed  the  worship  of  All  Nature  as 
their  deity.  They  had  Mr.  John  Toland 
for  their  secretaiy  and  chaplain.  Their 
liturgy  Avas  in  Latm  :  an  English  trans- 
lation waspubhshed  in  1751,  from  which 
the  following  sentiments  are  extracted  : 
— "  The  ethereal  fire  environs  all 
things,  and  is  therefore  supreme.  The 
xther  is  a  reviving  fire  :  it  rules  ail 
things,  it  disposes  all  things.  In  it  is 
sold,  mind,  prudence.  This  fire  is  Ho- 
race's particle  of  divine  breath,  and 
Virgil's  inwardly  nourishing  spirit.  All 
things  are  comprised  in  an  intelligent 
nature."  This  torce  they  call  die  soul 
of  the  world ;  as  also,  a  mind  of  perfect 
wisdom,  and,  consequently,  God.  Vanini 
the  Italian  pliUosopher,  wasnearly  of  this 
opinion :  his  god  was  nature.  Some  ■>  ery 
learned  and  excellent  remarks  are  made 
on  this  en'or  by  Mr.  Boyle,  in  his  dis- 
course on  the  v^uigarly  received  notion  of 
nature.  See  Jones  uf  jVay land's  Works, 
vol.  ix.  p.  50,  and  aiticle  SpixosrsM. 


PANTHEOLOGY,  the  whole  sum 
or  body  of  divuiity. 

PAPIST,  one  who  adheres  to  the 
communion  of  the  pope  and  church  of 
'Rome.    See  Pope,  and  Popery. 

PARABLE,  a  fable  or  allegorical  in- 
stniction,  founded  on  something  real  or 
apparent  in  nature  or  history,  from 
which  a  moral  is  drawn,  by  comparing 
it  with  something  in  w^hich  the  people 
are  more  immediately  concerned:  such 
are  the  parables  of  Dives  and  La- 
zanis,  or  the  prodigal  son,  of  the  ten 
\iie;ins,  &c.  Dr.  Blair  obser\es,  that 
"  of  parables,  which  form  a  part  of  al- 
legory, the  prophetical  writings  are  full ; 
and  if  to  us  they  sometimes  appear 
obscure,  we  must  remember,  that,  in 
those  early  times,  it  was  universally  the 
mode  throughout  all  the  eastern  na- 
tions, to  convey  sacred  truths  under 
some  mysterious  figures  and  represen- 
tations." 

PARACLETE,  an  advocate  or  com- 
forter ;  generally  applied  to  the  third 
person  in  the  Ti-inity,  J  ohn  xv.  26. 

PARADISE,  the  garden  of  Eden,  in 
which  Adam  and  Eve  were  placed.  It 
is  also  used  to  denote  heaven,  Luke 
xxiii.  44.  As  to  the  ten-estrial  para- 
dise, there  have  been  many  inquiries 
about  its  situation.  It  has  been  placed 
in  the  third  heaven,  in  the  orb  of  the 
moon,  in  the  moon  itself,  in  the  middle 
region  of  the  air,  aboAe  the  earth,  under 
the  earth,  in  the  place  possessed  by  the 
Caspian  sea,  and  under  the  arctic  pole. 
The  learned  Huetius  places  it  upcn  the 
river  that  is  produced  by  the  conjunction 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  now  call- 
ed the  river  of  the  Arabs,  between  this 
conjunction,  and  the  division  made  by 
the  same  river  before  it  falls  into  the 
Persian  sea.  Other  geographers  have 
placed  it  in  Armenia,  between  the 
sources  of  the  Tigris,  the  Euphi-ates, 
the  Araxes,  and  the  Pliasis,  which  they 
suppose  to  be  the  four  rivers  described 
by  Moses.  But  concerning  the  exact 
place,  we  must  necessarily  be  veiy  un- 
certain, if,  indeed,  it  can  be  thought  at 
all  to  exist  at  present,  cousideinng  the 
many  changes  which  have  taken  place 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  since  the 
creation.    See  Man. 

PARAPHRASE,  an  explanation  of 
some  text  in  clearer  and  more  ample 
terms:,  wh.erein  more  regard  is  had  to 
an  author's  meanuig  than  iiis   words. 

See  COMMEXTARY. 

PARDON,  the  act  of  forgiving  an 
offender,  or  remoA-ing  the  guilt  of  sin, 
that  the  punishment  due  to  it  may  not 
be  inflicted.  Of  the  nature  of  pardon 
it  may  be  observed,  that  the  Scripture 


PAR 


426 


PAR 


represents  it  by  vaiiovis  phrases :  a 
lifting  up,  or  taking  away,  rsal.  xxxii. 
1;  a  covering  of  it,  Psal.  Ixxxv.  2;  a 
non-imputation  of  it,  Ps.  xxxii.  2.  a  blot- 
ting it  out,  Ps.  xliii.  25  ;  a  non-remem- 
brance of  it,  Heb.viii.  12.  Is.  xliii.  25. — 1. 
It  is  an  a^t  of  free  grace,  Ps.  li.  1.  Isa. 
xliii.  25. — 2.  A  point  of  justice,  God 
having  received  satisfaction  by  the  blood 
of  Christ,  1  John  i.  9. — 3.  A  complete 
act,  a  forgiveness  of  all  the  sins  of  his 
people,  1  John  i.  7.  Psal.  ciii.  2,  3. — 4. 
An  act  that  ne\er  will  be  repealed, 
Mic.  vii.  19.  The  author  or  caiiae  of 
pardon  is  not  anv  creature,  angel,  or 
man ;  but  God.  Ministers  are  said  to 
remit  sin  declaratively,  but  not  autho- 
ritatively ;  that  is,  they  preach  and  de- 
clai'e  that  there  is  remission  of  sins  in 
Christ ;  but  to  pretend  to  absolve  men 
is  the  height  of  blasphem}',  1  Thess.  ii. 
4.  Rev.  xiii.  5,  6.  See  Absolution, 
Indulgences.  There  is  nothing  that 
man  has,  or  can  do,  by  which  pardon 
can  be  procured:  wealth  cannot  buy 
pardon,  rrov.  xi.  4;  human  works  or 
righteousness  cannot  merit  it,  Rom.  xi. 
6 ;  nor  can  water  baptism  wash  away 
sin.  It  is  the  prerogative  of  God  alone 
to  forgive,  Mark  ii.  7  ;  tlie  first  cause 
of  which  is  his  own  sovereign  grace  and 
mere}',  Eph.  i.  7.  The  meritorious 
cause"  is  tlie  blood  of  Christ,  Heb.  ix.  14. 
1  John  i.  7.  Pardon  of  sin  and  justifi- 
cation are  considered  by  some  as  the 
same  thing:  and  it  must  be  confessed 
that  there  is  a  close  connexion ;  in 
many  paits  they  agree,  and  it  is  without 
doubt  that  every  sinner  who  shall  be 
found  pardoned  at  the  great  day,  will 
likewise  be  justified ;  yet  they  have 
been  distingwished  thus:  1.  An  innocent 
person,  when  falsely  accused  and  ac- 
quitted, is  justified,  but  not  pardoned; 
and  a  criminal  may  be  pardoned,  though 
he  cannot  be  justified  or  declared  inno- 
cent. Pardon  is  of  men  that  are  sin- 
ners, and  who  remain  such,  though  par- 
doned sinners  ;  but  justification  is  a  pro- 
noiuicing  persons  righteous,  as  if  they 
had  ne\"er  sinned. — 2.  Pardon  frees  from 
punishment,  but  does  not  entitle  to 
everlasting  life ;  but  justification  docs. 
Rum.  v.  It  we  were  onh'  pardoned,  we 
should,  indeed,  escape  tlie  pains  of  hell, 
but  could  have  no  claim  to  the  joys  of 
heaven ;  for  these  are  more  tliaii  the 
most  perfect  works  of  man  could  merit ; 
therefore  they  must  be  what  the  Scrip- 
tures declare — "  the  gift  of  fiod," 

After  all,  however,  though  these  two 
may  be  distmguishcd,  yet  they  cannot 
be  separated;  and,  in  rcali/y,  one  is  not 
prior  to  the  other ;  for  he  that  is  par- 
doned by  the  death  of  Christ,  is  at  the 


same  time  justified  by  his  life,  Rom.  v. 
10.  Acts  xiii.  38,  '39.  See  Grace, 
Mercy.  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p. 
101 ;  GilPs  Body  of  Div.  art.  Pardon  ; 
Onven  on  Psalm  cxxx ;  Hervey''s 
Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  352. 

PARE>sTS,  a  name  appropriated  to 
immediate  progenitors,  as  father  and 
mother.  The  duties  of  parents  to  chil- 
dren relate  to  their  health,  their  main- 
tenance, their  education,  and  morals. 
Many  rules  ha\e  been  delivered  re- 
specting the  health  of  children,  which 
cannot  be  inserted  here ;  yet  we  shall 
just  observe,  that  if  a  parent  wishes  to 
see  his  progeny  healthy,  he  nmst  not  in- 
dulge them  in  every  thing  their  little 
appetites  desire;  not  give  them  too 
much  sleep,  nor  ever  give  them  strong 
liquors.  He  must  accustom  them  to  in- 
dustiy  and  moderate  exercise.  Their 
food  and  clothing  should  be  rather  light. 
They  should  go  to  rest  soon,  and  rise 
early  ;  and,  above  all,  shoidd,  if  possible, 
be  inspired  with  a  love  of  cleanliness. 
As  to  their  maintenance,  it  is  the  parent's 
duty  to  provide  eveiy  thing  for  them 
that  is  necessai-y  until  they  be  capable 
of  providing  for  themselves.  T.  hey, 
therefore,  who  five  in  habits  of  idleness, 
desert  their  families,  or  by  their  negli- 
gent conduct  reduce  them  to  a  state  of 
indigence  and  distress,  are  violating  the 
law  of  nature  and  of  revelation,  1  Tim. 
v.  8.  In  respect  to  their  education  and 
morals,  great  care  should  be  taken.  As 
it  relates  to  the  present  life,  habits  of 
courage,  application,  trade,  pnidence, 
labour,  justice,  contentment,  temper- 
ance, truth,  bene\olence,  &:c.  should 
be  formed.  Their  capacities,  age,  tem- 
per, strength,  inclination,  should  be 
consulted,  and  ad\  ice  given  suitable  to 
these.  As  it  relates  to  a  future  life, 
their  minds  should  be  informed  as  to  the 
being  of  God,  his  perfections,  glory,  and 
the  mode  of  salvation  by  Jesus  Christ. 
'I'hey  should  be  catechised  ;  allured  to 
a  cheerful  attendance  on  divine  wor- 
ship ;  instructed  in  the  Scriptures ;  kept 
from  bad  company;  prayed  with  and 
for  ;  and,  above  all,  a  good  example  set 
them,  Prov.  xxii.  6.  Eph.  vi.  1,  2. 
Nothing  can  be  more  criminal  than  the 
conduct  of  some  parents  in  the  inferior 
classes  of  the  community,  who  never 
restrain  the  desires  and  passions  of 
their  children,  suffer  them  to  live  in 
idleness,  dishonesty,  and  profiuiation  of 
the  Lord's  da}',  the  consequence  of 
which  is  often  an  ignominious  end.  So, 
among  the  great,  permitting  their  chil- 
dren to  spend  their  time  and  their  mo- 
ney as  the}-  please,  indidging  them  in 
perpetual  public  diversions,  and  setting 


PAR 


42: 


before  them  awful  examples  of  gamb- 
luig,  indolence,  blasphemy,  drinkinir, 
and  almost  every  other  xice ;  what  is 
this  but  ruining  their  children,  and 
"  bequeathing  to  posterity  a  nuisance  ?" 
But,  while  we  would  call  upon  parents 
to  exercise  their  authority,  it  must 
not  be  understood  that  children  are  to 
be  entirely  at  t/ieir  disposal  under  all 
circumstances,  especially  v.-hen  they  lie- 
gin  to  think  for  themselves.  Though  a 
pai'ent  has  a  rigtu  (her  his  children, 
yet  he  is  not  to  be  a  domestic  txrant, 
consulting  his  own  will  and  passions  in 
preference  to  their  interest.  In  fact, 
his  right  o\er  them  is  at  an  end  when 
he  goes  beyond  his  duty  to  them.  "  For 
parents,"  as  Mr.  Paley  observes, "  haA-e 
no  natural  right  over  the  lives  of  their 
children,  as  was  absurdly  allowed  to 
Roman  fathei-s  ;  nor  any  to  exercise  un- 
profitable severities  ;  nor  to  command 
the  commission  of  crimes :  for  these 
rights  can  never  be  wanted  for  the  pur- 
poses of  a  parent's  duty.  Nor  have  pa- 
rents any  right  to  sell  their  children  mto 
slavery ;  to  shut  up  daughters  and 
younger  sons  in  nunneries  and  monas- 
tei'ies,  in  order  to  preserve  entire  the 
estate  and  dignity  of  the  family  ;  or  to  use 
any  arts,  either  of  kindness  or  unkind- 
ness,  to  induce  them  to  make  choice  of 
tlus  way  of  life  themselves ;  or  in  coun- 
tries where  the  clergy  are  prohibited 
from  marriage,  to  put  sons  into  the 
church  for  the  same  end,  who  are  never 
likely  to  do  or  receive  any  good  in  it 
sufficient  to  compensate  for  this  sacri- 
fice ;  nor  to  urge  children  to  marriages 
from  which  they  are  averse,  with  the 
view  of  exalting  or  enriching  the  family, 
or  for  the  sake  of  connecting  estates, 
parties,  or  interests ;  nor  to  oppose  a 
marriage  in  which  the  chUd  would  pro- 
bably find  his  happiness,  from  a  motive 
of  pride  or  avarice,  of  family  hostility  or 
personal  pique."  Paleifs  Moral  Phi- 
losophy, vol.  i.  p.  345  to  370 ;  Stfunftt's 
Discourses  on  Domestic  Duties,  dis.  5  ; 
£eattie^s  Elements  of  Moral  Science, 
vol.  ii.  p.  139,  148 ;  Doddridge's  Lec- 
tures, lee.  74 ;  Saurin's  Sermons,  Ro- 
binson's  Translation,  vol.  v.  ser.  1; 
Searl's  Christian  Parent. 
PARSIMONY,    covetousness.     See 

COVETOUSXESS. 

PARSON,  l/iersona  ecclesiee)  one 
that  hath  full  possession  of  all  the  rights 
of  a  parochial  chui'ch.  He  is  called 
parson  (^/lersona)  because  by  his  per- 
son the  church,  Avhich  is  an  invisible 
body,  is  represented,  and  he  is  in  him- 
self a  body  corporate,  in  order  to  pro- 
tect and  defend  the  rights  of  the  church, 
which  he  personates.    There  are  three 


I  PAS 

i-anks  of  clergymen  below  that  of  a  dig- 
nit  ny,  ^  iz.  parson,  vicar,  and  curate. 
Parson  i-^  the  first,  meaning  a  rector,  or 
he  who  receives  the  great  tithes  of  a 
benefice.  Cler^mev.  may  imply  any 
person  oi-dained  to  serve  at  the  altar. 
Parsons  are  always  priests,  whereas 
clergymeri  are  only  deacons.  See  Cler- 
gy, Curate. 

PASAGINIANS,  a  denomination 
which  arose  in  the  twelfth  century, 
known  also  by  the  name  of  the  Circum- 
cised. Their  distinguishing  tenets  were 
these,  1.  That  the  observation  of  the 
law  of  Moses  in  every  thing  except  the 
offering  of  sacrifices  was  obligatory 
upon  Christians.  In  consequence  of 
which,  thev  circumcised  their  followers, 
abstained  from  those  meats  the  use  of 
which  was  prohibited  under  the  iSlo- 
saic  ceconom}-,  and  celebrated  the  Jew- 
ish sabbath. — 2.  That  Christ  was  no 
more  than  the  first  and  purest  crea- 
ture of  God.  This  denomination  had 
the  utmost  aversion  to  the  doctrine  and 
discipline  of  the  church  of  Rome. 

PASSALORYNCHITES,  a  branch 
of  the  Montanists.  They  held,  that  in 
order  to  be  saved,  it  was  necessary  to 
observe  a  perpetual  silence ;  vv'herefore 
thev  kept  their  finger  constantly  on 
their  mouth,  and  dared  not  open  it,  even 
to  say  their  praj^ers.  Their  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  naccyaKo!,  a  nail, 
and  J IV,  a  7iostril,  because,  when  they  put 
their  finger  to  their  mouth,  they  touch- 
ed their  nose. 

PASSIVE  OBEDIENCE  OF 
CHRIST.  See  Obedience,  and  Suf- 
ferings OF  Christ. 

PASSIVEPRAYER,  amongthe  mys- 
tic divines,  is  a  total  suspension  or  liga- 
ture of  the  intellectual  taculties,  in  vir- 
tue whereof  the  soul  remains  of  itself, 
and,  as  to  its  own  power,  impotent  with 
regard  to  the  producing  of  any  effects. 
The  passive  state,  according  to  Fenelon, 
is  only  passive  in  the  same  sense  as  con- 
templation; i.  e.  it  does  not  exclude 
peaceable  disinterested  acts,  but  only 
unquiet  ones,  or  such  as  tend  to  our  own 
interest.  In  the  passive  state  the  soul 
has  not  properly  any  activity,  any  sen- 
sation of  its  own.  It  is  a  mei-e  inflexi- 
bility of  the  soul,  to  which  the  feeblest 
impiilse  of  grace  gives  motion.  See 
Mystic. 

PASSION,  in  its  general  import,  sig- 
nifies every  feeling  of  the  mind  occa- 
sioned bv  an  extrinsic  cause.  It  is  used 
to  describe  a  violent  commotion  or  agi- 
tation of  the  mind;  emotion,  zeal,  ar- 
dour, or  of  ease  wherein  a  man  can  con- 
quer his  desires,  or  hold  them  in  sub- 
jection.   1.  As  to  the  number  of  the 


PAS 


42S 


PAS 


passions,  Le  Brun  raakes  thoni  nljoiit 
twenty,  1.  Attention;  2.  admiration; 
o.  astonishment;  4.  veneration;  5. 
rapture ;  6.  joy,  with  tranquillity ;  _  7. 
desire ;  8.  laughter ;  9.  acute  pain ; 
10.  pains,  simply  bodily;  11.  sadness; 
12.  weeping ;  13.  compassion ;  14. 
scorn;  15.  horror ;  16.  terror  or  fright; 
17.  anger;  18.  hatred;  19.  jealousy; 
20.  despair.  All  these  may  be  repre- 
sented on  canvass  by  the  pencil.  Some 
make  their  number  greater,  adding 
aversion,  love,  emulation,  &c.  &c.  these, 
however,  may  be  considered  as  included 
in  the  above  list.  They  are  divided  by 
some  into  public  and  private ;  proper 
and  impi'oper;  social  and  selfish  pas- 
sions.— 2.  The  original  of  the  passions 
are  from  impressions  on  the  senses ; 
from  the  operations  of  reason,  by  which 
good  or  evil  are  foreseen  ;  and  form  the 
recollections  of  memory. — 3.  Theobjects 
of  the  passions  are  mostly  things  sen- 
sible, on  account  of  their  near  alliance 
to  the  body :  but  olijects  of  a  spiritual 
nature  also,  though  invisible,  have  a 
tendency  to  excite  the  passions ;  such 
as  the  love  of  God,  heaven,  hell,  eter- 
nity. Sec. — 4.  As  to  the  innocency  of  the 
passions;  in  themselves  they_  ai^e  nei- 
ther good  nor  evil,  but  according  to  the 
good  or  ill  use  tha.t  is  made  of  them,  and 
the  degrees  to  which  they  rise. — 5.  The 
tisefulness  of  the  passions  is  considerable, 
and  were  given  us  for  a  kind  of  spinng 
or  elasticity  to  correct  the  natural  slug- 
gishness of  the  corporeal  part.  They 
gave  birth  to  poetry,  science,  painting, 
music,  and  all  the  polite  arts,  which 
minister  to  pleasure ;  nor  are  they  less 
serviceable  in  the  cause  of  religion  and 
truth. — "They,"  s£>ysDr."VVatts, "  when 
sanctified,  set  the  powers  of  the  under- 
standing at  work  in  the  seai'ch  of 
divine  tnith  and  religious  duty ;  they 
keep  the  soul  fixed  to  divine  things'; 
render  the  duties  of  holiness  much 
easier,  and  temptations  to  sin  much 
weaker;  and  render  us  more  like 
Christ,  and  fitter  for  his  presence  and 
enjoyment  in  heaven." — 6.  As  to  the 
regidalion  of  the  passior.s :  to  know 
whether  they  are  under  due  restraints, 
and  directed  to  proper  objects,  we  must 
inquire  whether  they  influence  our 
opinions ;  nin  before  the  understanding; 
engaged  in  trifling,  and  neglectful  of 
important  objects;  express  themselves 
in  an  indecent  manner  ;  and  whether 
they  disorder  our  conduct.  If  this  be 
the"  case,  they  are  out  of  their  due 
bounds,  and  will  become  sources  of 
trial  rather  than  instruments  of  good. 
To  have  them  properly  regulated  we 
should  possess  knowledge  of  our  duty. 


take  God's  Avord  for  our  nile,  be  much 
in  prayer  and  dependence  on  the  Divine 
Being. — 7.  Lastly,  we  should  study  the 
passions.  To  examine  them  accurately, 
indeed,  requires  much  skill,  patience, 
observation,  and  judgment ;  but  to  form 
any  proper  idea  of  the  human  mind,  and 
its  various  operations ;  to  detect  the  er- 
rors that  arise  from  heated  tempera- 
ment and  intellectual  excess ;  to  know 
how  to  touch  their  various  strings,  and 
to  direct  and  employ  them  in  the  best 
of  all  services ;  I  say,  to  accomplish 
these  ends,  the  study  of  the  passions  is 
of  the  greatest  consequence. 

"  Amidst  the  numerous  branches  of 
knowledge,"  says  Mr.  Cogan,  "which 
claim  the  attention  of  the  human  mind, 
no  one  can  be  more  important  than  this. 
Whatever  most  intimately  concerns  our- 
selves must  be  of  the  first  moment.  An 
attention,  therefore,  to  the  workings  of 
our  own  minds;  tracing  the  power 
which  external  objects  have  over  us; 
discovering  the  nature  of  our  emotions 
and  affections  ;  and  comprehending  the 
reason  of  our  being  affected  in  a  par- 
ticular manner,  must  have  a  direct  in- 
fluence upon  our  pursuits,  our  cha- 
racters, and  our  happiness.  It  may 
with  justice  be  advanced,  that  the  hap- 
piness of  ourselves  in  this  department  is 
of  much  greater  utility  than  abstniser 
speculations  concerning  the  nature  of 
the  human  soul,  or  even  the  most  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  its  mtellectual  powers ; 
for  it  is  according  as  the  passions  and  af- 
fections are  excited  and  directed  to- 
wards the  objects  investigated  by  our  in- 
tellectual natures  that  we  become  use- 
ful to  ourselves  or  others :  that  we  rise 
into  respectability,  or  sink  into  con- 
tempt ;  that  we  diffuse  or  enjoy  happi- 
ness, diffuse  or  suffer  miseiy.  An  accu- 
rate analysis  of  these  passions  and  af- 
fections, "therefore,  is  to  the  moralist 
what  the  science  of  anatomy  is  to  the 
sui'geon.  It  constitutes  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  rational  practice ;  it  is,  in  a 
moral  view,  the  anatomy  of  the  heart ; 
it  discovers  why  it  beats,  and  hotv  it 
beats ;  indicates  appearances  in  a  sound 
and  healthy  state ;  detects  diseases  with 
their  causes,  and  it  is  infinitely  more 
fortunate  in  the  power  it  communicates 
of  applying  suitable  remedies." 

See  Hutchcson,  Watts,  Le  Brmi, 
Cogan,  and  Davan  on  the  Passioufi ; 
Grovels  Moral  Ph'donojihy,  vol.  j.  ch. 
7 ;  RckVs  Active  Powers  of  Man ; 
Fordyce\<i  Elements  of  Mor.  Phil. 
Burke  oti  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful, 
p.  50. 

PASSOVER,  a  solemn  festival  of  the 
Jews,  instituted  in  commemoration  of 


PAS 


42!) 


PAT 


their  coming  out  of  Eg;^^!;  because, 
tiie  night  before  their  cfepaiture,  the 
destroying  angel,  who  put  to  death  the 
fii-st-bbm  of  the  Egj^ptians,  passed  over 
the  houses  of  the  Hebrews,  without  en- 
tering therein ;  because  they  were 
jnarked  with  the  blood  of  the  hunb, 
wliich  was  killed  the  evening  before, 
and  which  for  this  reason  was  called  the 
paschal  lamb.  See  Exod.  xii.  Brovjn's 
Diet,  article  Feast;  and  Irlc'Ewen  on 
the  Tyfies,  p.  172. 

PASTOR,  literally  a  shepherd; 
figuratively  a  stated  minister  appointed 
to  watch  over  and  instinict  a  congrega- 
tion. Of  the  qualifications  of  ministers 
we  have  already  made  some  remarks 
under  that  aiticle;  but  the  following, 
taken  from  the  works  of  a  spiritual  and 
useful  writer,  we  hope,  will  not  be  found 
superfluous.  Jesus  Christ's  description 
of  an  evangelical  pastor.  Matt.  xxi\'.  45, 
includes  tw^o  things,  faithfulness  and 
firudeiice.  "  If  a  minister  be  faithful,  he 
deceives  not  others ;  and  if  he  be  pru- 
dent, he  is  not  apt  to  be  deceived  him- 
self. His  prudence  suffers  not  deceivers 
easily  to  impose  upon  him ;  and  his 
faithfulness  will  not  suffer  him  know- 
ingly to  impose  upon  his  people.  His 
prudence  will  enable  him  to'  discern, 
and  his  faithfulness  oblige  liim  to  dis- 
tribute wholesome  food  to  his  flock. 
But  more  particularly, 

1.  "  Ministerial  faithfulness  includes 
pure  and  siDiritual  aims  and  intentions 
for  God,  Phil.  ii.  20,  21.— 2.  Pei-sonal 
sincerity,  or  integrity  of  heait,  Neh.  ix. 
8.  1  Cor.  ii.  12. — 3.  DiUgence  in  the 
discharge  of  duty.  Matt.  xxv.  21.  1 
Tim.  iv.  2. — 4.  Impartiality  in  the  ad- 
mini  sti-ations  of  Christ's  house,  1  Tim. 
V.  21. — 5.  An  unshaken  constancj^  and 

Eerseverance  to  the  end.  Rev.  ii.  10. 
ut  the  Lord's  servants  must  not  only 
be  faithful,  but  prudent,  discreet,  and 
wise.  Fidelity  and  honesty  make  a 
gno.T  Christian  ;  but  the  addition  of  pru- 
dence to  fidelity  makes  a  good  steward. 
Faithfulness  will  fix  the  eye  upon  the 
right  end ;  but  it  is  pi-udence  must  di- 
rect to  the  proper  means  of  attaining  it. 
The  use  of  prudence  to  a  minister  is 
unspeakably  great :  it  not  only  gives 
clearness  and  perspicacity  to  the  mind, 
by  freeing  it  from  passions  and  corporeal 
uiipressions,  enabling  it  thereby  to  ap- 
prehend Ashat  is  best  to  be  done,  but 
enables  it  in  its  deliberations  about  the 
means  to  make  choice  of  the  most  apt  i 
and  oroper ;  and  directs  the  application 
of  ttiem  in  the  fittest  season,  without 
precipitation  by  too  much  haste,  or 
ixazard  by  too  tedious  delay. 

2.  "  Prudence  ^vill  direct  us  to  lav  a 


good  foundation  of  knowledge  in  oiM" 
people's  souls  by  catechising  and  in- 
sti-ucting  them  in  the  piinciples  of 
Christianity,  without  which  we  labour 
in  vain. — 2.  Ministerial  pnidence  dis- 
covers itself  in  the  choice  of  such  sub- 
jects as  the  needs  of  our  people's  souls 
do  most  require  and  call  for. — 3.  It  will 
not  only  direct  us  in  the  choice  of  our 
subjects,  but  of  the  language,  too,  in 
which  we  dress  and  deliver  them  to  our 
people. — 4.  It  will  show  us  of  what 
great  use  our  own  affections  are  for  the 
moving  of  others;  and  will  therefore 
advise  us,  that,  if  ever  we  expect  the 
truths  we  preach  should  operate  upon 
the  hearts  of  others,  we  must  first  have 
them  impressed  on  our  o\m.  heaits, 
Phil.  iii.  18. — 5.  It  will  direct  us  to  be 
careful,  by  the  strictness  and  gi-avity  of 
our  deportment,  to  maintain  our  esteein 
in  the  consciences  of  our  people. — 6.  It 
will  excite  us  to  seek  a  blessing  from 
God  upon  our  studies  and  labom's,  as 
knowing  all  our  ministerial  success  en- 
tirely depends  thereupon."  1  Cor.  iii. 
7.  See  Fla-veUs  Character  of  an  Evan- 
gelical Pastor,  in  the  second  Volume  of 
his  Works,  p.  763,  fol.  ed.  and  books 
under  article  Ministry. 

PATIENCE,  that  calm  and  imniifled 
temper  with  which  a  good  man  bears 
the  evils  of  life.  "  Patience,"  says  aix 
eminent  writer,  "is  apt  to  be  ranked 
by  many  among  the  more  humble  and 
obscure  virtues,  belonging  chiefly  to 
those  who  gi'oan  on  a  sick  bed,  or  who 
languish  in  a  prison ;  but  hi  every  cir- 
cumstance of  life  no  virtue  is  more  im- 
portant both  to  duty  and  to  happiness. 
It  is  not  confined  to  a  situation  of  con- 
tinued adversity  :  it  principally,  indeed, 
regards  the  disagreeable  circumstances 
which  are  apt  to  occur ;  but  prospeinty 
cannot  be  enjoyed,  any  more  than  ad- 
versity supported  without  it.  It  must 
enter  into  the  temper,  and  form  the  ha- 
bit of  the  soul,  if  we  would  pass  through 
the  world  witli  tranquilhty  and  honour." 
"  Christian  patience,"  says  Mason,  "  is 
essentially  different  frona  insensibility, 
whether  natural,  artificial,  or  acquired. 
This,  indeed,  sometimes  passes  for  pa- 
tience, though  it  be  in  reahty  quite 
another  thing;  for  patience  signifies 
suffering.  Now  if  you  inflict  ever  so 
much  pain  on  the  body  of  another,  if  he 
is  not  sensible  of  it,  it  is  no  pain  to  him  ; 
he  suffers  nothing ;  consequently  calm- 
ness under  it  is  no  patience.  This  in- 
sensibility is  sometimes  natural.  Some, 
in  the  native  temperament  of  their  mind 
and  body  are  much  less  susceptible  of 
pain  thaii  others  are. — There  are  diffei'- 
ent  degrees  of  insensibility  in  men,  both 


PAT 


430 


PAT 


in  theiv  animal  and  mental  frame ;  so  i 
that  the  same  event  may  be  a  great  ex-  j 
crcise  of  patience  to  one  man,  ^vl^ich  is  1 
none  at  all  to  another,  as  the  latter  feels  i 
little  or  no  pain  from  tliat  wound  in- 
flicted on  the  body  or  mind  which  gives 
the  most  exquisite  anguish  to  the  foi*- 
nier.     Again ;  there  is  aji  artificial  in- 
sensibility :  such  as  is  procured  by  opi- 
ates, which  blunt  the  edge  of  pain ;  and 
there   is  an    acquired  insensibility;  or 
that  which  is  attained  by  the  force  of 

{)rinciples  strongly  mculcated,  or  by 
ong  custom.  Such  was  the  apathy  of 
the  Sfoics,  who  obstinatel)"  maintamed 
that  pain  was  no  evil,  and  therefore 
bore  it  witli  amazing  firmness,  wliich, 
however,  was  very  dift'erent  from  the 
virtue  of  Chi'istian  patience,  as  appears 
from  the  principles  from  which  tliey 
respective] }■  proceeded ;  the  one  spring- 
ing from  pride,  the  other  from  liumi- 
lity."  Christian  patience,  then,  is  some- 
thing different  from  all  these.  "It  is 
not  a  careless  indolence,  a  stupid  uisen- 
sibility,  mechanical  bravery,  constitu- 
tional fortitude,  a  daring  stoutness  of 
spirit,  resulting  from  fatalism,  philoso- 
pliy,  or  pride  : — it  is  deri\ed  from  a  di- 
vine agency,  nourished  by  hea\enly 
truth,  and  gaiided  by  Scriptural  rules." 

"  Patience,"  says  Mr.  Jay,  "  must  be 
displayed  under  provocations.  Our 
opinions,  reputation,  connexions,  offices, 
liusiness,  render  us  widely  vulnei-able. 
The  characters  of  men  are  various: 
their  pursuits  and  their  interests  per- 
petually clash:  some  try  us  by  their 
Ignorance;  some  by  their  folly;  some 
by  their  pen  erseness ;  some  by  their 
malice.  Here,  then,  is  an  opportunity 
for  tlie  triumpli  of  patience. — We  arc 
\-ery  susceptive  of  irritation ;  anger  is 
eloquent;  revenge  is  sweet:  but  to  stand 
calm  and  collected;  to  suspend  the 
blow  which  passion  was  urgent  to  strike  ; 
to  drive  the  reasons  of  clemency  as  far 
as  they  will  go  ;  to  bring  forwai'd  fairly 
in  view  the  circumstances  of  mitigation : 
to  distinguish  between  suiprise  and  de- 
liberation, infirmity  and  crime  ;  or  if 
infliction  be  deemed  necessary,  to  leave 
God  to  be  Ijoth  the  judge  and  the  exe- 
cutioner ;  this  a  Christi;m  should  labour 
after:  his  peace  requires  it.  Peojjle 
love  to  sing  the  passionate;  they  who 
are  easily  provoked,  commit  their  re- 
pose to  the  keeping  of  their  enemies  ; 
they  lie  down  at  tlieir  feet,  and  invite 
them  to  strike.  The  man  of  temper 
places  himself  beyond  vexatious  inter- 
ruption. '  He  that  hath  no  iiile  over  his 
own  spirit,  is  like  a  city  that  is  broken 
down,  and  without  walls,'  into  which 
enter  over  the  ruins  seipcnts,  vagrants. 


thieves,  enemies;  while  the  man  who 
in  patience  possesses  his  soul,  has  the 
command  of^  himself,  places  a  defence 
all  around  him,  and  forbids  the  en- 
trance of  such  unwelcome  company  to 
off'end  or  discompose.  His  wisdom  re- 
quu-es  it.  '  He  that  is  slow  to  anger  is 
of  gi-eat  understanding ;  but  he  that  is 
hasty  of  spirit,  exalteth  foil).'  Wisdom 
gives  us  large,  various,  comprehensive 
views  of  tlmigs  ;  the  veiy  exercise  ope- 
rates as  a'^iversion,  affords  the  mind 
time  to  cool,  and  furnishes  numberless 
circumstances  tending  to  soften  severity. 
His  dignitij  requires  it.  '  It  is  the  glory 
of  a  man  to  pass  by  a  transgression.' 
The  man  provoked  to  revenge  is  con- 
quered, and  loses  the  glory  of  the  strug- 
gle ;  while  he  who  forbears  comes  off 
victor,  crowned  with  no  common  lau- 
I'els.  A  flood  assails  a  rock,  and  ix)lls 
oft'  unable  to  make  an  impression ;  wliile 
straws  and  boughs  are  bonie  off  in  tri- 
umph, carried  down  the  stream,  driven 
and  tossed.  Examples  require  it.  What 
provocations  had  Joseph  received  from 
his  brethren  ?  but  he  scarcely  mentions 
the  crime :  so  eager  is  he  to  announce 
the  pardon.  David  says,  'They  re- 
wai'ded  me  evil  for  good ;  but  as  for  me, 
when  they  were  sick,  my  clothing  was 
sackcloth.  Stephen,  dying  under  a 
shower  of  stones,  prays  for  his  enemies : 
'  Lord,  lay  not  this  sin  to  their  charge.' 
But  a  greater  than  Joseph,  or  David,  or 
Stephen,  is  liere.  Go  to  the  foot  of  the 
cross,  and  behold  Jesus,  suffering  for  us. 
Evcrj'  thing  conspired  to  render  the 
provocation  heinous ;  the  nature  of  the 
offence,  the  meanness  and  obligation  of 
the  offenders,  the  righteousness  of  his 
cause,  the  grandeur  of  his  person  ;  and 
all  these  seemed  to  call  for  vengeance. 
The  creatures  were  eager  to  punish. 
Peter  drew  his  sword ;  the  sun  resol\-ed 
to  shine  on  such  criminals  no  longer; 
the  rocks  asked  to  ci-ush  them  ;  the 
earth  trembles  under  the  sinful  load; 
the  \'ery  dead  cannot  remain  in  their 
graves.  He  suffers  them  all  to  testify 
their  sympathy,  but  forbids  their  re- 
venge ;'  and,  lest  the  Judge  of  all  should 
pour  forth  his  fury,  he  cries,' '  Father, 
forgive  them,  for  they  know  not  what 
they  do !' — 2.  Patience  is  to  be  displayed 
in  suffering  affliciion.  This  is  tuiother 
field  in  wliich  patience  gathers  .^lory. 
Aflliction  comes  to  exercise  ourpatience, 
and  to  distinguish  it.  '  The  triid  of  your 
faith  worketh  patience,'  not  only  in 
consequence  of  the  di\'ine  blessing,  but 
bj'^  the  natin'al  operation  of  things ;  use 
makes  perfect;  the  yoke  is  rendered 
easy  by  being  worn,  and  those  parts  of 
the  bodv  which  are  most  in  action  are 


PAT 


431 


PAT 


the  most  strong  and  solid ;  and,  there- 
fore, we  are  not  to  excuse  hnproper  dis- 
positions under  af5iiction,  by  saying,  '  It 
was  so  trying,  wlio  could  help  it  ?'  This 
is  to  justify  impatience  by  what  God 
sends  on  purpose  to  make  you  patient. 
— 3.  Patience^  is  to  be  exercised  under 
delays.  We  as  naturally  pursue  a  de- 
sired good  as  we  shun  an  apprehended 
evil :  the  want  of  such  a  good  is  as  griev- 
ous as  the  pressure  of  such  an  evil ;  and 
an  ability  to  bear  the  one  is  as  needful  a 
qualification  as  the  foititude  by  which 
we  endure  the  other.  It  therefore, 
equally  belongs  to  patience  to  wait,  as  to 
suffer.  God  "does  not  always  imme- 
diately indulge  us  with  an  answer  to  our 
prayers.  He  hears,  indeed,  as  soon  as 
we  knock;  but  he  does  not  open  the 
door:  to  stand  there  resolved  not  to  go 
without  a  blessing,  requires  patience ; 
and  patience  cries,  'Wait  on  the  Lord; 
be  of  good  courage,  and  he  shall 
strengtlien  thine  heart :  wait,  I  say,  on 
the  Lord.' 

We  have,  however,  the  most  power- 
ful motives  to  excite  us  to  the  attain- 
ment of  this  grace.  1.  God  is  a  God  of 
patience,  Rom.  xv.  5. — 2.  It  is  enjoined 
by  the  Gospel,  Rom.  xii.  12.  Luke  xxi. 
19. — 3.  Tlie  present  state  of  man  ren- 
ders, the  practice  of  it  absolutely  ne- 
cessary, Heb.  X.  c)&. — 4.  The  manifold 
inconvenience  of  impatience  is  a  strong 
motive,  John  iv.  Psal.  cvi. — 5.  Eminent 
examples  of  it,  Heb.  xii.  2.  Heb.  vi.  12. 
Job  i.  22. — 6.  Reflect  that  all  our  trials 
will  terminate  in  triumph,  James  v.  7, 
8.  Rom.  ii.  7.  Barrow's  Works,  vol.  iii. 
ser.  10;  Jay's  Sermons,  ser.  2.  vol.  i. ; 
Mason's  Christian  Morals,^  vol.  i.  ser. 
3;  Blair's  Sermons,  vol.  iii.  ser.  11; 
Bishop  Home's  Discourses,  vol.  ii.  ser. 
10 ;  Bishop  Hopkiiis's  Death  Disarmed, 
p.  1,  120. 

PATIENCE  OF  GOD  is  his  long 
suffering  or  forbearance.  He  is  called 
the  God  of  patience,  not  only  because 
he  is  the  author  and  ol)ject  of  the  grace 
of  patience,  but  because  he  is  patient  or 
long  suffering  ui  himself,  and  towards 
his  creatures.  It  is  not,  indeed,  to  be 
considered  as  a  quality,  accident,  pas- 
sion, or  afrection  in  God  as  in  creatures, 
but  belongs  to  the  very  nature  and  es- 
sence of  God,  and  springs  from  his 
goodness  and  mercy,  Rom.  ii.  4.  It  is 
said  to  be  exercised  towards  his  chosen" 
people,  2  Pet.  iii.  9.  Rom.  iii.  25.  Isa. 
XXX.  18.  1  Tim.  i.  16.  and  towards  the 
ungodly,  Rom.  ii.  4.  Eccl.  viii.  11.  Tlie 
end  of  his  forbearance  to  ttie  wicked,  is, 
that  they  may  be  without  excuse ;  to 
make  his  power  and  goodness  visible ; 
and  partly  for  the  sake  of  his  own  peo- 


ple, Gen.  xviii.  32.  Rev.  vi.  \l.  2  Vet 
iii.  9.  His  patience  is  manifested  by 
giving  warnings  of  judgments  before  he 
executes  them,  Hos.  vi.  5.  Amos  i.  1. 
2  Pet.  ii.  5.  In  long  delaying  his  jvidg- 
ments,  Eccl.  viii.  11.  In  often  mixing 
mercy  with  them.  There  are  many  in- 
stances of  his  patience  recorded  in  the 
Scriptures;  with  the  old  world,  Gen. 
vi.  3  ;  the  inhabitants  of  Sodom,  Gen. 
xviii ;  in  Pharaoh,  Exod.  v  ;  in  the  peo- 
ple of  Israel  in  the  wilderness,  Acts 
xiii.  18 ;  in  the  Amorites  and  Canaan- 
ites.  Gen.  xv.  15.  Lev.  xviii.  28  .  in  the 
Gentile  world,  Acts  xvii.  30 ;  in  fruit- 
less professors,  Luke  xiii.  6,  9 ;  in  An- 
tichrist, Rev.  ii.  21.  xiii.  6.  xviii.  8.  See 
Charnock's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  780  ;  Gilt's 
Body  of  Divinity,  vol.  i.  p.  130;  Sau- 
rin's  Sermo?i's,  vol.  i.  ser.  10  and  11, 148, 
149  ;  Tillotson's  Sermons. 

PATRIARCHS,  heads  of  families; 
a  name  applied  chiefly  to  those  who 
lived  before  Moses,  who  were  both 
priests  and  princes,  without  peculiar 
places  fitted  for  worship,  Acts  ii.  29. 
vii.  8,  9.  Heb.  vii.  4. 

Patriarchs  among  Christians,  are  ec- 
clesiastical dignitaries,  or  bishops,  so 
called  from  their  paternal  authority  in 
the  church.  The  power  of  patriarchs 
was  not  the  same  in  all,  but  differed  ac- 
cording to  the  different  customs  of 
countries,  or  the  pleasures  of  kings  and 
councils.  Thus  thg  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople grew  to  be  a  patriai'ch  over 
the  patriarchs  of  Epliesus  and  Cccsarea, 
and  was  called  the  (Ecumejiical  and 
Universal  Patriarch;  and  the  patri- 
arch of  Alexandria  had  some,  preroga- 
tives which  no  other  pati'iarch  but  him- 
self enjoyed  ;  such  as  the  right  of  con- 
secrating and  approving  of  every  single 
bishop  under  his  jurisdiction.  The  pa- 
triarchate has  ever  been  esteemed  the 
supreme  dignity  in  the  church  :  the  bi- 
shop had  only  under  him  the  territory 
of  the  city  of  which  he  was  bishop  ;  the 
metropolitan  superintended  a  pro\ince, 
and  had  for  suffragans  the  Ijishops  of  his 
pro\-ince ;  the  primate  was  the  cliief  of 
what  was  then  called  a  diocrss,  and  had 
several  metropolitans  under  him ;  and 
the  patriarch  had  under  him  several 
diocesses,  composing  one  exarchate,  and 
the  primates  themselves  were  under 
him.  Usher,  Pagi,  De  Marca,  and  Mo- 
rhms,  attribute  the  establishment  of  the 
grand  patriarchates  to  the  apostles 
themselves,  v/ho,  in  their  opinion,  ac- 
cording to  the  description  of  the  world 
then  given  by  geographers,  pitched 
on  three  principal  cities  in  the  three 
j^arts  of  the  known  world,  viz.  Rome  in 
Europe,  Antioch  in  Asia,  and  A-lexan- 


P.V 


132 


PAC 


dria  in  Africa:  and  tlius  tbrmed  a  tri- 
nity of  patriarchs.  Others  maintain, 
that  the  name  patriarch  v/as  unknown 
at  the  time  of  the  council  of  Nice;  and 
that  for  a  long  time  afterwards  patri- 
archs and  primates  were  confounded  to- 
gether, as  being  all  equally  chiefs  of 
tliocesses,  and  equally  superior  to  me- 
tropolitans, who  wei-e  only  chiefs  of 
provinces.  Hence  Socrates  gives  the 
title  patriarch  to  all  the  chiefs  of  dio- 
cesses,  and  reckons  ten  of  them.  Indeed, 
it  does  not  appear  that  the  dignity  of 
patriarch  was  appropriated  to  the  five 
grand  sees  of  Rome,  Constantinople, 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem, 
till  after  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  in 
451 ;  for  when  the  council  of  Nice  regu- 
lated the  limits  and  prei'Ogatives  of  the 
three  patriarchs  of  Rome,  Antioch,  and 
Alexandria,  it  did  not  gi\'e  them  tlie  ti- 
tle of  patriarchs,  though  it  allowed 
them  the  pre-eminence  and  privileges 
thereof :  thus  when  tlie  council  of  Con- 
stantinople adjudged  the  second  place  to 
the  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who,  till 
then,  was  only  a  suftragan  of  Heraclea, 
it  said  nothing  of  the  patriarchate.  Nor 
is  the  term  patriarch  found  in  the  de- 
cree of  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  where- 
by the  fifth  place  is  assigned  to  the  bi- 
shop of  Jerusalem ;  nor  did  these  fiA^e 
patriarchs  govern  all  the  churches. 

There  were  besides  many  independent 
chiefs  of  diocesses,  who,  far  from  own- 
ing the  jurisdiction  of  the  grand  patri- 
archs, called  tliemselves  patriarchs, 
such  as  that  of  Aquileia;  nor  was  Car- 
thage ever  subject  to  the  patriarch  of 
Alexandria.  Mosheim  {Eccles.  Hist'. 
\o\.  i.  p.  284.)  imagines  that  the  bishops 
who  enjoyed  a  certain  degi-ee  of  pre- 
eminence over  the  rest  of  their  ordei*, 
were  distinguished  by  the  Jewish  title 
of  patriarchs  in  the  fourth  century. 
The  authority  of  the  jiatriarchs  gra- 
dually increased  till  about  the  close  of 
the  fifth  century ;  all  affairs  of  moment 
within  the  compass  of  their  patriarch- 
ates came  before  them,  either  at  first 
hand,  or  bv  appeals  from  the  metropo- 
litans. They  consecrated  bishops ;  as- 
sembled yearly  in  council  the  clergy  of 
their  respective  districts;  pi'onounced 
a  decisive  judgment  in  those  cases  where 
accusations  were  brought  against  bi- 
shops ;  and  appointed  vicars  or  de- 
puties, clothed  with  their  authoi-ity,  for 
tlie  preservation  of  order  and  tranquil- 
litv  m  the  remoter  provinces.  In  short, 
nothing  was  done  without  consulting 
them,  and  their  decrees  were  executed 
with  the  same  regularity  and  respect  as 
those  of  the  princes. 

It  deserves  to  be  remarked,  however, 


that  the  authority  of  the  patriarchs  a^t-s 
not  acknowledged  through  all  the  pro- 
\inces  without  exception.  Several  dis- 
tricts, both  in  the  eastern  and  westei'u 
empires,  were  exempted  from  their  ju- 
risdiction. The  Latin  church  had  no 
patriarchs  till  the  sixth  century ;  and 
the  churches  of  Gaul,  Britain,  &c.  were 
never  subject  to  the  authority  of  the 
patriarch  of  Rome,  whose  authority 
only  extended  to  the  suburbicaiy  pro- 
vinces. There  was  no  primacy,  no  ex- 
archate, nor  patriarchate,  owned  here  ; 
but  the  bishops,  with  the  metropolitans, 
governed  the  church  in  common.  In- 
deed, after  the  name  patriarch  became 
frequent  in  the  West,  it  was  attributed 
to  the  bishop  of  Bourges  and  Lyons;  but 
it  was  only  in  the  first  signification,  viz. 
as  heads  of  diocesses.  Du  Cange  says, 
that  there  have  been  some  abbots  who 
have  borne  tlie  title  of  patriarchs. 

PATRICIANS,  ancient  sectaries  who 
disturbed  the  peace  of  the  church  in  the 
beginning  of  the  third  century  ;  thus 
called  from  their  founder  Fatriciuf-: 
preceptor  of  a  Marchionite  called  S}m- 
machus.  His  distinguishing  tenet  was, 
that  the  substance  of  the  flesh  is  not  the 
Avork  of  God,  but  that  of  the  devil ;  on 
which  account  his  adherents  bore  an 
implacable  hatred  to  their  own  flesh, 
which  sometimes  carried  them  so  far 
as  to  kill  themselves. 

PATRIPASSIANS,  a  sect  that  ap- 
peared about  the  latter  end  of  the  second 
century  ;  so  called  from  their  ascribing 
the  passion  or  sufferings  of  Christ  to  the 
Father ;  for  they  asserted  the  unity  of 
God  in  such  a  manner  as  to  destroy  all 
distinctions  of  persons,  and  to  make  the 
Father  and  Son  precisely  the  same  ;  in 
which  they  were  followed  by  the  Sa- 
bellians  aiid  others.  The  author  fmd 
head  of  the  Patripassians  was  Praxeas, 
a  philosopher  of  Phr\'gia,  in  Asia. 

PATRONAGE,  or  Advowson,  a 
sort  of  incoi-porcal  hereditament,  con- 
sisting in  the  right  of  presentation  to  a 
church,  or  ecclesiastical  benefice.  Ad- 
vowson signifies  the  taking  into  pro- 
tection, and  therefore  is  synonj-Tuous  with 
patronage;  and  he  who  has  the  right  of 
advowson  is  called  the  patron  of  the 
chui'ch. 

PAULIANISTS,  a  sect  so  called 
from  their  founder,  Paulus  Samosatenus, 
a  nati\-e  of  Samosata,  elected  bishop  of 
Antioch,  in  262.  His  doctrine  seems  to 
have  amounted  to  this:  that  the  Son 
and  the  Holy  Ghost  exist  in  God  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  faculties  f)f  reason 
:uid  activity  do  in  man  ;  that  Christ  was 
born  a  mere  man ;  but  that  the  reason 
or  wisdom  of  the  Father  descended  into 


PAU 


433 


PAU 


him,  and  by  him  wrought  miracles  upon 
eaith,  and"  instructed  the  nations,  and, 
finally,  that  on  account  of  this  union  of 
-the  divine  "Word  with  the  man  Jesus, 
Christ  might,  though  improperly,  be 
called  God.  It  is  also  said  that  he  did 
not  baptise  in  the  name  of  the  Father 
and  the  Son,  8cc.  for  which  reason  the 
council  of  Nice  ordered  those  baptised 
by  him  to  be  re-baptised.  Being  con- 
demned by  Dionysius  Alexandrmus  in  a 
council,  he  abjui'ed  his  errors  to  avoid 
deposition;  but  soon  after  he  i-esumed 
them,  and  was  actually  deposed  by  ano- 
ther council  in  269.  He  may  be  consi- 
dered as  the  father  of  the  modern  Soci- 
nians;  and  his  en-ors  are  severely  con- 
demned by  the  council  of  Nice,  whose 
creed  differs  a  little  from  that  now  used 
under  the  same  name  in  the  church  of 
England.  The  creed  agreed  upon  by 
tlie  Nicene  fathers  with  a  view  to  the 
errors  of  Paulus  Samosatenus  concludes 
thus  :  "  But  those  who  say  there  was  a 
time  when  he  was  not,  and  that  he  was 
not  before  he  was  bom,  the  catholic  and 
apostolic  church  anathematize." 

PAULICIANS,  a  branch  of  the  an- 
cient Manichees;  so  called  from  their 
founder,  one  Paulus,  an  Armenian,  in 
the  seventh  century,  who,  with  his  bro- 
ther Jolui,  both  o'f  Samosata,  fornied 
this  sect ;  though  others  are  of  opinion 
that  they  were  thus  called  from  another 
Paul,  an  Armenian  by  birth,  who  lived 
under  the  reign  of  Justinian  II.  In  the 
seventh  centuiy,  a  zealot,  called  Con- 
stantine,  revived  this  drooping  sect, 
which  had  suffered  much  from  the  vio- 
lence of  its  adversaries,  and  was  ready 
to  expire  under  the  severity  of  the  im- 
perial edicts,  and  that  zeal  with  which 
they  were  carried  into  execution.  The 
Paulicians,  however,  by  their  number, 
and  the  countenance  of  the  emperor 
Nicephorus,  became  formidable  to  all 
the  East.  But  the  cruel  rage  of  perse- 
cution, which  had  for  some  years  been 
suspended,  broke  forth  with  redoubled 
violence  vmder  the  reigns  of  Michael 
Curopalates,  and  Leo  the  Annenian, 
who  mflicted  capital  punishment  on  svich 
of  the  Paulicians  as  refused  to  return 
into  the  bosom  of  the  church.  The  em- 
press Theodora,  tutoress  of  the  empe- 
ror Michael,  in  845,  would  oblige  them 
either  to  be  converted,  or  to  quit  the 
empire ;  upon  which  several  of  them 
were  put  to  death,  and  more  retii'ed 
among  the  Saracens;  but  they  were 
neither  all  extenninated  nor  banished. 

Upon  this  they  entered  into  a  league 
with  the  Saracens,  and,  choosing  for 
their  chief  an  officer  of  the  greatest  re- 
solution and  valour,  whose  name  was 


Carbeus,  they  declared  against  the 
Greeks  a  war,  Avhich  was  carried  on 
for  liftj'  years  with  the  greatest  vehe- 
mence arid  fury.  During  these  commo- 
tions, some  Paulicians,  towards  the  con- 
clusion of  this  century,  spread  abroad 
their  doctrines  among  the  Bulgarians: 
many  of  them,  either  from  a  pi-inciple 
of  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  their  opi- 
nions, or  from  a  natural  desire  of  flymg 
from  the  persecution  which  they  suffer- 
ed under  the  Grecian  yoke,  retii-ed 
about  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century 
from  Bulgaria  and  Thrace,  and  formed 
settlements  in  other  countries.  Their 
first  migration  was  into  Italy;  whence, 
in  process  of  time,  they  sent  colonies 
into  almost  all  the  other  provinces  of 
Europe,  and  formed  gradually  a  consi- 
derable nvunber  of  religious  assemblies, 
who  adhered  to  their  doctrine,  and  who 
were  afterwards  persecuted  with  the  ut- 
most vehemence  by  the  Roman  pontiffs. 
In  Ital)'  they  were  called  Patarini,  from 
a  certain  place  called  Pataria,  being  a 
part  of  the  city  of  Milan  where  they 
held  their  asseriiblies :  and  Gathari,  or 
Gazari,  from  Gazaria,  or  the  Lesser 
i'artaiy.  In  France  they  were  called 
Albigehses,  though  their  faith  differed 
widely  from  that  of  Albigenses,  whonn 
Protestant  writers  generally  vindicate 
(See  Albigenses.)  The  first  religious 
assembly  the  Paulicians  had  formed  in 
Europe,  is  said  to  have  been  discovered 
at  Orleans  in  1017,  under  the  reign  of 
Robert,  when  many  of  them  were  con- 
demned to  be  burnt  alive.  The  ancient 
Paulicians,  according  to  Photius,  ex- 
pressed the  utmost  abhorrence  of  Manes 
and  his  doctrine.  The  Greek  writers 
comprise  their  eiTors  under  the  six  fol- 
lowing particulars :  1.  They  denied  that 
this  inferior  and  visible  world  is  the  pro- 
duction of  the  Supreme  Being ;  and  they 
distinguish  the  Creator  of  the  world 
and  of  human  bodies  from  the  Most 
High  God  who  dwells  in  the  heavens ; 
and  hence  some  have  been  led  to  con- 
ceive that  they  were  a  branch  of  the 
Gnostics  rather  than  of  the  Manicheans. 
— 2.  They  treated  contemptuously  the 
Virgin  Maiy,  or,  according  to  the  usual 
manner  of  speaking  among  the  Greeks, 
they  refused  to  adore  and  worship  her. — 
3.  They  refused  to  celebrate  the  institu- 
tion of  the  Lord's  supper. — 4.  They 
loaded  the  cross  of  Christ  with  con- 
tempt and  reproach,  by  which  we  are 
only  to  understand  that  they  refused  to 
follow  the  absurd  and  superstitious  prac- 
tice of  the  Greeks,  who  paid  to  the  pre- 
tended %ood  of  the  cross  a  certain  sort 
of  religious  homage. — 5.  They  rejected, 
after  the  example  of  the  greatest  part 
.S  T 


PEL 


434 


PEL 


of  the  Gnostics,  tlie  books  of  the  Old 
Testament ;  and  looked  upon  the  writers 
of  that  sacred  history  as  inspired  by  the 
Creator  of  this  world,  and  not  by  the 
Supreme  God. — 6.  They  excluded  pres- 
b}  ters  and  elders  from"  all  part  in  the 
administration  of  the  church. 

PEACE,  that  state  of  mind  in  which 
persons  are  exposed  to  no  open  violence 
to  interrupt  their  tranquillity.  1.  Social 
jicace  is  mutual  agreement  one  with 
another,  whereby  we  forbear  injuring 
one  another,  Psalm  xxxiv.  14.  Psalm 
cxxxii. — 2.  Ecclesiastical  peace  is  free- 
dom from  contentions,  and  rest  from 
persecutions,  Isa.  xi.  13.  Isaiah  xxxii. 
17.  Rev.  xii.  14. — 3.  Spiritual  peace  is 
deliverance  from  sin,  by  which  we  were 
at  enmity  with  God,  Rom.  v.  1;  the 
result  of  which  is  peace,  in  the  con- 
science, Heb.  X.  22.  This  peace  is  the 
gift  of  God  through  Jesus  Christ,  2 1'hess. 
lii.  16.  It  is  a  blessing  of  gi'eat  im- 
portance. Psalm  cxix.  165.  It  is  deno- 
minated perfect,  Isaiah  xxvi.  3.  inex- 
pressible, Phil.  iv.  7.  pennanent,  Job 
xxxiv.  22.  John  xvi.  22.  eternal,  Isaiah 
Ivii.  2.  Heb.  iv.  9.  See  Happiness. 

PELAGIANS,  a  sect  who  appeared 
about  the  end  of  the  fouith  century. 
They  maintained  the  following  doc- 
trines :  1.  That  Adam  was  by  nature 
mortal,  and,  whether  he  had  sinned  or 
not,  would  certainly  have  died. — 2.  That 
the  consequences  of  Adam's  sin  were 
confined  to  his  own  person. — 3.  That 
new-bom  infants  are  in  the  same  situa- 
tion with  Adam  before  the  fall. — 4.  That 
the  law  qualified  men  for  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,  and  was  founded  upon  equal 
promises  with  the  Gospel. — 5.  That  the 
general  resurrection  of  the  dead  does 
not  follow  in  virtue  of  our  Saviour's  re- 
surrection.— 6.  That  the  grace  of  God 
is  given  according  to  our  merits. — 7. 
That  this  gi-ace  is  not  granted  for  the 

Ecrformance   of  every  moral   act;  the 
berty  of  the   will  and  information  in 
points  of  duty  being  sufficient. 

The  founder  of  tliis  sect  was  Pelagius, 
a  nati\^e  of  Great  Britain.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  monasteiy  of  Banchor,  in 
Wales,  of  which  he  became  a  monk, 
and  afterwards  an  abbot.  In  the  early 
part  of  his  life  he  went  over  to  France, 
and  thence  to  Rome,  where  he  and  his 
friend  Celestius  propagated  their  opi- 
nions, though  in  a  private  manner. 
Upon  the  approach  of  the  Goths,  A.  D. 
410,  they  retn-ed  from  Rome,  and  went 
first  into  Sicily,  and  afterwards  into 
Africa,  where  they  published  their  doc- 
trines with  more  freedom.  From  Africa, 
Pelagius  passed  into  Palestine,  while 
Celestius  remained  at  Carthage,  with  a 


view  to  preferment,  desiring  to  be  ad- 
mitted, among  the  presbyters  of  that 
city.  But  the  discovery  of  his  opinion.'; 
having  blasted  all  his  hopes,  and  nis  er- 
rors being  condemned  in  a  council  held 
at  Carthage,  A.  D.  412,  he  departed 
from  that  city,  and  went  into  the  East. 
It  was  from  this  time,  that  Augustin,  the 
famous  bishop  of  Hippo,  began  to  attack 
the  tenets  ot  Pelagius  and  Celestius  in 
his  learned  and  elegant  writings;  and 
to  him,  indeed,  is  principally  due  the 
glory  of  having  suppressed  this  sect  in 
its  very  birth. 

Things  went  more  smoothly  with  Pe- 
lagius in  the  East,  where  he  enjoyed 
the  pi'otection  and  favour  of  John,  bi- 
shop of  Jeiusalem,  whose  attachment  to 
the  sentiments  of  Origen  led  him  natu- 
rally to  countenance  those  of  Pelagius, 
on  account  of  the  conformity  that  there 
seemed  to  be  between  these  two  sys- 
tems. Under  the  shadow  of  this  pow- 
erfiU  protection,  Pelagius  made  a  pub- 
lic profession  of  his  opinions,  and  form- 
ed disciples  in  several  places.  And 
though,  m  the  year  415,  he  was  accused 
by  Orosius,  a  Spanish  presbyter,  whom 
Augustin  had  sent  into  Palestine  for 
that  purpose,  before  an  assembly  of  bi- 
shops met  at  Jei-usalem,  yet  he  was  dis- 
missed without  the  least  censure ;  and 
not  only  so,  but  was  soon  after  fully  ac- 
quitted of  all  errors  by  the  council  of 
Uiospolis. 

This  controversy  was  brought  to 
Rome,  and  referred  by  Celestius  and 
Pelagius  to  the  decision  of  Zosimus,  who 
was  raised  to  the  pontificate,  A.  D.  417. 
The  new  pontiff,  gained  over  by  the  am- 
biguous and  seemingly  orthodox  con- 
fession of  faith  that  Celestius,  who  was 
now  at  Rome,  had  artfully  drawn  up, 
and  also  by  the  letters  and  protestations 
of  Pelagius,  pronounced  in  fa\our  of 
these  monks,  declared  them  sound  in 
the  faith,  and  unjustly  persecuted  by 
their  adversaries.  The  African  bishops, 
with  Augustin  at  their  head,  little  af- 
fected with  this  declaration,  continued 
obstinately  to  maintain  the  judgment 
they  had  pronounced  in  this  matter,  and 
to  strengtlien  it  by  their  exhortations, 
their  letters  and  their  writings.  Zosimus 
yielded  to  the  perseverance  of  the  Afri- 
cans, changed  his  mind,  and  condemn- 
ed, with  the  utmost  severity,  Pelagius 
and  Celestius,  whom  he  had  honoured 
with  his  api^robation,  and  covered  with 
his  protection.  This  was  followed  by  a 
train  of  evils,  which  pursued  these  two 
monks  without  interruption.  T'ley  were 
condemned,  says  Mosheim,by  that  same 
Ephesian  council  which  had  launched 
itstliunder  at  the  head  ofNestorius.  In 


PEN 


435 


PEN 


short,  the  Gauls,  Britons,  and  Africans, 
Dy  their  councils,  and  emperors,  by  their 
edicts  and  penal  laws,  demolished  this 
sect  in  its  infancy,  and  suppressed  it  en- 
tirely before  it  had  acquired  any  tolera- 
ble decree  of  vigour  or  consistence. 

PENANCE,  a  punishment  either  vo- 
luntary, or  imposed  by  authority,  for 
the  faults  a  person  has  committed.  Pe- 
nance is  one  of  the  seven  sacraments  of 
the  Romish  Church.  Besides  fasting, 
alms,  abstinence,  and  the  like,  which 
are  the  general  conditions  of  penance, 
there  are  others  of  a  more  particular 
kind;  as  the  repeating  a  certain  num- 
ber of  avemarys,  paternosters,  and  cre- 
dos; wearing  a  hair  shift,  and  giving 
oneself  a  certain  number  of  stripes.  In 
Italy  and  Spain  it  is  usual  to  see  Chris- 
tians, almost  naked,  loaded  with  chains, 
and  lashing  themselves  at  every  step. 
See  Popery. 

PENITENCE  is  sometimes  used  for 
a  state  of  repentance,  and  sometimes  for 
the  act  of  repenting.  It  is  also  used  for 
a  discipline  or  punishment  attending  re- 

Jientance,  more  usually  called  fienayice. 
t  also  gives  title  to  several  I'eligious  or- 
ders, consisting  either  of  converted  de- 
bauchees and  reformed  pi'ostitutes,  or  of 
persons  who  devote  themselves  to  the 
office  of  reclaiming  them.  See  next  ar- 
ticle. 

Order  of  fienitents  of  St.  Magdalen 
was  established  about  the  year  12T2,  by 
one  Barnard,  a  citizen  of  Marseilles, 
who  devoted  himself  to  the  work  of 
converting  the  courtesans  of  that  city. 
Baniard  was  seconded  by  several  others, 
who,  forming  a  kind  of  society,  were  at 
length  erected  into  a  religious  order  by 
pope  Nicholas  III.  under  the  rule  of  St. 
Augustin.  F.  Gesney  says,  they  also 
made  a  religious  order  of  the  penitents, 
or  women  they  converted,  givmg  them 
the  same  males  and  observances  which 
they  themselves  kept. 

Congregation  of  penitents  of  St.  Mag- 
dalen at  Paris,  owed  its  rise  to  the 
preaching  of  F.  Tisseran,  a  Franciscan, 
who  converted  a  vast  number  of  courte- 
sans, about  the  year  1492.  Louis,  duke  of 
Orleans,  gave  them  his  house  for  a  mo- 
nastery ;  or  rather,  as  appears  by  their 
constitution,  Charles  VIII.  gave  them 
the  hotel  called  Bochaigyie,  whence  they 
were  removed  to  St.  George's  Chapel, 
in  1572.  By  virtue  of  a  brief  of  pope 
Alexander,  Simon,  bishop  of  Paris,  m 
1497,  drew  them  up  a  body  of  statutes, 
and  gave  them  the  mle  of  St.  Augustin. 
It  was  necessary  before  a  woman  could 
be  admitted,  that  she  had  fii-st  com- 
mitted the  sin  of  the  flesh.  None  were 
admitted  who  were  above  thiity-five 


years  of  age.  Since  its  reformation  by 
Mar}'  Alvcquin,  in  1616,  none  have 
been  admitted  but  maids,  who,  however, 
still  retain  the  ancient  name,  penitents. 

PENITENTS,  an  appellation  given 
to  certain  fratemities  of  penitents,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  different  shape  and 
colour  of  their  habits.  These  are  secu- 
lar societies,  who  have  their  ndes,  sta- 
tutes, and  churches,  and  make  public 
processions  under  their  particular  cross- 
es or  banners.  Of  these,  it  is  said,  there 
are  more  than  a  hundred,  the  most  con- 
siderable of  which  are  as  follow:  the 
White  Penitents,  of  which  there  are  se- 
veral different  sorts  at  Rome,  the  most 
ancient  of  which  was  constituted  in 
1264:  the  brethren  of  this  fraternity 
every  j^ear  give  portions  to  a  cei'tain 
number  of  young  girls,  in  order  to  their 
being  married :  their  habit  is  a  kind  of 
white  sackcloth,  and  on  the  shoulder  is 
a  circle,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  red 
and  white  cross.  Black  Penitents,  the 
most  considerable  of  which  are  the  Bre- 
thren of  Mercy,  instituted  in  1488  by 
some  Florentines,  in  order  to  assist  cri- 
minals during  their  imprisonment,  and 
at  the  time  ot  their  death.  On  the  day 
of  execution  they  walk  in  procession  be- 
fore them,  singing  the  seven  penitential 
psalms,  and  the  litanies ;  and  after  they 
are  dead,  they  take  them  down  from  the 
gibbet,  and  bury  them :  their  habit  is 
black  sackcloth.  There  are  others 
whose  business  is  to  bury  such  per- 
sons as  are  found  dead  in  the  streets: 
these  wear  a  death's  head  on  one  side  of 
their  habit.  There  are  also  blue,  gray, 
red,  green,  and  violet  penitents,  all  which 
are  remarkable  for  little  else  besides  the 
different  colours  of  their  habits. 

Penitents,  or  Converts  of  the  name  of 
Jesus,  a  congregation  of  religious  at  Se- 
ville, in  Spain,  consisting  of  women  who 
have  led  a  licentious  life,  founded  in 
1550.  This  monastery  is  divided  into 
three  quarters:  one  for  professed  reli- 
gious; another  for  novices;  a  third  for 
those  who  are  under  correction.  When 
these  last  give  signs  of  a  real  repen- 
tance, they  are  removed  into  the  quar- 
ter of  the  novices,  where,  if  they  do  not 
behave  themselves  well,  they  are  x'e- 
manded  to  their  correction.  They  ob- 
serve the  rule  of  St.  Augustin. 

Penitents  of  Orvieto,  are  an  order  of 
nuns  instituted  by  Anton}'  Simoncelli,  a 
gentleman  of  Orvieto,  in  Italy.  The 
monastery  he  built  was  at  first  design- 
ed for  the  reception  of  poor  girls  aban- 
doned by  their  parents,  and  in  danger 
of  losing  their  virtue.  In  1662  it  was 
erected  into  a  monastery,  for  the  recep- 
tion of  such  as  having  abandoned  them- 


FEN 


436 


PEN 


selves  to  impui'ity,  Avere  willing  to  take 
up,  and  consecrate  themselves  to  God 
by  solemn  vows.  Theii'  rule  is  that  of 
the  Carmelites. 

PENITENTIAL,  an  ecclesiastical 
book  retamed  among  the  Romanists,  in 
which  is  prescribed  what  relates  to  the 
imposition  of  penance,  and  the  recon- 
ciliation of  penitents.  There  are  vari- 
ous penitentials,  as  the  Roman  peniten- 
tial ;  that  of  the  venerable  Bede  ;  that 
of  pope  Gregory  the  Third,  8tc. 

PENITENTIARY,  m  the  ancient 
Christian  church,  a  name  given  to  cer- 
tain pi'esbyters  or  priests,  appointed  in 
every  church  to  receive  the  private 
confessions  of  the  people,  in  order  to 
facilitate  public  discipline,  by  acquaint- 
ing them  what  sins  were  to  be  expiated 
by  public  penance,  and  to  appoint  pri- 
vate penance  for  such  private  crimes  as 
were  not  pi-oper  to  be  publicly  cen- 
sured. 

Penitentiary,  also,  in  the  court  of 
Rome,  is  an  office  in  which  are  ex- 
amined and  delivered  out  the  secret 
bulls,  dispensations,  &c.  Penitentiary 
is  also  an  officer  in  some  cathedrals, 
vested  with  power  from  the  bishop  to 
absolve  in  cases  referred  to  him. 

PENTATEUCH,    from    nc.lz,   five, 
and   TEuxos,  an  instr-ument  or    volume, 
signifies  the  collection  of  the  five  mstru- 
ments  or  books   of  Moses,  which  are 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers, 
and  Deuteronomy.    Some  modern  wri- 
ters, it  seems,  have  asserted  that  Moses 
did  not  compose  the  Pentateuch,  be- 
cavise  the  author  always  speaks  in  the 
third  person;    abridges   his    narration 
lik%  a  writer  who  collected  fi'om  an- 
cient memoirs ;    sometimes   interrupts 
the  thread  of  his  discourse,  for  exam- 
ple. Gen.  iv.  23  ;  and  because  of  the  ac- 
count of  the  death  of  Moses  at  the  end, 
6cc.    It  is  observed,  also,  in  the  text  of 
the  Pent<T.teuch,  that  there  are  some 
places  that  are  defective  :  for  example, 
in  Exod.  xii.  8.  we  see  Moses  speaking 
to  Pharaoh,  where  the  author  omits  the 
beginning  of  his  discourse.    The  Sama- 
ritan uiserts  in  the  same  place  what  is 
wanting  in  the  Hebrew.  In  other  places 
the  same  Samaritan  copy  atlds  what  is 
deficient  in  the  Hebrew ;  imd  what  is 
contained  more  than  the  Hebrew  seems 
so  well  connected  with  the  rest  of  the 
discourse,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to 
separate  them.    Lastly,  they  think  they 
observe  certsiin  strokes  in  the  Penta- 
teuch which    can    hardly  agree    with 
Moses,  who  was  born  and  lired  in  Egypt ; 
as  what  he  says  of  the  eaithly  paradise, 
of  the  rivers  that  watered  it  and  ran 
through   it;  of  the  cities  of   Babylon, 


Erech,  Resen,  and  Calneh ;  of  the  gold 
of  Pison  ;  of  the  bdellium,  of  the  stone 
of  Sohem,  or  onyx  stone,  which  was  to 
be  found  in  that  country. — These  partis 
culars,   observed   with  such   curiosity, 
seem  to  prove  that  the  author  of  the 
Pentateuch  lived  beyond  the  Euphrates. 
Add  what  he  says  concerning  the  ark  of 
Noah,  of  its  construction,  of  the  place 
where  it  rested,  of  the  wood  wherewith 
it  was  built,  of  the  bitumen  of  Babylon, 
8cc.  But  in  answer  to  all  these  objections 
it  is  justly  observed,  that  these  books  are 
l5y  the  most  ancient  writers  ascribed  to 
Moses,  and  it  is  confirmed  by  the  au- 
thority of  heathen  writers  themselves, 
that  they  are  his  writings ;  besides  this, 
we  have  the  unanimous  te'stimony  of  the 
whole  Jewish  nation  ever  since  Moses's 
time.    Divers  texts  of  the  PentateucH 
imply  that  it  was  written  by  him  ;  and 
the  book  of  Joshua  and  other  parts  of 
Scripture  import  as  much ;  and  though 
some  passages  have   been  thought  to 
imply  the  contrary,  yet  this  is  but  a  late 
opinion,  and  has  been  sufficiently  con- 
futed by  several  learned  men.    It  is  pi-o- 
bable,  however,  that  Ezra  published  a 
new  edition  of  the  books  of  Moses,  in 
which  he  might  add  those  passages  that 
many   suppose   Moses   did   not   wiite. 
The  Abbe  Torne,  in  a  sermon  preached 
before  the  French  king  in  Lent,  1764, 
makes  the  following  remarks:    "The 
legislator  of  the  Jews  was  the  author  of 
the   Pentateuch;    an    immortal    work, 
wherein  he  paints  the  marvels  of  "his 
reign  with  the  majestic  picture  of  the 
government  and  religion  which  he  esta- 
blished !  Who  before  our  modern  infi- 
dels ever  ventured  to  obscui'e  this  in- 
contestable fact  ?  Who  ever  sprang  a 
doubt  about  this  among  the  Hebrews? — 
What  greater  reasons  have  there  ever 
been  to  attribute  to  Mahomet  his  Al- 
coran, to  Plato  his  Republic,  or  to  Ho' 
mer  his  sublime  poems  ?   Rather  let  us 
say,  What  work  in  any  age  ever  ap- 
peared more  truly  to  bear  the  name  of 
its  real  author  ?  It  is  not  an  ordinary 
book,  which,  like  many  others,  may  be 
easily  hazarded  under  a  fictitious  name. 
It  is  a  sacred  book,  which  the  Jews  have 
always  read  with  a  veneration,  that  re- 
mains  after  seventeen  hundi'ed  years 
exile,  calamities,  and  reproach.    In  this 
book   the   Hebrews  uicluded  all  their 
science  ;  it  was  their  civil,  political,  and 
sacred  code,  their  only  treasure,  their 
calendar,  their  annals,  the  only  title  of 
their  sovereigns  and  pontiffs,  the  alone 
rale  of  polity  and  worship :  by  conse- 
quence it  must  be  formed  with  their 
monarchy,   and  necessarily   have    the 
1  same  epoch  as  their  government  and 


PER 


437 


PER 


religion,  &c.— Moses  speaks  only  truth, 
though  infidels  charge  him  with  impos- 
ture. But,  great  God  !  what  an  impos- 
tor must  he  be,  who  first  spoke  of  the 
divinit}'  in  a  manner  so  sublime,  that  no 
one  since,  during  almost  four  thousand 
years,  has  been  able  to  sui-pass  him  ! 
What  ati  impostor  must  he  be  whose 
■writings  breathe  onlv  virtue;  whose 
style  equally  simple,  affecting,  and  sub- 
lime, in  spite  of  the  rudeness  of  those 
first  ages,  openly  displays  an  inspiration 
altogether  divine  !"  See  Ainsivorth  and 
Ji^idder  on  the  Pentateuch  ;  Prideaux's 
C^on.  vol.  i.p.  342, 345,  573, 575 ;  Marsh's 
Authenticity  of  the  Five  Books  of  Mo- 
ses considered;  Warbiir ton's  Divine 
Legatioji ;  Dr.  Gi-aves's  lectures  on  the 
last  four  books  in  the  Old  Test.  Jen- 
kinses Reasonablaiess  of  Christianity  ; 
Watson's  Afiology,  let.  2  and  3 ;  Ta- 
bor's Horse  Mosaicae,  or  a  View  of  the 
Mosaical  Records. 

PENTECOST,  a  solemn  festival  of 
the  Jews,  so  called,  because  it  was  cele- 
bi-ated  fifty  days  after  the  feast  of  the 
passovei-,  Lev.  xxiii.  15.  It  cori'esponds 
with  the  Christians'  Whitsimtide,  for 
which  it  is  sometimes  used. 

PERFECTION,  that  state  or  quali- 
ty of  a  thing,  in  which  it  is  fi'ee  from  de- 
fect or  redundancy.  According  to  some, 
it  is  divided  into  physical  or  natural, 
whereby  a  thing  has  all  its  powers  and 
faculties ;  moral,  or  an  eminent  degree 
of  goodness  and  piety ;  and  metaphysi- 
cal or  transccndant  is  the  possession  of 
all  the  essential  attributes  or  paits  ne- 
cessaiy  to  the  integrity  of  a  substance ; 
or  it  IS  that  whereby  a  thing  has  or  is 
provided  of  every  thing  belonging  to  its 
nature  ;  such  is  the  perfection  ot  God. 
— The  term  perfection,  says  the  great 
Witsius,  is  not  always  used  in  the  same 
sense  in  the  Scriptures.  1.  There  is  a 
perfection  of  sincerity,  whereby  a  man 
serves  God  without  hj-pocrisy,  Job  i.  1. 
Is.  xxxviii.  3. — -2.  There  is  a  perfection 
of  parts,  subjective  with  respect  to  the 
whole  man,  1  Thess.  v.  23.  and  objec- 
tive with  respect  to  the  whole  law, 
when  all  the  duties  prescribed  by  God 
are  obsen^ed,  Ps.  cxix.  128.  Luke  i. 
6. — 3.  There  is  a  comparative  perfec- 
tion ascribed  to  those  who  are  advanced 
in  knowledge,  faith,  and  sanctification, 
in  comparison  of  those  who  are  still  in- 
fants and  untaught,  1  John  ii.  13.  1  Cor. 
ii.  6.  Phil.  iii.  15. — 45.  There  is  an  evan- 
gelical perfection.  The  righteousness 
of  Chi'ist  being  imputed  to  the  believer, 
he  is  complete  in  him,  and  accepted  of 
God  as  pei-fect  through  Christ,  Col.  ii. 
10.  Eph.  v.  27.  2  Cor.  v.  21.— 5.  There 
is  also  a  perfection  of  degrees^  by  which 


a  person  performs  all  the  commands  o£ 
God  with  the  full  exertion  of  all  his 
powers,  without  the  least  defect.  This 
IS  what  the  law  of  God  requires,  but 
what  the  saints  cannot  attain  to  in  this 
life,  though  we  willingly  allow  them  all 
the  other  kinds  above-mentioned,  Rom. 
^-ii.  24.  Phil.  iii.  12.  1  John  i.  8.  Witsii 
I  CEconomia  Fcsdermn  Dei,  lib.  iii.  cap. 
12, 5  124 ;  Bates's  Works,  p.  557,  &c. 
Law  and  Wesley  on  Perfection ;  Dod- 
dridge's Lectures,  lee.  181. 

PERFECTIONS  OF  GOD.  See 
Attributes. 

PERJURY  is  the  taking  of  an  oath, 
in  order  to  tell  or  confirm  a  falsehood. 
This  is  a  very  heinous  crime,  as  it  is 
treating  the  Almighty  with  irreverence ; 
denying,  or  at  least  discarding  his  om- 
niscience ;  profaning  his  name,  and  vio- 
lating truth.  It  has  always  been  es- 
teemed a  veiy  detestable  thing,  and 
those  who  have  been  proved  guilty  of 
it,  have  been  looked  upon  as  the  pests 
of  society.    See  Oath. 

PERMISSION  OF  SIN.  See  Sin. 
~  PERSECUTION  is  any  pain  or  af- 
fliction which  a  person  designedly  in- 
flicts upon  another ;  and,  in  a  more  re- 
stramed  sense,  the  sufferings  of  Chris- 
tians on  account  of  their  religion.  Per- 
secution is  tlireefold.  1.  Mental,  when 
the  spirit  of  a  man  rises  up  and  opposes 
another. — 2.  FerSa/,  when  men  give  hard 
words  and  deal  in  uncharitable  censures. 
— 3.  Actual  or  open,  by  the  hand,  such 
as  the  dragging  of  innocent  persons  be- 
fore the  tribunal  of  Justice,  Matt.  x.  18. 
The  unla%rfuhiess  of  persecution  for 
conscience  sake  must  appear  plain  to 
every  one  that  possesses  the  least  de- 
gree of  thought  or  of  feeling.  "  To  ba- 
nish, imprison,  phmder,  starve,  hang, 
and  burn  men  for  religion,"  says  the 
shrewd  Jortin,  "is  not  the  Gospel  of 
Christ ;  it  is  the  Gospel  of  the  Devil. 
Where  persecution  begins,  Christianity 
ends.  Christ  never  used  any  thing  that 
looked  Mke  force  or  violence,  except 
once;  and  that  was  to  drive  bad  men 
out  of  the  temple,  and  not  to  drive  them 
in." 

We  know  the  origin  of  it  to  be  from 
the  piTnce  of  darkness,  who  began  the 
dreadful  practice  in  the  first  family  on 
earth,  and  who,  more  or  less,  has  been 
carrx^ing  on  the  same  Avork  ever  since, 
and  that  almost  among  all  parties. 
"  Persecution  for  conscience  sake,"  says 
Dr.  Doddridge,  is  every  way  inconsis- 
tent, because,  1.  It  is  founded  on  an  ab- 
surd supposition,  that  one  man  has  a 
right  to  judge  for  another  in  matters  of 
religion. — 2.  It  is  evidently  opposite  to 
that  fundamental  principle"  of  morality; 


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that  we  should  do  to  others  as  we  could 
reasonably  desire  they  sliould  do  to  us. — 
3.  It  is  by  no  means  calculated  to  an- 
swer the  end  which  its  patrons  pi-ofess 
to  intend  by  it. — 4.  It  evidently  tends  to 
produce  a  great  deal  of  mischief  and 
confusion  in  the  world. — 5.  The  Chris- 
tian religion  must,  humanly  speakuig, 
be  not  only  obstructed,  but  destroyed, 
should  persecuting  principles  universal- 
ly prevail. — 6.  Persecution  is  so  far  from 
being  required,  or  encouraged  by  the 
Gospel,  that  it  is  most  directly  contrary 
to  many  of  its  precepts,  and  indeed  to 
the  whole  of  it. 

The  chief  objects  who  have  fell  a  prey 
to  this  diabolical  spirit  have  been  Chris- 
tians ;  a  short  accoimt  of  whose  suffer- 
ings we  shall  here  give,  as  persecuted 
by  the  Jews,  Heathens,  and  those  of  the 
same  name. 

Persecution  of  Christians  by  the  Jews. 
Here  we  need  not  be  copious,  as  the 
New  Testament  will  inform  the  reader 
more  particularly  how  the  first  Chris- 
tians suffered  for  the  cause  of  truth. 
Jesus  Christ  himself  was  exposed  to  it 
in  the  greatest  degree.  The  four  evan- 
gelists record  the  dreadful  scenes,  which 
need  not  here  be  enlarged  on.  After 
his  death,  the  apostles  suffered  every 
evil  which  the  malice  of  the  Jews  could 
invent,  and  their  mad  zeal  execute. 
They  who  read  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles, will  find  that,  like  their  Master, 
they  were  despised  and  rejected  of 
men,  and  treated  with  the  utmost  indig- 
nity and  contempt. 

II.  Persecution  of  Christians  by  the 
Heathen.  Historians  usually  reckon  ten 
general  persecutions,  the  first  of  which 
was  under  the  emperor  Nero,  thirty- 
one  years  after  our  Lord's  ascension, 
when  that  emperor,  having  set  fire  to 
the  city  of  Rome,  threw  the  odium  of 
that  execrable  action  on  the  Christians. 
First.  Those  were  apprehended  who 
openly  avowed  themselves  to  be  of  that 
sect ;  then  by  them  were  discovered  an 
immense  multitude,  all  of  whom  were 
convicted.  Their  death  and  toitures 
were  aggravated  by  cruel  derision  and 
sport ;  for  they  were  either  covered 
with  the  skins  of  wild  beasts  and  toni  in 
pieces  by  devouring  dogs,  or  fastened  to 
crosses,  and  wi'apped  up  in  combusti- 
ble garments,  that,  when  the  day-light 
failed,  they  might,  like  torches,  serve  to 
dispel  the  darkness  of  the  night.  For 
this  tragical  spectacle  Nero  lent  his  OAvn 
gardens ;  and  exhibited  at  the  same 
time  the  public  diversions  of  the  circus ; 
sometimes  driving  a  chariot  in  peison, 
qnd  sometimes  standing  as  a  spectator, 
while  the  shrieks  of  women  burning  to 


ashes  supplied  music  for  his  ears. — 
2.  The  second  general  persecution  was 
under  Domitian,  in  the  year  95,  when 
40,000  were  supposed  to  have  suffered 
martyrdom. — 3.  The  third  began  in  the 
third  year  of  Trajan,  in  the  year  100, 
and  was  carried  on  with  great  violence 
for  several  years. — 4.  The  fourth  was 
under  Antoninus,  when  the  Christians 
were  banished  from  their  houses,  forbid- 
den to  show  their  heads,  reproached, 
beaten,  hurried  from  place  to  place, 
plundei'ed,  imprisoned,  and  stoned. — 
5.  The  fifth  began  in  the  year  127,  un- 
der Severus,  when  great  cruelties  were 
committed.  In  this  reign  happened  the 
martyrdom  of  Perpetua  and  Felicitas, 
and  their  companions.  Perpetua  had  an 
infant  at  the  breast,  and  Felicitas  was 
just  delivered  at  the  time  of  their  being 
put  to  death.  These  two  beautiful  and 
amiable  young  women,  mothers  of  in- 
fant children,  after  suffering  much  in 
prison,  were  exposed  before  an  insult- 
ing multitude,  to  a  wild  cow,  who  man- 
gled their  bodies  in  a  most  hoiTid  man- 
ner :  after  which  they  were  carried  to 
a  conspicuous  place,  and  put  to  death  by 
the  sword. — 6.  The  sixth  began  with 
the  reign  of  Maximinus,  in  235. — 7.  The 
seventh,  which  was  the  most  dreadful 
ever  known,  began  in  250,  under  the 
emperor  Decius,  when  the  Christians 
were  in  all  places  driven  from  their 
habitations,  stripped  of  their  estates, 
tormented  with  racks,  8cc. — 8.  The 
eighth  began  in  257,  under  Valerian. 
Both  men  and  women  suffered  death, 
some  by  scourging,  some  by  the  sword, 
and  some  by  fire. — 9.  The  ninth  was 
under  Aurelian,  in  274 ;  but  this  was  in- 
considerable, compared  with  the  others 
before-mentioned. — 10.  The  tenth  began 
in  the  nineteenth  year  of  Dioclesian, 
303.  In  this  dreadful  persecution,  which 
lasted  ten  years,  houses  filled  with  Chris- 
tians were  set  on  fire,  and  whole  droves 
were  tied  together  with  ropes,  and 
thrown  into  the  sea.  It  is  related  that 
17,000  were  slain  in  one  month's  time  ; 
and  that  during  the  continuance  of  this 
persecution,  in  the  province  of  Egypt 
alone,  no  less  than  144,000  Christians 
died  by  the  violeiice  of  their  persecu- 
tors ;  besides  700,000  that  died  through 
the  fatigues  of  banishment,  or  the  pub- 
lic works  to  which  they  were  con- 
demned. 

III.  Persecution  of  Christians  by  those 
of  the  some  name.  Numerous  were  the 
l)ersecutions  of  different  sects  from  Con- 
stantino's time  to  the  reformation ;  but 
when  the  famous  Martin  Luther  arose, 
and  opposed  the  errors  and  ambition  of 
the  church  of  Rome,  and  the  sentiments 


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of  this  good  man  began  to  spread,  the 
pope  and  his  clergy  joined  all  their  forces 
to  hinder  their  progress.  A  general 
council  of  the  clergy  was  called :  this 
was  the  famous  council  of  Trent,  which 
■was  held  for  near  eighteen  successive 
years,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
popery  in  greater  splendour,  and  pre- 
venting the  reformation.  The  friends  to 
the  reformation  were  anathematized  and 
excommunicated,  and  the  life  of  Lu- 
ther was  often  in  danger,  though  at  last 
he  died  on  the  bed  of  peace.  From  time 
to  time  innumerable  schemes  were  sug- 
gested to  overthrow  the  reformed 
church,  and  wars  were  set  on  foot  for 
the  same  purpose.  The  invincible  ar- 
mada, as  it  was  vainly  called,  had  the 
same  end  in  view.  The  inquisition, 
which  was  established  in  the  twelfth 
century  against  the  Waldenses  (See 
Inquisition)  was  now  more  effectually 
set  to  work.  Terrible  persecutions 
were  earned  on  in  various  parts  of  Gei'- 
many,  and  even  in  Bohemia,  which  con- 
tinued about  thirty  years,  and  the  blood 
of  the  saints  was  said  to  flow  like  rivers 
of  water.  The  countries  of  Poland,  Li- 
thuania, and  Hungary,  were  in  a  simi- 
lar manner  deluged  with  Protestant 
blood.    In 

HOLLAND, 
and  in  the  other  Low  Coimtries,  for 
many  years  the  most  amazing  cruelties 
were  exercised  under  the  merciless  and 
unrelenting  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  to 
whom  the  inhabitants  of  that  part  of 
the  world  wei'e  then  in  subjection.  Fa- 
ther Paul  observes,  that  these  Belgic 
martyrs  were  50,000 ;  but  Grotius  and 
others  observe,  that  there  were  100,000 
who  suffered  by  the  hand  of  the  execu- 
tioner. Herein,  however,  Satan  and  his 
agents  failed  of  their  pui-pose;  for  in 
the  issue  gi-eat  part  of  the  Netherlands 
shook  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  erected 
themselves  into  a  separate  and   inde- 

gendent  state,  which  has  ever  since 
een  considered  as  one  of  the  principal 
Protestant  countries  of  the  miiverse. 
FRANCE. 
No  country,  perhaps,  has  ever  pro- 
■>luced  more  martyrs  than  this.  After 
many  cruelties  had  been  exercised 
against  the  Protestants,  there  was  a 
most  violent  persecution  of  them  in  the 
year  1572,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX. 
Many  of  the  principal  Protestants  were 
invited  to  Paris  under  a  solemn  oath  of 
safetv,  upon  occasion  of  the  marriage  of 
the  king  of  Navarre  with  the  French 
Jdng's  sister.  The  queen  dowager  of 
Navarre,  a  zealous  Protestant,  how- 
ever, was  poisoned  by  a  pair  of  gloves 
before  the  marriage  was   solemnized. 


Coligni,  admiral  of  France,  was  basely 
murdered  in  his  own  house,  and  then 
thrown  out  of  the  window  to  gi-atify  the 
malice  of  the  duke  of  Guise  :  his  head 
was  afterwards  cut  off,  and  sent  to  the 
king  and  queen-mother ;  and  his  body, 
after  a  thousand  indignities  offered  to  it, 
hung  by  the  feet  on  a  gibbet.  After 
this  the  murderers  ravaged  the  whole 
city  of  Paris,  and  butchered  in  three 
days,  above  ten  thousand  lords,  gentle- 
men, presidents,  and  people  of  all  ranks. 
A  horrible  scene  of  things,  says  Thua- 
nus,  when  the  very  sti  eets  and  pas- 
sengers resounded  with  the  noise  of 
those  that  met  together  for  murder  aiid 
plunder ;  the  groans  of  those  who  were 
dying,  and  the  shrieks  of  such  as  were 
just  going  to  be  butchered,  were  every 
where  heard;  the  bodies  of  the  slain 
thrown  out  of  the  windows ;  the  courts 
and  chambers  of  the  houses  filled  with 
them ;  the  dead  bodies  of  others  drag- 
ged through  the  streets;  their  blood 
i-unning  through  the  channels  in  such 
plenty,  that  torrents  seemed  to  empty 
themselves  in  the  neighbouring  river; 
in  a  word,  an  innumerable  multitude  of 
men,  women  with  child,  maidens,  and 
children,  were  all  involved  in  one  com- 
mon destruction  ;  and  the  gates  and  en- 
trances of  the  king's  palace  all  be- 
smeared with  their  blood.  From  the 
city  of  Paris  the  massacre  spread 
throughout  the  whole  kingdom.  In  the 
city  of  Meaux  they  threw  above  two 
hundred  into  gaol;  and  after  they  had 
ravished  and  killed  a  great  number  of 
women,  and  plundered  the  houses  of  the 
Protestants,  they  executed  their  fury  on 
those  they  had  imprisoned  ;  and  calluig 
them  one  by  one,  they  were  killed,  as 
Thuanus  expresses,  like  sheep  in  a 
market.  In  Orleans  they  murdered 
above  five  hundred,  men,  women,  and 
children,  and  enriched  themselves  with 
the  spoil.    The   same   cruelties   were 

Eractised  at  Angers,  Troyes,  Bouges, 
,a  Charite,  and  especially  at  Lyons, 
where  they  inhumanly  destroyed  above 
eight  hundred  Protestants ;  children 
hanging  on  their  parents'  necks ;  parents 
embracing  their  children ;  putting  ropes 
about  the  necks  of  some,  dragging  them 
through  the  streets,  aiid  throwmg  them, 
mangled,  torn,  and  half  dead,  into  the 
river.  According  to  Thuanus,  above 
30,000  Protestants  were  destroyed  in 
this  massacre ;  or,  as  others  affirm, 
above  100,000.  But  what  aggravates 
these  scenes  with  still  greater  wanton- 
ness and  ci-uelty,  was,  the  manner  in 
which  the  news'  was  received  at  Rome. 
I  When  the  letters  of  the  pope's  legate 
I  were  read  in  the  assembly  of  the  car- 


PER 


410 


PER 


dinals,  by  which  he  assured  the  pope 
that  all  was  transacted  by  the  express 
will  and  command  of  the  king,  it  was 
immediately  decreed  tliat  the  pope 
should  march  with  his  carduials  to  the 
church  of  St.  Mark,  and  in  the  most  so- 
lemn manner  give  thanks  to  God  for  so 
great  a  blessing  conferred  on  the  see  of 
Rome  and  the  Christian  world;  and 
that,  on  the  Monday  after,  solemn  mass 
should  be  celebrated  in  the  church  of 
Minerva,  at  which  the  pope,  Gregory, 

XIII.  and  cardinals  were  present ;  and 
that  a  jubilee  should  be  published 
throughout  the  whole  Christian  world, 
and  the  cause  of  it  declared  to  be,  to 
return  thanks  to  God  for  the  extirpa- 
tion of  the  enemies  of  the  truth  and 
chiu'ch  in  France.  In  the  evening  the 
cannon  of  St.  Angelo  were  fired  to  tes- 
tify the  public  joy ;  the  whole  city  illu- 
minated with  bonfires ;  and  no  one  sign 
of  rejoicing  omitted  that  was  usually 
made  for  the  greatest  victories  obtained 
in  favour  of  the  Roman  church !  ! ! 

But  all  these  persecutions  were,  how- 
ever, far  exceeded  in  cruelty  by  those 
which  took  place  in  the  tinie  of  Louis 

XIV.  It  cannot  be  pleasant  to  any 
man's  feelings,  who  has  the  least  hu- 
manity, to  recite  these  dreadful  scenes 
of  horror,  cinielty,  and  devastation  ;  but 
to  show  what  superstition,  bigotry,  and 
fanaticism,  are  capable  of  producing, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  holding  up  the 
spirit  of  persecution  to  contempt,  we 
shall  here  give  as  concise  a  detaU  as 
possible.  The  troopers,  soldiers,  and 
dragoons,  went  into  the  Protestants' 
houses,  where  they  man-ed  and  defaced 
their  household  stuff;  broke  their  look- 
ing-glasses and  other  utensils ;  threw 
about  their  coi-n  and  wine ;  sold  what 
they  could  not  destroy;  and  thus,  in 
four  or  five  days,  the  Protestants  were 
stripped  of  above  a  million  of  mone)-. 
But  this  was  not  the  worst :  they  turned 
the  dining  rooms  of  gentlemen  into 
stables  for  horses,  and  treated  the  own- 
ers of  the  houses  where  they  q[uai1:ered 
with  the  greatest  cruelty,  lashing  them 
about,  not  suffering  them  to  eat  or 
drink.  When  they  saw  the  blood  and 
sweat  run  down  their  faces,  they  sluiced 
them  with  water,  and,  putting  o\er 
their  heads  kettle-drums  turned  upside 
down,  they  made  a  continual  din  upon 
them  till  these  unhajjpy  creatures  lost 
their  senses.  At  Negrcplisse,  a  town  | 
near  Montaubon,  they  hung  up  Isaac  ! 
Favin,  a  Protestant  citizen  of  that  jilace,  j 
by  his  arm-pits,  and  tormented  nim  a  | 
whole  niglit  by  ])inching  and  tearing  off  i 
his  fiesh  with  jiincers.  'I'hey  m.ide  a  | 
great  fire  round  about  a  boy,  twelve  ] 


years  old,  who,  with  hands  and  e}es 
i  lifted  up  to  heaven,  cried  out,  "My  God, 
help  me  i"  and  when  they  found  the  vouth 
resolved  to  die  rather  than  renounce  his 
religion,  they  snatched  him  from  the  fire 
just  as  he  was  en  the  point  of  being 
bunit.  In  several  places  the  soldiers 
applied  red  hot  irons  to  the  hands  and 
feet  of  men,  and  the  breasts  of  women. 
At  Nantes,  tliey  hmig  up  several  wo- 
men and  maids  by  their  teet,  and  others 
by  their  arm-pits,  and  thus  exposed 
them  to  public  view  stark  naked.  They 
bound  mothers,  that  gave  suck,  to  posts, 
and  let  their  sucking  infants  lie  lan- 
guishing in  their  sight  for  several  days 
and  nights,  ciying  and  gasping  for  life. 
Some  they  bound  before  a  great  fire, 
and,  being  half  roasted,  let  them  go ;  a 
punishment  worse  than  death.  Amidst 
a  thousand  hideous  cries,  they  hung  up 
men  and  women  by  the  hair,  and  some 
by  their  feet,  on  hooks  in  chimneys,  and 
smoked  them  with  wisps  of  wet  hav  till 
they  were  suffocated.  They  tied  some 
under  the  ai'ms  with  ropes,  and  plunged 
them  again  and  again  into  weUs  ;  they 
bound  others,  put  them  to  the  torture,  and 
with  a  funnel  filled  them  with  wine  till 
the  fumes  of  it  took  away  their  reason, 
whenthev  made  them  say  they  consent- 
ed to  be  Catholics.  They  stripped  them 
naked,  and,  after  a  thousand  indignities, 
stuck  them  with  pins  and  needles  from 
head  to  foot.  In  some  places  they  tied 
fathers  and  husbands  to  their  bed-posts, 
and,  before  their  eyes,  ravished  their 
wives  and  daughters  with  impunity. 
They  blew  up  men  and  women  Avith 
bellows  tQl  they  burst  them.  If  any,  to 
escape  these  barbarities,  endeavoured 
to  save  themselves  by  flight,  thej'  pur- 
sued them  into  the  fields  and  woods, 
where  they  shot  at  them,  like  wild 
beasts,  and  prohibited  them  from  de- 
parting the  Kingdom  (a  cruelty  never 
practised  by  Nero  or  Dioclesian,)  upon 
pain  of  confiscation  of  effects,  the  gal- 
leys, the  lash,  and  perpetual  imprison- 
ment. With  these  scenes  of  desolation 
and  horror  tlie  popish  clergy  feasted 
their  eyes,  and  made  only  matter  of 
laughter  and  sport  of  them ! ! ! 

ENGLAND 
has  also  been  the  seat  of  much  persecu- 
tion. Though  W'ickliffe,  the  first  re- 
former, died  peaceably  In  his  bed,  yet 
such  was  the  malice  and  spirit  of  per- 
secuting Rome,  that  his  bones  were  or- 
dered to  be  dug  up,  and  cast  upon  a 
dunghill.  The  remains  of  this  excellent 
man  were  accorduigly  dug  out  of  the 
•^ra\e,  where  they  had  lain  undisturbed 
four-and-forty  years.  His  bones  were 
burnt,  and  the  ashes  cast  into  an  ad- 


PER 


441 


PER 


i 


o'ming  brook.    In  the  reign  of  Heiiry 
/III.  'Bilney,  Bayman,  and  many  other 
reformers  were  burnt ;  but  when  queen 
Mary  came  to  the  thi-one,  the  most  se- 
vere persecutions  took  place.     Hooper 
and  Rogers  were  burnt  in  a  slow  fire. 
Saunders  was  craelly  toraiented  a  long 
time  at  the  stake  before  he  expired. 
Taylor  was  put  into  a  barrel  of  pitch, 
and  fire  set  to  it.    Eight  illustrious  per- 
sons, among  whom  was  Ferrar,  bishop 
of  St  Da\id's,  were  sought  out,  and  burnt 
by  the  infamous  Bonner  in  a  few  days. 
Sixty-seven   persons   were    this    year, 
A.  D.  1555,  burnt,  amongst  whom  were 
the  famous  Protestants,  Bradford,  Rid- 
ley, Latimer,  and  Philpot.    In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  1556,  eighty-five  persons 
were    burnt.     Women    suffered ;    and 
one,   in   the   flames,  which   burst    her 
■womb,  being  near  her  time  of  deliver}^ 
a   child  fell   from   her  into    the    fire, 
which  being  snatched  out  by  some  of 
the  obsei-vers  more  humane  than  the 
rest,  the  magistrate  ordered  the  babe 
to  be  again  thrown  into  the  fire,  and 
burnt.    Thus  even  the  unborn  child  was 
Dumt  for  heresy  !    O  God,  what  is  hu- 
man nature  when  left  to  itself  I     Alas  ! 
dispositions  ferocious  as  infernal  then 
reign,  and  usurp  the  heart  of  man  !  The 
queen    erected    a    commission    court, 
■which  was  followed  by  the  destraction 
of  near  eighty  more.    Upon  the  whole, 
the  number  of  those  who  suffered  death 
for  the  reformed  religion  in  this  reign, 
were   no  less  than  two;  hundred  and 
seventy-seven  persons  ;  of  whom  were 
five    bishops,    twenty-one    clergj-men, 
eight    gentlemen,    eighty-four    trades- 
men, one  hundred  husbandmen,  labour- 
ers, and  servants,  fifty-five  women,  and 
four  children.  Besides  these,  there  were 
fifty-four  more  under  prosecution,  seven 
of  whom  were  whipped,  and  sixteen 
perished  in  prison.    iNor  was  the  i-eign 
of  Ehzabeth  free  from  this  persecuting 
spirit.    If  any  one  refused  to  consent  to 
the  least  ceremony  in  worship,  he  was 
cast  into  prison,  where  many  of  the  most 
excellent  men   in   the   land  perished. 
Two     Protestant     Anabaptists     were 
burnt,  and  manv  banished.    She  also,  it 
is  saids  put  two  ferownists  to  death  ;  and 
though    her  whole   reign   was   distin- 
^ished  for  its  political  prosperity,  yet 
It  is  evident  that  she  did  not  understand 
the  rights  of  conscience ;  for  it  is  said 
that  more  sanguinaiy  laws  were  made 
in  her  reign  than  in  any  of  her  predeces- 
sors, and  her  hands  were  stained  with 
the  blood  both  of  Papists  and  Puriiians. 
James  I.  succeeded  Elizabeth:  he  pub- 
lished a  proclamation,  commanding  all 
Protestants   to   conform    stiictly,   and 


without  any  exception,  to  all  the  rites 
and  ceremonies  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land.   Above  five  hundred  clergy  were 
immediately  silenced,  or  degi-aded,  for 
not  complying.    Some  were  excommu- 
nicated, and  some  banished  the  country. 
The  Dissentei's  Avere   disti-essed,   cen- 
sured, and  fined,  in  the  Star-chamber. 
Two  persons  were  burnt  for  heresv,  one 
at  Smithfield,  and  the  other  at  Litch- 
field. Worn  out  with- endless  vexations, 
and   unceasing  persecutions,  many  re- 
tired into  Holland,  and  from  thence  to 
America.    It  is  witnessed  by  a  judicious 
historian,  that,  in  this  and  some  follow- 
ing reigns,  22,000  persons  were  banish- 
ed   from    England    by  persecution   to 
America.    In  Charles  the  First's  time 
arose  the  persecuting  Laud,  who  was 
the  occasion  of  distress  to  numbers.    Dr. 
Leighton,  for  writing  a  book   against 
the  hiei-archy,  was  fined  ten  thousand 
pounds,  perpetual   imprisonment,   and 
whipping.    He  was  whipped,  and  then 
placed  in  the  pillory ;  one  of  his  ears 
cut  off,  one  side  of  his  nose  slit ;  branded 
on  the  cheek  with  a  red  hot  iron,  with 
the  letters  S.  S.  %yhipped  a  second  time, 
and  placed  in  the  pillory.    A  fortnight 
afterwai-ds,  his  sores  being  yet  uncured, 
he  had  the  other  ear  cut  off,  the  other 
side  of  his  nose  slit,  and  the  other  cheek 
branded.    He  continued  in  prison  till  the 
long    parliament   set    him    at   liberty. 
About  four  years  afterwards,  William 
Prynn,  a  ban-ister,  for  a  book  he  wrote 
against  the  sports  on  the  Lord's  day, 
was  deprived  from  practising  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn,  degraded  from  his  degree  at 
Oxford,  set  in  the  pillory,  had  his  ears 
cut  off,   imprisoned  for  life,  and  fined 
five  thousand   pounds.    Nor  were  the 
Presbyterians,  when  their  government 
came  to  be  established  in  England,  free 
from   the  charge    of   persecution.    In 
1645  an  ordinance  was  published,  sub- 
jecting  all    who    preached    or    wrote 
against  the  Presbyterian  directoiy  for 
public  worship  to  a  fine  not  exceeding 
fifty  pounds;   and  imprisonment  for  a 
year,  for  the  third  offence,  in  using  the 
episcopal  book  of  common  prayer,  even 
in  a  private  family.    In  the  following 
year  the  Presbyterians  applied  to  Par- 
liament, pressing  them  to  enforce  uni- 
formity   in  religion,  and  to   extirpate 
popery,   prelacy,    heresy,   schism,   8cc. 
but  their  petition  was  rejected ;  yet  in 
1648    the    parliament,  ruled  by  them, 
published  an  ordinance  against  heresy, 
and  determined  that  any  person  who 
maintained,  published,  or  defended  the 
following  en-ors,   should    suffer  death. 
These   errors    were,    1.   Denying    the 
being  of  a  God. — 2.  Denying  his  omnS' 
3  K 


PER 


442 


PER 


presence,  omniscience,  &c  — 3.  Den)nng 
the  Trinitv  in  any  way. — 4.  Denying 
that  Christ  had  two  natures. — 5.  Deny- 
ing the  resurrection,  the  atonement,  the 
Scriptures.  In  Charles  the  Second's 
reign  the  act  of  uniformity  passed,  by 
which  two  thousand  clergymen  were 
deprived  of  their  benefices.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  conventicle  act,  and  the  Ox- 
ford act,  under  which,  it  is  said,  eight 
thousand  persons  were  imprisoned  and 
reduced  to  want,  and  many  to  the  grave. 
In  this  reign  also,  tlie  Quakers  were 
much  persecuted,  and  numbers  of  them 
imprisoned.  Thus  we  see  how  England 
has  bled  under  the  hand  of  bigotry  and 
pei'secution  ;  nor  was  toleration  enjoy- 
ed until  William  III.  came  to  the 
thi'one,  who  showed  himself  a  warm 
friend  to  the  lights  of  conscience.  The 
accession  of  the  present  roval  family 
was  auspicious  to  religious  liberty  ;  and 
as  their  majesties  have  always  befriend- 
ed the  toleration,  the  spirit  of  persecu- 
tion has  been  long  curbed. 
IRELA^JD 
has  likewise  been  drenched  with  the 
blood  of  the  Protestants,  forty  or  fifty 
thousand  of  whom  were  cruelly  mur- 
dered in  a  few  days,  in  different  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
I.  It  began  oit  the  23d  of  October, 
1641.  Having  secured  the  principal 
gentlemen,  and  seized  their  eff'ects,  they 
murdered  the  common  people  in  cold 
blood,  forcing  many  thousands  to  fly 
from  their  houses  and  settlements  na- 
ked into  the  bogs  and  woods,  where  they 
perished  with  hunger  and  cold.  Some 
they  whipped  to  death,  others  they 
stripped  naked,  and  exposed  to  shame, 
and  then  drove  them  like  herds  of 
swine  to  perish  in  the  mountains  :  many 
hundreds  were  drowned  in  rivers,  some 
had  their  throats  cut,  others  were  dis- 
membered. With  some  the  execral^le 
villains  made  themselves  sport,  trying 
who  c^uld  hack  the  deepest  into  an  En- 
glishman's flesh  :  wives  and  young  vir- 
gins abused  in  the  presence  of  their 
nearest  relations  ;  nay,  they  taught  their 
children  to  strip  and  kill  the  children  of 
the  English,  and  dash  out  their  brains 
against  the  stones.  Thus  many  thou- 
sands were  massacred  in  a  few  dajs, 
without  distinction  of  age,  sex,  or  quality, 
before  they  suspected  their  danger,  or 
had  time  to  provide  for  their  defence. 
SCOTLAND,  SPAIN,  &c. 
Besides -the  above-mentioned  perse- 
cutions, ther^iave  been  several  others 
cai-ricd  on  in  diff'erent  parts  of  the 
world.  Scotland  for  many  years  together 
has  been  the  scene  of  ci-uelty  and  blood- 
shed, till  it  was  delivered  by  the  mo- 


narch at  the  revolution.    Spain,  Italy,      I 
and  the  valley  of  Piedmont,  and  other      | 
places,  have  been  the   seats  of  much      ' 
persecution.    Popery,  we  see  has  had 
the  greatest  hand  in  this  mischievous 
work.    It  has  to  answer,  also,  for  the 
lives  of  millions  of  Jews,  Mahometans,  .; 
and  barbarians.    When  the  Moors  con-  * 
quered    Spain,  in  the  eighth   century,  5 
they  allowed  the  Christians  the  free  ex-  \ 
ercise  of  their  religion ;  but  in  the  fif-   '•. 
teenth  century,  when  the  Moors  were 
overcome,  ancl  Ferdinand  subdued  the      \ 
Moriscoes,  the  descendants  of  the  above      [ 
Moors,  many  thousands  were  forced  to 
be    baptised,  or  burnt,    massacred,  or 
banished,   and    the    children    sold  for 
slaves;  besides  innumerable  Jews,  who 
shared  the  same  cruelties,  chiefly  bj 
means  of  the  infernal  courts  of  inquisi- 
tion.    A   worse    slaughter,  if  possible, 
was  made  among  the  natives  of  Spanish  ; 
America,    where    fifteen   millions    are ' 
said  to  have  been  sacrificed  to  the  ge-  ^ 
nius  of  popery  in  about  forty  years.    It  • 
lias  been  computed  that  fifty  millions  of    ^ 
Protestants  have  at  different  times  been    • 
the  victims  of  the  persecutions  of  the 
Papists,  and  put  to  death  for  their  re- 
ligious oj)inions.    Well,  therefore,  might 
the  inspired  penman  say,  that  at  mystic 
Babylon's  destniction, '  was  found  in  her  -, 
the  blood  of  prophets,  of  saints,  and  of    j, 
all  that  was  slain  upon  the  earth,'  Rev./ 
xviii.  24.  '"*' 

To  conclude  this  article,  Who  can 
peruse  the  account  here  given  without 
feeling  the  most  painful  emotions,  and 
dropping  a  tear  over  the  madness  and 
depravity  of  mankind  ?  Does  it  not  show 
us  what  human  beings  are  capable  of 
when    influenced    by   superstition,    bi- 
gotry, and  prejudice  ?    Have  not  these 
baneful  principles  metamorphosed  men 
into  infernals ;  and  entirely  extinguish- 
ed all  the  feelings  of  humanity,  the  dic- 
tates of   conscience,  and   the  voice  of 
reason  i*    Alas !    what   has   sin  done  to 
make  mankind  such  curses  to  one  ano- 
tlier  ?    Merciful   God !    by    thy   great 
power  suppress  this  worst  of  all  evils,  . 
and  let  truth  and  love,  meekness  and  '■^, 
forbeai'ancc  universally  prevail !   Z.i7?i-   . 
f)orch's  Introduction  to  his  History  of  ''■ 
the  Inquisition;  Memoirs  of  the  Perse-    : 
cations  of  the  Protestants  in  France  by 
lewis  De  Ennrolles;  Comber's  History    I 
of  the  Pnrmlan  Massacre  of  St.  Bar-     1 
iholonieiv;    yi.   Podinson's   History   of 
Persecution;     Lockman's    History    of 
Po/rish  Persec.  Clark's  Looking-Glasa 
for  Persecutors;  Doddridge's  Sermon    , 
on  Persecution;  Jortin's  ditto,  ser.  9.  vol. 
iv.  Bower's  Lives  of  the  Popes;  Fox's 
Martyrs;    Woodrow'a  History  of  the 


PER 


443 


PER 


.Suffer'mt(s  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  ; 
.Ytal's  History  of  the  Puritans,  and  of 
JVew  England  ;  !-[lstory  of  the  Bohe- 
mian Persecutions. 

PERSEVERANCE  is  the  continu- 
ance in  any  design,  state,  opinion,  or 
course  of  action.  The  perseverance  of 
the  saints  is  their  continuance  in  a  state 
of  grace  to  a  state  of  glory.  This  doc- 
trine has  afforded  considerable  matter 
for  conti'oversy  between  the  Calvinists 
and  Arminians.  We  shall  briefly  here 
state  the  arguments  and  objections. 
And,  first,  the  fierfections  of  God  are 
considered  as  strong  arguments  to  prove 
this  doctrine.  God,  as  a  Being  possess- 
ed of  infinite  love,  faithfulness,  wisdom, 
and  power,  can  hardly  be  supposed  to 
suffer  any  of  his  people  finally  to  fall 
into  perdition.  This  would  be  a  re- 
flection on  his  attributes,  and  argue  him 
to  be  worse  than  a  common  father  of 
his  family.  His  love  to  his  people  is 
unchangeable,  and  therefore  they  can- 
not be  the  objects  of  it  at  one  time  and 
not  at  another,  John  xiii.  1.  Zeph.  iii. 
17.  Jer.  xxxi.  3.  His  faithfulness  to 
them  and  to  his  promise  is  not  founded 
upon  their  mei'it,  but  his  own  will  and 
goodness  :  this,  therefore,  cannot  be  vio- 
lated, Mai.  iii.  6.  Numb,  xxiii.  19.  His 
wisdom  foresees  every  obstacle  in  the 
way,  and  is  capable  of  removing  it,  and 
directing  them  into  the  right  path.  It 
would  be  a  reflection  on  his  wisdom,  af- 
ter choosing  a  right  end,  not  to  choose 
right  means  in  accomplishing  the  same, 
Jer.  X.  6,  7.  His  power  is  insuperable, 
and  is  absolutely  and  perpetually  dis- 
played in  their  preservation  and  pro- 
tection, 1  Peter  i.  5. — 2.  Another  argu- 
ment to  prove  this  doctrine  is  their  union 
to  Chi'ist,  and  what  he  has  done  for 
them.  They  are  said  to  be  chosen  in 
him,  Eph.  i.  4.  united  to  him,  Eph.  i.  23. 
the  purchase  of  his  death,  Rom.  viii.  34. 
Tit.  ii.  14 ;  the  objects  of  his  interces- 
sion, Rom.  V.  10.  Rom.  viii.  34.  1  John 
ii.  1,  2.  Now  if  there  be  a  possibility  of 
their  finally  faUing,  then  this  choice, 
this  union,  his  death  and  intercession, 
may  all  be  in  vain,  and  rendei'ed  abor- 
tive ;  an  idea  as  derogatory  to  the  di- 
vme  glory,  and  as  dishonourable  to  Je- 
sus Christ,  as  possibly  can  be. — 3.  It  is 
argued,  from  the  work  of  the  Spirit, 
which  is  to  communicate  grace  and 
strength  equal  to  the  day,  Phil.  i.  6.  2 
Cor.  i.  21,  22.  If,  indeed,  divine  grace 
were  dependent  on  the  will  of  man,  if 
by  his  own  power  he  had  brought  him- 
self into  a  state  of  grace,  then  it  might 
follow  that  he  might  relapse  into  an  op- 
posite state  when  that  power  at  any 
nme  was  weakened  j  but  as  the  perse- 


x'erance  of  the  saints  is  not  produced  by 
any  native  principles  in  themselves,  but 
by  the  agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  en- 
lightening, confirming,  and  establishing 
them,  of  course,  they  must  persevere, 
or  otherwise  it  would  be  a  reflection  on 
this  Divine  agent,  Rom.  viii.  9.  1  Cor. 
vi.  11.  John  iv.  14.  John  xvi.  14. — i. 
Lastly,  the  declarations  and  promises  of 
Scriptui'e  are  very  numerous  in  fa\-0LU* 
of  this  doctrine.  Job  xvii.  9.  Psal.  xciv. 
14.  Psal.  cxxv.  Jer.  xxxii.  40.  John  x. 
28.  John  xvii.  12.  1  Cor.  i.  8,  9.  1  Pet 
i.  5.  Prov.  iv.  18.  all  which  could  not 
be  true,  if  this  doctrine  were  false. 
There  are  objections,  however,  to  this 
doctrine,  which  we  must  state. — 1. 
There  are  various  threatenings  de- 
nounced against  those  who  apostatize, 
Ezek.  iii.  20.  Heb.  vi.  3,  6.  Psal.  cxxxv. 
3. — 5.  Ezek.  xviii.  24.  To  this  it  is  an- 
swered, that  some  of  these  texts  do  not 
so  much  as  suppose  the  falling  away  of 
a  truly  good  man ;  and  to  all  of  them,  it 
is  said,  that  they  only  show  what  would 
be  the  consequence  if  such  should  fall 
away  ;  but  cannot  prove  that  it  ever  in 
fact  happens. — 2.  It  is  foretold  as  a  fu- 
ture event  that  some  should  fall  away. 
Matt.  xxiv.  12,  13.  John  xv.  6.  Matt. 
xiii.  20,  21.  To  the  first  of  these  pas- 
sages it  is  answered,  that  their  love 
might  be  said  to  wax  cold  without  to- 
tally ceasing  ;  or  there  might  have  been 
an  outward  zeal  and  show  of  love  where 
there  never  was  a  time  faith.  To  the 
second  it  is  answered,  that  persons  may 
be  said  to  be  in  Christ  only  by  an  exter- 
nal profession,  or  mere  members  of  th'e 
visible  church,  John  xv.  2.  Matt.  xiii. 
47,  48.  As  to  Matthew,  ch.  xiii.  v.  20, 
21.  it  is  I'eplied,  that  this  may  refer  to 
the  joy  with  which  some  may  entertain 
the  offers  of  pardon,  who  never,  af- 
ter all,  attentively  considered  them. — 3. 
It  is  objected  that  many  have  in  fact 
fallen  away,  as  David,  Solomon,  Peter, 
Alexander,  Hymeneus,  8cc.  To  v,'hich 
it  is  answered,  that  David,  Solomon,  and 
Peter's  fall,  were  not  total ;  and  as  to 
the  others,  there  is  no  proof  of  their 
ever  being  tine  Christians. — 4.  It  is 
urged,  that  this  doctrine  supersedes  the 
use  of  means,  and  renders  exhortations 
unnecessary.  To  which  it  may  be  an- 
swered, that  perseverance  itself  implies 
the  use  of  means,  and  that  the  means 
are  equally  appointed  as  well  as  the 
end:  nor  has  it  ever  been  found  that 
true  Christians  have  rejected  them. 
They  consider  exhortations  and  admo- 
nitions to  be  some  of  the  means  they  are 
to  attend  to  in  order  to  promote  their 
holiness :  Christ  and  his  apostles,  though 
they  often  asserted  this  doctrine,  yet  j-e- 


PER 


444 


PET 


provedj  exliorted,  aiid  made  use  of  j 
means.  See  Exhortation,  Means. — 
5.  Lastly,  it  is  objected  that  this  doc-  | 
trine  gives  great  encoui-agement  to  car- 
nal security  and  presumptuous  sin.  To 
which  it  is'  answered,  that  this  doctrine, 
like  many  others,  may  be  abused,  by 
hypocrites,  but  cannot  be  so  by  those 
who  are  truly  serious,  it  being  the  very 
nature  of  grace  to  lead  to  rigliteousness. 
Tit.  ii.  10,  12.  Their  knowledge  leads 
to  veneration  ;  their  love  anunates  to 
duty;  their  faith  purifies  the  heart; 
then-  gratitude  excites  to  obedience; 
yea,  all  their  principles  have  a  tendency 
to  set  before  them  the  evil  of  sin,  and 
the  beauty  of  holiness.  See  JVliitby  and 
Gill  on  the  Five  Points;  Cole  on  the 
Sovereignty  of  God;  Doddridge's 
Lectures,  lee.  179 ;  Turretini  Comp. 
Theologix  ;  ioc.  14.  p.  156  ;  (Economia 
Witsii,  lib.  iii.  cap.  13 ;  Toplady's 
Works, -g.  476,  vol.  v;  Ridgley's  Body 
of  Div.  qu.  79. 

PERSON,  an  individual  substance  of 
a  rational  mtelligent  nature.  Some  have 
been  offended  at  the  term  persons  as 
applied  to  the  Trinity,  as  unwarrantable. 
The  term  person,  when  applied  to 
Deity,  is  certainly  used  in  a  sense  some- 
what different  fx-om  that  in  which  we 
apply  to  one  another;  but  when  it  is 
considered  that  the  Greek  words 
TToo-Tao-iJ  and  rijoo-cojroi',  to  which  it  an- 
swei's,  are,  in  the  New  Testament,  ap- 
plied to  tlie  Father  and  Son,  Heb.  i.  3. 
2  Cor.  iv.  6.  and  that  no  single  term,  at 
least,  can  be  found  more  suitable,  it  can 
h'krdly  be  condemned  as  unscriptural 
and  improper.  There  have  been  warm 
debates  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches  about  the  v/ords  hypostasis 
?i\\(\  persona  ;  the  Latin  concluding  that 
the  word  hypostasis  signified  substance 
or  essence,  "thought  that  to  assert  that 
there  were  three  divine  hypostases  was 
to  say  that  there  were  three  gods.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Greek  church 
thought  that  the  v/ordperson  did  not 
sufficiently  guard  against  the  Sabellian 
notion  of  the  same  mdividual  Being 
sustaining  three  relations;  whei'eupon 
each  part  of  the  church  was  ready  to 
brand  the  other  with  heresy,  till  by  a 
free  and  mutual  conference  in  a  synod 
at  Alexandria,  A.  D.  362,  they  made  it 
appear  that  it  was  but  a  mere  conten- 
tion about  the  grammatical  sense  of  a 
word ;  and  then  it  was  allowed  by  men 
of  temper  on  both  sides,  that  either  of 
the  two  words  might  be  indiflFerently 
used.  See  Marci  Medulla,  1.  5.  ^  3 ; 
jRidgley's  Divinity, qn.  11 ;  Hurrion  on 
the  Spirit,  p.  140;  Doddrlge's  Lec- 
tures, Ice.  159;  Gill  on  the  Trinity,-^. 


93  ;  Watts'  Works,  vol.  v.  p.  48,  208 ; 
Giirs  Body  of  Divinity,  vol.  i.  p.  205, 
8vo.  Ldwai-ds'  History  of  Redemp- 
tion, p.  51,  note ;  Horse  Sol.  vol.  ii.  p. 
20. 

PERSUx\SION,  the  act  of  influencing 
the  judgment  and  passions  by  arguments 
or  motives.  It  is  different  from  con- 
viction. Conviction  affects  the  under- 
standing only  ;  persuasion  the  will  and 
the  practice.  It  may  be  considered  as 
an  assent  to  a  proposition  not  sufficient- 
ly proved.  It  is  more  extensively  used, 
than  conviction,  which  last  is  founded  on 
demonstration  natural  or  supernatural. 
But  all  things  of  which  Ave  may  be 
persuaded,  are  not  capable  of  demon- 
stration. See  Blair's  Rhetoric,  vol.  ii. 
p.  174. 

PETER-PENCE,  was  an  annual  tri- 
bute of  one  penny  paid  at  Rome  out  of 
every  family  at  the  feast  of  St.  Peter. 
This,  Ina,  the  Saxon  king,  when  he  went 
in  pilgi'image  to  Rome,  about  the  year 
740,  gave  to  the  pope,  partly  as  alms, 
and  paitly  in  reccmpence  of  a  house 
erected  in  Rome  for  English  pilgrims. 
It  continued  to  be  paid  generally  until 
the  time  of  king  Henry  VIII.  when  it 
was  enacted,  that  henceforth  no  persons 
shall  pay  any  pensions,  peter-pence,  or 
other  impositions,  to  the  use  of  the  bi- 
shop and  see  of  Rome. 

PETITION,  according  to  Dr.  Watts, 
is  the  fourth  part  of  prayer,  and  includes 
a  desire  of  deliverance  from  evil,  and  a 
I'equest  of  good  things  to  be  bestowed. 
On  both  these  accoimts  petitions  are  to 
be  offered  up  to  God,  not  only  for 
ourselves,  but  for  our  fellow-creatures 
also.  This  part  of  prayer  is  frequently 
called  intercession.    See  Prayer. 

PETROBRUSSIANS,  a  sect  founded 
about  the  year  1110  in  Languedoc  and 
Provence,  by  Peter  de  Bruys,  who  made 
the  most  laudable  attempts  to  reform 
the  abuses  and  to  remove  the  supersti- 
tions that  disfigured  the  beautiful  sim- 
plicity of  the  Gospel ;  though  not  with- 
out a  mixture  of  fanaticism.  The  fol- 
lowing tenets  were  held  by  him  and  his 
disciples :  1.  That  no  persons  whatever 
Avere  to  be  baptized  before  they  were 
come  to  the  fiill  use  of  their  reason. — 2. 
That  it  was  an  idle  superstition  to  build 
chui'ches  for  the  sei*vice  of  God,  who 
will  accept  of  a  sincere  worship  where- 
evcr  it  is  offered;  and  that,  therefore, 
such  churches  as  had  already  been 
erected,  were  to  be  pulled  down  and 
destroyed. — 3.  That  the  crucifixes,  as 
instruments  of  superstition,  desen'ed 
the  same  fate. — 4.  That  the  real  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  were  not  exhibited 
hi  the  eucharist,  but  were  merely  re- 


PHA 


445 


PHA 


presented  in  tliat  ordinance. — 4.  That 
the  oblations,  pra)ers,  and  good  works 
of  the  living,  could  be  in  no  respect  ad- 
vantageous to  the  dead.  The  founder 
of  this  sect,  after  a  laborious  ministry  of 
twenty  years,  was  burnt  in  the  year 
1130  by  an  enraged  populace  set  on  by 
the  clergv,  whose  tramc  was  in  danger 
from  the  enterprising  spirit  of  this  new 
reformer. 

PETROJOx\NNITES  were  follow- 
ers of  Peter  John,  or  Peter  Joannis,  that 
is,  Peter  the  son  of  John,  who  flourished 
in  the  twelfth  centurj".  His  doctrine 
Avas-not  known  till  after  his  death,  when 
his  body  was  taken  out  of  his  gi'ave,  and 
burnt.  His  opinions  were,  that  he  alone 
had  the  knowledge  of  the  ti-ue  sense 
wherein  the  apostles  preached  the 
Gospel ;  that  the  reasonable  soul  is  not 
the  form  of  man  ;  that  there  is  no  grace 
infused  by  baptism ;  and  that  Jesus 
Christ  was  pierced  with  a  lance  on  the 
ci'oss  before  he  expired. 

PHARISEES,  a  famous  sect  of  the 
Jews  who  distinguished  themselves  by 
their  zeal  for  the  traditions  of  the  el- 
ders, which  they  derived  from  the  same 
fountain  with  the  written  word  itself; 

Sretending  that  both  were  delivered  to 
loses  from  Movmt  Sinai,  and  were 
therefore  both  of  equal  authority.  From 
their  rigorous  observance  of  these  tra- 
ditions, they  looked  upon  themselves  as 
more  holy  than  other  men,  and  there- 
fore separated  themselves  from  those 
whom  they  thought  sinners  or  pi-ofaue, 
so  as  not  to  eat  or  drink  with  them ; 
and  hence,  from  the  Hebrew  word 
fiharis,  which  signifies  "to  separate," 
they  had  the  name  of  Pharisees,  or  Se- 
fiharatists. 

This  sect  was  one  of  the  mosfc  ancient 
and  most  considerable  among  the  Jews, 
but  its  original  is  not  very"  well  kno\vn ; 
however,  it  was  in  great  repute  in  the 
time  of  our  Saviour,  and  most  probably 
had  its  original  at  the  same  time  with 
the  traditions. 

The  extraordinary  pretences  of  the 
Pharisees  to  righteousness,  drew  after 
them  the  common  people,  who  held 
them  in  the  highest  esteem  and  vene- 
ration. Our  Saviour  frequently,  how- 
e\er,  charges  them  with  hypocrisy, and 
making  the  law  of  God  of  no  effect 
through  their  traditions,  Matt.  ix.  12. 
Matt.  XV.  1,  6.  Matt,  xxiii.  13,  33.  Luke 
xi.  39,  52.  Sevei-al  of  these  traditions 
are  particularly  mentioned  in  the  Gos- 
pel ;  but  they  had  a  vast  number  more, 
which  may  be  seen  in  the  Talmud,  the 
whole  subject  whereof  is  to  dictate  and 
explain  those  traditions  which  this  sect 
imposed  to  be  believed  and  obsei-ved. 


The  Pharisees,  contrary  to  the  opinion 
of  the  Sadducees,  held  a  resun-ection 
from  the  dead,  and  the  existence  of  an- 
gels and  spirits,  x\cts  xxiii.  8.  But,  ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  this  resuiTcc';ion  of 
theirs  was  no  more  than  a  Pythagorean 
resun-ection,  that  is,  of  the'  eouI  only, 
by  its  ti-ansmigi'ation  into  another  body, 
and  being  bom  anew  with  it.  From  this 
resurrection  they  excluded  all  who 
were  notoriously  wicked,  being  of  opi- 
nion that  the  souls  of  such  persons  were 
transmitted  into  a  state  of  everlasting 
wo.  As  to  lesser  crimes,  they  held 
they  were  punished  in  the  bodies  which 
the  souls  of  those  who  committed  them 
wei'e  next  sent  into. 

Josephus,  however,  either  mistook 
the  ftdth  of  his  countrymen,  or,  which  is 
more  probable,  wilfully  misrepresented 
it,  to  render  their  opinions  more  re- 
spected by  the  Roman  philosophers, 
whom  he  appears  to  have,  on  every  oc- 
casion, been  desirous  to  please.  The 
Pharisees  had  many  Paean  notions  re- 
specting the  soul;  but  Sishop  Bull,  iii 
his  Harmonia  Afiostolica,  has  clearly 
proved  that  they  held  a  resurrection  of 
the  body,  and  that  they  supposed  a  cer- 
tain bone  to  remain  uncornipted,  to 
funiish  the  matter  of  which  the  resur- 
rection body  was  to  be  formed.  They 
did  not,  however,  believe  that  all  man- 
kind were  to  be  raised  from  the  dead. 
A  resurrection  was  the  privilege  of  the 
children  of  Abraham  alone,  who  were 
all  to  x'ise  on  Mount  Zion  ;  their  incor- 
ruptible bones,  wherever  they  might  be 
buried,  being  carried  to  that  mountain 
below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The 
state  of  fiitui-e  felicity  in  which  the 
Pharisees  believed  was  verj'  gross :  they 
imagined  that  men  in  the  next  world, 
ao  well  as  in  the  present,  were  to  eat 
and  drink,  and  enjoy  the  pleasures  of 
love,  each  being  re-united  to  his  former 
wife.  Hence  the  Sadducees,  who  be- 
lieved in  no  resurrection,  and  supposed 
our  Saviour  to  teach  it  as  a  Pharisee, 
very  shrewdly  urged  the  difficulty  of 
disposing  of  the  woman  who  had  in  this 
world  been  the  wife  of  seven  husbands. 
Had  the  resuiTection  of  Chi'istianity 
been  the  Pharisaical  resun-ection,  this 
difficulty  would  have  been  insurmount- 
able ;  and  accordingly  we  find  the  peo- 
ple, and  even  some  of  the  Pharisees 
themselves,  sti-uck  with  the  manner  in 
which  our  Saviour  removed  it. 

This  sect  seems  to  have  had  some 
confused  notions,  probably  derived  from 
the  Chaldeans  and  Pereians,  respecting 
the  pre-existence  of  souls;  and  hence 
it  was  that  Christ's  disciples  asked  him 
concerning  the  blind  man,  John  ix,  2. 


PHI 


446 


PHI 


"  Who  did  sin,  this  man,  or  his  parents, 
that  he  was  born  bhnd?"  And  Avhen 
the  disciples  told  Christ  that  some  said 
he  was  ESias,  Jeremias,  or  one  of  the 
prophets.  Matt.  xvi.  14.  the  meaning 
can  only  be,  that  they  thought  he  was 
come  into  the  world  with  the  soul  of 
Elias,  Jeremias,  or  some  other  of  the 
old  prophets  transmigi-ated  into  him. 
With  the  Essenes  they  held  absolute 
predestination,  and  with  tli^e  Sadducees 
free  will ;  but  how  they  reconciled  these 
seemingly  incompatible  doctrines  is  no 
where  sufficiently  explained.  The  sect 
of  the  Pharisees  was  not  extinguished 
by  thei-uin  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth. 
The  greatest  part  of  the  modern  Jews 
are  still  of  this  sect,  being  as  much  de- 
voted to  traditions,  or  the  oral  law,  as 
their  ancestors  were. 

PHILADELPHIAN  SOCIETY,  a 
sect  or  society  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury ;  so  called  from  an  English  female, 
whose  name  was  Jane  Leadley.  She 
embraced,  it  is  said,  the  same  views  and 
the  same  kind  of  religion  as  Madame 
Bourignon  {See  Bourignonists.)  She 
was  of  opinion  that  all  dissensions  among 
Christians  would  cease,  and  the  king- 
dom of  the  Redeemer  become,  even 
here  below,  a  glorious  scene  of  charity, 
convord,  and  felicity,  if  those  who  bear 
the  name  of  Jesus,  without  regarding 
the  forms  of  doctruie  or  discipline  that 
distinguish  particular  comrnunions, 
would  all  join  iri  committing  their  souls 
to  the  care  of  the  interjial  guide,  to  be 
bstructed,  governed,  and  formed  by  his 
fXw'me  impulse  and  suggestions.  Nay, 
she  went  still  farther,  and  declared,  m 
the  name  of  the  Eord,  that  this  desira- 
ble event  would  actually  come  to  pass, 
and  that  she  had  a  divine  commission  to 
pi'oclaim  the  approach  of  this  glorious 
communion  of  saints,  who  were  to  be 
gathered  in  one  visible  universal  church 
or  kingdom  before  the  dissolution  of  this 
earthly  globe.  This  prediction  she  de- 
livered with  a  peculiar  degree  of  confi- 
dence, from  a  notion  that  her  Philadel- 
phian  society  was  the  true  kingdom  of 
Christ,  in  which  alone  the  Divine  Spirit 
resided  and  reigned.  She  believed,  it  is 
said,  the  doctrine  of  the  final  restoi-ation 
of  all  intelligent  beings  to  perfection  and 
happiness. 

PHILANTHROPY,  compounded  of 
(p,\cs,  and  av5s.wof,  which  signify  the  love 
of  mankind.  It  differs  from  benevo- 
lence onlv  in  this:  that  Ijenevolcnce  ex- 
tends to  "every  being  that  has  lite  and 
sense,  and  is  of  course  susceptible  of 
pain  and  pleasure  ;  whereas  philanthro- 
py cannot  comprehend  more  than  the 
human  race.    It  differs  from  friendship, 


as  this  affection  subsists  only  between  a 
few  individuals,  whilst  philanthropy 
comprehends  the  whole  human  species. 
It  is  a  calm  sentiment,  which  perhaps 
hardly  ever  rises  to  the  warmth  of  af- 
fection, and  certainly  not  to  the  heat  of 
passion. 

PHILIPISTS,  a  sect  or  party  among 
the  Lutherans,  the  followers  of  Philip 
Melancthon.  He  had  strenuously  op- 
posed the  Ubiquists,  who  ai'ose  in  his 
time ;  and,  the  dispute  growing  still 
hotter  after  his  death,  the  university  of 
Wittemburg,  who  espoused  Melanc- 
thon's  opinion,  were  called  by  the  Flac- 
cians,  who  attacked  it,  Philifiists. 

PHILOSOPHISTS,  a  name  given  to 
several  persons  in  France  who  entered 
into  a  combination  to  overturn  the  reli- 
gion of  Jesus,  and  eradicate  from  the  hu- 
man heart  every  reUgious  sentiment. 
The  man  more  particularly  to  whom  this 
idea  first  occurred  was  Voltaire,  who  be- 
ing weary  (as  he  said  himself)  of  hearing 
people  repeat  that  twelve  men  were  suf- 
ficient to  establish  Christianity,  resolved 
to  prove  that  one  might  be  sufficient  to 
overturn  it.  Full  of  this  project,  he 
swore  before  the  year  1730  to  dedicate 
his  life  to  its  accomplishment ;  and,  for 
some  time,  he  flattered  himself  that  he 
should  enio)^  alone  the  gloiy  of  destroy- 
ing the  Christian  religion.  He  found, 
however,  that  associates  would  be  ne- 
cessary ;  and  from  the  numerous  tribe 
of  his  admirers  a-nd  disciples  he  chose 
D'Alembert  and  Diderot  as  the  most 
proper  pei-sons  to  co-operate  with  him 
in  his  designs.  But  Voltaire  was  not 
satisfied  with  their  aid  alone.  He  con- 
trived to  embark  in  the  same  cause 
Fi'ederic  II.  king  of  Pnissia,  who  wish- 
ed to  be  thought  a  philosopher,  and 
who,  of  course,  deemed  it  expedient  to 
talk  aixl  write  against  a  religion  which 
he  had  never  studied,  and  into  the  evi- 
dence of  which  he  had  probably  never 
deigned  to  inquire.  This  royal  adept 
was  one  of  the  most  zealous  of  Voltaire's 
coadjutors,  till  he  discovered  that  the 
philosophists  were  waging  war  with  the 
throne  as  well  as  with  the  altar.  This, 
indeed,  was  not  originally  Voltaire's  in- 
tention. He  was  vain  :  he  loved  to  be 
caressed  by  the  great ;  and,  in  one  word, 
he  was,  from  natural  disposition,  an 
aristocrat,  and  an  admirer  of  royalty. 
But  when  he  found  that  almost  every  so- 
vereign but  Frederic  disapproved  of  his 
im]5ious  projects,  as  soon  as  he  perceived 
their  issue,  he  detei'mined  to  oppose 
all  the  governments  on  earth  rather  than 
forfeit  the  glory  with  which  he  had  flat- 
tered himself  of  vanquishing  Christ  and 
his  apostles  in  the  field  of  conti-oversy. 


PHI 


447 


PHI 


He  now  set  himself,  with  D'Alem- 
bert  and  Diderot,  to  excite  imiversal 
discontent  with  the  establislied  order  of 
things.  For  this  pui-pose  they  formed 
secret  societies,  assumed  new  names, 
and  eniployed  an  enigmatical  language. 
Thus  Frederic  was  called  Luc;  D'Al- 
embert,  Protagoras,  and  sometimes 
Bertrand ;  Voltaire,  Raton;  and  Di- 
derot, Flaton,  or  its  anagram  Ton/ila; 
while  the  general  term  for-the  conspi- 
rators was  Cacoucc.  In  their  secret 
meetings  they  professed  to  celebrate 
the  mysteries  of  Mythra;  and  their 
great  object,  as  they  professed  to  one 
another,  was  to  confound  the  wretch, 
meaning  Jesus  Christ.  Hence  their  se- 
cret watch- word  was  Ecrasez  rinfame, 
"  Crush  Christ."  If  we  look  into  some 
of  the  books  expressly  written  for  ge 
neral  circulation,  we  shall  there  find 
the  following  doctrines ;  some  of  them 
standing  alone  in  all  their  naked  hor- 
rors, others  surrounded  by  sophistry 
and  meretricious  ornaments,  to  entice 
the  mind  into  their  net  before  it  per- 
ceives their  nature,  "  The  Universal 
"  Cause,  that  god  of  the  philosophers, 
"  of  the  Jews,  and  of  the  Christians,  is 
"  but  a  chimera  and  a  phantom.  The 
*'  phenomena  of  nature  only  prove  the 
"  existence  of  God  to  a  few  /irefiossessed 
**  men  :  so  far  from  bespeaking  a  God, 
"  they  are  but  the  necessar)^  effects  of 
"  matter  prodigiously  diversified.  It  is 
"  more  reasonable  to  admit,  with  Manes, 
"  of  a  two-fold  God,  than  of  the  God  of 
"  Christianity.  We  cannot  know  whe- 
"  ther  a  God  reall}'  exists,  or  whetlier 
"  there  is  the  smallest  difference  be- 
"  tween  good  and  evil,  or  vice  and  vir- 
"  tue.  Nothing  can  be  more  absurd 
"  than  to  believe  the  soul  a  spiritual  be- 
"  ing.  The  immortality  of  the  soul,  so 
"  far  from  stimulating  man  to  the  prac- 
"  tice  of  virtue,  is  nothing  but  a  barba- 
"  rous,  desperate,  fatal  tenet,  and  con- 
"  traiy  to  all  legislation.  All  ideas  of 
"justice  and  injustice,  of  virtue  and 
*  vice,  of  glory  and  mfamv,  are  purely 
"  arbitrary,  and  dependent  on  custom. 
"  Conscience  and  remorse  are  nothing 
"  but  the  foresight  of  tliose  physical  pe- 
"  nalties  to  which  crimes  expose  us. 
"  The  man  who  is  above  the  law  can 
"  commit,  without  remorse,  the  disho- 
"  nest  act  that  may  serve  his  pui-pose. 
"  The  fear  of  God,  so  far  from  being 
"the  beginning  of  wisdom,  should  be 
"  the  beginning  of  folly.  The  command 
"  to  love  one's  parents  is  more  the  work 
"  of  education  than  of  nature.  Modesty 
"  is  only  an  invention  of  refined  volup- 
'*  tuousness.  The  law  which  condemns 
**  mamed  people  to  live  together,  be- 


"  comes  barbarous  and  cruel  on  the  day 
"  they  cease  to  love  one  another." — 
Tliese  extracts  from  the  secret  corres- 
pondence and  the  public  writings  of 
these  men,  will  suffice  to  show  us  the 
nature  and  tendency  of  the  dreadful 
system  they  had  formed. 

The  philosophists  were  diligently  em- 
ployed in  attempting  to  propagate  their 
sentiments.  Their  grand  Encyclopedia 
was  converted  into  an  engine  to  serve 
this  purposfe.  Voltaire  proposed  to 
establish  a  colony  of  philosophists  at 
Cleves,  who,  protected  oy  the  king  of 
Prussia,  might  publish  their  opinions 
without  dread  or  danger  ;  and  Frederic 
was  disposed  to  take  tjiem  under  his 
protection,  till  he  discovered  that  their 
opinions  wei'e  anarchical  as  well  as  im- 
pious, when  he  threw  them  off,  and  even 
wrote  against  them.  They  contrived, 
however,  to  engage  the  ministers  of  tlie 
court  of  France  in  their  favour,  by  pre- 
tending to  have  noticing  in  view  but  the 
enlargement  of  science,  in  works  which 
spoke  indeed  respectfully  of  revela- 
tion, while  every  discovery  which  they 
brought  forward  was  meant  to  under- 
mine its  ver\'  foundation.  When  the 
throne  was  to  be  attacked,  and  even 
when  barefaced  atheism  was  to  be  pro- 
mulgated, a  number  of  impious  and  li- 
centious pamphlets  were  dispersed  (for 
some  time  none  knew  how)  from  a  se- 
cret society  formed  at  the  Hotel  d'Hol- 
bach,  at  Paris,  of  which  Voltaire  was 
elected  honoraiy  and  pei'petual  presi- 
dent. To  conceal  their  real  design, 
which  was  the  diffusion  of  their  infidel 
sentiments,  they  called  themselves  Eco- 
nomists. See  (Economists.  The  books, 
however,  that  were  issued  from  this 
club  were  calculated  to  impair  and  over- 
turn religion,  morals,  and  government; 
and  which  indeed,  spreading  over  all 
Europe,  imperceptibly  took  possession 
of  public  opinion.  As  soon  as  the  sale 
was  sufficient  to  pay  the  expenses,  infe- 
rior editions  were  printed,  and  given 
away  or  sold  at  a  very  low  price  ;  circu- 
lating libraries  of  them  formed,  and 
reading  societies  instituted.  While  they 
constantly  denied  these  productions  to 
the  world,  they  conti-ived  to  give  them 
a  false  celebrity  through  their  confiden- 
tial agents,  and  coirespondents,  who 
were  not  themselves  always  trusted 
with  the  entire  secret.  By  degrees  they 
got  possession  nearly  of  all  the  reviews 
and  periodical  publications,  established 
a  general  intercourse  by  means  of  hawk- 
ers and  pedlars  with  the  distant  pro- 
vinces, and  instituted  an  office  to  supply 
all  schools  with  teachers  ;  and  thus  did 
they  acquire  unprecedented  domiiiioR 


PHR 


44S 


PIC 


over  every  species  of  literature,  over 
the  minds  of  all  ranks  of  people,  and 
over  the  education  of  youth,  without 
giving  any  alarm  to  the  world.  The 
lovers  of  wit  and  polite  literature  were 
caught  by  Voltaii'e  ;  the  men  of  science 
were  perverted,  and  children  corrupted 
in  the  first  rudiments  of  learning,  by 
D'Alembert  and  Diderot ;  stronger  ap- 
petites were  fed  by  the  secret  club  of 
Baron  Holbach;  the  imaginations  of  the 
higher  orders  were  set  dangerously 
afloat  by  Montesquieu  ;  and  the  multi- 
tude of  all  ranks  was  surprised,  con- 
founded and  hurried  awav  by  Rousseau. 
Thus  was  the  public  mind  in  France 
completely  corrupted,  and  which,  no 
doubt,  greatly  accelerated  those  dread- 
ful events  which  have  since  transpired 
in  that  country. 

PHILOSOPHY  properly  denotes 
love,  or  desii'e  of  wisdom  (fi'om  (piXos  and 
o-oqjia.)  Pythagoi-as  was  the  first  who 
devised  this  name,  because  he  thought 
no  man  was  Avise,  but  God  only  ;  and 
that  learned  men  ought  rather  to  be 
considered  as  lovers  of  wisdom  than 
really  wise.  1.  Xatural  philosophy  is 
that  art  or  science  which  leads  us  to 
contemplate  the  nature,  causes,  and  ef- 
fects of  the  material  works  of  God. — 
3.  Moral  philosophy  is  the  science  of 
manners,  the  knowledge  of  our  duty  and 
felicity.  The  various  articles  ^included 
in  the  latter,  are  explained  in  their 
places  in  this  work. 

PHOTINIANS,  a  sect  of  heretics,  in 
the  fourth  century,  who  denied  the  di- 
ivinity  of  our  Lord.  They  derive  their 
(name  from  Photinius,  their  founder,  who 
iwas  bishop  of  Sermium,  and  a  disciple 
of  Marcellus.  Photinius  published  in 
the  year  343,  his  notions  respecting  the 
Deity,  which  were  repugnant  both  to 
the  orthodox  and  Arian  systems.  He 
asserted  that  Jesus  Christ  was  born  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Vh-gin  Mary  ; 
that  a  certain  divine  emanation,  which 
he  called  the  Word,  descended  upon 
iiim  ;  and  that,  because  of  the  union  of 
the  Divine  Word  with  his  human  na- 
ture, he  was  called  the  Son  of  God,  and 
even  God  himself;  and  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  not  a  person,  but  merely  a  ce- 
lestial virtue  proceeding  fron  the  Deitv. 

PHRYGIANS,  or  Cataphrygian's, 
a  sect  in  the  second  century ;  so  called, 
as  being  of  the  country  of  Phrygia.  They 
were  orthodox  in  every  thing,  setting 
aside  this,  that  they  took  Montanvis  tor 
a  prophet,  and  Priscilla  and  Maxiinilla 
for  true  prophetesses,  to  be  consulted 
in  every  thing  relating  to  religion ;  as 
supposing  the  Holy  Spii'it  had  abandon- 
ed the  church.    See  Montanists. 


PH\XACTERY,  in  the  general,  was 
a  name  gi\en  by  the  ancients  to  all  kinds 
of  charms,  spells,  or  chai-acters,  which 
they  Avore  about  them,  as  amvilets,  to 
preserve  them  fixjm  dangers  or  dis- 
eases. 

Phylactery  particularly  denoted  a  slip 
of  parchment,  wherein  was  written  some 
text  of  holy  Scripture,  particularly  of 
the  decalogue,  which  the  more  devout 
people  among  the  Jews  wore  at  the 
forehead,  the  breast,  or  the  neck,  as  a 
mark  of  their  religion. 

The  primitive  christians  also  gave  the 
name  Phylacteries  to  the  cases  wherein 
they  enclosed  the  relics  of  their  dead. 
Phylacteries  are  often  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  appear  to  have 
been  very  common  among  the  Pharisees 
in  our  Lord's  time. 

PICARDS, ,  a  sect  which  arose  in 
Bohemia,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Pi- 
card,  the  author  of  this  sect,  from  whom 
it  derived  its  name,  drew  after  him,  as 
has  been  generally  said,  a  number  of 
men  and  women,  pretending  he  would 
restore  them  to  the  primitivt  state'  of 
innocence  wherein  man  was  created; 
and  accordingly  he  assumed  the  title  of 
J\''cw  Mam.  With  this  pretence,  he 
taught,  to  give  themselves  up  to  all  im- 
purity, saying,  that  therein  consisted  the 
liberty  of  the  sons  of  God,  and  all  those 
not  of  their  sect  were  in  bondage.  He 
first  published  his  notions  in  Germany 
and  the  Low  Countries,  and  persuaded 
many  people  to  go  naked,  and  gave 
them  the  name  of  Adamites.  After 
this,  he  seized  on  an  island  in  the  river 
Lausnecz,  some  leagues  from  Thabor, 
the  head-quarters  of  Zisca,  where  he 
fixed  himself  and  his  followers.  His 
women  were  common,  but  none  were 
allowed  to  enjoy  them  without  his  per- 
mission ;  so  that  when  any  man  desired 
a  particular  woman,  he  carried  her  to 
Picard,  who  gave  him  leave  in  these 
words  :  Go,  increase,  multiply,  and  Jill 
the  earth.  At  length,  however,  Zisca, 
general  of  the  Hussites  (famous  for  his 
victories  over  the  emperor  Sigismond,) 
hurt  at  their  abominations,  marched 
against  tiiem,  made  himself  master  of 
their  island,  and  put  them  all  to  death 
except  two,  whom  he  spared,  that  he 
might  learn  their  doctrine. 

Such  is  the  account  which  various 
writers,  relying  on  the  autlioi-itics  of 
lEneas,  Sylvius,  and  Varillas,  have  given 
of  the  Piciirds.  Some,  however,  doubt 
whether  a  sect  of  this  denomination, 
chargeable  with  such  wild  principles 
and  such  licentious  conduct,  ever  exist- 
ed. It  appears  probable  that  the  re- 
proachful representations  of  the  writers 


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Just  mentioned,  v.-ere  calumnies  invent- 
ed and  propagated  in  oixler  to  disgrace 
the  Picards,  merely  because  they  de- 
serted the  communion,  and  protested 
against  the  errors  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  Lasitus  informs  us,  that  Picard, 
together  with  forty  other  persons,  be- 
sides women  and  children,  settled  in 
Bohemia,  in  the  year  1418.  Balbijius, 
the  Jesuit,  in  his  £,fiitome  Rerum  Bohe- 
vikarum,  lib.  ii.  gives  a  similar  account, 
and  charges  on  the  Picards  none  of  the 
extravagances  or  crimes  ascribed  to 
them  by  Sylvius.  Schlecta,  secretary 
of  Ladislaus,  king  of  Bohemia,  in  his 
letters  to  Erasmus,  in  which  he  gi\-es  a 
particular  account  of  the  Picards,  says, 
that  they  considered  the  pope,  cardi- 
nals, and  bishops  of  Rome  as  the  true 
antichrists ;  and  the  adorers  of  the  con- 
secrated elements  in  the  eucharist  as 
downright  idolaters;  that  they  denied 
tlie  coiporeal  presence  of  Christ  in  this 
ordinance:  that  they  condemned  the 
worship  of  saints,  prayers  for  the  dead, 
auricular  confessions,  the  penance  im- 
posed by  priests,  the  feasts  and  vigils 
observed  in  the  Romish  church  ;  and 
that  they  confined  tliem  selves  to  the  ob- 
ser\^ance  of  the  sabbath,  and  of  the  two 
great  feasts  of  Christmas  and  Pente- 
cost. From  this  account  it  appears  that 
they  were  no  other  than  the  Vaudois 
that  fled  from  persecution  in  their  own 
i  country,  and  sought  refuge  in  Bohemia. 
M.  De  Beausobre  has  shown  that  the)- 
were  both  of  the  same  sect,  though  un- 
der different  denominations. — Besides,  it 
is  certain  that  the  Vaudois  were  settled 
in  Bohemia  in  the  year  1178,  where 
some  of  them  adopted  the  rites  of  the 
Greek,  and  others  those  of  the  Latin 
church.  The  fonner  wei-e  pretty  ge- 
nerally adhered  to  till  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  when  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Latin  rites  caused  great 
disturbance.  On  the  commencement  of 
the  national  troubles  in  Bohemia,  on  ac- 
coimt  of  the  opposition  of  the  papal 
power,  the  Picards  more  publicly  avow- 
■f  ed  and  defended  their  religious  opi- 
&  nions  ;  and  they  formed  a  considerable 
*  body  in  an  island  by  the  river  Launitz, 
or  Lausnecz,  b  the  district  of  Bechin, 
and,  recurring  to  arms,  were  defeated 
by  Zisca. 

P I ET ISTS,  a  religious  sect  that  sp rung 
up  among  the  Protestants  in  Germany 
in  the  latter  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. Pietism  was  set  on  foot  by  the 
pious  and  learned  Spener,  who,  by  the 
private  societies  he  formed  at  Francfort 
with  a  design  to  promote  vital  religion, 
roused  the  lukewann  from  their  indif- 
fei'snce,  and  excited  a  spirit  of  vigour 


and  resolution  in  those  who  had  been 
satisfied  to  lament  in  silence  tlie  pro- 
gress of  impiety.  The  remarkable  ef- 
fect of  these  joious  meetings  was  in- 
creased by  a  book  he  published  under 
the  title  of  Pious  Desires,  in  which  he 
exhibited  a  striking  view  of  the  disor- 
ders of  the  church,  and  proposed  the  re- 
medies that  were  jjroper  to  heal  tliem. 
Many  persons  of  good  and  upright  in- 
tentions were  highly  pleased  both  with 
the  proceedings  and  writings  of  Spener; 
and,  indeed,  the  greatest  part  ot  those 
who  had  the  cause  of  virtue  and  practi- 
cal religion  truly  at  heart,  applauded 
the  designs  of  this  good  man,  though  an 
apprehension  of  abuse  retained  numbers 
from  encouraging  them  openly.  These 
abuses  actually  happened.  The  reme- 
dies proposed  by  Spener  to  heal  the  dis- 
orders of  the  church  fell  into  unskilftil 
hands,  were  administered  without  saga- 
city or  pitidence,  and  thus,  in  many 
cases,  proved  to  be  worse  than  the  dis- 
ease itself.  Hence  complaints  arose 
against  these  institutions  of  pietism,  as 
if,  under  a  strikmg  appearance  of  sancti- 
ty, they  led  the  people  into  false  notions 
of  religion,  and  fomented  in  those  who 
were  of  a  turbulent  and  violent  charac- 
ter, the  seeds  and  principles  of  mutiny 
and  sedition. 

These  complaints  would  have  been 
undoubtedly  hushed,  and  the  tumults 
they  occasioned  would  have  subsided  by 
degi'ees,  had  not  the  contests  that  arose 
at  Leipsic  m  the  year  1689,  added  fuel  to 
the  flame.  Certain  pious  and  learned 
professors  of  philosophy,  and  particu- 
larly Franckius,  Schadius,  and  Paulus 
Antonius,  the  disciples  of  Spener,  who 
at  that  time  was  ecclesiastical  superin- 
tendent of  the  court  of  Saxony,  began  to 
consider  with  attention  the  defects  that 
prevailed  in  the  ordinaiy  method  of  in- 
sti-ucting  the  cancUdates  for  the  minis- 
try ;  and  this  review  persuaded  them 
of  the  necessity  of  using  their  best  en- 
deavours to  supply  what  v/as  wanting, 
and  coiTect  what  was  amiss.  For  this 
purpose  they  imdertook  to  explain  in 
their  colleges  certain  books  of  holy  Scrip- 
ture, in  order  to  render  these  genuine 
sources  of  religious  knowledge  better  un- 
derstood, and  to  promote  a  spirit  of 
practical  piety  and  vital  religion  in  the 
minds  of  their  hearers.  The  novelty  of 
this  method  drew  attention,  and  ren- 
dered it  singularly  pleasing  to  many; 
accordingly,  these  lectures  were  much 
frequented,  and  their  effects  were  visi- 
ble in  the  lives  and  conversations  of  se- 
veral persons,  whom  they  seemed  to  in- 
spire with  a  deep  sense  of  the  impor- 
tance of  religion  and  virtue.  Many 
3  L 


pip: 


450 


PI] 


thing?,  howe\  er,  it  is  said,  -".vere  done  in 
these  Piblkal  Colleges  (as  they  were 
called,)  wliich,  though  they  may  be 
looked  upon  by  equitable  and  candid 
judges  as  worthy  of  toleration  and  in- 
dulgence, were  nevertheless,  contrary 
to  custom,  and  far  from  being  consist- 
ent with  prudence.  Hence  rumours 
were  spread,  tiunults  excited,  animosi- 
ties kindled,  and  the  matter  at  length 
brought  to  a  public  trial,  in  which  the 
pious  and  learned  men  above-mentioned 
were.  Indeed,  declared  free  from  the  er- 
rors and  heresies  that  had  been  laid  to 
their  charge,  but  were,  at  the  same 
time,  prohibited  from  carrying  on  the 
plan  oi  reliijious  in.struction  they  had  un- 
dertaken with  such  zeal.  It  was  during 
these  troubles  and  di\'isions  that  the  in- 
vidious denomination  of  Pietists  was 
first  invented;  it  may,  at  least,  be  af- 
firmed, that  it  was  not  commonly  known 
before  this  period.  It  was  at  first  ap- 
plied by  some  giddy  and  inconsiderate 
persons  to  those  who  frequented  the 
Biblical  Colleges,  and  li-\'ed  in  a  manner 
.suitable  to  the  instiiictions  and  exhorta- 
tions that  were  addressed  to  them  in 
these  seminaries  of  piety.  It  was  after- 
wards made  use  of  to  characterize  all 
those  who  were  either  distinguished  by 
the  excessive  austerity  of  their  man- 
ners, or  who,  regardless  of  truth  and 
oJiinio7t,  were  only  intent  upon  practice, 
and  turned  the  whole  \  igour  of  their  ef- 
forts towards  the  attainment  of  religious 
feelings  and  habits.  But  as  it  is  the  fate 
of  all  those  denominations  by  which  pe- 
culiar sects  are  distinguished,  to  be  va- 
inously  and  often  very  improperl}'  ap- 
plied, so  the  title  of  Pietists  was  fre- 
quently given  in  common  conversation, 
to  persons  of  eminent  wisdom  and  sanc- 
tity, who  were  equally  remarkable  for 
their  adherence  to  truth,  and  tlieir  lo\'e 
of  piety ;  and,  not  seldom,  to  persons, 
whose  motley  characters  exhibited  an 
enormous  mixture  of  profligacy  and  en- 
thusiasm, and  who  deser\  ed  the  title  of 
delii-ious  fanatics  better  than  any  other 
denomination. 

This  contest  was  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  Leipsic,  but  spread  with  incre- 
dilji-"  celerity  through  all  the  Lutheran 
ciiurches  in  the  different  states  and  king- 
doms of  Europe.  For  from  this  time, 
in  all  the  cities,  towns,  and  villages, 
where  Lutheranism  was  i^rofesscd,  there 
started  up,  all  of  a  sudden,  persons  of 
various  ranks  and  professions,  of  both 
sexes,  who  declared  that  they  woi-e 
c:illed  by  a  divine  iin/mlse,  to  pull  up 
iniquity  by  the  root ;  to  restore  to  its  pri- 
mitive' lustre,  and  propagate  through 
the  wcjrld,  the  declining  cause  of  piety 


and  virtue;  to  govern  the  church  of 
Christ  by  wiser  rules  than  those  by  which 
it  v,as  at  piesent  directed ;  and  who, 
partly  in  their  writings,  and  paitly  in 
their  private  and  public  discom-ses, 
pointed  out  the  means  and  measures  that 
were  necessary  to  bring  about  this  im- 
portant revolution.  Several  religious 
societies  were  formed  in  various  places, 
which,  though  they  differed  in  some  cir- 
cumstances, and  were  not  all  coiidact- 
ed  and  composed  with  equal  wisdom, 
piety,  and  prudence,  were,  however,  de- 
signed to  promote  the  same  general 
purpose.  In  the  mean  time,  these  vmu- 
sual  proceedings  filled  with  uneasy  and 
alarming  apprehensions  both  those  who 
were  intrusted  with  the  government  of 
the  church,  and  those  who  sat  at  the 
helm  of  the  state.  These  apprehen- 
sions were  justified  by  this  important 
consideration,  that  the  pious  and  well- 
meaning  persons  who  composed  these 
assemblies,  had  indiscreetly  admitted 
into  their  community  a  parcel  of  extra- 
vagant and  hot-headed  fanatics,  who 
foretold  tlie  approaching  destruction  of 
Babel  (by  which  thev  'meant  the  Lu- 
theran chiirch,)  terrified  the  populace 
Avith  fictitious  visions,  assomed  the  au- 
tiiority  of  proj^hets  honoured  with  a  di- 
vine commission,  obscured  the  sublime 
truths  of  religion  by  a  gloomy  kind  of 
jargon  of  their  own  in\'ention,  and  re- 
vived doctrines  tliat  had  long  before 
been  condemned  by  the  church.  The 
most  violent  debates  arose  in  all  the 
Lutheran  churches  ;  and  persons  whose 
differences  were  occasioited  rather  by 
mere  words  and  questions  of  little  con- 
sequence, than  by  any  doctrines  or  in- 
stitutions of  considerable  importance, 
attacked  one  another  with  the  bitterest 
animosity ;  and,  in  many  countries,  se- 
vere laws  were  at  length  enacted  against 
the  Pietists. 

These  revivers  of  piety  were  of  two 
kinds,  who,  by  their  different  manner  of 
proceeding,  deserve  to  be  placed  in  two 
distinct  classes.  One  sect  of  these  prac- 
tical reformers  proposed  to  carry  on 
their  plan  without  introducing  any 
cliangc  into  the  doctrine,  disciplme,  or 
form  of  govej-nment,  that  were  estab- 
lished in  the  Lutheran  church.  The 
other  maintained,  on  the  contrary,  that 
it  was  impossible  to  promote  the  pro- 
gress of  real  piety  among  the  Lutherans 
without  making  considerable  alterations 
in  their  doctnne,  and  changing  the 
whole  form  of  tlieir  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline and  polity.  The  former  had  at 
their  liead  the  learned  and  pious  Spener, 
wlio,  in  the  year  1691,  removed  from 
Dresden   to  Berlin,  and  whose  senti- 


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PIE 


ments  were  adopted  by  the  professors 
of  tlie  new  acadeinv  of  Hall ;  and  par- 
ticulci!-;y  by  Franckius  and  Paulus  Anto- 
ninii-,  who  had  been  invited  thither  from 
Leipsic,  wnere  they  began  to  be  sus- 
pected of  pietism.    Though  few  pre- 
tended to  treat  either  with  indignation 
or  contempt,  the  intentions  and  purposes 
of  these  good  men  (which  indeed,  none 
could  despise  without  affecting  to  ajD- 
pear  the  enemy  of  practical  religion  and 
virtue,)  yet  many  eminent  divuies,  and 
more  especially  the  professors  and  pas- 
tors of  Wittenberg,  were  of  opinion, 
that,  in  the  execution  of  this  laudable 
purpose,  several  maxims  were  adopted, 
and  certam  measures   employed,  that 
weie  prejudicial  to  the  truth,  and  also 
detrimental    to    the    intei'csts    of    the 
church.     Hence  they  looked  on  them- 
selves  as   obliged  to  proceed   publicly 
.  ':ainst  Spener,  in  the  year  1695,  and  af- 
vwards  against  his  disciples  and  ad- 
]-erents,  as  the  inventors  and  promoters 
of  erroneous  and  dangerous   opinions. 
These  debates  are  of  a  recent  date  ;  so 
that  those  Avho  are  desirous  of  knowing 
more  pai-ticularly  how  far  the  princi- 
ples   of   equity,  moderation,  and    can- 
dour, influenced  the  minds  and  directed 
the  conduct  of  the  contending  parties, 
may  easily    I'eceive  satisfactory   infor- 
mation.     These   debates  turned  upon 
a  variety  of  points,  and  therefore  the 
matter  of  them  cannot  be  comprehend- 
ed under  any  one  general  head.    If  we 
consider   them,  indeed,  in  relation    to 
their  oi-igin,  and  the  circumstances  that 
ga\e  rise  to  them,  we  shall  then  be  able 
to  reduce  them  to  some  fixed  principles. 
'It  is  well  known,  that  those  who  had  the 
advancement  of  piety  most  zealously  at 
heart,  were  possessed  of  a  notion  that 
no  order  of  men  contributed  more  to  re- 
tard its  pi-ogress  than  the  clergy,  whose 
peculiar  vocation  it  was  to   inculcate 
and  promote  it.    I^ooking  upon  this  as 
t'le  root  of  the  evil,  it  was  but  natural 
that  their  plans  of  refonnation  should 
b^'giii  hei'e ;  and  accordingly,  they  laid 
it  down  as  an  essential  principle,  that 
none  should  be  admitted  mto  the  minis- 
try but  such  as  had  received  a  pi^oper 
education,  were  distinguished  by  their 
wisdom  and  sanctity  of  manners,  and  had 
hearts  filled  with  divine  love.    Hence 
they  proposed,  in   the  Jirst   place,  a 
thorough  reformation  of  the  schools  of 
divinity ;    and  they    explained  clearlj- 
enough  what  they   meant  by  this  re- 
formation, which  consisted  in  the   fol- 
lowing   points :    That    the    systematic 
theology  which  reigned  in  the  acade- 
mies, arid  was  composed  of  intricate  and 
disputable  doctrines,  and  obscure  and 


unusual  forms  of  expression,  should  be 
totally    abolished ;    that   polemical  di- 
vinity, which  comprehended  the  con- 
troversies subsistmg  between  Christians 
of  different  communions,  should  be  less 
eagerly    studied,   and    less    frequently 
treated,  though  not  entirely  neglected^ 
that  all  mixture  of  philosophy  and  hu- 
man learning  with  divine  wisdom,  was 
to  be  most  carefully  avoided ;  that,  on 
the   contrary,  all  those  who  were  de- 
signed for  the  ministry,  should  be  ac- 
customed from  their  early  youth  to  the 
pei-usal  and  study  of  the  holy  Scrip- 
tures;   that  they  should  be  taught  a 
plain  system  of  theology,  drawn  from 
these  unerring  sources  of  truth ;    t.nd 
that  the  whole  course  of  their  education 
was  to  be  so  directed  as  to  render  them 
tiseful  in  life,  by  the  practical  power  ot 
their  doctrine,  and  the  commandmj  in- 
fluence of   their  example.      As  thcte 
maxim  s  were  pi'opagated  with  the  great- 
est  industry   and  zeal,  and  were   ex- 
plained inadvertently,  by  some,  without 
those  restrictions  which  piiidence  seem- 
ed to  require,  these  professed  patrons 
and  revivers  of  piety  were  suspected  of 
designs  that  could  not  but  render  them 
obnoxious  to  censure.    Tiiey  were  sup- 
posed to  despise  philosophy'  and  leai'n- 
ing  ;  to  treat  with  mdifFerence,  and  even 
to  renounce,  all  inquiries  into  the  na- 
ture and  foundations  of  religious  tiiith  : 
to  disapprove  of  the  zeal  and  labours  oi 
those  who  defended  it  against  such  as 
either  con-upted  or  opposed  it ;   and  to 
place  the  whole  of  their  theolog)'  in  cer- 
tain vague  and  incoherent  declamations 
concerning  the  duties  of  morality.  Hence 
arose  those  famous  disputes  concerning 
the  use  of  philosophy,  and  the  value  of 
human  learning,  considered  in  connexion 
with  the  interest  of  religion,  the  dignity 
and  usefulness  of   systematic  theology, 
the  necessity  of  polemic  divinity,  the  ex- 
cellence of  the  mystic  system,  and  also 
concerning  the  true  method  of  instruct- 
ingthe  people. 

The  second  great  object  that  em- 
ployed the  zeal  and  attention  of  the 
persons  now  under  consideration,  was, 
that  the  candidates  for  the  ministry 
should  not  only  for  the  future  receive 
such  an  acadeniical  education  as  would 
tend  rather  to  solid  utility  than  to  mere 
speculation,  but  alse  that  they  should 
dedicate  themselves  to  God  in  a  peculiur 
manner,  and  exhibit  the  most  striking 
examples  of  piety  and  virtue.  This 
maxim,  which,  when  considered  in  it- 
self, must  be  considered  to  be  highly 
laudable,  not  only  gave  occasion  to  se- 
veral new  regulations,  designed  to  re~ 
strain  the  passions  of  the  studious  youth^ 


PIE 


452 


PIE 


to  inspire  them  with  pious  sentiments 
and  to  excite  in  them  holy  resokitions, 
but  also  produced  another  maxim,  which 
was  a  lasting  source  of  controversy  and 
debate,  viz.  "  That  no  person  that  was 
"  not  himself  a  model  of  piety  and  di- 
"  vine  love,  was  qualified  to  be  a  public 
"  teacher  of  piety,  or  a  guide  to  others 
"  in  the  way  of  salvation."  This  opi- 
nion was  considered  by  many  as  dero- 
gatory from  the  power  and  efficacy  of 
the  word  of  God,  which  cannot  be  de- 
prived of  its  divine  influence  by  the  vices 
of  its  ministers ;  and  as  a  sort  of  revival 
of  the  long-exploded  errors  of  the  Do- 
natists :  and  what  rendered  it  peculi- 
arly liable  to  an  interpretation  of  this 
nature,  was  the  imprudence  of  some 
Pietists,  who  inculcated  and  explained 
it  without  those  restrictions  that  were 
necessaiy  to  render  it  unexceptionable. 
Hence  arose  endless  and  intricate  de- 
bates concerning  the  following  ques- 
tions :  "  Whether  the  religious  know- 
"  ledge  acquired  by  a  wicked  man  can 
"  be  termed  theology  ?"  "  Whether  a 
"  vicious  person  can,  in  effect,  attain  a 
"  tiiie  knowledge  of  religion  ?"  "  How 
"  far  the  office  and  ministry  of  an  im- 
"  pious  ecclesiastic  can  be  pronounced 
"  salutary  and  efficacious  ?"  "  Whether 
"  a  licentious  and  ungodly  man  cannot 
"  be  susceptible  of  illumination  ?"  and 
other  questions  of  a  like  nature. 

These  revivers  of  declining  piety  went 
still  farther.  In  order  to  render  the  mi- 
nistry of  their  pastors  as  successful  as 
{)ossible  in  rousuig  men  from  their  indo- 
encc,  and  in  stemming  the  torrent  of 
conniption  and  immorality,  they  judged 
two  things  indispensably  necessary.  The 
Jirst  was,  to  suppress  entirely,  in  the 
course  of  public  instruction,  and  more 
especially  in  that  delivered  from  the 
pulpit,  certain  maxims  and  phrases 
which  the  corruption  of  men  leads  them 
frequently  to  interpret  in  a  manner  fa- 
vourable to  the  mdulgence  of  their  pas- 
sions. Such,  in  tlie  judgmetit  of  the 
Pietists,  were  the  following  propositions: 
J^'o  man  is  able  to  attain  to  that  perfec- 
tion which  the  divine  lavj  requires : 
Good  works  are  not  necessary  to  salva- 
tion :  In  the  act  of  jjistijication,  on  the 
part  of  man,  faith  alone  is  concerned, 
without  ffood  works.  The  second  step 
they  took  in  order  to  give  efficacy  to 
their  plans  of  reformation,  was,  to  form 
new  rules  of  life  and  manners,  much 
more  rigorous  and  austere  than  those 
that  had  been  formerly  practised;  and 
to  place  in  the  class  of  sinful  and  un- 
lawful gratifications,  several  kinds  of 
pleasure  and  amusement  which  had  hi- 
;  therto  been  looked  upon  as  innocent  in 


themselves,  and  which  could  only  be- 
come good  or  evil  in  consequence  of  the 
respective  characters  of  those  who  used 
them  with  pnidence,  or  abused  them 
with  intemperance.  Thus,  dancing, 
pantomimes,  public  sports,  theatrical 
diversions,  the  readuig  of  humorous  and 
comical  books,  with  several  other  kinds 
of  pleasure  and  entertainment,  v^ere 
prohibited  by  the  Pietists  as  unla^vful 
and  unseemly,  and  therefore  by  no 
means  of  an  indifferent  nature.  The 
third  thing  on  which  the  Pietists  insist- 
ed, was,  that,  besides  the  stated  meet- 
ings for  public  worship,  private  assem- 
blies should  be  held  for  prayer  and  other 
religious  exercises. 

The  other  class  of  Pietists  already 
mentioned,  whose  reformuxg  views  ex- 
tended so  far  as  to  change  the  system  of 
doctrine,  and  the  form  of  ecclesiastical 
government  that  were  established  in  the 
Lutheran  church,  comprehended  per- 
sons of  various  characters,  and  different 
ways  of  thinking.  Some  of  them  were 
totally  destitute  of  judgment ;  their  er- 
rors were  the  reveries  of  a  disordered 
brain  ;  and  they  were  rather  consider- 
ed as  lunatics  than  as  heretics.  Others 
were  less  extravagant,  and  tempered 
the  singular  notions  they  had  derived 
from  reading  or  meditation,  with  a  cer- 
tain mixture  of  the  important  tiniths 
and  doctrines  of  religion. 

So  far  Mosheim,  whose  account  of  the 
Pietists  seems  to  have  been  drawn  up 
with  a  degree  of  severity.  Indeed,  he 
represents  the  real  character  of  Franck 
and  his  colleagues  as  regardless  of  truth 
and  opinion.  A  more  recent  historian, 
however,  (Dr.  Haweis,)  observes,  "  that 
no  men  more  rigidly  contended  for,  or 
taught  more  explicitly  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  Christianity :  from  all  I 
have  read  or  known,  I  am  disposed  to 
believe  they  were  remarkably  amiable 
in  their  behaviour,  kind  in  their  spirit, 
and  compassionate  to  the  feeble-mind- 
ed." 

PIETY  consists  in  a  firm  belief,  and 
in  right  conceptions  of  the  being,  per- 
fections, and  providence  of  God ;  with 
suitable  affections  to  him,  resemblance 
of  his  moral  perfections,  and  a  constant 
obedience  to  his  will.  The  different  ar- 
ticles included  in  this  definition,  such  as 
knowledge,  veneration,  love,  resignation, 
&c.  are  explained  in  their  proper  places 
in  this  work. 

■V^'e  shall,  however,  present  the  read- 
er with  a  few  ideas  on  the  subject  of 
early  piety  ;  a  subject  of  infinite  impor- 
tance, and  which  we  beg  our  young  read- 
ers especially  to  regard.  "  Youth,"  says 
Mr.  Jay,  '^is  a  period  which  presents 


PIE 


453 


PIE 


Ihe  fewest  obstacles  to  the  practice  of 
godliness,  whetlier  we  consider  our 
external  circumstances,  our  nature, 
powers,  or  our  moral  habits.  In  that 
season  we  are  most  free  from  those 
troubles  which  imbitter,  those  schemes 
%vhich  engross,  those  engagements 
wiiich  hinder  us  in  more  advanced  and 
connected  life.  Then  the  body  possess- 
es health  and  strength  ;  the  memory  is 
receptive  and  tenacious;  the  fancy 
glows;  the  mind  is  lively  and  vigorous  ; 
the  understanding  is  more  docile ;  the 
affections  are  more  easily  touched  and 
moved :  we  are  more  accessible  to  the 
influence  of  joy  and  sorrow,  hope  and 
fear :  we  engage  in  an  enterprise  with 
more  expectation,  and  ardour,  and  zeal. 
Under  the  legal  oeconomy,  the  first  was 
to  be  chosen  for  God ;  the  first-born  of 
man,  the  first-bom  of  beasts,  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  field.  It  was  an  honour 
becoming  the  God  they  worshipped,  to 
serve  him  first.  This  duty  the  young 
alone  can  spiritualize  and  fulfil,  by  giving 
Him  who  deserves  all  their  lives  the 
first-born  of  tlieir  days,  and  the  first- 
fniits  of  their  reason  and  their  affec- 
tion :  and  never  have  they  such  an  op- 
portunity to  prove  the  goodness  of  their 
motives  as  they  then  possess.  See  an 
old  man :  what  does  he  offer  ?  His 
riches  ?  but  he  can  use  them  no  longer. 
His  pleasures .-'  but  he  can  enjoy  them 
no  longer.  His  honour  .^  but  it  is  wither- 
ed on  his  brow.  His  authority  ?  but  it 
has  dropped  from  his  feeblfe  hand.  He 
leaves  his  sins;  but  it  is  because  they 
Avill  no  longer  bear  him  company.  He 
flies  from  the  world ;  but  it  is  because 
he  is  burnt  out.  He  enters  the  temple ; 
but  it  is  as  a  sanctuary  ;  it  is  only  to 
take  hold  of  the  horns  of  the  altar  ;  it  is 
a  refuge,  not  a  place  of  devotion,  he 
seeks.  But  they  who  consecrate  to 
him  their  youth,  they  do  not  profanely 
tell  him  to  suspend  his  claims  till  the 
rest  are  served,  till  they  have  satisfied 
the  world  and  the  flesh,  his  degrading 
^i^■als.  They  do  not  send  him  forth  to 
gather  among  the  stubble  the  gleanings 
of  life,  after  the  enemy  has  secured  the 
harvest.  They  are  not  like  those,  who, 
if  they  reach  Immanuel's  land,  are 
forced  thither  by  shipwreck  :  they  sail 
thither  by  intention. 

"  Consider  the  beneficial  influence  of 
early  piety  over  the  remainder  of  our 
days.  Youth  is  the  spring  of  life,  and 
by  this  will  be  detei'mined  the  glory  of 
summer,  the  abundance  of  autumn,  the 
provision  of  winter.  It  is  the  morning 
of  life,  and  if  the  sun  of  righteousness 
does  not  dispel  the  moral  mists  and 
fogs  before  noon,  the  whole  day  ge- 


nei'ally  remains  overspread  and  gloomy. 
Piety  in  }  outh  will  have  a  good  influ- 
ence over  our  bodies ;  it  will  preserve 
them  from  disease  and  deformity.  Sin 
variously  tends  to  the  injuiy  of  health ; 
and  often  by  intemperance  the  constitu- 
tion is  so  impaired,  that  late  religion  is 
unable  to  restore  what  early  religion 
Avould  have  prevented.  Early  piety 
v.'ill  have  a  good  influence  to  secure  us 
from  all  those  dangers  to  which  we  are 
exposed  in  a  season  of  life  the  most  pe- 
rilous. Conceive  of  a  youth  entering  a 
world  like  this,  destitute  of  the  presid- 
ing governing  care  of  religion,  his  pas- 
sions high,  his  prudence  weak,  impa- 
tient, rash,  confident,  without  expe- 
rience ;  a  thousand  avenues  of  seduction 
opening  around  him,  and  a  syren  voice 
singing  at  the  entrance  of  each  ;  pleased 
with  appearances,  and  embracing  them 
for  reahties,  joined  by  e\dl  company, 
and  ensnared  by  erroneous  publications : 
these  hazards  exceed  all  the  alarm  I 
can  give.  How  necessaiy,  therefore, 
that  we  should  trust  in  the  Lord  with 
all  our  hearts,  and  lean  not  to  our  own 
understanding ;  but  in  aU  our  ways  ac- 
knowledge him^  that  he  may  direct  our 
paths ! 

"  Early  piety  will  have  a  beneficial 
influence  in  forming  our  connexions, 
and  establishing  our  plans  for  life.  It 
will  teach  us  to  ask  counsel  of  the  Lord, 
and  arrange  all  under  the  superintend- 
ency  of  scripture.  Those  changes 
which  a  person  who  becomes  religious 
in  manhood  is  obliged  to  make,  are  al- 
ways very  embairassing.  With  what 
difficulty  do  some  good  men  establish 
family  worship,  after  living  in  the  view 
of  children  and  servants,  so  long  in  the 
neglect  of  it ! — but  this  would  have  been 
avoided,  had  they  early  followed  the  ex- 
ample of  Joshua :  '  As  for  me  and  my 
house  we  will  serve  the  Lord.'  How 
hard  is  it  to  disentangle  ourselves  frona 
associates  with  whom  we  have  been  long 
familiar,  and  who  have  proved  a  snare 
to  our  souls  !  Some  evils,  indeed,  are 
remediless ;  persons  have  formed  alli- 
ances which  they  cannot  dissoh-e  :  but 
they  did  not  walk  by  the  rale,  '  Be  ye 
not  unequally  yoked  together  with  im- 
believers :'  they  are  now  wedded  to 
miserv  all  their  davs ;  and  repentance, 
instead  of  visiting  them  like  a  faithfid 
friend,  to  chide  them  when  they  do 
wrong,  and  withdraw,  is  quartered 
upon  tliem  for  life.  An  early  dedication 
to  God,  therefore,  renders  a  religious 
life  more  easv,  pleasant,  and  safe.  It  is 
of  unspeakable  advantage  also  under 
the  calamities  of  hfe.  It  turns  the  curse 
into  a  blessing;  it  enters  the  house  of 


PIL 


454 


PIL 


mouming,  and  soothes  the  troubled 
mind;  it  piepai-es  us  tor  all,  sustaiiis  us 
in  all,  sanctifies  us  by  all,  and  delivers 
us  from  all.  Finally,  it  will  bless  old 
age :  we  shall  look  back  Avith  pleasure 
on  some  instances  of  usefulness ;  to  some 
poor  ti'aveller,  to  whom  we  ha\  e  been 
a  refreshing  stream ;  some  deluded 
wanderer  we  guided  into  the  path  of 
peace.  We  shall  look  forward,  and  see 
the  God  who  has  guided  us  with  his 
counsel,  and  be  enabled  to  say,  '  Hence- 
forth there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of 
righteousness,  which  the  Lord,  the  right- 
eous Judge,  shall  give  me  at  that  day ; 
and  not  to  me  only,  but  unto  all  them 
that  love  his  appearing.' "  Jay's  Set: 
vol.  i.  ser.  5 ;  Jemiings's,  iLvaiis's, 
Doddridge^s,  Jerme7it's  and  Thornton's 
Sermo?is  to  Young  People;  Brysoji's 
j^ddress  to  Youth. 

PILGRIM,  one  who  travels  through 
foreign  countries  to  visit  holy  places, 
and  to  pay  his  devotion  to  the  relics  of 
dead  saints.  The  word  is  formed  fi'om 
the  flemish  pelgrim,  or  Italian,  pele- 
grino,  which  signifies  the  same ;  and 
those  originally  from  the  Latin  peregri- 
nus,  a  stranger  or  traveller. 

PILGRIMAGE,  a  kind  of  religious 
discipline,  wliich  consists  in  taking  a 
journey  to  some  holy  place,  in  order  to 
adore  the  relics  of  some  deceased  saint. 
Pilgrimages  began  to  be  made  about  the 
middle  ages  of  the  church,  but  they 
were  most  in  vogue  after  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century,  when  every  one  was 
for  visiting  places  of  devotion,  not  ex- 
cepting kings  and  princes;  and  even 
bishops  made  no  difficulty  of  being  ab- 
sent from  tlieir  churches  on  the  same 
account.  The  places  most  visited  were 
Jenisalem,  Rome,  Tours,  and  Compos- 
tella.  As  to  the  latter  place,  we  find 
that  in  the  year  1428,  under  the  reign 
of  Henry  VI.  abundance  of  licences  were 
granted  by  the  crown  of  England  to 
captains  of  English  ships,  for  carrj'uig 
numbers  of  devout  persons  thither  to 
the  shrine  of  St.  Jiunes's ;  provided, 
hoAvever,  that  those  pilgrims  should  first 
take  an  oath  not  to  take  any  thing  pre- 
judicial to  England,  nor  to  rex'eal  any  of 
its  secrets,  noi"  to  cairy  out  with  them 
any  more  gold  or  silver  than  what  would 
be  sufficient  for  their  reasonable  ex- 
penses. In  this  year  there  went  thither 
From  England  on  the  said  ])ilgrimage, 
the  following  number  of  persons :  from 
London  280,  Bristol  200,  \Vcymouth 
122,  Dartmouth  90,  Yanuouth  60,  Jer- 
sey 60,  Plvmouth  40,  Exeter  30,  Poole 
24,  Ipswich  20 ;  in  all,  926  persons.  Of  | 
late  years  the  gi-eatest  numbers  have  I 
v-sortcd  to  Loretto,  in  order  to  visit  the  \ 


chamber  of  the  Blessed  Virein,  in 
which  she  was  born,  and  brouglit  up 
her  son  Jesus  till  he  was  twelve  years 
of  age. 

In  almost  every  country  where  po- 
pery has  been  established',  pilgrimages 
have  been  common.  In  England,  the 
shrine  of  St.  Thomas-a-Becket  was 
the  chief  resort  of  the  pious,  and  in 
Scotland,  St.  Andrews,  where,  as  tradi- 
tion informs  us,  was  deposited  a  leg  of 
the  holy  apostle.  In  Ireland  they  have 
been  continued  even  do-wii  to  modern 
times ;  for  from  the  beginning  of  May 
till  the  middle  of  August  every  year, 
crowds  of  popish  penitents  from  all 
pails  of  that  country  resort  to  an  island 
near  the  centre  of  the  Lough  Fin,  ox 
White  Lake,  in  the  countv  of  Donegal, 
to  the  amount  of  3000  or  4000.  These 
are  mostly  of  the  poorer  sort,  and  many 
of  them  are  proxies,  for  those  who  are 
richer;  some  of  whom,  howcA'er,  to- 
gether with  some  of  the  priests  and  bi- 
shops on  occasion,  make  their  appear- 
ance there.  When  the  pilgrim  comes 
within  sight  of  the  holy  lake,  he  must 
uncover  his  hands  and  feet,  and  thus 
walk  to  the  water  side,  and  is  taken  to 
the  island  for  sixpence.  Here  there  are 
two  chapels  and  fifteen  other  houses; 
to  which  are  added  confessionals  so  con- 
trived, that  the  priest  cannot  see  the 
person  confessing.  The  penance  va- 
ries according  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  penitent ;  during  the  continuance  of 
v.'hich  (which  is  sometimes  three,  six, 
or  nine  days)  he  subsists  on  oatmeal, 
sometimes  made  into  bread.  He  tra- 
verses sharp  stones  on  his  bare  knees  or 
feet,  and  goes  through  a  variety  of  other 
forms,  paying  sixpence  at  every  differ- 
ent confession.  When  all  is  over,  the 
pi-icst  bores  a  gimblet  hole  through  the 
top  of  the  pilgrim's  staff,  in  which  he 
fastens  a  cross  peg ;  gives  him  as  many 
holy  pebbles  out  of  the  lake  as  he  cares 
to  carry  away,  for  amulets  to  be  pre- 
sented to  his'  friends,  and  so  dismisses 
him  an  ol^jcct  of  A-cneration  to  all  other 
Papists  not  thus  initiated ;  who  no 
sooner  see  the  pilgrim's  cross  in  his 
hands,  than  they  kneel  down  to  get  his 
blessing. 

There  are,  however,  it  is  said,  other 
parts  of  Ireland  sacred  to  extraordinary 
worship  and  pilgriniage  ;  and  the  num- 
ber of  holy  wells,  and  miraculous  ciii-es, 
6cc.  produced  by  them,  are  very  great. 
That  such  things  should  exist'  in  this 
enlightened  age,  and  in  a  protestant 
country,  is  in.deed  strange ;  but  our 
wonder  ceases  when  we  reflect  it  is 
among  the  lowest,  and  perhaps  tlie 
v/orst  of  the  people.    Pilgrimage,  how- 


PIL 


455 


PIL 


ever,  is  not.  peculiar  to  Roman  catholic 
countries.  The  Mahometans  place  a 
ere^ii  p..:t  of  their  religion  in  it.  Mecca 
IS  the  graiui  pi  ice  to  which  they  go ;  and 
thisp  igrimage  is  so  necessary  a  point  of 
practice,  that,  according  to  a  tradition  of 
Mahomet,  he  who  dies  without  perform- 
ing it,  in^y  as  well  die  a  Jew  or  a  Chns- 
tiaii;  and  the  same  is  expressly  com- 
manded in  the  Koran. 

What  is  pi'incipally  reverenced  in 
this  place,  and  gives  sanctity  to  the 
whole,  is  a  square  stone  buildijig,  called 
the  Cauha.  Before  the  time  of  Ma- 
homet this  temple  was  a  place  of  wor- 
ship for  the  idolatixjus  Arabs,  and  is 
said  to  have  contained  no  kbS  than  three 
hundred  and  sixty  diiTereiit  images, 
equal' mg  in  number  the  du}'s  of  the 
Arabian  year.  They  were  all  destroyed 
by  Mahomet,  who  sanctified  the  Caaba, 
and  appoi.ited  it  to  be  the  chief  place  of 
Yvor-hip  for  all  ti-ue  believers.  The 
Mussulmen  pay  so  great  a  veneration  to 
it,  that  they  believe  a  single  sight  of  its 
sacred  walls,  without  an\  particular  act 
of  devotion,  is  as  meritorious  in  the  sight 
of  God  as  the  most  careful  discharge  of 
one's  duty  for  the  space  of  a  whole 
year,  in  any  other  temple. 

To  this  temple  eveiy  Mahometan 
who  has  health  and  means  sufficient, 
ought  once,  at  least,  in  his  life,  to  go  on 
pilgrimage ;  nor  are  women  excused 
from  the  performance  of  this  duty.  The 
pilgrims  meet  at  different  places  near 
Mecca,  according  to.  the  different  paits 
fi-om  whence  they  come,  during  the 
months  of  Shawal  and  Dhu'lkaada,  being 
obliged  to  be  there  by  the  beginning  of 
Dhu'lhajja;  which  month,  as  its  name 
imports,  is  peculiarly  set  apart  for  the 
celebration  of  this  solemnity. 

Tne  men  put  on  the  Ibram,  or  sacred 
habit,  which  consists  only  of  tw^o  v^'ooUen 
vrrappers,  one  wrapped  about  the  mid- 
dle, and  the  other  thrown  over  their 
shouldei-s,  having  their  heads  bare,  9Jid 
a  kind  of  slippers  wdiich  cover  neither 
the  heel  nor  the  instep,  and  so  enter  the 
sacred  territoiy  in  their  way  to  Mecca. 
While  Ihey  have  this  habit  on,  they  must 
neither  hunt  nor  fowl  (though  they  are 
allowed  to  fish ;)  which  precept  is  so 
punctually  observed,  that  they  will  not 
kill  vermin  if  they  find  them  on  their 
bodies:  there  are  some  noxious  animals, 
however,  which  they  have  pennission 
to  kill  during  the  pilgiimage ;  as  kites, 
ravens,  scorpions,  mice,  and  dogs  given 
to  bite.  During  the  pilgrimage,  it  be- 
hoves a  man  to  have  a  constant  guard 
over  his  words  and  actions ;  to  avoid  all 
quairelling  or  ill  language,  all  converse 
witii  women,  and  all  obscene  discourse  ; 


aid  to  apply  his  whole  attention  to  the 
good  WOT  k  he  is  engaged  in. 

The  pilgrims  being  arrived  at  Mecca, 
immediately  \'isit  the  temple,  and  then 
enter  on  the  perfoi-mance  of  the  pre- 
scribed ceremonies,  which  consist  chief- 
ly in  going  in  pi-ocession  round  the  Caa- 
ba, in  runii'mg  between  the  mounts 
Safa  and  Meriva,  in  making  the  station 
on  mount  Arafat,  and  slaying  the  vic- 
tims and  shaving  their  heads  in  the  val- 
ley of  Mlna. 

'in  compassing  the  Caaba,  which  they 
do  seven  tii '.es,  beginning  at  the  corner 
where  the  black  stone  is  fixed,  they  use 
a  short,  quick  pace  the  first  three  times 
they  go  round  it,  and  a  gi'ave  ordinary 
pace  the  foui-  last ;  which  it  is  said  is 
ortlered  by  Mahomet,  that  his  follcwers 
might  show  themselves  sti'ong  and  ac- 
tive, to  cut  off  the  hopes  of  the  mfidels, 
who  gave  out  that  the  immoderate  heats 
of  Medina  had  rendered  them  weak. 
But  tlie  aforesaid  quick  pace  they  are 
net  obliged  to  use  eveiy  time  they  per- 
form this  piece  of  de\  otion,  but  only  at 
some  particular  times.  So  often  as 
they  pass  by  the  black  stone,  the)-  either 
kiss  it,  or  touch  it  with  their  hand,  and 
kiss  that. 

The  running  between  Safa  and  Meri- 
va is  also  perfonned  seven  times,  partly 
with  a  slow  pace,  and  partly  running; 
for  they  walk  gravely  till  they  come  to 
a  place  between  two  pUlars ;  and  there 
they  run,  and  aftemvards  walk  again, 
sometimes  lookmg  back,  and  sometimes 
stopping,  like  one  who  had  lost  some- 
thing, to  represent  Hagar  seeking  water 
for  her  son ;  for  the  ceremony  is  said  to 
be  as  ancient  as  her  time. 

On  the  ninth  of  Bhu'lhajja,  after 
morning  prayer,  the  pilgi-ims  leave  the 
valley  of  Mina,  whither  tiiey  come  the 
day  before,  and  proceed  in  a  tumultuous 
anci  rtishing  manner  to  mount  Arafat, 
where  they  stay  to  peiform  their  devo- 
tions tUl  sun- set;  then  they  go  to  Moz- 
dalifa,  an  oratory  between  Arafat,  and 
Mina,  and  there  spend  the  night  in 
prayer  and  reading  the  Koran.  The 
next  morning  by  day-break  they  visit , 
Al  Masher  al  Karam,  or  the  sacred 
monument ;  and,  departmg  thence  be- 
fore sun-rise,  haste  by  Batn  Mohasser 
to  the  valley  of  Mina,  where  they  throw- 
seven  stones  at  three  marks  or  pillars, 
in  imitation  of  Abraham,  who,  meeting 
the  devil  in  that  place,  and  being  by 
him  disturbed  in  his  devotions,  or  tempt- 
ed to  disobedience  when  he  was  going 
to  sacnfice  his  son,  was  commanded  by 
God  to  drive  him  away  by  throwing 
stones  at  him;  though  others  pretend 
this  rite  to  be  as  old  as  Adam,  who  also 


PIL 


456 


PLA 


put  the  devil  to  flight  in  the  same  place, 
and  by  the  same  means. 

The  ceremony  being  over,  on  the 
same  day,  the  tenth  of  Dhu'lhajja,  the 
pilgrims  slay  their  victims  in  tlie  said 
valley  of  Mina,  of  which  tliey  and  their 
friends  eat  part,  and  the  rest  is  given  to 
the  pool".  These  victims  must  be  either 
sheep,  goats,  kine,  or  camels;  males,  if 
of  eitlier  of  the  two  former  kinds,  and 
females  if  of  either  of  the  latter,  and  of  a 
fit  age.  The  sacrifices  being  ovei-,  they 
sha\"e  their  heads  and  cut  their  nails, 
bun'ing  them  in  the  same  place ;  after 
which  the  pilgrimage  is  looked  on  as 
completed,  though  they  agam  visit  the 
Caaba,  to  take  their  leave  of  that  sacred 
building. 

Dr.  Johnson  gives  us  some  observa- 
tions on  pilgrimage,  which  are  so  much 
to  the  purpose,  that  we  shall  here  pre- 
sent them  to  the  reader.  "  Pilgrimage, 
like  many  other  acts  of  piety,  may  be 
reasonable  or  superstitious  according  to 
the  principles  upon  which  it  is  perform- 
ed. Long  journeys  in  search  of  ti-uth 
are  not  commanded:  truth,  such  as  is 
necessary  to  the  regvdation  of  life,  is  al- 
ways found  wliere  it  is  honestly  sought, 
change  of  place  is  no  natural  cause  of 
the  increase  of  piety,  for  it  inevitably 
produces  dissipation  of  mind.  Yet, 
since  men  go  every  day  to  view  the 
fields  where  great "  actions  have  been 
performed,  and  return  with  stronger 
imp'-essions  of  the  event,  curiosity  of  the 
same  kind  may  natui-ally  dispose  us  to 
view  tliat  country  whence  our  religion 
had  its  beginning.  That  the  Supreme 
Being  may  be  more  easily  propitiated  in 
one  place  than  in  another,  is  the  dream 
of  idle  superstition;  but  tliat  some 
places  may  operate  upon  our  own  minds 
in  an  uncommon  manner,  is  an  opinion 
■which  hourly  experience  will  justify. 
He  who  supposes  that  his  vices  may  be 
more  successfully  combated  in  Pales- 
tine, will,  perhaps,  find  himself  mis- 
taken ;  yet  he  may  go  thither  without 
folly  :  he  who  tliinks  they  will  be  more 
freely  pardoned,  dishonours  at  once  his 
reason  and  his  religion."  Jo/mson's 
lian^clas ;  Enc.  Brit.  Hume's  Hist,  of 
£n Poland.    See  Crusadk. 

Poor  Pilgrims,  an  order  that  started 
up  in  the  year  1500.  They  came  out  of 
Italy  into  Germany  bare-footed,  and 
bare-headed,  feeding  all  the  week,  ex- 
cept on  Sundays,  upon  herbs  and  roots 
sprinkled  with  salt.  They  stayed  not 
aoove  twentv-four  hours  in  a  place. 
They  went  by  couples  begging  from 
door  to  door.  This  penance  they  un- 
dertook \oluntarily,  some  for  thi-ee, 
others  for  five  or  se\Tn  veai's,  as  they 


pleased,  and    then  returned  home  to 
their  cal'.inirs. 

PIOUS  FRAUDS  are  those  artifices 
and  falsehootls  made  use.  of  in  propa- 
gating the  tnith,  and  endeavouring  to 
promote  the  spiritual  interests  of  man- 
kind. These  have  been  more  particu- 
larly practised  in  the  church  ot  Rome, 
and  considered  not  only  as  innocent,  but 
commendable.  Neither  the  term  nor 
the  thing  signified,  however,  can  be  jus- 
tified. The  X.&Ym%  pious  and  fraud  form 
a  solecism;  and  the  practice  of  doing 
evil  that  good  may  come,  is  directly 
opposite  to  the  injunction  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  Rom.  lii.  8. 

PITY  is  generally  defined  to  be  the 
uneasiness  we  feel  at  the  unhappmess  of 
another,  prompting  us  to  compassionate 
them,  with  a  desire  of  their  relief. 

God  is  said  to  Jiity  them  that  fear 
him,  as  a  father  pitieth  his  children. 
The  father,  says  Mr.  Henry,  pities  his 
children  that  are  weak  in  knowledge, 
and  instructs  them  ;  pities  them  when 
they  are  froward,  and  bears  with  them ; 
pities  them  wlienthey  are  sick,  and  com- 
forts them,  Isa.  Ixvi.  13;  when  they  are 
fallen,  and  helps  them  up  again  ;  when 
they  have  offended,  and  forgives  them ; 
when  they  are  wrong;ed,  and  riglits  tiiem. 
Thus  tlie  Loi-d  pitieth  them  that  fear 
him.  Ps.  ciii.  13.  See  Compassion  OF 
God. 

PLASTIC  NATURE,  an  absurd  doc- 
trine, which  some  have  thus  described. 
"  It  is  an  incorporeal  created  subst;mce 
endued  with  a  vegetative  life,  but  not 
with  sensation  or  thought ;  penetrating 
the  whole  created  universe,  being  co- 
extended  with  it;  juid,  under  God, 
mo\ing  matter,  so  as  to  produce  the 
phajnomena  which  cannot  be  salved  by 
mechanical  laws:  active  for  ends  un- 
known to  itself,  not  being  expressly 
conscious  of  its  actions,  and  yet  having 
an  obscure  idea  of  the  action  to  be  en- 
tered upon."  To  this  it  has  been  an- 
swered, that,  as  the  idea  itself  is  most 
obscure,  and,  indeed,  inconsistent,  so  the 
foundation  of  it  is  evidently  weak.  It  is 
hitended  by  this  to  avoid  the  income- 
niency  of  subjecting  God  to  the  trouble 
of  some  changes  in  the  created  world, 
and  the  meanness  of  others.  But  it  ap- 
pears, that,  even  u])on  tliis  hypothesis, 
he  would  still  be  the  author  of  them; 
besides,  that  to  Omnipotence  nothing  is 
troublesome,  nor  those  things  mean, 
when  considered  as  part  of  a  system, 
which  a/one  might  appear  to  be  so. 
Doddridge's  Lett.  lee.  37;  Cudiwrth'a 
LUcUi'ctual  Syst.  p.  149,  172;  More'a 
Iinmor.  of  the  Soul,  1.  iii.  c.  12;  Bay's 
Wisdom  of  God,  p.  51,  52;  Lord  Mon- 


PLU 


457 


POL 


boddo's  Anricnt  Mrialifnjsics  ;  Young's 
I'lfisay  on  the  Powers  and  Mechcmisin 
vf  J\''atiire. 

PLATONICS,  NEW.  See  Nkw 
Platonics. 

PLEASURE,  the  delight  which 
arises  in  the  mind  from  contemplation 
rr  enjoyment  of  something  agreeable. 
See  Happiness. 

PLENARY  INSPIRATION.  See 
Inspiration. 

PLURALIST,  one  that  holds  more 
than  one  ecclesiastical  benefice  with 
cure  of  souls.  Episcopalians  contend 
there  is  no  impropriety  in  a  prcsby^ter 
holding  more  than  one  ecclesiastical 
benefice.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  af- 
firm that  this  practice  is  exactly  the 
reverse  of  the  primitive  churches,  as 
Avell  as  the  instructions  of  the  apostle. 
Tit.  i.  5.  Instead  of  a  plurality  of 
churches  to  one  pastor,  they  say,  we 
ought  to  have  a  plurality  of  pastors  to 
one  church,  Acts,  xiv.  23. 

PNEUMATOLOGY,  the  doctrine 
of  spiritual  existence.    See  Soul. 

POLONES    FRATRES.     See  So- 

CINIANS. 

POLYGAMY,  the  state  of  having 
more  wives  than  one  at  once.  Though 
this  article,  (like  some  others  we  have 
inserted,)  cannot  be  considered  as  strict- 
ly theological,  yet,  as  it  is  a  subject  of  im- 
portance to  society,  we  sh^U  here  in- 
troduce it.  The  circumstances  of  the 
patriarchs  living  in  polygamy,  and  their 
not  being  reproved  for  it,  has  given  occa- 
sion for  some  modern  writers  to  suppose 
that  it  is  not  unlawful :  but  it  is  answer- 
ed that  the  equality  in  the  number  of 
males  and  females  born  into  the  world 
intimates  the  intention  of  God  that  one 
woman  should  be  assigned  to  one  man  ; 
"for  (says  Dr.  Paley)  if  to  one  man 
be  allowed  an  exclusive  right  to  five  or 
more  women,  four  or  more  men  must 
be  deprived  of  the  exclusive  possession 
of  any ;  which  could  never  be  the  order 
intended.  This  equality,  indeed,  is  not 
quite  exact.  The  number  of  male  infants 
exceeds  that  of  females  in  the  propor- 
tion of  19  to  18,  or  thereabouts;  but 
this  excess  provides  for  the  greater 
consumption  of  males  by  war,  seafaring, 
and  other  dangerous  or  unhealthy  occu- 
pations. It  seems  also  a  significant  in- 
dication of  the  divine  will,  that  he  at 
first  created  only  one  woman  to  one 
man.  Had  God  intended  polygamy  for 
the  species,  it  is  probable  he  would  have 
begun  with  it ;  especially  as  by  giving 
to  Adam  more  wives  than  one,  the  mul- 
tiplication of  the  human  race  would 
have  proceeded  with  a  quicker  pro- 
gress.   Polygamy  not  onlv  violates  the 


constitution  of  nature,  and  the  appa- 
rent design  of  the  Deity,  but  procluces 
to  the  p.'rties  themselves,  and  to  the 
public,  the  following  bad  effects :  con- 
tests and  jealousies  amongst  the  wives 
of  the  same  husband ;  distracted  affec- 
tions, or  the  loss  of  all  affection  in  the 
husband  himself;  a  voluptuousness  in 
the  rich  which  dissolves  the  vigour  of 
their  intellectual  as  well  as  active  fa- 
culties, producing  that  indolence  and 
imbecility,  both  of  mind  and  body, 
which  have  long  characterized  the  na- 
tions of  the  East ;  the  abasement  of  one 
half  of  the  human  species,  who,  in  coun- 
tries where  polygamy  obtains,  ai'e  de- 
graded into  instruments  of  physical 
pleasure  to  the  other  half:  neglect  of 
children  ;  and  the  manifold  and  some- 
times unnatural  mischiefs  which  arise 
from  a  scarcity  of  women.  To  compen- 
sate for  these  evils,  polygamy  does  not 
offer  a  single  advantage.  In  the  article 
of  population,  which  it  has  been  thou^lit 
to  promote,  the  community  gain  nothing 
(nothing,  I  mean,  compared  with  a  state 
in  which  marriage  is  nearly  universal ;) 
for  the  question  is  not,  whether  one 
man  will  have  more  children  by  five  or 
more  wives  than  by  one ;  but  whether 
these  five  wives  would  not  bear  the 
same  or  a  greater  number  of  children 
to  five  separate  husbands.  And  as  to 
i  the  care  of  children  when  produced, 
and  the  sending  of  them  into  the  world 
in  situations  in  which  they  may  be  likely 
to  form  and  i)ring  up  families  of  their 
own,  upon  which  the  increase  and  suc- 
cession of  the  human  species  in  a  great 
degree  depend,  this  is  less  provided  for 
and  less  practicable,  where  twenty  or 
thirty  children  are  to  be  supported  by 
the  attention  and  fortunes  of  one  father, 
than  if  they  were  divided  into  five  or  six 
families,  to  each  of  which  were  assign- 
ed the  indu-^try  and  inheritance  of  two 
parents.  ^'Vhether  simultaneous  poly- 
gamy was  permitted  by  the  law  of  Mo- 
ses, seems  doubtful,  Deut.  xvii.  16. 
Deut.  xxi.  15  ;  but  whether  permitted 
or  not,  it  was  certainly  practised  by  the 
Jewish  patriarchs  both  before  that  law 
and  under  it.  The  permission,  if  there 
were  any,  might  be  like  that  of  divorce, 
"for  the  hardness  of  their  heart,"  in 
condescension  to  their  established  in- 
dulgences, rather  than  from  the  general 
rectitude  or  propriety  of  the  thing  itself. 
The  state  of  manners  in  Judea  had 
probably  undergone  a  reformation  in  this 
respect  before  the  time  of  Christ ;  for 
in  the  New  Testament  we  meet  with 
no  trace  or  mention  of  any  such  prac- 
tice being  tolerated.  For  which  reason, 
and  because  it  was  likewise  forbidden 
3M 


POL 


4.58 


POL 


amongst  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  we 
cannot  expect  to  find  any  express  law 
upon  the  subject  in  the  Christian  code. 
Tlie  words  of  Christ,  Matt.  xix.  9.  may 
be  construed  by  an  easy  implication  to 
prohibit  polygamy;  for  if  "whoever 
putteth  away  his  wife,  and  viarrieth  an- 
other, committeth  adultery ;"  he  who 
marrieth  another  %mthout  putting  away 
the  first  is  no  less  guilty  of  adulteiy; 
because  the  adultery  does  not  consist  in 
the  repudiation  of  the  first  wife  (for 
however  unjust  or  cruel  that  may  be,  it 
is  not  adultery,)  but  entering  into  a  se- 
cond marriage  during  the  legal  existence 
and  obligation  of  the  first.  The  sevei-al 
passages  in  St.  Paul's  writings  which 
speak  of  marriage,  always  suppose 
it  to  signify  the  union  of  one  man 
with  one  woman,  Rom.  vii.  2,  3.  1  Cor. 
vii.  12, 14, 16.  The  manners  of  different 
countries  have  varied  in  nothing  more 
than  in  their  domestic  constitutions. 
Less  polished  and  more  luxurious  na- 
tions have  either  not  perceived  tlie  bad 
effects  of  polygamy,  oi',  if  they  did  per- 
ceive them,  they  who  in  such  countries 
f)ossessed  the  power  of  reforming  the 
aws,  have  been  unwilling  to  resign  their 
own  gratifications.  Polygamy  is  retain- 
ed at  this  day  among  the  Turks,  and 
throughout  every  part  of  Asia  in  which 
Christianity  is  not  professed.  In  Chris- 
tian countries  it  is  universally  prohi- 
bited. In  Sweden  it  is  punished  with 
death.  In  England,  besides  tlie  nullity 
of  the  second  marriage,  it  sul)jects  the 
offender  to  transportation  or  imprison- 
ment and  branding  for  the  first  offence, 
and  to  capital  punishment  for  the  se- 
cond. And  whatever  may  be  said  in 
behalf  of  polygamy,  when  it  is  authorized 
by  the  law  of  the  land,  the  marriage  of 
a  second  wife,  during  the  life- time  of  the 
first,  in  countries  whei'e  such  a  second 
marriage  is  void,  must  be  ranked  with 
the  most  dangerous  and  cruel  of  those 
frauds  by  which  a  woman  is  cheated 
out  of  her  fortune,  her  person,  and  her 
happiness."  Thus  far  Dr.  Paley.  We 
shall  close  this  article  with  the  words  of 
an  excellent  writer  on  the  same  side  of 
the  subject. 

"When  we  reflect,"  says  he,  "that 
the  primitive  institution  of  marriage  li- 
mited it  to  one  man  and  one  woman ; 
that  this  institution  was  adhered  to 
by  Noah  and  his  sons,  amidst  the  de- 
generacy of  the  age  in  which  they  lived, 
and  in  sjjite  of  the  examples  of  polyga- 
my which  the  accursed  race  of  Cain  had 
introduced ;  when  we  consider  how 
very  few  (comparatively  speaking)  the 
examyjles  of  this  practice  were  among 
the  faithful ;  how  much  it  brought  its 


own  punishment  with  it ;  and  how  du- 
bious and  equivocal  those  passages  arc 
in  which  it  appears  to  have  the  sanction 
of  the  divine  approbation ;  when  to  these 
reflections  we  add  another,  respecting 
the  limited  views  and  temporary  nature 
of  the  more  ancient  dispensations  and  in- 
stitutions of  religion — ^how  often  the  im- 
perfections and  even  vices  of  the  patri- 
archs and  people  of  God  in  old  times  are 
recorded,  without  any  express  notifica- 
tion of  their  criminality — how  much  is 
said  to  be  commanded,  which  our  re- 
verence for  the  holiness  of  God  and  his 
law  will  only  suffer  us  to  suppose  were 
for  wise  ends  fiermitted;  how  frequent- 
ly the  messengers  of  God  adapted  them- 
selves to  the  genius  of  the  people  to 
whom  they  were  sent,  and  the  circum- 
stances of  the  times  in  which  they  lived ; 
above  all,  when  we  consider  the  purity, 
equity,  and  benevolence  of  the  Christian 
law,  the  explicit  declai*ation  of  our 
Lord  and  his  apostle  Paul  respecting 
the  institution  of  marriage,  its  design 
and  limitation;  when  we  reflect,  too,  oi\ 
the  testimony  of  the  most  ancient  fa- 
thers, who  could  not  possibly  be  igno- 
rant of  the  general  and  common  prac- 
tice of  the  apostolic  church ;  and, 
finally,  when  to  these  considei*ations  we 
add  those  which  are  founded  on  justice 
to  the  female  sex,  and  all  the  regula- 
tions of  domestic  ceconomy  and  national 
policy,  we  must  wholly  condemn  the 
revival  of  polygamy."  Paley''s  Moral 
Philosojihy,  vol.  i.  p.  319  to  325  ;  Ma- 
dan'' s  Thclyfihthora ;  Towera's,  Wills^s, 
Fcnn's,  R.  Hill's,  Pahner's,  and  Ha^x- 
eis's  Ansivcrs  to  Madan,  Mon.  Rev. 
vol.  Ixiii.  p.  338,  and  also  vol.  Ixix. ; 
Beanie's  Ml.  of  Mor.  Science,  vol.  ii.  p. 
127—129. 

POLYGLOT,  (jroKvyxwrro!,)  having 
many  languages.  For  the  more  com- 
modious comparison  of  different  versions 
of  the  Scriptures,  they  have  been  some- 
times joined  together,  and  called  Poly- 
glot Bibles.  Origen  arranged  in  differ- 
ent columns  a  Hebrew  copy,  both  in 
Hebrew  and  Greek  characters,  with 
six  different  Greek  versions.  Elias 
Hutter,  a  German,  about  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth,  century,  published  the  New 
Testament  in  twelve  languages,  viz. 
Greek,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Latin,  Italian, 
Spanisli,  French,  German,  Bohemian, 
English,  Dauiah,  Polish  ;  and  the  whole 
Bible  in  Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  Greek, 
Latin,  German,  and  a  varied  version. 
But  the  most  esteemed  collections  are 
those  in  which  the  originals  and  ancient 
translations  are  conjoined ;  such  as  the 
Complutensian  Bible,  by  cardinal  Xim- 
encs,  a  Spaniard ;  the  king  of  Spain's 


POL 


459 


POL 


Bible,  directed  bv  Montanus,  &c.  the 
Paris  Bible  of  Michael  Jay,  a  French 
gentleman,  in  ten  huge  vohimes,  folio, 
copies  of  which  were  published  in  Hol- 
land under  the  name  of  pope  Alexander 
the  Seventh  ;  and  that  of  Brian  Walton, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Chester.  The  last 
is  the  most  regular  and  valuable.  It 
contains  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  origi- 
nals, with  Montanus's  interlineary  ver- 
sion ;  the  Chaldee  paraphrases,  the 
Septuagint,  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
the  Syrian  and  Arabic  Bibles,  the  Per- 
sian PeHtateuch  and  Gospels,  the  Ethio- 
Sian  Psalms,  Song  of  Solomon,  and 
Tew  Testament,  with  their  respective 
Latin  translations;  together  witli  the 
Latin  Vulgate,  and  a  large  volume  of 
vai'ious  readings,  to  which  is  ordinarily 
joined  Castel's  Heptaglot  Lexicon.  See 
Bible,  No.  29,  30. 

POLYTHEISM,  the  doctrine  of  a 
plurality  of  gods,  or  invisible  powers 
superior  to  man. 

"  That  there  exists  beings,  one  or  ma- 
ny, powerful  above  the  human  race,  is 
a  pro])osition,"  says  lord  Kaims,  "uni- 
versally admitted  as  true  in  all  ages 
and  among  all  jrations.  I  boldly  call  it 
universal,  notwithstanding  what  is  re- 
ported of  some  gross  savages ;  for  re- 
ports that  contradict  what  is  acknow- 
ledged to  be  general  among  men,  re- 
quire more  able  vouchers  than  a  few 
illiterate  voyagers.  Among  many  sa- 
vage tribes  there  are  no  words  but  for 
objects  of  external  sense :  is  it  surprising 
that  such  people  are  incapable  of  ex- 
pressing their  religious  perceptions,  or 
any  perception  of  mternal  sense  ?  The 
conviction  that  men  ha\e  of  superior 
powers,  in  every  country  where  there 
are  words  to  express  it,  is  so  well  vouch- 
ed, that,  in  fair  reasoning,  it  ought  to  be 
taken  for  granted  among  the  few  tribes 
where  language  is  deficient."  The 
same  ingenious  author  sho\\s,  with  great 
strength  of  reasoning,  that  the  opera- 
tions of  nature  and  the  government  of 
this  world,  which  to  us  loudly  proclaim 
the  existence  of  a  Deity,  are  not  suffi- 
cient to  account  for  the  universal  belief 
of  superior  bemgs  among  savage  tribes. 
He  is  therefore  oi  opinion  that  this  uni- 
versality of  conviction  can  spring  only 
from  the  image  of  Deity  stamped  upon 
the  mind  of  every  human  being,  the  ig- 
norant equal  with  the  learned.  This, 
he  thinks,  may  be  termed  the  sense  of 
Deity. 

This  sejise  of  Deity,  however,  is  ob- 
jected to  by  others,  who  thus  reason : 
All  nations,  except  the  Jews,  were  once 
polytheists  and  idolaters.  If,  therefore, 
his  loi-dship's  hypothesis  be  admitted, 


cither  the  doctrine  of  polytheism  must 
be  true  tlieology,  or  this  instinct  or  sense 
is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  have,  at  differ- 
ent periods  of  the  world,  misled  all 
mankind.  All  savage  tribes  are  at 
present  polytheists  and  idolaters ;  but 
among  savages  every  instinct  appears 
in  greater  purity  and  vigour  tlian  among 
people  polished  by  arts  and  sciences ; 
and  instuict  never  mistakes  its  objects. 
The  instinct  or  primary  impression  of 
nature  which  gives  rise  to  self-love,  af- 
fection between  the  sexes,  8cc.  has,  in 
all  nations  and  in  every  period  of  time, 
a  precise  and  determinate  object,  which 
it  uifiexibly  7)ursues.  How,  then,  comes 
it  to  pass  that  this  particular  instinct, 
which,  if  real,  is  surely  of  as  much  im- 
poitance  as  any  other,  should  have 
unifonmly  led  those  who  had  no  other 
guide,  to  pursue  improper  objects,  to 
lali  into  the  grossest  en'ors,  and  the 
most  pernicious  practices  .•' 

For  these  and  other  reasons,  which 
might  easily  be  assigned,  they  suppose 
that  the  first  religious  principles  must 
have  been  derived  from  a  source  diifer- 
cnt  as  well  from  internal  sense  as  frcin 
the  deductions  of  reason  ;  from  a  source 
which  the  majority  of  mankind  had 
early  forgotten ;  and  which,  when  it 
was  banished  from  their  minds,  left 
nothing  behind  it  to  prevent'  the  xevj 
first  principle  of  religion  from  being 
perverted  by  various  accidents  or 
causes ;  or,  in  some  extraordinary  con- 
currence of  circumstances,  from  being, 
perhaps,  entirely  obliterated.  This 
source  of  religion  ever}'  consistent  theist 
must  believe  to  be  revelation.  Reason 
could  not  have  introduced  savages  to 
the  knowledge  of  God,  and  we  have  just 
seen  that  a  sense  of  Deity  is  clogged 
with  insuperable  difficulties.  Yet  it  is 
undeniable  that  all  mankind  have  be- 
lieved in  superior  invisible  powers  ;  and, 
if  reason  and  instinct  be  set  aside,  there 
remains  no  other  origin  of  this  universal 
belief  than  primeval  revelation  cor- 
rupted, indeed,  as  it  passed  from  father 
to  son  in  the  course  of  many  generations. 
It  is  no  slight  support  to  this  doctrine, 
that,  if  there  really  be  a  Deity,  it  is 
highly  presumable  that  he  would  reveal 
himseli  to  the  first  men;  creatures 
whom  he  had  formed  with  faculties  to 
adore  and  to  worship  him.  To  other 
animals  the  knowledge  of  the  Deity  is 
of  no  importance,  to  man  it  is  of  the 
first  importance.  Were  we  totally  ig- 
norant of  a  Deity,  this  world  would  ap- 
pear to  us  a  mere  chaos.  Under  the 
government  of  a  wise  and  benevolent 
Deity,  chance  is  excluded,  and  every 
event  appears  to  be  the  result  of  es- 


POL 


4G0 


POL 


tablished  laws.  Good  men  submit  to 
whatever  happens  without  repining, 
knowing  that  every  event  is  ordered  by 
Divine  Pi-ovidence:  they  subniit  with 
entire  resignation ;  and  such  resignation 
IS  a  sovereign  balsam  for  every  misfor- 
tune or  evil  in  life. 

As  to  the  circumstances  which  led  to 
polytheism,  it  has  been  observed,  that 
taking  it  for  granted  that  our  original 
progenitors  were  instructed  by  their 
Creator  in  the  truths  of  genuine  theism, 
there  is  no  room  to  doubt  but  that 
those  truths  would  be  conveyed  pure 
from  father  to  son  as  long  as  the  race 
lived  in  one  family,  and  were  not  spread 
over  a  large  extent  of  country.  If  any 
credit  is  due  to  the  records  of  antiquity, 
the  primeval  inhabitants  of  this  globe 
lived  to  so  gi-eat  an  age,  that  they  must 
have  increased  to  a  ^ery  laige  number 
long  before  the  death  of  the  common 

Earent,  who  would  of  course,  be  the 
ond  of  union  to  the  whole  society  ;  and 
whose  dictates,  especially  in  what  re- 
lated to  the  origin  of  his  being,  and  the 
existence  of  his  Creator,  would  be  lis- 
tened to  with  the  utmost  respect  by  eve- 
ry individual  of  his  numerous  progeny. 
Many  causes,  however,  would  conspire 
to  dissolve  this  family,  after  the  death 
of  its  ancestor,  into  separate  and  inde- 
pendent tribes,  of  which  seme  would  be 
driven  by  violence,  or  would  voluntarily 
wander  to  a  distance  from  the  rest. 
From  this  dispersion  great  changes 
would  take  place  in  the  opinions  of 
some  of  the  t'-ibes  respecting  the  object 
of  cheir  religious  worship.  A  single  fa- 
mily, or  a  small  tilbe,  banished  into  a 
desert  v.-ildernesss  (such  as  the  whole 
earth  must  then  have  been)  would  find 
employment  for  all  their  time  in  pro- 
vidmg  the  means  of  s\ibsistence,  and  in 
defending  themselves  from  beasts  of 
prey.  In  such  circumstances  they  would 
nave  little  leisure  for  meditation :  and, 
being  constantly  conversant  with  objects 
of  sense,  they  would  gradually  lose  the 
power  of  meditating  upon  the  spiritual 
nature  of  that  Being  by  wliom  their  an- 
cestors had  taught  them  that  all  things 
were  created.  The  first  wanderers 
would,  no  doi\bt,  retain  in  tolerable  pu- 
rity their  original  notions  of  Deity,  and 
they  would  certainly  endeavour  to  im- 
press those  notions  upon  their  children  ; 
but  in  circumstances  infinitely  more  fa- 
vourable to  speculation  than  theirs  could 
have  been,  the  human  mind  dwells  not 
long  upon  notions  purely  intellectual. 
We  are  so  accustomed  to  sensible  ob- 
jects, and  to  the  ideas  of  space,  exten- 
sion, and  figure,  which  they  ai'c  per-  ] 
petually  impressing  upon  the  imagiiiu-  j 


j  tion,  that  we  find  it  extremely  difficult 
to  conceive  any  being  without  assigning 
j  to  him  a  form  and  a  place.  Hence  bi- 
shop Law  supposes  that  the  earliest  ge- 
i  nerations  of  men  (even  those  to  whom 
he  contends  that  frequent  revelations 
I  were  vouchsafed)  may  have  been  no 
I  better  than  AnthrofiomorfMtes  in  their 
j  conceptions  of  the  Divine  Being.  Be  this 
j  as  it  may,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  the 
I  members  of  the  first  colonies  would 
I  quickly  lose  many  of  the  arts  and  much 
!  of  the  science  which  perhaps  prevailed 
I  in  the  parent  state  ;  and  that,  fatigued 
with  the  contemplation  of  intellectual 
!  objects,  they  would  relieve  their  over- 
strained facidties  by  attributing  to  the 
Deity  a  place  of  abode,  if  not  a  human 
form.     To  men  totally   Uliterate,  the 

g'ace  fittest  for  the  habitation  of  the 
eity  would  undoubtedly  appear  to  be 
the  sun,  the  most  beautiml  and  glorious 
object  of  which  they  could  form  any 
idea ;  an  object  from  which  they  could 
not  but  be  sensible  that  they  received 
the  benefit  of  light  and  heat,  and  which 
experience  must  soon  have  taught  them 
to  be  in  a  gi-eat  measure  the  source  of 
vegetation.  From  looking  upon  the  sun 
as  the  habitation  of  their  God,  they 
would  soon  proceed  to  consider  it  as  his 
body.  Experiencing  the  effects  of 
power  in  the  sun,  they  would  naturally 
conceive  that  luminary  to  be  animated 
as  their  bodies  were  animated ;  they 
would  feel  his  influence  wheaabovc  the 
horizon ;  they  would  see  him  moving 
from  east  to  west ;  they  would  consider 
him,  when  set,  as  gone  to  take  his  re- 
pose ;  and  those  exertions  and  inter- 
missions of  power  being  analogous  to 
what  they  experienced  in  themselves, 
they  would  look  upon  the  sun  as  a  real 
animal.  Thus  would  the  Divinity  ap- 
pear to  their  untutored  minds  to  be  a 
compound  being  like  a  man,  partly  cor- 
poreal and  partly  spiritual ;  and  as  soon 
as  they  imbibed  such  notions,  though 
perhaps  not  before,  they  may  be  pro- 
nounced to  have  been  absolute  idolaters. 
When  men  had  once  got  into  this  ti'ain, 
their  gods  would  multiply  upon  them 
with  wonderful  rapidity.  The  moon, 
the  planets,  the  fixed  stars,  8cc.  would 
become  objects  of  venera,tion.  Hence 
we  find  Moses  cautioning  the  people  of 
Israel  against  worshipping  the  hosts  of 
heaven,  Dent.  iv.  19.  Other  objects, 
however,  from  which  benefits  wei-e  re- 
ceived or  dangers  feai'ed,  would  like- 
wise be  deified;  such  as  demons,  de- 
parted heroes,  &c.    See  Idolatry. 

From  these  accounts  given  us  by  the 
liest  writers  of  antiquity,  it  seems  that 
though  the  polj'theists  believed  heaven, 


PON 


461 


POP 


earth,  and  hell,  were  all  filled  with  di- 
vinities, yet  there  was  One  who  was 
considered  as  supreme  over  all  tlie  rest, 
or,  at  most,  that  there  -were  but  two 
self-existent  gods  from  whom  the)-  con- 
ceived all  the  other  divinities  to  have 
descended  in  a  manner  analogous  to 
iiuman  generation.  It  appears,  how- 
ex  er,  that  the  vulgar  Pagans  considered 
tach  divinity  as  supreme,  and  vmac- 
«(>untable  within  his  ov/n  province,  and 
therefore  entitled  to  worship,  which 
rested  ultimately  in  himself.  The  phi- 
losophers, on  the  other  hand,  seem  to 
have  viewed  the  inferior  gods  as  ac- 
countable for  every  part  of  their  con- 
duct to  him  who  was  their  she  and 
sovereign,  and  to  have  paid  to  them  only 
that  inferior  kind  of  devotion  which  the 
church  of  Rome  pays  to  departed  saints. 
The  vulgar  Pagans  were  sunk  in  the 
grossest  ignorance,  from  which  states- 
men, priests,  and  poets,  exerted  their 
utmost  influence  to  keep  them  from 
emerguig ;  for  it  was  a  maxim,  which, 
however  absurd,  was  universally  re- 
ceived, "  that  there  were  many  things 
time  in  religion  which  it  was  not  con- 
venient for  the  vidgar  to  know ;  and 
some  things,  which,  though  false,  it  was 
expedient  that  they  should  believe."  It 
was  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  \tj1- 
gar  should  be  idolaters  and  polytheists. 
The  philosophers,  however,  were  still 
worse ;  they  were  wholly  "without  ex- 
cuse, because  that,  when  they  knew 
God,  they  glorified  him  not  as  God ; 
neither  were  thankful,  but  became  vain 
in  their  imaginations,  and  their  foolish 
heart  was  darkened.  Professing  them- 
selves wise,  they  became  fools,  and  wor- 
shipped and  served  the  creature  more 
than  the  Creator,  who  is  God,  blessed 
for  ever,"  Rom  i.  20,  21,  22,  25.  See 
list  of  books  under  article  Idolatry; 
Prideaux's  Cor,,  vol.  i.  p.  177,  179  ; 
Kaims's  Sketches  of  the  History  of 
Alan  ;  Bishop.  La%i>  s  Theory  of  Reli- 
gion, p.  58,  65  to  68,  94,  296 ;  article 
Polytheism  in  Enc.  Brit.;  Farmer  on 
the  Worship,  of  Human  Spirits. 

PONTIFF,  or  High  Priest,  a  per- 
son who  has  the  superintendeoce  and 
direction  of  divine  worship,  as  the  of- 
fering of  sacrifices  and  other  religious 
solemnities.  The  Romans  had  a  col- 
lege of  pontiffs,  and  over  these  a  sove- 
reign pontiff,  instituted  b)-  Numa,  whose 
function  it  was  to  prescribe  the  cere- 
monies each  god  was  to  be  worshipped 
withal,  compose  the  rituals,  direct  the 
■■.■estals,  and  for  a  good  while  to  per- 
form the  business  of  augury,  till,  on 
some  superstitious  occasion,  he  was  pi-o- 
hibited  intermeddling  therewith.    The 


j  Jews,  too,  had  their  pontiffs ;  and  among 
I  the  Romanists  the  pope  is  styled  the 
I  sovereign  pontiff. 

PONTIFICATE,  is  used  for  the  .state 
1  or  dignity  of  a  pontiff,  or  high  priest ; 
I  but  more  particularly,  in  modern  wri- 
i  ters,  for  the  reign  of  a  pope. 
i  POPE,  a  name  whicn  oomes  from  the 
\  Greek  word  Tlo-ira.  and  signifies  Father. 
I  In  the  East,  this  appellation  is  given  to 
j  all  Christian  priests;  and  in  the  West, 
;  bishops  were  called  by  it  in  ancient 
I  times ;  but  now  for  many  centuries  it 
has  been  appropriated  to'  the  bishop  of 
Rome,  whom  the  Roman  Catholics  look. 
!  upon  as  the  common  father  of  all  Chris- 
I  tians. 

All  in  communion  Avith  the  see  of  Rome 
unanimously  hold  that  our  Saviour  Je- 
sus Christ  constituted  St.  Peter  the 
apostle  chief  pastor  under  himself,  to 
watch  over  his  whole  flock  here  on 
•  earth,  and  to  preserve  the  unity  of  it, 
i  giving  him  the  power  requisite  for  these 
ends.  They  also  believe  that  our  Sa- 
viour ordained  that  St.  Peter  should 
have  successors,  with  the  like  charge 
and  power  to  the  end  of  time.  Now,  as 
St.  Peter  resided  at  Rome  for  many 
years,  and  suffered  martyrdom  there, 
they  consider  the  bishops  of  Rome  as 
his  successors  in  the  dignity  and  oflice 
of  the  universal  pastor  of  the  whole 
Catholic  church. 

The  cardinals  have  for  several  ages 
been  the  sole  electors  of  the  pope. 
These  are  seventy  m  number,  when  the 
sacred  college,  as  it  is  called,  is  com- 
plete. Of  these,  six  are  cardinal  bi- 
shops of  the  six  suburbicarian  churches ; 
fifty  are  cardinal  priests,  who  have  all 
titles  from  parish  churches  in  Rome ; 
and  fourteen  are  cardinal  deacons,  Avho 
have  their  titles  from  churches  in  Rome 
of  less  note,  called  diaconias,  or  deacon- 
ries.  These  cardinals  are  created  by 
the  pope  when  there  happen  to  be  va- 
cancies, and  sometimes  he  names  one  or 
two  only  at  a  time  ;  but  commonly  he 
defers  the  pi-omotion  until  there  be  ten 
or  twelve  vacancies,  or  more ;  and 
then  at  eveiy  second  such  promotion, 
the  emperor,  the  kings  of  Spain  and 
France,  and  of  Britain,  when  Catholic, 
are  allowed  to  present  one  each,  to  be 
made  cardinal,  whom  the  pope  always 
admits,  if  there  be  not  some  very  gi-eat 
objection.  These  cardinals  are  com- 
monly promoted  from  among  such  cler- 
gjmen  as  have  borne  offices  in  the  Ro- 
man court ;  some  are  assumed  from  re- 
ligious orders ;  eminent  ecclesiastics  of 
other  countries  are  likewise  often  ho- 
noured with  this  dignity.  Sons  of  sove- 
!  reign   pi-inces    have    frequently    been 


POP 


462 


POP 


meniljers  of  the  sacred  college.  Their 
distinctive  dress  is  scarlet,  to  signify  that 
they  ought  to  be  ready  to  shed  their 
blood  for  the  faith  and  church,  when 
the  defence  and  honour  of  either  re- 
quire it.  They  wear  a  scarlet  cap  and 
hat:  the  cap  is  given  to  them  by  the 
pope  if  they  are  at  Rome,  and  is  sent  to 
them  if  they  are  absent ;  but  the  hat  is 
never  given  but  bv  the  pope's  own  hand. 
These  cardinals  form  the  pope's  stand- 
ing council,  or  consistory,  for  the  ma- 
nagement of  the  public  affairs  of  church 
and  state.  They  are  divided  into  differ- 
ent congregations  for  the  more  easy 
despatch  of  business  ;  and  some  of  them 
have  the  principal  offices  in  the  ponti- 
fical court ;  as  that  of  cardinal,  vicar, 
penitentiary,  chancellor,  chamberlain, 
prefect  of  the  signature  of  justice,  pre- 
fect of  memorials,  and  secretaiy  of 
state.  They  have  the  title  given  them 
of  eminence  and  most  eminent. 

On  the  demise  of  a  pope  his  pontifical 
seal  is  immediately  broken  by  the  cham- 
berlain, and  all  public  business  is  inter- 
rupted that  can  be  delayed  ;  messengers 
are  despatched  to  all  the  Catholic  sove- 
reigns to  acquaint  them  of  the  event,  that 
they  may  take  what  measures  they 
think  proper :  and  that  the  cardinals,  in 
their  dominions,  if  any  there  be,  may 
hasten  to  the  future  election,  if  they 
choose  to  attend  ;  whilst  the  whole  at- 
tention of  the  sacred  college  is  turned  to 
the  preservation  of  tranquillity  in  the 
city  and  state,  and  to  the  necessary  pre- 
parations for  the  future  election.  The 
cardinal  chamberlain  has  during  the  va- 
cancy of  the  holy  see,  great  authority  ; 
he  coins  money  with  his  own  arms  on  it, 
lodges  in  the  pope's  apartments,  and  is 
attended  by  the  body  guards.  He,  and 
the  first  cardinal  bishop,  the  first  cardi- 
nal priest,  and  the  first  cardinal  dea- 
con, have,  during  that  time,  the  govern- 
ment almost  entirely  in  their  hands. 
The  body  of  the  deceased  pope  is  car- 
ried to  St.  Peter's,  where  funeral  ser- 
vice is  performed  for  him  with  great 
pomp  for  nine  days,  and  the  cai'dinals 
attend  them  every  morning.  In  the 
mean  time,  all  necessary  preparations 
for  the  election  are  made  ;  and  the 
place  where  they  assemble  for  that 
purpose,  which  is  called  the  Conclaiie, 
is  fitted  up  in  that  part  of  the  Vatican 
palace,  which  is  nearest  to  St.  Peter's 
church,  as  tliis  has  long  been  thought 
the  most  convenient  situation.  Here 
are  formed,  by  partitions  of  wood,  a 
number  of  cells,  or  chambers,  equal  to 
the  number  of  cardinals,  with  a  small 
distance  between  every  two,  and  a  broad 
gallery  before  them.    A  number  is  put 


on  every  cell,  and  small  papers,  with 
corresponding  numbers,  are  put  into  a 
box  ;  every  cardinal,  or  some  one  for 
him,  draws  out  one  of  these  papers, 
which  determines  in  what  cell  he  is  to 
lodge.  The  cells  are  lined  with  cloth  ; 
and  there  is  a  part  of  each  one  separated 
for  the  conclavists,  or  attendants,  of 
whom  two  are  allowed  to  each  cardi- 
nal, and  three  to  cardinal  princes.  They 
are  persons  of  some  rank,  and  generally 
of  great  confidence  ;  but  they  must  car- 
ry in  their  master's  meals,  serve  him  at 
table,  and  perform  all  the  offices  of  a 
menial  serv"ant.  Two  physicians,  two 
sui-geons,  an  apothecaiy,  and  some 
other  necessary  officers,  are  chosen  for 
the  conclave  by  the  cardinals. 

On  the  tenth  day  after  the  pope's 
death,  the  cardinals  who  are  then  at 
Rome,  and  in  a  competent  state  of 
health,  meet  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Peter's, 
which  is  called  the  Gregorian  chapel, 
where  a  sermon  on  the  choice  of  a  pope 
is  preached  to  them,  and  mass  is  said 
for  invoking  the  grace  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Then  the  cardinals  proceed  to 
the  conclave  in  procession,  two  by  two, 
and  take  up  their  abode.  When  all  is 
properly  settled,  the  conclave  is  shut 
up,  havnig  boxed  wheels,  or  places  of 
communication,  in  convenient  quarters ; 
there  are,  also,  strong  guards  placed 
all  around.  When  any  foreign  cardinal 
arrives  after  the  inclosure,  the  conclave 
is  opened  for  his  admission.  In  the  be- 
ginning every  cardinal  signs  a  paper, 
containing  an  obligation,  that,  if  he  shall 
be  raised  to  the  papal  chair,  he  will  not 
alienate  any  part  of  the  pontifical  do- 
minion ;  that  he  will  not  be  prodigal  to 
his  relations ;  and  any  other  such  stipu- 
lations as  may  have  been  settled  in  for- 
mer times,  or  framed  for  that  occasion. 
We  now  come  to  the  election  itself; 
and  that  this  may  be  effectual,  two- 
thirds  of  the  cardinals  present  must 
vote  for  the  same  person.  As  this  is 
often  not  easily  obtained,  they  some- 
times remain  whole  months  in  the  con- 
clave. They  meet  in  the  chapel  twice 
every  day  for  giving  their  votes;  and 
the  election  may  be  effectuated  by  scru- 
tiny, accession,  or  acclamation.  Scrutmy 
is  the  ordinary  method,  and  consists  in 
this  :  every  cardinal  writes  his  own 
name  on  the  inner  part  of  a  piece  of 
paper,  and  this  is  folded  up  and  sealed  ; 
on  the  second  fold  of  the  same  paper,  a 
conclavist  writes  the  name  of  theper- 
son  for  whom  his  master  votes.  This, 
according  to  agreements  observed  for 
some  centuries,  nuist  be  one  of  the  sa- 
||  cred  college.  On  the  outer  side  of  the 
li  paper  is  written  a  sentence  at  randon), 


POP 


4G3 


POP 


which  the  voter  must  well  remember. 
Every  cardinal,  on  entering  into  the 
chapel,  goes  to  the  altar,  and  puts  his 
paper  into  a  large  chalice. 

When  all  are  convened,  two  cardinals 
number  the  votes  ;  and  if  there  be  more 
or  less  than  die  number  of  cardinals 
present,  the  voting  must  be  repeated. 
When  this  is  not  the  case,  the  cardinal 
appointed  for  the  purpose,  reads  the 
outer  sentence,  and  the  name  of  the 
cardinal  under  it ;  so  that  each  voter, 
hea'.'ing  his  own  sentencp,  and  the  name 
joined  wich  it,  knows  that  there  is  no 
mistake.  The  names  of  all  the  cardi- 
nals that  are  voted  for  are  taken  down 
in  writing,  with  the  number  of  votes  for 
each ;  and  when  it  appears  that  any  one 
has  two-thirds  of  the  number  present  in 
his  favour,  the  election  is  over ;  but 
when  this  does  not  happen,  the  voting 
papers  are  all  immediately  burnt,  with- 
out opening  up  the  inner  part.  When 
several  trials  of  coming  to  a  conclusion 
by  this  method  of  scrutiny  have  been 
made  in  vain,  recourse  is  sometimes 
had  to  what  is  called  accession.  By  it, 
when  a  cardinal  perceives  that  when 
one  or  \"ery  few  votes  are  wanting  to 
any  one  for  whom  he  has  not  voted  at 
that  time,  he  must  say  that  he  accedes 
to  the  one  who  has  near  the  number  of 
votes  requisite ;  and  if  his  one  vote  suf- 
fices to  make  up  the  two-thirds,  or  if  he 
is  followed  by  a  sufficient  number  of 
acceders,  or  new  voters,  for  the  said 
cardinal,  the  election  is  accomplished ; — 
Lastly,  a  pope  is  sometimes  elected  by 
acclamation;  and  that  is,  when  a  cardi- 
nal being  pretty  sure  that  he  will  be 
joined  by  a  number  sufficient,  cries  out 
in  the  open  chfipel,  that  such  a  one 
shall  be  pope.  If  he  is  properly  sup- 
ported, the  election  becomes  unanimous ; 
those  who  would,  perhaps,  oppose  it, 
foreseeing  that  their  opposition  would 
be  fruitless,  and  rather  hurtful  to  them- 
selves. When  a  pope  is  chosen  in  any 
of  the  three  above-mentioned  ways,  the 
election  is  immediately  announced  from 
the  balcony  in  the  front  of  St.  Peter's, 
homage  is  paid  to  the  new  pontiff,  and 
couriers  are  sent  off  with  the  news  to 
all  pai'ts  of  Christendom.  The  pope 
appoints  a  day  for  his  coronation  at  St. 
Peter's,  and  for  his  taking  possession  of 
the  patriarchal  church  of  St.  John  La- 
tei-an ;  all  which  is  performed  with 
great  solemnity.  He  is  addressed  by 
the  expi-ession  of  holiness,  and  most  ho- 
ly father. 

The  Roman  Catholics  beUeve  that  the 
bishop  of  Rome  is,  under  Christ,  su- 
preme pastor  of  the  whole  church,  and 
as  such  is  not  only  the  first  bishop  in  or- 


der and  dig-nit)-,  but  has  also  a  power 
and  jurisdiction  over  all  Christiau.s,  in 
order  to  preserve  unity  and  purity  of 
faith  and  moral  doctrine,  and  to  main- 
^in  order  and  I'egulai'ity  in  all  churches. 
Hfec  SuPRKMACY.  Some  Catholic  di- 
vines are  of  opinion  that  the  pope  can- 
not err  when  he  addresses  hi m  self  to  c/^ 
the  faithful  on  matters  of  doctrine.  They 
well  know  that,  as  a  private  doctor,  he 
may  fall  into  mistiikes  as  v/ell  as  any 
other  man  ;  but  they  think  that,  when 
he  teaches  the  whole  church.  Provi- 
dence must  preserve  him  from  error. 
W^e  have,  however,  already  examined 
this  sentiment  under  the  ai'ticle  Infal- 
libility, to  which  the  reader  may  re- 
fer. 

The  see  of  Rome,  according  to  Ro- 
man Catholics,  is  the  centre  of  catholic 
unity.  All  their  bishops  communicate 
with  the  pope,  and  by  his  means  with 
one  anothei",  and  so  form  one  body. 
However  distant  their  churches  may 
be,  they  all  meet  at  Rome  either  in 
person  or  by  their  delegates,  or  at  least 
by  their  letters.  Arid,  according  to  the 
discipline  of  the  latter  ages,  though  they 
are  presented  to  the  pope  for  their  of- 
fice from  their  I'espective  countries,  yet 
from  him  they  must  receive  their  bulls 
of  consecration  before  they  can  take 
possession  of  their  sees.    See  Popery. 

POPERY  comprehends  the  religious 
doctrines  and  practices  adopted  and 
maintairied  by  the  church  of  Rome. 
The  following  summary,  extracted 
chiefly  from  the  deci'ees  of  the  council 
of  Trent,  continued  under  Paul  III. 
Julius  III.  and  Pius  IV.  from  the  year 
1545  to  1563,  by  successive  sessions,  and 
the  creed  of  Pope  Pius  lY-  subjoined  to 
it,  and  bearing  date  November  1564, 
may  not  be  unacceptable  to  the  reader. 
One  of  the  fimdamental  tenets  strenu- 
ously maintained  by  popish  writers,  is, 
the  infallibility  of  the  church  of  Rome ;  " 
though  they  are  not  agreed  whether  this 
privilege  belongs  to  the  pope  or  a  ge- 
neral council,  or  to  both  united ;  but 
they  pretend  that  an  infallible  living 
judge  is  absolutely  necessary  to  deter- 
mine controversies,  and  to  secure  peace 
in  the  chi'istian  church.  However,  Pro- 
testants allege,  that  the  claim  of  infal- 
libility in  any  church  is  not  justified  by 
the  authority  of  Scripture,  much  less 
does  it  pertain  to  the  church  of  Rome  ; 
and  that  it  is  inconsistent  with  the  na- 
ture of  religion,  and  the  personal  obli- 
gations of  its  professors ;  and  that  it 
has  proved  ineffectual  to  the  end  for 
which  it  is  supposed  to  be  gi'anted,  since 
popes  and  councils  have  disagreed  in 
matters  of  importance,  and  they  have 


POP 


AG4 


POP 


been  incapaWe,  with  the  advantage  of 
this  pretended  infallibility,  of  maintain- 
ing union  and  peace. 

Another  essential  article  of  the  popish 
creed  is  the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  pr 
his  sovereign  power  over  the  universal 
church.    See  Supremacy. 

Farther;  the  doctrine  of  the  seven 
sacraments  is  a  peculiar  and  distinguish- 
ing doctrine  of  the  church  of  Rome  ; 
these  are  baptism,  confirmation,  the 
eucharist,  penance,  extreme  unction, 
orders,  and  matrimony. 

The  council  of  Trent  (sess.  7.  can.  1.) 
pi'onounces  an  anathema  on  those  who 
say  that  the  sacraments  are  more  or 
fewer  than  seven,  or  that  any  one  of  the 
above  number  is  not  trvdy  and  properly 
a  sacrament.  And  yet  it  does  not  appear 
that  they  amounted  to  this  number  be- 
fore the  twelfth  century,  when  Hugo  de 
St.  Victore  and  Peter  I^ombard,  about 
the  year  1144,  taught  that  there  were 
seven  sacraments.  The  council  of  Flo- 
rence, held  in  143S,  was  the  first  coun- 
cil that  determined  this  number.  These 
sacraments  confer  grace,  according  to 
the  decree  of  th6  council  of  Trent, 
(sess.  7.  can.  8.)  ex  o/iere  ofierato,  by 
the  mere  administration  of  them  :  three 
of  them,  viz.  baptism,  confirmation,  and 
orders,  are  said  (c.  9.)  to  impress  an  in- 
delible character,  so  that  they  cannot  be 
repeated  without  sacrilege ;  and  the 
efficacy  of  every  sacrament  depends  on 
the  intention  of  the  priest  by  whom  it  is 
administered,  (can.  11.)  Pope  Pius  ex- 
pressly enjoins  that  all  these  sacraments 
should  be  administered  according  to  the 
received  and  approved  rites  of  the 
Catholic  church.  With  regard  to  the 
eucharist,  in  particular,  we  may  here 
observe,  that  the  church  of  Pome  holds 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  ;  the 
necessity  of  paying  divine  worship  to 
Christ  under  the  form  of  the  consecrated 
bread  or  host ;  the  propitiatory  sacri- 
fice of  the  mass,  according  to  their  ideas 
of  which,  Christ  is  truly  and  properly 
offered  as  a  sacrifice  as  often  as  the 
priest  says  mass ;  it  practises,  likewise, 
solitary  mass,  in  which  tlie  priest  alone 
who  consecrates,  communicates,  and  al- 
lows communion  only  in  one  kind,  viz. 
the  bread  of  the  laity.    Sess.  14. 

The  doctrine  of  merits  is  another  dis- 
tinguishing tenet  of  popery;  with  regard 
to  which  the  council  of  Trent  has  ex- 
pressly decreed  (sess.  6.  can.  32.)  that 
the  good  works  of  justified  persons  are 
truly  meritorious;  deserving  not  only 
an  increase  of  grace,  but  eteriral  life  and 
an  increase  of  glory;  and  it  has  ana- 
thematized all  who  deny  this  doctrine. 
Of  the  same  kind  is  the  doctrine  of  sa- 


tisfactions ;  which  supposes  that  peni- 
tents may  truly  satisfy,  by  the  afilictiods 
they  endure  under  the  dispensations  of 
Providence,  or  l)y  voluntary  penances 
to  which  tliey  submit,  for  the  temporal 
penalties  of  sin  to  which  they  are  sub- 
ject, even  after  the  remission  of  their 
eternal  punishment.  Sess.  6.  can.  30. 
and  sess.  14.  can.  3  and  9.  In  this  con- 
nection we  may  mention  the  popish  dis- 
tinction of  venial  and  mortal  sins :  the 
greatest  evils  arising  from  the  former, 
are  the  temporary  pains  of  purgatoiy ; 
Ijut  no  man,  it  is'  said,  can  obtain  the 
pardon  of  the  latter,  without  confessing 
to  a  priest,  and  performing  the  penances 
which  he  imposes. 

The  council  of  Trent  (sess.  14.  can. 
1.)  has  expressly  decreed,  that  every 
one  is  accursed  who  shall  affirm  that 
penance  is  not  truly  and  properly  a  sa- 
crament inst'tutcd  by  Christ  m  tlie  uni- 
versal church,  for  reconciling  those 
Christians  to  the  Divine  Majesty,  who 
h.ave  fallen  into  sin  after  baptisrn  ;  and 
this  sacrament,  it  is  declai-ed,  consists  of 
two  parts,  the  matter  and  the  form  :  the 
matter  is  the  act  of  the  penitent,  in- 
cluding contrition,  confession,  and  satis- 
faction ;  the  form  of  it  is  the  act  of  ab- 
solution on  the  part  of  the  priest.  Ac- 
cordingly it  is  enjoined,  that  it  is  the 
duty  of  every  man  who  hath  fallen  af- 
ter baptism,  to  confess  his  sins  once  a 
year,  at  least,  to  a  priest ;  that  this 
confession  is  to  be  secret ;  for  public 
confession  is  neither  commanded  nor 
expedient :  and  that  it  must  be  exact 
and  particular,  including  eveiy  kind  and 
act  of  sin,  with  all  the  cnxumstances  at- 
tending it.  A\'hen  the  penitent  has  so 
done,  the  priest  pronounces  an  absohi- 
tion,  which  is  not  conditional  or  declara- 
tive only,  but  absolute  and  judicial.  This 
secret  or  auricular  confession  was  first 
decreed  and  established  in  the  fourth 
council  of  Lateran,  under  Innocent  III. 
in  1215.  (cap.  21.)  And  the  decree  of 
this  council  was  afterwards  confirmed 
and  enlarged  in  the  council  of  Florence 
and  in  that  of  Trent,  which  ordains,  that 
confession  was  instituted  by  Christ ;  that 
by  the  law  of  God  it  is  necessary  to  sal- 
vation, and  that  it  has  always  been  prac- 
tised in  the  Christian  church.  As  for 
the  penances  imposed  on  the  penitent 
by  way  of  satisfaction,  they  have  been 
commonly  the  repetition  of  certain  forms 
of  devotion,  as  paternosters,  or  ave 
m  arias,  the  payment  of  stipulated  sums, 
pilgrimages,  fasts,  or  various  species  of 
corporal  discipline.  But  the  most  for- 
midable penance,  in  the  estimation  ot 
many  who  have  belonged  to  the  Roman 
communion,  has  been  the  temporary 


POP 


465 


POP 


pains  of  pur^atoiy.  But  under  all  the 
penalties  whxh  are  inRicted  or  threat- 
ened in  the  Romish  church,  it  has  pro- 
vided relief  by  its  indulgences,  and  by 
its  prayers  or  masses  for  the  dead,  per- 
formed professedly  for  relieving  and 
rescuing  the  souls  that  are  detained  in 
purgaton'. 

Another  article  that  has  been  long 
authoritatively  enjoined  and  observed  in 
the  church  of  Rome,  is  the  celibacy  of 
her  clergy.  This  was  first  enjoined  at 
Rome  by  Gregory  VII.  about  the  year 
1074,  arid  established  in  England  by 
An^elm,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
about  the  year  11/5  ;  though  his  prede- 
cessor Lanfranc  had  imposed  it  upon 
the  prebendai'ies  and  clergy  that  lived 
in  towns.  And  though  the  council  of 
Trent  was  repeatedly  petitioned  by  se- 
veral princes  and  states  to  abolish  this 
restraint,  the  obligation  of  celibacy  was 
rather  established  than  relaxed  by  this 
council ;  for  they  decreed,  that  "mar- 
riage contracted  after  a  vow  of  conti- 
nence, is  neither  lawful  nor  valid ;  and 
thus  deprived  the  church  of  the  possi- 
bility of  ever  restoring  marriage  to  the 
clergy.  For  if  marriage,  after  a  vow, 
be  in  itself  unlawful,  the  greatest  au- 
thority upon  earth  cannot  dispense  with 
it,  nor  permit  marriage  to  the  clergy 
who  have  already  vowed  continence. 
See  Celibacy. 

To  the  doctrines  and  practices  above 
recited,  may  be  farther  added,  the  wor- 
ship of  images,  of  which  Protestants  ac- 
cuse the  Papists.  But  to  this  accusation 
the  Papist  replies,  that  he  keeps  images 
by  him  to  preserve  in  his  mind  the  me- 
nioiy  of  the  persons  represented  by 
them  ;  as  people  are  v/ont  to  preserve 
the  memory  of  their  deceased  friends 
by  keeping  their  pictures.  He  is  taught 
(he  says)  to  use  them  so  as  to  cast  his  eyes 
upon  the  pictures  or  images,  and  thence 
to  raise  his  heart  to  the  things  repre- 
sented ;  and  there  to  employ  it  in  medi- 
tation, love,  and  thanksgiving,  desire  of 
imitation.  Sec.  as  the  object  requires. 

These  pictures  or  images  have  this 
advantage,  that  they  inform  the  mind 
by  one  glance  of  what  m  reading  might 
require  a  whole  chapter :  there  being  no 
other  difference  between  them  than  that 
reading  represents  leisurely,  and  by  de- 
grees, and  a  picture  all  at  once.  Hence 
he  finds  a  convenience  in  saying  his 
prayers  with  some  devout  pictures  be- 
fore him,  he  being  no  sooner  distracted, 
but  tKe  sight  of  these  I'ecalls  his  wan- 
dermg  thoughts  to  the  right  object ;  and 
as  certainly  brings  something  good  into 
his  mind,  as  an  immodest  picture  dis- 
turbs his  heart  with  filthy  thoughts. 


And  because  he  is  sensible  that  these 
holy  pictures  and  images  represent  and 
bring  to  his  mind  such  objects  as  in  his 
heart  he  loves,  honours,  and  venerates, 
'he  cannot  but  upon  that  account  love, 
honour,  and  respect  the  images  them- 
selves. 

The  council  of  Trent  likewise  de- 
creed, that  all  bishops  and  pastors  who 
have  the  care  of  souls,  do  diligently  in- 
struct their  flocks  that  it  is  good  and 
projitable  to  desire  the  intercession  of 
saints  reigning  iVi'h  Christ  in  heaven. 
And  this  decree  the  Papists  endeavour 
to  defend  by  the  following  observations: 
They  confess  that  we  have  but  one  me- 
diator of  redemption  :  but  affirm  that  it 
is  acceptable  to  God  that  we  should 
have  many  mediators  of  intercession. 
Moses  (saj-  they)  was  such  a  mediator 
for  the  Israelites ;  Job  for  his  three 
friends;  Stephen  for  his  persecutors. 
The  Romans  were  thus  desired  by  St. 
Paul  to  be  his  mediators ;  so  were  the 
I  Corinthians ;  so  the  Ephesians  {.Efi. 
I  ad.  Rom.  Cor.  Eph.)  so  almost  every 
j  sick  man  desires  the  congi'egation  to  be 
I  his  mediators,  by  remembering  him  ia 
!  their  prayers.  And  so  the  Papist  de- 
!  sires  the  blessed  in  heaven  to  be  his  me- 
j  diators :  that  is,  that  they  would  pray 
I  to  God  for  him.  But  between  these 
I  living  and  dead  mediators  there  is  no 
similarity :  the  livuig  mediator  is  pre- 
sent, and  certainly  hears  the  request  of 
those  who  desire  him  to  intercede  for 
them ;  the  dead  mediator  is  as  certainly 
absent,  and  cannot  possibly  hear  the  re- 
quests of  all  those  who  at  the  same  in- 
stant may  be  begging  him  to  intercede 
for  them,  unless  he  be  possessed  of  the 
divine  attribute  of  omnipresence ;  and 
he  who  gives  that  attribute  to  any  crea- 
ture, is  unquestionably  guilty  of  idolatiy. 
And  as  this  decree  is  contrary  to  one  of 
the  first  principles  of  natural  religion, 
so  does  it  receive  no  countenance  from 
Scripture,  or  any  Christian  writer  of 
the  three  first  centuries.  Other  prac- 
tices peculiar  to  the  Papists  are,  the  re- 
ligious honour  and  respect  that  they 
pay  to  sacred  reUcs :  by  which  they  un- 
derstand not  only  the  bodies  and  parts 
of  the  bodies  of  the  saints,  but  any  of 
those  things  that  appertained  to  them, 
and  which  they  touched ;  and  the  ce- 
lebration of  divine  senice  in  an  un- 
known tongue :  to  which  purpose  the 
council  of  Trent  hath  denounced  an 
anathema  on  any  one  who  shall  say  that 
mass  ought  to  be  celebrated  only  in  t'lxit 
vulgar  tongue.  (Sess.  25,  and  sess.  22, 
can.  9.)  Though  the  council  of  Late- 
ran,  under  Innocent  III.  in  1215  (can. 
9.)  had  expressly  decreed,  that,  be- 
3  N 


POV 


4Gf) 


PRA 


cau'^e,  in  many  parts  withm  the  same 
city  and  diocese,  there  are  many  peo- 
ple of  different  manners  and  rites  mix- 
ed together,  but  of  one  faith,  the  bishops 
of  such  cities  or  dioceses  should  provide 
fit  men  for  celebrating  divine  offices, 
according  to  the  diversity  of  tongues 
and  rites,  and  for  administering  the  sa- 
craments. 

We  shall  only  add,  that  the  church  of 
Rome  maintains,  that  unwritten  ti-adi- 
tions  ought  to  be  added  to  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  in  order  to  supply  their  de- 
fect, and  to  be  regai'ded  as  of  equal  au- 
thority ;  that  the  books  of  the  Apocry- 
pha are  canonical  Sci'ipture  ;  that  the 
Vulgate  edition  of  the  Bible  is  to  be 
deemed  authentic  ;  and  that  the  Scrip- 
tures are  to  be  received  and  interpreted 
according  to  that  sense  which  the  holy 
mother  church,"  to  whom  it  belongs  to 
judge  of  the  true  sense,  hath  held,  and 
doth  hold,  and  according  to  the  unani- 
mous consent  of  the  fathers. 

Such  are  the  principal  and  distin- 
guishing doctrines  of  popeiy,  most  of 
which  have  received  the  sanction  of  the 
council  of  Trent,  and  that  of  the  creed 
of  pope  Pius  IV.  which  is  received,  pro- 
fessed, and  sv.'orn  to,  by  every  one  who 
enters  into  holy  orders  in  the  church  of 
Rome ;  and  at  the  close  of  this  creed, 
we  are  told,  that  the  faith  contained  in 
it  is  so  absolutely  and  indispensably  ne- 
cessarj',  that  no  man  can  be  saved  with- 
out it.  See  Antichrist  ;  Boivers's 
History  of  tlie  Pojits;  SmUfi's  Errors 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  detected  ;  Ben- 
netts Confutation  of  Pojiery  ;  Sermons 
at  Salter's  Hall  against  Pofiery  ;  Bi- 
sho/i  Burnet's  Travels,  Lfc;  JMoore's 
View  of  Society  and  Manners  /n  Italy  ; 
Dr.  Middleton's  Letters  from  Rome  ; 
Stevenson's  Historical  and  Critical 
Fievj  of  some  of  the  Doctrines  of  the 
Church  of  Rome. 

POSITIVE  INSTITUTES.  See 
Institutions. 

POSSESSION  OF  THE  DEVIL. 
See  D.€MONiAcs. 

POVERTY  is  that  state  or  situation, 
opposed  to  riches,  in  which  we  are  de- 
prived of  the  comeniences  of  life.  In- 
digence is  a  degree  lower,  Avhere  we 
want  the  necessaries,  and  is  opposed  to 
siit>erfluity.  Want  seems  ratner  to  ar- 
rive by  accident,  implies  a  scarcity  of 
provision  rather  than  a  lack  of  money, 
and  is  opposed  to  abundance.  A'eeil 
and  necessity  relate  less  to  the  situation 
of  life  than  "the  other  three  wordj>,  but 
more  to  the  relief  we  expect,  or  the  re- 
medy we  seek  ;  with  this  difference  be- 
tween the  two,  that  7ieed  seems  less 
pressing  than  necessity. — 2.  Poverty  Qf\ 


mind  is  a  state  of  ignorance,  or  a  mind 
void  of  religious  principle.  Rev.  \\\.  17. 
— 3.  Poverty  ofs/iirit,  consists  in  an  in- 
ward sense  and  feeling  of  our  wants  and 
defects ;  a  conviction  of  our  wretched 
and  forlorn  condition  by  nature  ;  with  a 
dependence  on  divine  grace  and  mercy 
for  pardon  and  acceptance,  Mat.  v.  3.  It 
must  be  distinguished  from  a  poor  spi- 
ritedness,  a  sneaking  feai-fulncss,  which 
bringeth  4  snare.  It  is  the  effect  of  the 
operation  of  the  Divine  Spirit  on  the 
heart,  Jolin  xvi.  8. ;  is  attended  with 
submission  to  the  divine  will ;  content- 
ment in  our  situation  ;  meekness  and 
;  forbearance  as  to  others,  and  genuine 
humility  as  to  ourselves.  It  is  a  spirit 
approved  of  by  God,  Isa.  Ixvi.  2.  evi- 
dential of  true  religion,  Luke,  xvili.  13. 
and  terminates  in  endless  felicit)-,  Matt. 
V.  3.  Isa.  Ivii.  15.  Ps.  xxxiv.  18.  Dun- 
lo/i's  Ser.  lee  1,  vol.  ii. ;  Barclay's  Diet.; 
South's  Ser.  vol.  x.  ser.  1  ;  J\o.  464. 
Spec.  vol.  vi. ;  Robert  Han-is's  Sermons, 
ser.  3.  part  3. 

POWER,  ability,  force,  strength. 
Power  includes  a  particular  relation  to 
the  subordinate  execution  of  superior 
orders.  In  the  word  authority  we  find 
a  sufficient  energy  to  make  us  perceive 
a  right.  Dominion  carries  with  it  an 
,'  idea  of  empire. 

POWDER  OF  GOD.    See  Omnipo- 
texce 

POWERS  OF  THE  MIND  are 
those  faculties  by  which  we  think,  rea- 
son, judge,  &c.  "  They  are  so  various,"' 
says  Dr.  Reid,  "  so  many,  so  connected, 
and  complicated  in  most  of  their  ope- 
rations, that  there  never  has  been  any 
division  of  them  proposed  which  is  not 
hable  to  considerable  objections.  The 
most  common  division  is  that  of  under- 
standing and  will.  Under  the  will  we./ 
comprehend  our  active  powers,  and  all 
that  lead  to  action,  or  influence  the 
mind  to  act ;  such  as  appetites,  pas- 
sions, affections.  The  understanding 
comprehends  oxir con tetnplative powers, 
by  which  we  perceive  objects;  by  which 
we  conceive  or  remember  them ;  by 
which  we  analyze  or  compound  them  ; 
and  by  which  we  judge  and  reason 
conceiTiing  them.  Or  the  intellectual 
powers  are  commonly  divided  into  sim- 
ple apprehension,  judgment,  and  rea- 
soning." See  Reid  on  the  jictix>e  Pow- 
ers, also  on  the  Human  Mind,  and  the 
Intellectual  Powers ;  Locke  on  the 
Understanding.  For  the  influence 
Christianity  has  had  on  the  moral  and 
intellectual  powers,  see  White's  admi- 
rable Sermons,  ser.  9.  ^ 

PRAISE,  an  acknowledgment  made    ^ 
of  the  excellency  or  perfection  of  any 


PRA 


467 


PRA 


person  or  action,  with  a  commendation 
of  the  sume.  "  'Fhe  desire  of  praibc," 
savs  an  elcg-ant  writer,  "  is  generally 
connected  with  all  the  finer  sensibilities 
of  human  nature.  It  aftbrds  a  ground 
on  which  exhortation,  counsel,  and  re- 
prcof,  can  work  a  proper  eftect.  To 
be  e!it"'/elv  destitute  of  this  passion  be- 
token i  an  ignoble  mind,  on  which  no 
mo'T.l  impression  is  easil)'  made ;  for 
wh^}v  there  is  no  desire  of  praise,  there 
will  also  be  no  sense  of  reproach  ;  but 
wh'Vj  it  is  admitted  to  be  a  natural  and 
in  nrany  respects  an  useful  ])rinciple  of 
action,  wc  are  to  observe  that  it  is  en- 
titled to  no  more  than  our  secondary 
rec-ai'd.  It  has  its  boundary  set,  by 
transgressing  which,  it  is  at  once  ti'ans- 
fcvmed  from  an  innocent  into  a  most 
dangerous  passion.  \A'hen  passing  its 
natural  line,  it  becomes  the  ruling  spnng 
of  conduct ;  when  the  regard  Avhich 
■\ve  pav  to  the  opinions  of  men  encroaches 
on  that  re\'ei-ence  which  we  owe  to  the 
voice  of  conscience  and  the  sense  of  du- 
ty ;  the  love  of  praise,  having  then  gone 
out  of  its  proper  place,  instead  of  im- 
proving, corrupts ;  and  instead  of  ele- 
vating, debases  our  nature."  Young's 
Loje  of  Fame;  Blair's  Sermons,  ser.  6. 
vol.  ii. ;  Jortin's  Dis. dis.  4.  passim  ;  IVil- 
herforce\'^  Pract.  View,  ch.  iv.  sec.  3 ; 
S7?i!>':'3  Theory  of  Mor.  Scnt.vdl.  1,  p. 
233  ;  f'  rzosborne's  Letters,  let.  18. 

PRAISE  OF  GOD,  the  acknow- 
ledging his  perfections,  works,  and  be- 
nefits. Praise  and  thanksgiving  are 
generally  considered  as  synonymous, 
yet  some  distingiiish  them  thus.  Praise 
properly  terminates  in  God,  on  account 
of  his  natural  excellencies  and  perfec- 
tions, and  is  that  act  of  devotion  by 
which  we  confess  and  admire  his  se- 
veral attributes :  but  thanksgiving  is  a 
more  conti-acted  diity,  and  imports  only 
a  gi'ateful  sense  and  acknowledgment 
of  past  mercies.  We  praise  God  for  all 
his  glorious  acts  of  every  kind,  that  re- 
gard either  us  or  other  men  ;  for  his 
very  -vengeance,  and  those  judgments 
which  he  sometimes  sends  abroad  in 
the  earth  ;  but  we  thank  him,  properly 
speaking,  for  the  instances  of  his  good- 
ness alone,  and  for  such  only  of  these 
as  we  ourselves  are  some  way  concern- 
ed in.  See  Thanksgiving  ;  Bishop 
Atterbury's  Sermon  on  Psalm  1.  14 ; 
Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser.  14;  Tillot- 
son's  Sennons,  ser.  146.  concl. 

PRAYER,  a  i-equest  or  petition  for 
mercies;  or  it  is  "an  ofTernig  up  our 
desires  to  God,  for  things  agi-eeable  to 
his  will,  in  the  name  of  Christ,  bv  the 
help  of  his  Spirit,  with  confession  of  our 
sins,  and  thankful  acknowledgment  of 


his  mercies."  Nothing  can  be  more 
rational  oi-  consistent  than  the  exercise 
of  this  duty.  It  is  a  di^  ine  injuiictic-n 
that  men  should  always  pray,  and  n-ot 
faint,  Luke,  xviii.  1.  It  is  highly  proper 
we  should  acknowledge  the  obligations 
we  are  under  to  the  Divine  Being,  and 
supplicate  his  throne  for  the  blessings 
we  stand  in  need  of.  It  is  essential  to 
our  peace  and  felicity,  and  is  the  haj^py 
mean  of  our  carrying  on  and  enjoying 
fellowship  with  God.  It  has  an  influ- 
ence on  our  tempers  and  conduct,  and 
e^'idences  our  subjection  and  obedience 
to  God.  We  shall  here  consider  the 
object,  nature,  kinds,  matter,  manner, 
and  forms  of  prayer,  together  with  its 
efficacy,  and  the  objections  made 
agaiubt  it. 

I.  The  object  of  fir  ay  cr  is  God  alone, 
through  Jesus  Christ,  as  the  Mediator. 
All  supplications,  therefore,  to  saints  or 
angels,  are  not  only  useless  but  blas- 
phemous. All  worship  of  the  creatme, 
however  exalted  that  creature  is,  is 
idolatiy,  and  strictly  prohibited  in  tiie 
sacred  law  of  God.  Nor  are  we  to 
pray  to  the  Trinity,  as  three  distinct 
Gods  ;  for  though  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost  be  addressed  in  various 
parts  of  the  Scripture,  2  Cor.  xiii.  1-1. 
2  Thess.  ii.  16,  17,  yet  never  as  three 
Gods,  for  that  would  lead  us  directly 
to  the  doctrine  of  polytiieism  :  the  more 
ordinary  mode  the  Scripture  points  out, 
is,  to  address  the  Father  through  the 
Son,  depending  on  the  Spirit  to  help  our 
infirmities,  Eph.  ii.  18.  Rom.  viii.  26. 

II.  As  to  the  7iature  of  this  duty:  it 
must  be  obsenxd,  that  it  does  not  con- 
sist in  the  elevation  of  the  voice,  the 
posture  of  the  body,  the  use  of  a  form, 
or  the  mere  extemporary  use  of  words, 
nor,  properly  speaking,  in  any  thing  of 
an  exterior  nature  ;  but  simply  the  of- 
fering up  of  our  desires  to  God,  Matt. 
XV.  8.  (See  the  definition  above.)  It 
has  been  generally  divided  into  adora^ 
tion,  by  which  we  express  our  sense  of 
the  goodness  and  greatness  of  God, 
Dan.  iv.  34,  35  ;  confession,  by  which 
we  acknowledge  our  unworthiness,  1 
John,  i.  9 ;  su/i/ilication,  by  which  we 
pra)-  for  pardon,  grace,  or  any  blessin.^ 
we  want.  Matt.  vii.  7 ;  intercession,  by 
which  we  pray  for  others,  James,  v.  16  ; 
and  thcmksgiving,hy  which  v\'e  express 
our  gratitude  to  God,  Phil.  iv.  6.  To 
which  some  add  invocation,  a  making 
mention  of  one  or  more  of  the  names  of 
God;  pleading,  arguing  our  case  M-ith 
God  in  an  humble  and  fervent  manner ; 
dedication,  or  surrendering  ourselves  to 
God  ;  deprecalion,  by  which  we  desire 
that  evils  may  be  averted ;  blessing,  in 


PRA 


468 


PRA 


\v;\!cli  we  express  our  joy  in  God,  antl 
gratitude  for  his  mercies :  but,  as  all 
these  appear  to  me  to  be  included  in 
the  first  five  parts  of  prayer,  I  think 
they  need  not  be  insisted  on. 

III.  The  different  kinds  of  prayer, 
are,  1.  Ejaculatory,  by  which  the  mind 
is  directed  to  God  on  any  emergency. 
It  is  derived  from  the  woi-d  ejaculor,  to 
dart  or  shoot  out  suddenly,  and  is  there- 
fore appropriate  to  describe  this  kmd  of 
prayer,  which  is  made  up  of  short  sen- 
tences spontaneously  springing  from 
the  mind.  The  Scriptures  afford  us 
many  instances  of  ejaculatory  prayer, 
Exocl.  xiv.  15.  1  Sam.  i.  13.  Rom.  vii. 
24,  25.  Gen.  xliii.  29.  Judges,  xvi.  28. 
Luke,  xxiii.  42,  43.  It  is  one  of  the 
principal  excellencies  of  this  kind  of 
prayer,  that  it  can  be  practised  at  all 
times,  and  in  all  places;  in  the  public 
ordinances  of  religion ;  in  all  our  ordi- 
nary and  extraordinary  undertakings ; 
in  times  of  affliction,  temptation,  and 
danger  ;  in  seasons  of  social  intercourse, 
in  worldly  business,  in  travelling,  in 
sickness,  and  pain.  In  fact,  every  thing 
around  us,  and  every  event  that  trans- 
pires, may  afford  us  matter  for  ejacula- 
tion. It  is  worthy,  therefore,  of  our 
practice,  especially  when  we  consider 
that  it  is  a  species  of  devotion  that  can 
I'eceive  no  impediment  from  any  exter- 
nal circumstances ;  that  it  has  a  ten- 
dencjf  to  support  the  mind,  and  keep  it 
in  a  happy  frame ;  foi-tifies  us  agamst 
the  temptations  of  the  world ;  elevates 
our  affections  to  God  ;  directs  the  mind 
into  a  spiritual  channel ;  and  has  a  ten- 
dency to  excite  trust  and  dependence 
on  Divine  Providence. — 2.  Secret  or 
closet  prayer  is  another  kind  of  prayer 
to  which  we  should  attend.  It  nas  its 
name  fi-om  the  manner  in  which  Christ 
recommended  it.  Matt.  vi.  6.  He  him- 
self set  us  an  example  of  it,  Luke,  vi. 
12  ;  and  it  has  been  the  practice  of  the 
saints  in  every  age,  Gen.  xxviii.  xxxii. 
Dan.  vi.  10.  Acts,  x.  9.  There  are 
some  particular  occasions  when  this 
duty  may  be  practised  to  ad\'antage,  as 
when  we  are  entering  into  any  impor- 
tant situation  ;  undertaking  any  thing  of 
conseciuence ;  before  we  go  into  the 
world ;  when  calamities  surround  us, 
Isa.  xxvi.  20 ;  or  when  ease  and  pros- 
perity attend  us.  As  closet  prayer  is 
calculated  to  inspire  us  with  peace,  de- 
fend us  fi'om  our  spiritual  enemies,  ex- 
cite us  to  obedience,  and  promote  our 
real  happiness,  we  should  be  watchful 
lest  the  stupidity  of  our  frame,  the  in- 
tnision  of  company,  the  cares  of  the 
world,  the  insinuations  of  Satan,  or  the 
indulgence  of  sensual  objects,  prevent  us 


from  the  constant  exercise  of  this  ne- 
cessary and  important  duty. — 3.  Family 
/irayer  is  also  another  part  not  to  be 
neglected.  It  is  true  there  is  no  al>so- 
lute  command  for  this  in  God's  word ; 
yet  from  hints,  allusions,  and  examples, 
we  may  learn  that  it  was  the  practice  of 
our  forefathers :  Abraham,  Gen.  xviii. 
19.  David,  2  Sam.  vi.  20.  Solomon, 
Prov.  xxii.  6.  Job,  i.  4,  5.  Joshua,  xxiv. 
15.  See  also  Eph.  yi.  4.  Prov.  vi.  20. 
Jer.  x.  25.  Acts,  x.  2,  30.  Acts,  xvi.  15. 
Family  prayer,  indeed,  may  not  be  es- 
sential to  the  character  of  a  true  Chris- 
tian, but  it  is  surely  no  honour  to  heads 
of  families  to  have  it  said  that  they  have 
no  religion  in  their  houses.  If  we  con- 
sider what  a  blessing  it  is  likely  to  prove 
to  our  children  and  our  domestics ;  what 
comfort  it  must  afford  to  ourselves ; 
what  utility  it  may  prove  to  the  com- 
munity at  large ;  how  it  sanctifies  do- 
mestic comforts  and  crosses ;  and  what 
a  tendency  it  has  to  promote  order,  de- 
cency, sobriety,  and  religion  in  general, 
we  must  at  once  see  the  propriety  of  at- 
tending to  it.  The  objection  often  made 
to  family  prayer  is,  want  of  time  ;  but 
this  is  a  very  frivolous  excuse,  since  the 
time  allotted  for  this  purpose  need  be 
but  short,  and  may  easily  oe  redeemed 
from  sleep  or  business.  Others  say, 
they  have  no  gifts :  where  this  is  the 
case,  a  form  may  soon  be  procured  and 
used,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that 
gifts  iiici'ease  by  exercise,  and  no  man 
can  properly  decide,  unless  he  make 
repeated  trials.  Others  are  deterred 
through  shame,  or  the  fear  of  man  ;  in 
answer  to  such  we  shall  refer  them  to 
the  declarations  of  our  Lord,  Matt.  x. 
37,  38.  Mark,  viii.  38.  As  to  the  season 
for  family  prayei*,  every  family  must 
determine  for  itself ;  but  before  break- 
fast every  morning,  and  before  supper 
at  night,  seems  most  proper:  perhaps 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  twenty  minutes 
may  be  sufficient  as  to  the  time. — 4.  So- 
cial prayer  is  another  kind  Christians 
are  called  upon  to  attend  to.  It  is  de- 
nominated social,  because  it  is  offered 
by  a  society  of  Christians  in  their  col- 
lective capacity,  convened  for  that  par- 
ticular purpose,  eitlier  on  some  peculiar 
and  extraordinary  occasions,  or  at  stated 
and  regular  seasons.  Special  prayer- 
meetings  are  such  as  are  held  at  the 
meeting  and  parting  of  intimate  friends, 
especially  churches  and  ministers; 
when  the  church  is  in  a  state  of  unusual 
I  deadncss  and  barrenness ;  when  mi- 
j  nisters  are  sick,  or  taken  away  by 
{  dtiith  ;  in  times  of  public  calamity  and 
I  distress,  ike.  Stated  meetings  for  social 
I  prayer  are  such  as  are  held  weekly  in 


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some  places  which  have  a  special  re- 
gard to  tlie  state  of  the  nation  and 
churches :  nussionary  prayer-meetings 
for  the  spicad  of  the  Gospel;  weekly 
meetings  held  in  most  of  the  congrega- 
tions which  have  a  more  particular  re- 
ference to  their  own  churches,  ministers, 
the  sick,  feeble,  and  weak  of  the  flock. 
Christians  ai'e  greatly  encouraged  to 
this  kind  of  prayer  from  the  considera- 
tion of  the  promise.  Matt,  xviii.  20;  the 
benefit  cf  mutual  supplications ;  from 
the  example  of  the  most  eminent  pri- 
mitive saints,  Mai.  iii.  16.  Acts,  xii.  12  ; 
the  answers  given  to  prayer.  Acts,  xii. 
1- — 12.  Josh.  X.  Isaiah,  xxxvii.  &c.  and 
tlie  signal  blessing  they  are  to  the 
churches,  Phil.  i.  19.  2  Cor.  i.  11.  These 
nieetings  should  be  attended  with  regu- 
larity ;  those  who  engage  siiould  study 
simplicity,  brevity,  Scripture  language, 
seriousness  of  spiiit,  and  every  thmg 
that  has  a  tendency  to  edification.  We 
now  come,  lastly,  to  take  notice  of 
fiublic  prayer,  or  that  in  which  the 
whole  congregation  is  engaged,  either  in 
repeating  a  set  form,  or  acquiescing 
with  the  prayer  of  the  minister  who 
leads  their  devotions.  This  is  both  an 
ancient  and  important  part  of  religious 
exercise ;  it  was  a  part  of  the  patri- 
archical  worship.  Gen.  iv.  56 ;  it  was 
also  carried  on  by  the  Jews,  Exod.  xxix. 
43.  Luke,  i.  10.  It  was  a  part  of  the 
temple  service.  Is.  Ivi.  7.  1  Kings,  viii. 
59.  Jesus  Christ  recommended  it  both 
by  his  example  and  instruction.  Matt, 
xviii.  20.  Luke,  iv.  16.  The  disciples 
also  attended  to  it,  Acts,  ii.  41,  42  ;  and 
the  Scriptures  in  many  places  counte- 
nance it,  Exod.  XX.  24.  Psal.  Ixiii.  1,  2. 
Psal.  Ixxxiv.  11.  Psal.  xxvii.  4.  For  the 
nature,  necessity,  place,  time,  and  at- 
tendance on  public  worship,  see  Wor- 
ship. 

IV.  Of  the  matter  of  prayer.  "  It  is 
necessary,"  says  Dr.  VVatts,  "to  fur- 
nish ourselves  with  proper  matter,  that 
Ave  may  be  able  to  hold  much  converse 
with  God;  to  entertain  ourselves  and 
others  agreeably  and  devoutly  in  wor- 
sliip  ;  to  assist  the  exercise  of  our  own 
grace  and  others,  by  a  rich  supply  of  di- 
vine thought  and  desires  in  pra^^er,  that 
we  may  not  be  forced  to  make' too  long 
and  indecent  pauses  whilst  we  are  per- 
forming that  duty ;  nor  break  offabrupt- 
]}-  as  soon  as  we  have  begun  for  want  of 
matter ;  nor  pour  out  abundance  of  words 
to  di-ess  up  nan-ow  and  scanty  sense 
for  want  ot  vai-iety  of  devout  thoughts. 
1.  We  should  labour  after  a  large  ac- 
quaintance with  all  things  that  belong 
to  religion ;  for  there  is  nothing  that  re- 
lates to  religion  but  mav  properly  make 


some  part  of  the  matter  of  our  pfayer. 
A  great  acquaintance  with  God  in 'his 
nature,  perfections,  works  and  word ; 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  ourselves, 
and  a  lively  sense  of  our  own  frames, 
wants,  sorrows,  and  jcys,  will  supply  us 
with  abundant  furniture.  We  should  also 
be  watchful  obserAcrs  of  the  dealings  of 
God  with  us  in  eveiy  ordinance,  and  in 
every  providence.  \\"e  should  obsen^e 
the  woi'king  of  our  heart  towards  God, 
or  towards  tlie  creature,  and  often  ex- 
ambie  our  temper  and  our  life,  both  in 
our  natural,  our  civil,  and  religious  ac- 
tions. For  this  purpose,  as  well  as 
upon  many  other  accounts,  it  will  be 
oi  great  advantage  to  keep  by  us  in 
writing  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
providences  of  God,  and  instances  of 
his  mercy  or  anger  towards  us,  and 
some  of  our  most  remarkable  caiTiages 
towards  him,  whether  sins,  or  duties,  or 
the  exercises  of  grace. — 2.  We  should 
not  content  ourselves  merely  with  ge- 
nerals ;  but  if  we  wish  to  be  fiirnished 
with  larger  supplies  of  matter,  we  must 
descend  to  particulars  in  our  confessions, 
petitions,  and  thanksgivings.  We  should 
enter  into  a  particular  consideration  of 
the  attributes,  the  gloi'ies,  the  graces, 
and  the  i-elations  of  God.  We  should 
express  our  sins,  our  wants,  and  our 
sorrows,  with  a  particular  sense  of  the 
mournful  circumstances  that  attend 
them :  it  will  enlarge  our  hearts  witli 
prayer  and  humiliation  if  we  confess  the 
aggi'avations  that  increase  the  guilt  of 
our  sins,  viz.  whether  they  have  been 
committed  against  knowledge,  against 
the  warnings  of  conscience,  &c.  It  will 
furnish  us  with  large  matter,  if  we  run 
over  the  exalting  and  heightening  cii'- 
cumstances  of  our  mercies  and  com- 
foits,  viz.  that  they  are  great,  and  spi- 
ritual, and  eternal,  as  well  as  temporal. 
Our  petitions  and  thanksgivings,  in  a 
special  manner,  should  be  suited  to  the 
place  and  circumstances  of  ourselves, 
and  those  that  we  pray  with,  and  those 
that  we  pray  for. — 3.  It  is  very  proper, 
at  solemn  seasons  of  worship,  to  read 
some  part  of  the  word  of  God,  or  some 
spiritual  treatise  written  by  holy  men ; 
or  to  converse  with  fellow  Christians 
about  divine  things,  or  to  spend  some 
time  in  recollection  or  meditation  of 
things  that  belong  to  religion  :  this  will 
not  only  supply  us  with  divine  matter, 
but  will  compose  our  thoughts  to  a  so- 
lemnity. Just  before  we  engage  in  that 
work,  we  should  be  absent  a  little  from 
the  world,  that  our  spirits  ma}^  be  freer 
for  converse  with  God. — 4.  If  we  find 
our  hearts,  after  all  veiy  barren,  and 
hardly  know  how  tn  frame  a  prayer  be- 


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fore  God  of  ourselves,  it  has  been  of- 
tentimes useful  to  tiike  a  book  in  our 
hand,  wherein  are  contained  some  spi- 
ritual meditations  in  a  petitionary  form, 
some   devout  reflections,   or  excellent 

Patterns  of  prayer ;  and,  above  all,  the 
salms  of  David,  some  of  the  prophe- 
cies of  Isaiah,  some  chapters  in  the 
Gospels,  or  any  of  the  Epistles.  Thus 
we  may  lift  up  our  hearts  to  God  in  se- 
cret, according  as  the  vei-ses  or  para- 
graphs we  read  are  suited  to  the  case  of 
our  own  souls.  This  many  Christians 
have  experienced  as  a  very  agreeable 
help,  and  of  great  advantage  in  their 
secret  retirenient. — 5.  We  must  not 
think  it  absolutely  necessary  to  insist 
upon  all  the  parts  of  prayer  in  every 
address  to  God ;  though  in  our  stated 
and  solemn  prayers  there  are  but  few 
of  them  that  can  be  well  left  out.  What 
we  omit  at  one  time  we  may,  perhaps, 
pursue  at  another  with  more  lively  af- 
fection. But  let  us  be  sure  to  insist 
most  upon  those  things  which  are 
warmest  in  our  hearts,  especially  in 
secret.  We  should  let  those  pai-ts  of 
prayer  have  the  largest  share  in  the 
performance  for  whicli  our  spirits  is 
best  prepared,  wliether  it  be  adoration, 
petition,  confession,  or  thanksgiving. — 
6.  We  shoidd  suit  the  matter  of  our 
prayers  to  the  special  occasion  of  each 
particular  duty,  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  time,  place,  and  persons  with  and 
for  whom  we  pray.  This  will  direct  us 
to  the  choice  of  projjer  thoughts  and 
language  for  every  part  of  prayer. — 7. 
W^e  should  not  affect  to  pray  long  for 
the  sake  of  length,  or  to  stretch  out  our 
matter  by  labour  and  toil  of  thought,  be- 
yond the  furniture  of  our  own  spirit. 
Sometimes  a  person  is  betrayed  by  an 
affectation  of  long  prayers  into  crude, 
rash,  and  unseemly  expressions ;  we  are 
tempted  hereby  to  tautologies,  to  say 
the  same  thing  over  and  over  again. 
We  are  in  danger  of  tiring  those  that 
join  with  us.  We  exceed  the  season 
that  is  allotted  for  us  in  prayer,  espe- 
cially wlicn  others  are  to  succeed  in  the 
same  work." 

V.  Of  the  method  of  firayer.  "Me- 
thod," continues  Dr.  Watts,  "  is  ne- 
cessary to  guide  our  thoughts,  to  regu- 
late our  expressions,  and  dispose  of  the 
several  parts  of  prayer  in  such  an  or- 
der, as  is  most  easy  to  be  understood  by 
those  tlirit  join  with  us,  and  most  proper 
to  excite  and  maintain  our  own  devo- 
'tion  and  theirs.  Tliis  will  be  of  use  to 
secure  us  from  confusion,  jjrevent  rejje- 
titions,  and  guard  us  against  roving  di- 
gressions. The  general  rules  of  me- 
thod in  prayer  are  these  three :   1.  Let 


the  general  and  the  particular  heads  in 
prayer  be  well  distinguished,  and  usually 
let  generals  be  mentioned  first,  and  par- 
ticulars follow. — 2.  Let  things  of  the 
same  kind,  for  the  most  part,  be  put  to- 
gether in  prayer.  We  should  not  i-un 
from  one  part  to  another  by  starts,  and 
sudden  wild  thoughts,  and  then  return 
often  to  the  same  part  again,  going 
backward  and  forward  in  confusion : 
this  bewilders  the  mind  of  him  that 
prays,  disgusts  our  fellow-worshippers, 
and  injm-es  their  devotion. — 3.  Let 
those  things,  m  every  part  of  prayer, 
which  are  the  proper  objects  of  our 
judgment,  be  first  mentioned,  and  then 
those  that  influence  and  move  our  af- 
fections ;  not  that  we  should  follow 
such  a  manner  of  prayer  as  is  more  like 
]:)reaching,  as  some  imprudently  have 
done,  speaking  many  divine  truths  with- 
out the  form  or  air  of  prayer.  Yet  it 
must  be  granted  that  there  is  no  ne- 
cessity of  always  confining  oiu'sclves  to 
this,  or  to  any  other  set  method,  no  more 
than  there  is  of  confining  ourselves  to  a 
form  in  prayer.  Sometimes  the  mind 
is  so  divinely  full  of  one  particular  part 
of  prayer,  that  high  expressions  of 
gratitucle,  and  of  devoting  ourselves  to 
God,  break  out  first.  I  am  persuaded, 
however,  that  if  young  Christians  did 
not  give  themselves  uj?  to  a  loose  and 
negligent  habit  of  speaking  every  thing 
that  comes  u];permost,  but  attempted  to 
learn  this  holy  skill  by  a  recollection  of 
the  several  parts  of  prayer,  and  pro- 
perly disjiosing  their  thoughts,  there 
would  be  great  numbers  in  our  churches 
that  would  arrive  at  a  good  degree  of 
tlie  gift  of  pra)  er,  and  that  to  the  great 
edification  of  our  churches,  as  well  as  of 
their  own  families." 

As  to  expression  in  prayer,  it  may  be 
observed,  that  though  ])rayer  be  the 
proper  work  of  the  heart,  yet  in  this 
jjrcsent  state,  in  secret  as  well  as  in 
social  prayer,  the  language  of  the  lips  is 
an  excellent  aid  in  this  part  of  worship. 
Expressions  are  useful  not  only  to  dress 
our  thoughts,  but  sometimes  to  form, 
and  shape,  and  ])crfect  the  ideas  and  af- 
fections of  our  minds.  Tliey  serve  to 
awaken  the  holy  passions  of  the  soul  as 
well  as  to  express  them.  They  fix 
and  engage  all  our  powers  in  rehgion 
and  worshi}) ;  and  they  serve  to  regulate 
as  well  as  to  increase  our  devotion. 
The  directions  to  attain  a  treasure  of 
expressions  are  these  :  1.  We  should  la- 
I  I)our  after  a  fresh,  particular,  and  lively 
sense  of  the  gi-eatness  and  grace  of 
(ii)d,  and  of  our  own  wants,  and  sins, 
and  mercies.  The  passions  of  tlie  mind, 
V.  hen  they  are  moved,  do  mightily  helj> 


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the  tongue ;  they  give  a  natural  elo- 
quence to  those  who  know  not  any  rules 
of  art,  and  they  almost  consti'ain  the 
dumb  to  speak.  There  is  a  remarkable 
instance    of    this    in    ancient    history. 
When   Atys,  the   son  of  Crcesus  the 
king,  who  was  dumb  from  his  child- 
hoL.d,  saw  his  father  ready  to  be  slain, 
the  violence  of  his  passion  broke   the 
bonds  wherewith  his  tongue  was  tied, 
and  he  cried  out  to  save  him.    Let  cur 
spiritual  senses  be  always  awake  and 
lively,  then  words  will  follow  in  a  great- 
er or  less  degree. — 2.  We  should  trea- 
sure up  such  expressions,  especially,  as 
we  read  in  Scripture,  and  such  as  we 
have  found  in  other  books  of  devotion, 
or  such  as  we  have  heard  fellow  Chris- 
tians  make  use  of,  whereby  our  own 
hearts  have  been  sensibly  moved  and 
warmed. — 3.  We  should  be  always  rea- 
dy to  engage  in  holy  conference,  and 
divine  discourse.    This  will  teach  us  to 
speak  of  the  thuigs  of  God.    It  should 
be  our  practice  to   recollect   and   talk 
over  with  one  another  the  sermons  we 
have  htard,  the  books  of  divinity  we 
have  been  conversant  with,  those  parts 
of  the   word  of  God   we  have  lately 
read,   and    especially  our   own    expe- 
riences of  divine  things.    Hereby  we 
shail  gain  a  large  treasure  of  language 
to  clothe  our  thouglits  and  affections. — 
4.  \Ve  should  pray  for  the  gift  of  utter- 
ance, and  seek  the  blessing  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  upon  the  use  of  proper  means 
to  obtain  a  treasure  of  expressions  for 
prayer;  for  the  wise  man  tells  us,  that 
"the  preparation  of  the  heart  in  man, 
and  the  answer  of  the  tongue,  is  from 
the   Lord,"   Prov.   xvi.   1.    The  rules 
about  the  choice  and  use  of  proper  ex- 
preaaioyis    are   these :    1.    \Ve    should 
choose  those  expressions  that  best  suit 
our  meaning,  that  most  exactly  answer 
the  ideas  of  our  mind,  and  that  are  fitted 
to  our  sense  and  apprehension  of  things. 
—2.  \^^e  should  use  such  a  way  of  speak- 
ing as  may  be  most  natural  and  easy  to 
be  understood,  and  most  aereeable  to 
those   that  join   with  us.    We   should 
avoid  all  foreign  and  uncommon  words; 
all  those  expressions  which  are  too  phi- 
losophical, and  those  \A\\c\\  savour  too 
much  of  mystical  divinity;  all  dark  me- 
taphors, of  expressions  that  are  used 
only  by  some  particular  violent  party- 
men.    \\''e  should  likewise  avoid  length 
and  obscurit}'  in  our  sentences,  and  in 
the  placing  of  our  words;  and  not  in- 
terline our  expressions  with  too  manv 
parentheses,  which  cloud  and  entangle 
the  sense. — 3.   Our  language  should  be 
grave  and  decent,  which  is  a  medium 
betvveen  magniricence  and  meanness; 


we  should  avoid  all  glittering  language 
and  affected  style.  An  excessive  fond- 
ness of  elegance  and  fineiy  of  style  in 
prayer  discovers  the  same  pride  and 
vanity  of  mind,  as  an  affection  to  many 
jewels  and  fine  apparel  in  tlie  house  of 
God  :  it  betrays  us  into  a  neglect  of  our 
hearts,  and  of  experimental  religion,  by 
an  affectation  to  make  the  nicest  speech, 
and  say  the  finest  things  we  can,  in- 
stead of  sincere  devotion,  and  praying 
in  the  spirit.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
should  avoid  mean  and  coarse,  and  too 
familiar  expressions;  such  as  excite 
any  contemptible  or  ridiculous  ideas; 
such  as  raise  any  improper  or  iiTeverent 
thoughts  in  the  mind,  or  base  and  im- 
pure images,  for  these  much  injure  the 
devotion  of  our  fellow-worshippers. — 4. 
We  should  seek  after  those  ways  of  ex- 
pression that  are  pathetical ;  such  as 
denote  the  fervency  of  affection,  and 
carry  life  and  spirit  with  them ;  such  as 
may  awaken  and  exercise  our  love,  our 
hope,  our  holy  joy,  our  sorrow,  our 
fear,  and  our  faith,  as  well  as  expr^^ss 
the  activity  of  those  graces.  This  is  the 
way  to  raise,  assist,  and  maintain  devo- 
tion. We  should,  therefore,  avoid  such 
a  sort  of  style  as  looks  more  hkep  reach- 
ing, which  some  persons  that  aflect  long 
j)i-ayers  have  been  guilty  of  to  a  great 
degree :  they  have  been  speaking  to 
the  people  rather  than  speaking  to  God ; 
they  have  wandered  av.ay  from  God  to 
speak  to  men ;  but  this  is  quite  contrary 
to  the  nature  of  praj'er,  for  prayer  is 
our  own  address  to  God,  and  pouring 
out  our  hearts  before  him  with  warm 
and  proper  affections. — 5.  We  should 
not  always  confine  ourselves  to  one  set 
form  of  words  to  express  any  particular 
request ;  nor  take  too  much  pains  to 
avoid  an  expression  merely  because  we 
used  it  in  prayer  heretofore.  We  need 
not  be  over  fond  of  a  nice  uniformity  of 
words,  nor  of  peipetual  diversity  of  ex- 
pression in  e\ery  prayer :  it  is  best  to 
keep  the  middle  between  these  two  ex- 
tremes. The  imitation  of  those  Chris- 
tians and  ministers  that  have  the  best 
gifts,  will  be  an  excellent  direction  in 
this  as  well  as  in  the  former  cases. 

As  to  the  x^oice.  in  prayer:  in  the  first 
place,  our  words  should  be  all  pro- 
nounced distinct,  and  ought  not  to  be 
made  shorter  bv  cutting  off  the  last  syl- 
lable, nor  longer  b>  the  addition  of  hems 
and  o's,  of  long  breaths,  affected  groan- 
ings,  and  useless  sounds,  &c. — 2.  Every 
sentence  should  be  spoken  loud  enough 
to  be  heard,  yet  none  so  loud  as  to  af- 
fright or  offend  the  ear.  Some  persons 
have  got  a  habit  of  beginning  their 
prayers,  and  even  upon  the  most  com- 


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mon  family  occasions,  so  loud  as  to 
stai'tle  the  compimy ;  othei's  begin  so 
low  in  a  lai'sr?  assembly,  that  it  looks 
like  secret  v/orship,  and  as  though  they 
forbid  those  tiiat  are  present  to  join 
with  them.  Both  these  extremes  are  to 
be  avoided  by  prudence  and  moderation. 
— 3.  We  should  observe  a  due  medium 
between  excessive  swiftness  and  slow- 
ness of  speech,  for  both  are  faulty  in 
their  kind.  If  we  ai-e  too  swift,  our 
■words  will  be  hurried  on,  and  be  min- 
gled in  confusion ;  if  we  are  too  slow, 
this  will  be  tiresome  to  the  hearers,  and 
will  make  the  worship  -appear  heavy 
and  dull. 

As  to  gesture  in  prayer :  all  inde- 
cencies should  be  avoided.  Prostratioii 
may  be  sometimes  used  in  seci'et  prayer, 
under  a  deep  and  uncommon  sense  of 
sin ;  but  kneeling  is  the  most  frequent 
posture ;  and  nature  seems  to  dictate 
and  lead  us  to  it  as  an  expression  of  hu- 
mility, of  a  sense  of  our  wants,  a  sup- 
plication for  mercy,  and  adoration  of 
and  dependence  on  him  before  whom 
•we  kneel. 

"  Standing  is  a  posture  not  unfit  for 
this  worship,  especially  in  places  where 
•we  have  not  conveniency  for  the  hum- 
bler gestures:  but  sitting,  or  other  pos- 
tures of  rest  and  laziness,  ought  not  to  be 
indulged,  unless  persons  are  aged  or  in- 
firm, or  the  work  of  prayer  be  drawn 
out  so  long  as  to  make  it  troublesome  to 
human  nature  to  maintain  itself  always 
in  one  posture  The  head  should  be 
kept  for  the  most  part  without  motion  ; 
the  whole  visage  should  be  composed  to 
gravity  and  solemnity.  The  eye  should 
be  kept  from  I'oving,  and  some  think  it 
best  to  keep  the  eyes  closed.  The  lift- 
ing up.  of  the  hands  is  a  very  natural 
expression  of  our  seeking  help  from 
God.  As  to  other  parts  of  the  body 
there  is  little  need  of  direction.  In  se- 
cret devotion,  sighs  and  groans  may  be 
allowed ;  but  in  public  these  things 
should  be  less  indulged.  If  we  use  our- 
selves to  various  motions,  or  noise  made 
by  the  hands  or  feet,  or  any  other 
parts,  it  will  tempt  others  to  think  that 
our  minds  are  not  very  intensely  en- 
gaged; or,  at  least,  it  will  appear  so  fa- 
miliar and  irreverent,  as  we  would  not 
■willingly  be  guilty  of  in  the  pi'esence  of 
our  superiors  here  on  earth. ' 

VI.  As  to  forms  of  fir  ay  er.  We  find 
this  has  been  a  matter  of  controversy 
among  divines  and  Christians,  whether 
such  ought  to  be  used,  or  whether  ex- 
tempore prayers  are  not  to  be  prefer- 
red. We  shall  state  the  arguments  on 
both  sides.  Those  who  are  advocates 
for  forms,  observe,  that  it  prevents  ab- 


surd, extravagant,  or  impious  addresses 
to  God,  as  -veil  as  the  confusion  of  ex- 
temporary prayer;  that  forms  were 
usee!  under  the  Old  Testament  dispen- 
sation ;  and,  in  proof  thereof  cite  Numb, 
vi.  24,  26.  Numb.  x.  35,  36.  On  the 
other  side  it  is  answered,  that  it  is  nei- 
ther reasonable  nor  Scriptural  to  look 
for  the  pattern  of  Christian  worship  in 
the  Mosaic  dispensation,  which,  with  all 
its  rites  and  ceremonies,  is  abrogated 
and  done  away ;  that,  though  forms 
may  be  of  use  to  children,  and  such  as 
are  vei'y  ignorant,  yet  restriction  to 
forms,  either  in  public  or  private,  does 
not  seem  Sci'iptural  or  lawful.  If  we 
look  to  the  authority  and  example  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  every  thing  is 
in  favour  of  extempore  prayer.  The 
Lord's  prayer,  it  is  observed,  was  not 
given  to  be  a  set  form,  exclusive  of  ex- 
temporary prayer.  See  Lord's  Pray- 
er. It  is  farther  argued,  that  a  form 
cramps  the  desires ;  inverts  the  time 
order  of  prayer,  making  our  words  to 
regulate  our  desires,  instead  of  our  de- 
sires regulating  our  words  ;  has  a  ten- 
dency to  make  us  formal ;  cannot  be 
suited  to  every  one's  case  ;  that  it  looks 
as  if  we  were  not  in  reality  convinced 
of  our  wants,  when  we  want  a  form  to 
express  them  ;  and,  finally,  in  answer 
to  the  two  first  argn merits,  that  it  is 
seldom  the  case  that  those  who  are 
ti-uly  sensible  of  their  condition,  and 
pray  extempore,  do  it  in  an  impious  and 
extravagant  manner ;  and  if  any  who 
have  the  gift  of  prayer  really  do  so,  and 
run  into  the  extreme  of  enthusiasm,  yet 
this  is  not  the  case  with  the  generality, 
since  an  unprejudiced  attention  to  those 
who  pray  extempore  must  convince  us, 
that,  if  their  prayers  be  not  so  elegantly 
composed  as  that  of  a  set  form,  they  are 
more  appropriate,  and  delivered  with 
more  energy  and  feeling. 

VII.  The  efficacy  of  prayer.  It  has 
been  objected,  that,  "  if  what  we  re- 
quest be  fit  for  us,  we  shall  have  it 
without  praying;  if  it  be  not  fit  for  us, 
we  cannot  obtain  it  l)y  praying."  But 
it  is  answered,  that  it  may  be  agreealjle 
to  perfect  wisdom  to  grant  that  to  our 
prayers  which  it  would  not  have  been 
agreeable  to  the  same  wisdom  to  have 
given  us  without  praving  for.  But  what 
virtue,  you  will  ask,  is  there  in  prayer, 
which  should  make  a  favour  consistent 
with  wisdom,  which  would  not  have 
been  so  without  it?  To  this  question, 
which  contains  the  whole  difficulty  at- 
tending the  subject,  the  following  possi- 
Inlities  are  offered  in  rejily  :  1.  A  favour 
gi-anted  to  prayer,  may  lie  more  apt  on 
that  very  account  to  pi-oduce  a  good  ef- 


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feet  upon  the  person  obliged.  It  may 
hold  in  the  divine  bounty,  what  expe- 
rience has  raised  into  a  proverb  in  the 
collation  of  human  benefits,  that  what 
is  obtained  without  asking,  is  oftentimes 
received  without  gratitude. — 2.  It  may 
be  consistent  with  the  wisdom  of  the 
Deity  to  withhold  his  favours  till  they 
be  asked  for,  as  an  expedient  to  encou- 
rage devotion  in  his  rational  creation,  in 
Older  thereby  to  keep  up  and  circulate 
a  knowledge  and  sense  of  their  de- 
ff'  pendency  on  him. — 3.  Prayer  has  a  na- 
tural tendency  to  amend  the  petitioner 
himself;  it  composes  the  mind,  hum- 
bles us  under  a  conviction  of  what  we 
are,  and  under  the  gracious  influence  of 
tlie  Divine  Spirit  assimilates  us  into 
the  divine  image.  Let  it  suffice,  there- 
fore, to  say,  that,  though  we  are  cer- 
tain that  God  cannot  be  operated  on,  or 
moved  as  a  fellow-creature  may  ;  that 
though  we  cannot  inform  him  of  any 
thing  he  does  not  know,  nor  add  any 
thing  to  his  essential  and  glorious  per- 
fections, by  any  services  of  ours ;  yet 
we  should  remember  that  he  has  ap- 
pointed this  as  a  mean  to  accomplish  an 
end ;  that  he  has  commanded  us  to  en- 
gage in  this  important  duty,  1  Thess.  v. 
17 ;  that  he  has  promised  his  Spirit  to 
assist  us  in  it,  Rom.  viii.  26 ;  that  the 
Bible  abounds  with  numerous  answers 
to  prayer;  and  that  the  promise  still 
relates  to  all  who  pray,  that  answers 
shall  be  ^ven.  Matt.  vii.  7.  Psal.  1.  15. 
Luke,  xviii.  1.  &c.  Phil.  iv.  6,  7.  James, 
V.  16.  IVUkins,  Hen^-y,  Watts,  on 
Prayer ;  TownsencFs  ^ine  Sermons  on 
Prayer;  Paley's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  ii.  p. 
31;  MasorCs  Student  and  Pastor,  p. 
87;  Wollaston''s  Rel.  of  Mat.  p.  122, 
124;  H.  Moore  on  Education,  ch.  1. 
vol.  ii. ;  Barro'W^j^ Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  6  ; 
Smithes  Systeni^f.  Prayer ;  Scatn/i's 
Sermon  on  Family  Religion. 

PREACHER,  one  who  discourses 
publicly  on  religious  subjects.  See  ar- 
ticles Declamation,  Eloquence, 
Minister,  and  Sermon. 

PREACHING  is  the  discoursing 
publicly  on  any  Religious  subject.  It  is 
impossible,  in  the  compass  of  this  work, 
to  give  a  complete  history  of  this  ar- 
ticle from  the  beginning  down  to  the 
present  day.  This  must  be  considered 
as  a  desideratum  in  theological  learning. 
Mr.  Robinson,  in  his  second  volume  of 
Claude's  Essay,  has  prefixed  a  brief 
dissertation  on  this  subject,  an  abridg- 
ment of  which  we  shall  here  insert, 
with  a  few  occasional  alterations. 

From  the  sacred  records  we  learn, 
that,  when  men  began  to  associate  tor 
the  purpose  of  worshipping  the  Deity, 


Enoch  prophesied,  Jude,  14,  15.  We 
have  a  very  short  account  of  this  pro- 
phet and  his  doctrine ;  enough,  how- 
ever, to  convince  us  that  he  taught  the 
principal  tnitlis  of  natural  and  revealed 
religion.  Conviction  of  sin  was  in  his 
doctrine,  and  communion  with  God  was 
exemplified  in  his  conduct.  Gen.  v.  24. 
Heb.  xi.  5,  6.  From  the  days  of  Enoch 
to  the  time  of  Moses,  each  patriarch 
Avorshipped  God  witli  his  family  ;  pro- 
bably several  assembled  at  new  moons, 
and  alternately  instructed  the  whole 
company. — Noah,  it  is  said,  was  a 
preacher  of  righteousness,  2  Pet.  ii.  5. 
1  Pet.  iii.  19,  20.  Abraham  commanded 
his  household  after  him  to  keep  the 
way  of  the  Lord,  and  to  do  justice  and 
judgment.  Gen.  xviii.  19  ;  and  Jacob, 
when  his  house  lapsed  to  idolatry,  re- 
monstrated against  it,  and  exhorted  them 
and  all  that  were  with  him  to  put  away 
strange  gods,  and  to  go  up  with  I'lim  to 
Bethel,  Gen.  x.  Gen.  xxv.  2,  3.  Mel- 
chisedek,  also  we  may  consider  as  the 
father,  the  prince,  and  the  priest  of  his 
people,  publishing  the  glad  tidings  of 
peace  and  salvation.  Gen.  xviii.  Heb.  vii. 
Moses  was  a  most  eminent  prophet 
and  preacher,  raised  up  )>y  the  authority 
of  God,  and  by  whom,  it  is  said,  came 
the  law,  John,  i.  17.  This  great  man  had 
much  at  hfeait  the  promulgation  of  his 
doctrine ;  he  directed  it  to  be  inscribed 
on  pillars,  to  be  transcribed  in  books, 
and  to  be  taught  both  in  public  and  pri- 
vate by  word  of  mouth,  Deut.  xxvin.  8. 
Deut.  vi.  9.  Deut.  xxxi.  19.  Deut.  xvii. 
18.  Numb.  V.  23.  Deut.  iv.  9.  Himself 
set  the  example  of  each ;  and  how  he 
and  Aaron  seiTnonized,  we  may  see  by 
several  parts  of  his  writings.  The  first 
discourse  was  heard  with  profound  re- 
verence and  attention ;  the  last  was 
both  uttered  and  received  in  raptui-es, 
Ex.  iv.  31.  Deut.  xxxiii.  7,  8.  Public 
preaching  does  not  appear  under  this 
(Economy  to  have  been  attached  to  the 
priesthood :  priests  were  not  officially 
preachers;  and  we  have  innumerable 
instances  of  discourses  deli^-ered  in  reli- 
gious assemblies  by  men  of  other  tribes 
besides  that  of  Levi,  Ps.  Ixviii.  11. 
Joshua  was  an  Ephraimite ;  but  being 
full  of  the  spirit  ot  wisdom,  he  gathered 
the  tribes  to  Shechem,  and  harangued 
the  people  of  God,  Deut.  xxxiv.  9. 
Joshua,  xxxiv.  Solomon  was  a  prince 
of  tlie  house  of  Judah,  Amos  a  herdsman 
of  Tekoa;  yet  both  were  preachers, 
and  one  at  least  was  a  prophet,  1  Kings, 
ii.  Amos,  vii.  14,  15.  When  .the  igno- 
rant notions  of  Pagans,  the  vices  of  their 
practice,  and  the  idolatiy  of  their  pre^ 
tended  worship,  were  in  some  sad  pS' 
30 


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474 


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riods  incorjjoratcd  into  the  Jewish  reli- 
gion by  the  princes  of  that  nation,  the 
prophets  ana  all  the  seers  protested 
against  this  apostacy,  and  they  were 
persecuted  for  so  doing.  Shemaiah 
preached  to  Rehoboam,  the  princes, 
and  all  the  people,  at  Jerusalem,  2 
Chi'on.  xii.  5.  Azariah  and  Hanani 
preached  to  Asa  and  his  army,  2  Chron. 
XV.  1,  &c.  xvi.  7.  Micaiah  to  Ahab. 
Some  of  them  opened  schools,  or  houses 
of  instruction,  and  there  to  their  disci- 
ples they  taught  the  pure  religion  of 
Moses.  At  Naioth,  in  the  suburbs  of 
Ramah,  there  was  one,  where  Samuel 
dwelt;  there  was  another  at  Jericho, 
and  a  third  at  Bethel,  to  which  Elijah 
and  Elisha  often  resorted.  Thither  the 
people  went  on  Sabbath  days  and  at 
new  moons,  and  received  public  lessons 
of  piety  and  morality,  1  Sam.  xix.  18. 
2  Kings,  ii.  3,  5.  2  Kings,  iv.  2,  3. 
Through  all  this  pei'iod  there  was  a  dis- 
mal confusion  of  the  useful  ordinance  of 
public  preaching.  Sometimes  they  had 
no  open  vision,  and  the  word  of  the 
Lord  was  precious  or  scarce :  the  peo- 
ple heard  it  only  now  and  then.  At 
other  times  they  were  left  without 
a  teacliing  priest,  and  without  law.  And, 
at  other  seasons  again,  itinerants,  both 
princes,  priests,  and  Levites,  were  sent 
thi-ough  all  the  country  to  carry  the 
book,  of  the  law,  and  to  teach  in  the 
cities.  In  a  word,  preaching  flourished 
when  pure  religion  grew ;  and  when 
the  last  decayed,  the  first  was  sup- 
pi'essed.  Moses  had  not  appropriated 
preaching  to  any  order  of  men :  per- 
sons, places,  times,  and  manners,  were 
all  left  open  and  discretional.  Many  of 
the  discourses  were  preached  in  camps 
and  courts,  in  streets,  schools,  cities, 
and  villages,  sometimes  with  great  com- 
posure and  coolness,  at  other  times  with 
vehement  action  and  rapturous  energy  ; 
sometimes  in  a  plain  blunt  style,  at  other 
times  in  all  the  magnificent  pomp  of 
Eastern  allegory.  On  some  occasions, 
the  preachers  appeared  in  public  with 
visible  signs,  with  implements  of  war, 
yokes  of  slavery,  or  something  adapted 
to  their  subject.  They  gave  lectures  on 
these,  held  them  up  to  view,  girded 
them  on,  broke  them  in  pieces,  rent 
their  garments,  rolled  in  the  dust,  and 
endeavoured,  by  all  the  methods  they 
could  devise  agreeably  to  the  customs 
of  their  country,  to  impress  the  minds 
of  their  auditors  with  the  nature  and 
importance  of  their  doctrines.  These 
men  were  highly  esteemed  by  the  pious 
part  of  the  nation ;  and  pi'inces  thought 
proper  to  keep  seers  and  others,  who 
■were  scribes,  who  read  and  expoiuidcd 


the  law,  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  29,  30.  xxxv. 
15.  Hence  false  prophets,  bad  men 
who  found  it  worth  while  to  affect  to  be 
good,  crowded  the  courts  of  princes. 
Jezebel,  an  idolatress,  had  four  hundred 
prophets  ot  Baal ;  and  Ahab,  a  pretend- 
ed worshipper  of  Jehovah,  had  as  many 
pretended  prophets  of  his  own  profes- 
sion, 2  Chron.  xviii.  5. 

When  the  Jews  were  carried  captive 
into  Babylon,  the  prophets  who  were 
with  them  inculcated  the  principles  of 
religion,  and  endeavoured  to  possess  A 
their  minds  with  an  aversion  to  idolatry;  ." 
and  to  the  success  of  preaching  we  may  ' 
attribute  the  re-conversion  of  the  Jews 
to  the  belief  and  worship  of  one  God  ;  a 
conversion  that  remains  to  this  day. 
The  Jews  have  since  fallen  into  hornd 
crimes  ;  but  they  have  never  since  this 
period  lapsed  into  idolatry,  Hosea,  2d 
and  3d  chap.  Ezekiel,  2d,  3d,  and  34th 
chap.  There  were  not  wanting,  how- 
ever, multitudes  of  false  prophets  among 
them,  whose  characters  are  strikingly 
delineated  by  the  true  prophets,  and 
which  the  reader  may  see  in  the  13th 
chapter  of  Ezekiel,  56th  Isaiah,  23d 
Jeremiah.  When  the  seventy  years  of 
the  captivity  were  expired,  the  good 
pi-ophets  and  preachers,  Zenibbabel, 
.Toshua,  Haggai,  and  others,  having  con- 
fidence in  the  word  of  God,  and  aspiring 
after  their  natural,  civil,  and  religious 
rights,  endeavoured  by  all  means  to  ex- 
tricate themselves  and  their  countr}'- 
men  from  that  mortifying  state  into 
which  the  crimes  of  their  ancestors  had 
brought  them.  They  wept,  fasted, 
prayed,  preached,  prophesied,  and  at 
lengtli  prevailed.  The  chief  instru- 
ments were  Nehemiah  and  Ezra :  the 
first  was  governor,  and  reformed  their 
civil  state ;  the  last  was  a  scribe  of  the 
law  of  the  God  of  heaven,  and  address- 
ed himself  to  ecclesiastical  matters,  in 
which  he  rendered  the  noljlest  service 
to  his  country,  and  to  all  posterity.  He 
collected  and  collated  manuscripts  of 
the  sacred  writings,  and  arranged  and 
published  the  holy  canon  in  its  present 
form .  To  this  he  added  a  second  work, 
as  necessary  as  the  former:  he  revived 
and  new-modelled  public  preaching, 
and  exemplified  his  plan  in  his  own 
person.  1  he  Jews  had  almost  lost  in 
the  seventy  years'  captivity  their  origi- 
nal language:  that  was  now  become 
dead  ;  and  they  spoke  a  jargon  made  uj) 
of  their  own  language  and  that  of  the 
Chaldeans  and  other  nations  witli  whom 
tlicy  had  been  confounded.  Formerly 
preachei's  had  only  explained  subjects; 
now  tliey  were  obliged  to  explain  words; 
words  which,  in  the  sacred  code,  were 


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become  obsolete,  equivocal,  or  dead. 
Houses  were  now  opened,  not  for  cere- 
monial worship,  as  sacrificing,  for  this 
was  confined  to  the  temple ;  but  for  mo- 
ral obedience,  as  praying,  preaching, 
reading  the  law,  divine  worship,  and  so- 
cial duties.  These  houses  were  called 
synagogues ;  the  people  i-epaired  thither 
nijorning  and  evening  for  prayer;  and 
on  sabbaths  and  festivals  the  law  was 
read  and  expounded  to  them.  We  have 
a.  short  but  beautiful  description  of  tlve 
manner  of  Ezra's  first  preaching,  Ne- 
hemiah,  viii.  Upwards  of  fifty  thou- 
sand people  assembled  in  a  sti-eet,  or 
large  square,  near  the  Water-gate.  It 
was  early  m  the  morning  of  a  sabbath 
day.  A  pulpit  of  wood,  in  the  fashion 
of  a  small  tower,  was  placed  there  on 
purpose  for  the  preacher ;  and  this  tur- 
ret was  supported  by  a  scaflFold,  or  tem- 
porary gallery,  where,  in  a  wing  on  the 
right  'hand  ot  the  pulpit,  sat  six  of  the 
principal  pi'eachers ;  and  in  another,  on 
the  left,  seven.  Thirteen  other  princi- 
pal teachers,  and  many  Levites,  were 
present  also  on  scaffolds  erected  for  the 
pui-pose,  alternately  to  officiate.  When 
Ezra  ascended  the  pulpit,  he  produced 
and  opened  the  book  of  the  law,  and  the 
whole  congregation  instantly  rose  up 
from  their  seats,  and  stood.  Then  he 
offered  up  prayer  and  praise  to  God, 
the  people  bowing  their  heads,  and  wor- 
shipping the  Lord  with  their  faces  to  the 
gi'ound ;  and,  at  the  close  of  the  pray- 
er, with  uphfted  hands,  they  solemn- 
ly pi'onounced.  Amen,  Amen.  Then, 
all  standing,  Ezra,  assisted  at  times  by 
the  Levites,  read  the  law  distinctly, 
gave  the  sense,  and  caused  them  to  un- 
derstand the  reading.  The  sermons  de- 
livered so  affected  the  hearers,  that  they 
wept  excessively ;  and  about  noon  the 
soiTOw  became  so  exuberant  and  im- 
measurable, that  it  was  thought  neces- 
sary by  the  go\'emor,  the  preacher,  and 
the  Levites,  to  restrain  it.  Go  your 
way,  said  they;  eat  the  fat,  drink  the 
sweet,  send  portions  unto  them  for  whom 
nothing  is  prepared.  The  wise  and  be- 
nevolent sentiments  of  these  noble  souls 
were  imbibed  by  the  whole  congrega- 
tion, and  fifty  thousand  troubled  hearts 
were  calmed  in  a  moment.  Home  they 
returned,  to  eat,  to  drink,  to  send  por- 
tions and  to  make  mirth,  because  they 
laad  understood  the  words  that  were  de- 
clared unto  them.  Plato  was  alive  at 
this  time,  teaching  dull  philosophy  to 
cold  academics;  but  what  was  he,  and 
what  was  Xenophon  or  Demosthenes, 
or  any  of  the  Pagan  orators,  in  compa- 
rison with  these  men  ?  From  this  period 
to  that  of  tlie  appearance  of  Jesus  Christ, 


public  preaching  was  universal ;  syna- 
gogues were  muUiplied,  vast  numbers 
attended,  and  elders  and  rulers  were 
appointed  ior  the  purpose  of  order  and 
instruction. 

The  most  celebrated  preacher  that 
arose  before  the  appearance  of  Jesus 
Christ  was  John  the  Baptist.  He  was 
commissioned  from  heaven  to  be  the 
harbinger  of  the  Messiah.  He  took 
Elijah  Tor  his  model ;  and  as  the  times 
were  very  much  like  those  in  which 
that  prophet  lived,  he  chose  a  doctrine 
and  a  method  very  much  resembling 
those  of  that  venerable  man.  His  sub- 
jects were  few,  plain,  and  important. 
His  style  was  vehement,  images  bold, 
his  deportment  solemn,  his  actions  ea- 
ger, and  his  morals  strict;  but  this 
bright  moming-star  gave  way  to  the 
illustrious  Sun  of  Righteousness,  who 
now  arose  on  a  benighted  world.  Jesus 
Christ  certainly  was  the  prince  of 
preachers.  Who  can  but  admire  the 
simplicity  and  majesty  of  his  style,  the 
beauty  of  his  images,  the  alternate  soft- 
ness and  severity  of  his  address,  the 
choice  of  his  subjects,  the  gracefulness 
of  his  deportment,  and  the  indefatiga- 
bleness  of  his  zeal  ?  Let  the  reader 
charm  and  solace  himself  in  the  study 
and  contemplation  of  the  character,  ex- 
cellency, and  dignity  of  this  best  of 
preachei's,  as  he  will  find  them  delinea- 
ted by  the  ex^angelists. 

The  apostles  exactly  copied  their  di- 
vine Master.  They  formed  multitudes 
of  religious  societies,  and  were  abun- 
dantly successful  in  their  labours.  They 
confined  their  attention  to  religion,  and 
left  the  school  to  dispute,  and  politicians 
to  intrigue.  The  doctrines  they  preach- 
ed, they  supported  entirely  by  evidence; 
and  neither  had  nor  required  such  as- 
sistance as  human  laws  or  worldly  po- 
licy, the  eloquence  of  the  schools  or  the 
terror  of  arms,  the  charm  of  money  or 
the  tricks  of  tradesmen,  could  afford 
them. 

The  apostles  being  dead,  every  thing 
came  to  pass  as  they  had  foretold.  The 
whole  Christian    system   underwent  a 
miserable   change;    preaching   shared 
the  fate  of  other  institutions,  and  this 
glory  of  the  primitive  church  was  now 
generally  degenerated.    Those  writers  •^. 
whom  we  call  the  Fathers,  however^^ 
held  up  to  view  by  some  as  models  of  '^■' 
imitation,  do  not  deserve  that  indiscri-  ' 
minate  praise  ascribed  to  them.    Chris- 
tianity,   it    is   trae,   is   found   in   their 
writings;  but   how  sadly  incorporated 
with  Pagan  philosophy  and  Jewish  al- 
legory !    It  must,  mdeed,  be  allowed, 
ft  tliat,  iQ  general,  the  simplicity  of  Chris- 


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PRE 


tiajiity  was  maintained,  though  under 
gradual   decay,  durinsj  the  three  first 
centuries.   The  next  five  centuries  pro- 
duced many  pious  and  excellent  preach- 
ers   both    in    the    Latin    and    Greek 
churches,  though  the   doctrine   conti- 
nued to  degenerate.    The  Greek  pul- 
pit was   adorned  with   some   eloquent 
orators.     Basil,  bishop  of  Cssarea,  John 
Chrysostom,  preacher  at  Antioch,  and 
afterwards  patriarch  (as  he  was  called) 
of  Constantinople,  and  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen,  who  all   flourished  in  the   fourth 
century,  seem  to  have  led  the  fashion  of 
preaching  in  the  Greek  church :  Jerom 
and  Augustin  did  the  same  in  the  Latin 
church.  For  some  time,  preaching  was 
common   to  bishops,   elders,   deacons, 
and  private  brethren  in  the  pi-imitive 
church :  in  process,  it  was  restrained  to 
the  bishop,  and  to  such  as  he  should  ap- 
point.   They  called  the   appointment 
ordination  ;  and  at  last  attached  I  know 
not  what  ideas  of  mystery  and  influence 
to  the  word,  and  of  dominion  to  the  bi- 
shop who  pronounced  it.    When  a  bi- 
shop or  preacher  travelled,  he  claimed 
no  authority  to  exercise  the  duties  of 
his  function,  unless  he  were  invited  by 
the  churches  where  he  attended  public 
worship.    The  first  preachers  differed 
mvich  in  pulpit  action ;  the  gi'eater  part 
used  very  moderate  and  sober  gesture. 
They  delivered  their  sermons  all  ex- 
tempore, while  thei'e  were  notaries  who 
took  down  what  they  said.    Sermons  in 
those  days  were  all  in  the  vulgar  tongue. 
The  Greeks  preached  in   Greek,  the 
Latins  in  Latin.    They  did  not  preach 
by  the  clock  (so  to  speak,)  but  were 
short    or    long    as  they  saw  occasion, 
though   an  hour  was   about   the  usual 
time.    Sermons   were    generally   both 
preached  and  heard  standing;  but  some- 
times both  speaker  and  auditors   sat, 
especially  the  aged  and  the  infirm.  The 
fathers  were  fond  of  allegory  ;  for  Ori- 
gen,  that   everlasting    allegorizer,  had 
set  them  the  example.    Before  preach- 
ing, the  preacher  usually  went  into  a 
vestry  to  pray,  and  afterwards  to  speak 
to  such   as  came   to   salute  him.    He 
prayed  with  his  eyes  shut  in  the  pulpit. 
The  first  word  the  preacher  uttered  to 
the  people,  when  he  ascended  the  pul- 
pit, was  "Peace  be  with  you,"  or  "The 
grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  love 
of  God,  and  the  fellowship  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  be  with  yon  all ;"  to  which  the 
assembly  at  first  added,  "  Amen :"  and, 
in  after  timi-s,  they   answered,  "And 
with  thy  spirit."  Degenerate,  however, 
as  these  days  were  in  comparison  with 
those  of  the  apostles,  yet  they  were  j^old- 
en  ages  in  comparison  with  the  times 


that  followed,  when  metaphysical  rea- 
sonings, mystical  divinity,  yea,  Aristo- 
telian categories,  and  reading  the  lives 
of  saints,  were  substituted  in  the  place 
of  sermons.  The  pulpit  became  a  stage, 
where  ludicrous  priests  obtained  the 
vulgar  laugh  by  the  lowest  kind  of  wit, 
especially  at  the  festivals  of  Christmas 
and  Easter. 

But  the  gloiious  reformation  was  the 
offspring  of  preaching,  by  which  man- 
kind were  informed :  there  was  a  stan- 
dard, and  the  religion  of  the  times  was 
put  to  trial  by  it.  The  avidity  of  the 
common  people  to  read  Scripture,  and 
to  hear  it  expounded,  was  wonderful ; 
and  the  Papists  were  so  fully  convinced 
of  the  benefit  of  frequent  public  instinic- 
tion,  that  they  who  were  justly  called 
unpreaching  prelates,  and  whose  pul- 

E its,  to  use  an  expression  of  Latimer,  nad 
een  bells  ivithoiU  clappers  for  many  a 
long  year,  were  obliged  for  shame  to 
set  up  regular  preaching  again. 

The  church  of  Rome  has  produced 
some  great  preachers  since  the  refor- 
mation, but  not  equal  to  the  reformed 
preachers;  and  a  question  naturally 
arises  here,  which  it  would  be  unpar- 
donable to  pass  over  in  silence,  concern- 
ing the  singular  effect  of  the  preaching 
of  the  reformed,  which  was  general, 
national,  universal  reformation. 

In  the  darkest  times  of  popery  there 
had  arisen  now  and  then  some  famous 
popular  preachers,  who  had  zealously 
inveighed  against  the  vices  of  their 
times,  and  whose  sermons  had  produced 
sudden  and  amazing  effects  on  their  au- 
ditors, but  all  these  effects  had  died 
away  with  the  preachers  who  produced 
them,  and  all  things  had  gone  back  into 
the  old  state.  Law,  learning,  commerce, 
society  at  large,  had  not  been  improved. 
— Here  a  new  scene  opens ;  preachers 
arise  less  popular,  perhaps  less  indefa- 
tigable and  cxemplaiy ;  their  sermons 
produce  less  striking  immediate  effects ; 
and  yet  their  auditors  go  away,  and 
agree  by  whole  nations  to  reform. 

Jerome  Savonarola,  Jei'ome  Narni, 
Capistran,  Connecte,  and  many  others, 
had  produced  by  their  sermons,  great 
immediate  effects.  When  Connecte 
preached,  the  ladies  lowered  their  head- 
dresses, and  committed  quilled  caps  hy 
hundreds  to  the  flames.  When  Nami 
taught  the  populace  in  Lent,  from  the 
pulpits  of  Rome,  half  the  city  went  from 
his  sermons,  crying  along  the  streets. 
Lord  have  mercy  npon  us;  Christ  have 
mercy  upon  us;  so  that  in  only  one  pas- 
sion week,  two  thousand  crowns  worth 
of  ropes  were  sold  to  make  scourges 
with;  and  when  he  preached  before  the 


PRE 


477 


PRE 


pope  to  cardinals  and  bishops,  and  paint- 
ed the  ci'ime  of  non-residence  in  its  own 
colours,  he  frightened  thirty  or  forty 
bishops  who  heard  him,  instantly  home 
to  their  dioceses.  In  the  pulpit  of  the 
university  of  Salamanca  he  induced  eight 
hundred  students  to  quit  all  worldly 
prospects  of  honour,  riches,  and  plea- 
sures, and  to  become  penitents  in  di- 
vers monasteries.  Some  of  this  class 
were  martyrs  too.  We  know  the  fate 
of  Savonarola,  and  more  might  be  add- 
ed: but  all  lamented  the  momentary 
duration  of  the  effects  produced  by  their 
labours.  Narni  himseif  was  so  disgusted 
with  his  office,  that  he  renounced  preach- 
ing, and  shut  himself  up  in  his  cell  to 
mouiTi  over  his  irreclaimable  contempo- 
raries ;  for  bishops  went  back  to  court, 
and  rope-makers  lay  idle  again. 

Our  reformers  taught  all  the  good 
doctrines  which  had  been  taught  by 
these  men,  and  they  added  two  or  three 
moi-e,  by  which  they  laid  the  axe  to  the 
root  of  apostacy,  and  produced  general 
information.  Instead  of  appealing  to 
popes,  and  canons,  and  founders,  and 
lathers,  they  only  quoted  them,  and  re- 
ferred their  auditors  to  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures for  lanv.  Pope  Leo  X.  did  not 
know  this  when  he  told  Prierio,  who 
complained  of  Luther's  heresy.  Friar 
JMartin  had  a  fine  genius!  They  also 
taught  the  people  wnat  little  they  knew 
of  Christian  liberty;  and  so  led  them 
into  a  belief  that  they  might  follow  their 
own  ideas  in  religion,  without  the  con- 
sent of  a  confessor,  a  diocesan,  a  pope, 
or  a  council.  They  went  farther,  and 
laid  the  stress  of  all  religion  on  justify- 
ing faith.  This  obliged  the  people  to 
get  acquainted  with  Christ,  the  object 
of  their  faith  ;  and  thus  they  were  led 
into  the  knowledge  of  a  character  alto- 
gether different  from  what  they  saw  in 
their  old  guides ;  a  character  which  it 
is  impossible  to  know,  and  not  to  admire 
and  imitate.  The  old  papal  popular 
sermons  had  gone  off  like  a  charge  of 
gunpowder,  producing  only  a  fright,  a 
bustle,  and  a  black  face ;  out  those  of 
» tl\e  netve  learninge,  as  the  monks  called 
them,  were  small  hearty  seeds,  which, 
being  sown  m  the  honest  hearts  of  the 
multitude,  and  watered  with  the  dew  of 
heaven,  softly  vegetated,  and  imper- 
ceptibly unfolded  blossoms  and  fmits  of 
inestimable  value. 

These  eminent  servants  of  Christ  ex- 
celled in  various  talents,  both  in  the 
f»ulpit  and  in  private.  Knox  came  down 
ike  a  thunder-storm  ;  Calvin  resembled 
a  whole  day's  set  I'ain;  Beza  was  a 
shower  of  the  softest  dew.  Old  Lati- 
mer, in  a  coarse  frieze  gown,  trudged 


afoot,  his  Testament  hanging  at  one  end 
of  his  leathern  girdle,  and  his  spectacles 
at  the  other,  and  without  ceremony  in- 
stiiicted  the  people  in  rustic  style  from 
a  hollow  tree  ;  while  the  courtly  Ridley 
in  satin  and  fur  taught  the  same  princi- 
ples in  the  cathedral  of  the  metrcpolis. 
Cranmer,  though  a  timorous  man,  ven- 
tured to  give  king  Henry  the  Eighth  a 
New  Testament,  with  the  label,  Whore- 
7nongers  and  adulterers  God  loill 
judge;  while  Knox,  who  said,  there  was 
nothing  in  the  pleasant  face  of  a  lady  to 
affray  him,  assured  the  queen  of  Scots, 
that,  "  If  there  were  any  spai-k  of  the 
Spirit  of  God,  yea,  of  honesty  and  wis- 
dom in  her,  she  would  not  be  offended 
with  his  affirming  in  his  sermons,  that 
the  diversions  of  her  court  were  dia- 
bolical crimes, — evidences  of  impiety 
or  hisanity."  These  men  were  not  all 
accomplished  scholars;  but  they  all 
gave  proof  enough  that  they  were 
honest,  hearty,  and  disinterested  in  the 
cause  of  religion. 

All  Eui'ope  produced  great  and  ex- 
cellent preachers,  and  some  of  the  moi'e 
studious  and  sedate  reduced  their  art 
of  public  preaching  to  a  system,  and 
taught  rales  of  a  good  sermon.  Bishop 
Wilkins  enumerated,  in  1646,  upwards 
of  sixty  who  had  written  on  the  subject. 
Several  of  these  are  valuable  treatises, 
full  of  edifying  instructions ;  but  all  are 
on  a  scale  too  large,  and,  by  affecting  to 
treat  of  the  whole  office  of  a  minister, 
leave  that  capital  branch,  public  preach- 
ing, unfinished  and  vague. 

One  of  the  most  important  articles  of 
pulpit  science,  that  which  gives  life  and 
energy  to  all  the  rest,  and  without  which 
all  the  rest  are  nothing  but  a  A^ain  pa- 
rade, either  neglected  or  exploded  in 
all  these  treatises.  It  is  essential  to  the 
ministration  of  the  divine  word  by  pub- 
lic preaching,  that  preachers  be  allowed 
to  form  principles  of  their  own,  and 
that  their  sermons  contain  their  real 
sentiments,  the  fruits  of  their  own  in- 
tense thought  and  meditation.  Preach- 
ing cannot  be  in  a  good  state  in  those 
communities,  where  the  shameful  traf- 
fic of  buying  and  selling  manuscript  ser- 
mons is  carried  on.  Moreover,  all  the 
animating  encouiagements  that  arise 
from  a  free  unbiassed  choice  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  from  their  uncontaminated,  dis- 
interested applause,  should  be  left  open 
to  stimulate  a  generous  youth  to  excel. 
Command  a  man  to  utter  what  he  has 
no  inclination  to  propagate,  and  what  he 
does  not  even  believe ;  threaten  him,  at 
the  same  time,  with  all  the  miseries  of 
life,  if  he  dare  to  follow  his  own  ideas, 
and  to  promulgate  his  own  sentiments. 


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and  you  pass  a  sentence  of  death  on  all 
he  says.  He  does  declaim  ;  but  all  is 
languid  and  cold,  and  he  lays  his  system 
out  as  an  undertaker  does  the  dead. 

Since  the  reformers,  we  have  had 
multitudes  who  have  entered  into  their 
views  with  disinterestedness  and  suc- 
cess ;  and,  in  the  present  times,  both  in 
the  church  and  among  dissenters,  names 
could  be  mentioned  which  would  do 
honour  to  any  nation ;  for  though  there 
are  too  many  who  do  not  fill  up  that 
important  station  with  proportionate 
piety  and  talents,  yet  we  have  men  who 
are  conspicuous  for  their  extent  of 
knowledge,  depth  of  experience,  ori- 
ginality of  thought,  fervency  of  zeal, 
consistency  of  deportment,  and  great 
usefulness  in  the  Christian  church. 
May  their  numbers  still  be  increased, 
and  their  exeitions  in  the  cause  of  truth 
he  eminently  crowned  with  the  divine 
Messing  I  See  Robinson''s  Clajide,  vol.  li. 
preface  ;  and  books  recommended  un- 
der article  Minister. 

PREADAMITE,  a  denomination 
given  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth, 
conceived  by  some  people  to  have  lived 
before  Adam. 

Isaac  de  la  Pereyra,  in  1655,  publish- 
ed a  book  to  e^^ince  the  reality  of  Pread- 
amites,  by  which  he  gained  a  considera- 
ble number  of  proselytes  to  the  opinion : 
but  the  answer  of  Demarets,  pi'ofessor 
of  theology  at  Groningen,  published  the 
year  following,  put  a  stop  to  its  pi'o- 
gress,  though  Pereyra  made  a  reply. 

His  system  was  this.  The  Jews  he 
calls  ./iclamites,  and  supposes  them  to 
have  issued  from  Adam  ;  and  gives  the 
title  Py'cadamites  to  the  Gentiles,  whom 
he  supposes  to  have  been  a  long  time 
before  Adam.  But  this  being  express- 
ly contrary  to  the  first  words  of  Gene- 
sis, Pereyra  had  recourse  to  the  fabu- 
lous antiquities  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Chaldeans,  and  to  some  idle  rabbins, 
who  imagined  there  had  been  another 
world  before  that  described  by  Moses. 
He  was  apprehended  by  the  inquisition 
in  Flanders,  and  very  roughly  used, 
though  in  the  service  of  the  dauphin. 
But  he  appealed  from  their  sentence  to 
Rome,  whither  he  went  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  VII.,  and  where  he  printed 
a  retraction  of  his  book  of  Preadam- 
ites. 

The  arguments  against  the  Preadam- 
ites  are  these.  The  sacred  history  of  j 
Moses  assures  us  that  Adam  and  Eve 
were  the  first  persons  that  were  created 
on  the  earth,  Gen.  i.  26.  Gen.  ii.  7.  Our 
Saviour  confirmed  this  when  he  said, 
"  From  the  beginning  of  the  creation 
God  made  them,  male   and  female," 


Mark,  x.  6.  It  is  undeniable  that  lie 
speaks  this  of  Adam  and  Eve,  because 
in  the  next  verse  he  uses  the  same  words 
as  those  in  Gen.  ii.  24.  "Thei-efore  shall 
a  man  leave  his  father  and  mother,  and 
cleave  unto  his  wife."  It  is  also  clear 
from  Gen.  iii.  20,  where  it  is  said,  that 
"  Adam  called  his  wife's  name  Eve,  be- 
cause she  was  the  mother  of  all  living;" 
that  is,  she  was  the  source  and  root  of 
all  men  and  women  in  the  world ;  which 
plainly  intimates  that  there  was  no  other 
woman  that  was  such  a  mother.  Fi- 
nally, Adam  is  expressly  called  twice, 
by  the  apostle  Paul,  the  Jirst  many 
I'Cor.  XV.  45,  47. 

PRECEPT,  a  rule  given  by  a  supe- 
rior; a  direction  or  command.  The 
firecejits  of  religion,  says  Saurin,  are  as 
essential  as  the  doctrines;  and  religion 
will  as  certainly  sink,  if  the  morality  be 
subverted,  as  ir  the  theology  be  under- 
mined. The  doctrines  are  only  pro- 
posed to  us  as  the  ground  of  our  duty. 
See  Doctrine. 

PREDESTINARIANS,  those  who 
believe  in  predestination.  See  Pre- 
destination. 

PREDESTINATION  is  the  decree 
of  God,  whereby  he  hath  for  his  own 
glory  fore-ordained  whatever  comes  to 
pass.  The  verb  predestinate  is  of  Latin 
original  {firxdestino,)  and  signifies  in 
that  tongue  to  deliberate  betore-hand 
with  one's  self  how  one  shall  act,  and, 
in  consequence  of  such  deliberation,  to 
constitute,  fore-ordain,  and  predeter- 
mine, where,  when,  how,  and  by  whom 
any  thing  shall  be  done,  and  to  what  end 
it  shall  be  done.  So  the  Greek  word 
Trpoopi^to,  which  exactly  answers  to  the 
English  word  predestinate,  and  is  ren- 
dered by  it,  signifies  to  resolve  before- 
hand with  one's  self  what  shall  be  done, 
and  before  the  thing  resolved  on  is  ac- 
tually effected ;  to  appoint  it  to  some 
certain  use,  and  direct  it  to  some  deter- 
minate end.  This  doctrine  has  been  the 
occasion  of  considerable  disputes  and 
controversies  among  divines.  On  the 
one  side  it  has  been  observed,  that  it  is 
impossible  to  reconcile  it  with  our  ideas 
of  the  justice  and  goodness  of  God,  that 
it  makes  God  to  be  the  author  of  sin, 
destroys  moral  distinction,  and  renders 
all  our  efforts  useless.  Predestinarians 
deny  these  consequences,  and  endea- 
vour to  prove  tliis  doctrine  fi-om  tlie 
consideration  of  the  perfections  of  the 
divine  nature,  and  from  Scripture  testi- 
mony. If  his  knowledge,  say  they,  be 
infinite  and  unchangeable,  he  must  have 
known  every  thing  from  eternity.  If  we 
allow  the  attribute  of  prescience,  the 
idea  of  a  decree  miRt  certainly  be  bjj- 


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PRE 


Tieved  also,  for  how  can  an  action  that 
is  really  to  come  to  pass  be  foreseen,  if 
it  be  not  determined:'  God  knew  every 
thing  from  the  beginning ;  but  this  he 
could  not  have  known  if  he  had  not  so 
determined  it.  If,  also,  God  be  infinitely 
wise,  it  cannot  be  conceived  that  he 
would  leave  things  at  random,  and  have 
no  plan.  He  is  a  God  of  order,  and  this 
o)-der  he  observes  as  strictly  in  the  mo- 
ral as  in  the  natural  world,  however 
confused  things  may  appear  to  us.  To 
conceive  otherwise  of  God,  is  to  degrade 
him,  and  is  an  insult  to  his  perfections. 
If  he,  then,  be  wise  and  unchangeable, 
no  new  idea  or  purpose  can  arise  in  his 
mind;  no  alteration  of  his  plan  can  take 
place,  upon  condition  of  his  creatures 
acting  in  this  or  that  way.  To  say  that 
this  doctrine  makes  him  the  author  of 
sin,  is  not  justifiable.  We  all  allow  om- 
nipotence to  be  an  attribute  of  Deity, 
and  that  by  this  attribute  he  could  have 
pi'evented  sin  from  entering  into  the 
world,  had  he  chosen  it ;  yet  we  see  he 
did  not.  Now  he  is  no  more  the  au- 
thor of  sin  in  one  case  than  the  other. 
May  we  not  ask,  Why  does  he  suffer 
those  inequalities  of  Providence .-'  Why 
permit  whole  nations  to  lie  in  idolatry 
for  ages  ;•  W^hy  leave  men  to  the  most 
ci-uel  barbarities  ?  Why  punish  the  sins 
of  the  fathers  in  the  children .''  In  a 
word,  Why  permit  the  world  at  large 
to  be  subject  to  pains,  crosses,  losses, 
evils  of  eveiy  kind,  and  that  for  so  many 
thousands  of  years  ?  And,  yet,  will  any 
dare  call  the  JDeity  unjust.-'  The  fact  is, 
our  finite  minds  know  but  little  of  the 
nature  of  divine  justice,  or  any  other  of 
his  attributes.  But,  supposing  thei'e  are 
difficulties  in  this  subject  (and  what 
subject  is  without  it .'')  the  Scripture 
abounds  with  passages  which  at  once 
prove  the  doctrine,  Matt.  xxv.  34.  Rom. 
viii.  29,  30.  Eph.  i.  3,  6,  11.  2  Tim.  i.  9. 
2  Thess.  ii.  13.  1  Pet.  i.  1,  2.  John  vi. 
37.  John  xvii.  2  to  24.  Rev.  xiii.  8.  Rev. 
xvii.  8.  Dan.  iv.  35.  1  Thess.  v.  19. 
Matt.  xi.  26.  Exod.  iv.  21.  Prov.  xvi.  4. 
Acts  xiii.  48.  The  moral  uses  of  this 
doctrine  are  these.  1.  It  hides  pride  from 
man. — 2.  Excludes  the  idea  of  chance. 
— 3.  Exalts  the  grace  of  God. — 4.  Ren- 
ders salvation  certain. — 5.  Affords  be- 
lievers gi'eat  consolation.  See  Decrees 
OF  God  ;  Necessity  ;  King,  Topla- 
dy.  Cooper,  and  Tucker,  on  Predesti- 
nation; Burnet  on  17  Art.;  Whitby  and 
Gill  on  the  Five  Points;  Wesley's 
Pred.  considered ;  Hill's  Logica  Wes-  I 
leiensis ;  Edwards  07i  the  Will;  Polhill\ 
on  the  Decrees;  Edivards's  Ve7itas\ 
Redux ;  Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  v.  ser.  | 
13;  Dr.   Willmns's  Sermon  on  Pred.\ 


PRE-EXISTENCE  OF  JESUS 
CHRIST,  is  his  existence  before  he 
was  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  That  he 
really  did  exist  before,  is  plain  from 
John  iii.  13.  John  vi.  50,  Sec.  John  xvii. 
John  viii.  58.  1  John  i.  4  :  but  there  are 
various  opinions  respecting  this  exist- 
ence. Some  acknowledge,  that  in  Je- 
sus Christ  there  is  a  divine  nature,  a  ra- 
tional soul,  and  a  human  body.  His 
body,  they  think,  was  formed  in  the 
Virgin's  womb ;  his  human  soul,  they 
suppose,  was  the  first  and  most  excei- 
lent  of  all  the  works  of  God  ;  was 
brought  into  existence  before  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world,  and  subsisted  in  hap- 
py union  in  heaven  with  the  second  per- 
son in  the  Godhead,  till  his  incai'nation. 
These  divines  differ  from  those  called 
Arians,  for  the  latter  ascribe  to  Christ 
only  a  created  deity,  whereas  the  former 
hold  his  true  and  proper  divinity  :  they 
differ  from  the  Socinians,  who  believe 
no  existence  of  Christ  before  his  incar- 
nation ;  they  differ  from  the  Sabellians, 
who  only  own  a  trinity  of  names :  they 
differ,  also,  from  the  generally  received 
opinion,  which  is,  that  the  human  soul 
began  to  exist  in  his  mother's  womb,  in 
exact  conformity  to  that  likeness  unto 
his  brethren,  of  which  St.  Paul  speaks, 
Heb.  ii.  17.  The  writers  in  favour  of 
the  pre-existence  of  Jesus  Christ's  hu- 
man soul  recommend  their  thesis  by 
these  arguments. 

1.  Christ  is  represented  as  his  Father's 
messenger,  or  angel,  being  distinct  from 
his  Fathei',  sent  by  his  Father  long  be- 
fore his  incarnation,  to  perform  actions 
which  seem  to  be  too  low  for  the  dignity 
of  pure  Godhead.  The  appearances  of 
Christ  to  the  patriarchs  are  described 
like  the  appearances  of  an  angel,  or  man 
really  distinct  from  God ;  yet  such  a 
one,  in  whom  God,  cr  Jehovah,  had  a 
peculiar  indwelling,  or  with  whom  the 
divine  nature  had  a  personal  union. 

2.  Christ,  when  he  came  into  the 
world,  is  said,  in  several  passages  of 
Scripture,  to  have  divested  himself  tk" 
some  glory  which  he  had  before  his  in- 
carnation. Now  if  there  had  existed 
before  this  time  nothing  but  his  divine 
nature,  this  divine  nature  could  not  pro- 
perly divest  itself  of  any  glory.  I  have 
glorified  thee  on  earth;  I  have  finished 
the  work  thou  gavest  me  to  do.  And 
noKV,  0  Father,  glorify  thou  me  with 
thine  own  self,  with  the  glory  which  1 
had  with  thee  before  the  worid  was. — 
Ye  know  the  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  that  though  he  was  rich,  yet  for 
your  sakes  he  Became  poor,  that  tje 
through  h's  poverty  might  he  rich^ 
John  xvii.  4,  5.  2  Cor.  viii.  9.    It  cannot 


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be  said  of  God  that  he  became  poor :  he 
is  infinitely  self-sufficient ;  he  is  neces- 
sai'Uy  and  eternally  rich  in  perfections 
and  glories.  Nor  can  it  be  said  of  Christ 
as  man,  that  he  was  rich,  if  he  were 
never  in  a  richer  state  before,  than 
wliile  he  was  on  earth. 

It  seems  needful  that  the  soul  of  Christ 
should  pre-exist,  that  it  might  have  an 
opportunity  to  give  i*^s  previous  actual 
consent  to  the  great  and  painful  under- 
taking of  atonement  for  our  sins.  It  was 
the  human  soul  of  Christ  that  endured 
the  weakness  and  pain  of  his  infant 
state,  all  the  labours  and  fatigues  of  life, 
the  reproaches  of  men,  and  the  suft'er- 
ings  of  death.  The  divine  nature  is  in- 
capable of  suffering.  The  covenant  of 
redemption  between  the  Father  and 
the  Son  is  therefore  represented  as  be- 
ing made  before  the  foundation  of  the 
■world.  To  suppose  that  simple  deity  or 
the  divine  essence,  which  is  the  same  in 
all  the  three  personalities,  should  make 
a  covenant  with  itself,  is  inconsistent. 

Christ  is  the  angel  to  whom  God  was 
in  a  peculiar  manner  united,  and  who  m 
this  union  made  all  the  divine  appear- 
ances related  in  the  Old  Testament. 

God  is  often  represented  in  Scripture 
as  appearing  in  a  visible  manner,  and 
assuming  a  human  form.  See  Gen.  iii. 
8.  xvii.  i.  xxviii.  12.  xxxii.  24.  Exod.  ii. 
3,  and  a  variety  of  other  passages. 

The  Lord  Jehovah,  when  he  came 
down  to  visit  men,  carried  some  ensign 
of  divine  majesty :  he  was  surrounded 
with  some  splendid  appeai'ance.  Such 
a  light  often  appeared  at  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  fixed  its  abode  on  the 
ark,  between  the  cherubims.  It  was  by 
the  Jews  called  the  Shekmah,  i.  e.  the 
habitation  of  God.  Hence  he  is  de- 
scribed as  d'nveUiris^  in  light  and  clothed 
ivith  light  as  with  a  garment.  In  the 
midst  of  this  brightness  there  seems  to 
have  been  sometimes  a  hviman  shape 
and  figure.  It  was  probably  of  this  hea- 
venly light  that  Christ  divested  himself 
when  he  was  made  flesh.  With  this  he 
was  covered  at  his  transfiguration  in 
the  Mount,  when  his  garments  were 
white  as  the  light ;  and  at  his  ascension 
into  heaven,  wlien  a  Ijright  cloud  receiv- 
ed, or  invested  him  :  and  when  he  ap- 
peared to  John,  Rev.  i.  13.  and  it  was 
with  tliis  he  prayed  his  Father  would 
glorify  him. 

Sometimes  the  great  and  blessed  God 
appeared  in  tlic  form  of  a  man  or  angd. 
It  IS  evident  that  the  true  God  resided 
in  this  man  or  angel ;  because  on  ac- 
count of  this  union  to  i)roper  deity,  the 
angel  calls  himself  God,  the  Lord  (iod. 
He  assumes  Uic   most  exalted  names 


and  characters  of  Godhead.  And  the 
spectators,  and  sacred  historians,  it  is 
evident,  considered  him  as  true  and 
proper  God :  they  paid  him  the  highest 
worship  and  obedience.  He  is  properly 
stjded  the  angel  of  God's  presence — 
The  (messenger  o\)  angel  of  the  cove- 
nant, Isa.  Ixxii.  1.  Mai.  iii.  1. 

The  same  angel  of  the  Lord  was  the 
paiticular  God  and  King  of  the  Israel- 
ites. It  was  he  who  made  a  covenant 
with  the  patriarchs,  who  appeared  to 
Moses  in  the  burnmg  bush,  who  re- 
deemed the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  who 
conducted  them  through  the  wilderness, 
who  gave  the  law  at  Sinai,  and  trans- 
acted the  affairs  of  the  ancient  church. 

The  angels  who  have  appeared  since 
our  blessed  Saviour  became  incarnate, 
have  never  assumed  the  names,  titles, 
characters,  or  worship,  belonging  to 
God.  Hence  we  may  infer  that  the  an- 
gel who,  under  the  Old  Testament, 
assumed  divine  titles,  and  accepted 
religious  worship,  was  that  peculiar 
angel  of  God's  presence,  in  whom 
God  resided,  or  who  was  united  to 
the  Godhead  in  a  peculiar  manner; 
even  the  pre-existent  soul  of  Christ, 
who  afterwards  took  flesh  and  blood 
upon  him,  and  was  called  Jesus  Christ 
on  earth. 

Christ  represents  himself  as  one  with 
the  Father:  land  the  Father  are  one, 
John,  X.  30.  xiv.  10,  11.  There  is,  we 
may  hence  infer,  such  a  peculiar  union 
between  God  and  the  man  Christ  Jesus, 
both  in  his  pre-existent  and  incarnate 
state,  that  he  may  be  properly  called 
God-?nati  in  one  complex  person. 

Among  those  expressions  of  Scripture 
which  discover  the  pi'e-existcnce  of 
Christ,  there  are  several  from  which  we 
may  deri\e  a  certain  pvoof  of  his  divi- 
nity. Such  are  those  places  in  the  Old 
Testament,  where  the  angel  who  a]j- 
peared  to  the  ancients  is  called  God,  the 
jilmighty  God,  Jehovah,  the  Lord  of 
Hosts,  I  am  that  I  am,  Sec. 

Dr.  Watts  supposes,  that  the  doctrine 
of  the  pre-existence  of  the  soul  of  ('hrist 
explains  dark  and  difficult  scrijjtures, 
and  discovers  many  beauties  and  pro- 
prieties of  expression  in  the  word  of 
God,  which  on  any  other  plan  lie  unob- 
served :  For  instance,  in  Col.  i.  15,  8cc. 
Christ  is  described  as  tlie  image  of  the 
invisible  God,  tlie  first-born  of  every 
creature.  His  l)cing  the  image  of  the  in- 
visible God  carinot  refer  meren/  to  his 
divine  nature;  for  that  is  as  invisible  in 
the  Son  as  in  the  Father :  therefore  it 
seems  to  refer  to  his  pre-existent  soul 
in  union  with  tlie  Godhead.  Again : 
when  mrtn  i.s  said  to  be  created  in  tUe 


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image  of  Gcd,  Gen.  i.  2.  it  may  refer  to 
■  AG  God-man,  to  Christ  in  his  pre-ex- 
istent  state.  God  says,  Let  us  make 
man  in  our  image,  after  our  likeness. 
The  word  is  redoubled,  perhaps  to  inti- 
n.ate  that  Adam  was  made  in  the  like- 
i.ess  of  the  human  soul  of  Christ,  as  well 
us  that  he  bore  something  of  the  image 
and  resemblance  of  the  divine  nature. 

On  the  other  side  it  is  affirmed,  that  i 
this  doctrine  of  the  pre-existence  of  the 
human  soul  of  Christ  weakens  and  sub- 
verts that  of  his  personality.  1.  A  pure 
intelligent  spirit,  say  they,'  the  first,  tb 


J^'etv-house,  was  erected  in  Lincoln- 
shire, by  Peter  d_e  Saulia,  and  dedicated 
to  St.  Martial.  In  t\vi  reign  of  Edward 
I.  this  order  had  twenty-seven  monaste- 
ries in  England. 

PRESBYTER.  See  next  article; 
and  articles  Deacon,  Elder. 

PRESBYTERIANS.  The  title  Pres- 
byterian comes  from  the  Greek  word 
n?£o-poT£pj!,  which  signtiies  senior  or  el- 
der, intimating  that  the  government  of 
the  church  in  the  New  Testament  was 
by  presbyteries,  that  is,  by  association 
of  ministers  and  niling  elders,  possessed 


most  ancient,  and  the  most  excellent  of  ij  all  of  equal  powers,  without  any  supe 
creatures,  created  before  the  fcunda-  |  riority  among  them,  either  in  office  or 
tion  of  the  world,  so  exactly  resembles  :|  order.  The  Presbyterians  believe,  that 
the  second  person  of  the  Arian  trinity,  jj  the  authority  of  their  ministers  to  preach 
that  it  is  impossible  to  show  the  least  {.  the  Gospel,  to  administer  the  sacra- 
difference,  except  in  name. — 2.  The  ,  ments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  sup- 
pre-existent  intelligence  supposed  in  |j  per,  and  to  feed  the  flock  of  Christ,  is 
this  doctrine,  is  so  confounded  with  |  derived  from  the  Holy  Ghost  by  the 
those  other  intelligences  called  angels,  i!  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the  presby- 
that  tiiere  is  great  danger  of  mistaking  i;  tery ;  and  they  oppose  the  independent 
this  human  soul  for  an  angel,  and  so  of  Ij  scheme  of  the  common  rights  of  Chris- 
making  the  person  of  Christ  to  consist  'I  tians  by  the  same  arguments  which  ai"e 
of  three  natui-es. — 3.  If  Jesus  Christ  J!  used  for  that  purpose  by  the  Episcopa- 
had  nothing  in  common  like  the  rest  of  ilians.  They  affirm,  hov%ever,  that  there 
mankind  except  a  body,  how  could  this  Ij  is  no  order  in  the  church  as  established 
semi-conformity  make'him a 7-ec/ man.'' "by  Christ  and  his  apostles  superior  to 
— 4.  The  passages  quoted  in  proof  of  il that  of  presbyters;  that  all  ministers 
the  pre-existence  of  the  human  soul  of  il  being  ambassadors  of  Christ,  are  equal 
Jesus  Christ  are  of  the  same  sort  with  1  by  their  commission;  that  presbyter 
those  which  others  allege  in  proof  of  i!  and  bishop,  though  different  words,  are 
the  pre-existence  of  all  human  souls. —  ij  of  the  same  import ;  and  that  prelacy 
5.  This  opinion,  b}'  ascribing  the  dignity  I!  was  gradually  established  upon  the  pri- 
of  the  work  of  redemption  to  this  sub-  I  mitive  practice  of  making  the  ?;2oaVra/or 
lime  human  soul,  detracts  from  the  deity  !!  or  speaker  of  the  presbyteiy  a  perma- 
of  Christ,  and  renders  the  last  as  pas-  |j  nent  officer. 

sive  as  the  first  active. — 6.  This  notion  |  These  positions  they  maintain  against 
is  contrary  to  Scripture.  St.  Paul  says,  'i  the  Episcopalians  by  the  following 
in  all  things  it  behoved  him  to  be  made  jj  Scriptural  arguments. — They  observe. 


like  his  brethren:  he  partook  of  all  our 
infirmities,  except  sin.    St.  Luke  says,  I 
he  increased  in  stature  and  in  wisdom,  I 
Heb.  ii.  17.  Luke,  ii.  52.    See  articles ' 
Jesus     Christ,     and     Indwelling  I 
Scheme  ;  Robinson's  Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  | 
214,  311 ;  Watts's  Works,  vol.  v.  p.  274,  i| 
385  ;   Gill's  Body  of  Div.  vol.  ii.  p.  51 ;  il 
Robinson's    Plea,   p.    140 ;    Fleming's 
Christology ;    Simpson's  Apology  for 
the  Trin.  p.  190 ;  Hawker's  Ser.  on  the 
Divinity  of  Christ,  p.  44,  45. 

PREMONSTR ANTES,  or  Pr^- 
monstratenses,  a  religious  order  of 
regular  canons,  instituted  in  1120  by  S. 
Norbert,  and  thence  called  Norber- 
tines.  The  rule  they  followed  was  that 
of  St.  Augustijie  with  some  slight  altera- 
tions, and  an  addition  of  certain  sevei-e 
laws,  whose  authority  did  not  long  sur- 
■v  ive  their  founder. 

They  first  came  into  England  A.  D. 
1146.    Their    first    monastery,    called 


That  the  apostles  planted  churches  by- 
ordaining  bishops  and  deacons  in  every 
city;  that  the  ministers  which  in  one 
verse  are  called  bishops,  are  in  the  next 
perhaps  denominated  presbyters ;  that 
we  no  where  read  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment of  bishops,  presb\'ters,  and  dea- 
cons, in  any  one  church ;  and  that, 
therefore,  v/e  are  under  the  necessity 
of  concluding  bishop  and  presbyter  to 
be  two  names  for  the  same  church  of- 
ficer. This  is  apparent  from  Peter's  ex- 
hortation to  the  elders  or  presbyters  who 
were  among  the  Jev.ish  Christians. 
'The  elders  (presbyters)  which  are 
among  you  I  exhort,  who  am  also  an 
elder,  aiid  a  witness  of  the  sufferings  of 
Christ,  and  also  a  partaker  of  the  glory 
that  shall  be  revealed :  feed  the  flock  of 
God  which  is  among  you,  taking  the 
o-uersight  thereof,  (stitxjttouvJes  acting  as 
bishops  thereof,)  not  by  constraint,  but 
willingly  ;  not  tor  filthy  lucre,  but  of  a 


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ready  m'md;  neither  as  being  lords 
over  God's  liei'itage,  but  being  ensam- 
ples  to  the  flock,  1  Pet.  v.  2,  3.  From 
this  passage  it  is  evident  that  the  pres- 
byters not  only  fed  the  flock  of  God,  but 
also  governed  that  flock  with  episcopal 
powers ;  and  that  the  apostle  himself, 
as  a  church  officer,  was  nothing  more 
than  a  presbyter  or  elder.  The  identity 
of  the  office  of  bishop  and  presbyter  is 
still  more  apparent  from  Heb.  xiii.  7, 
17.  and  1  Thess.  v.  12 ;  for  the  bishops 
are  there  represented  as  governing  the 
flock,  speaking  to  them  the  word  of 
God,  watching  for  their  souls,  and  dis- 
charging various  offices,  which  it  is  im- 
possible for  any  man  to  perform  to  more 
than  one  congregation. 

"  From  the  last  cited  text  it  is  evident 
that  the  bishops  (Tr^oitrlajifw-iLis)  of  the 
Thessalonian  churches  had  the  pasto- 
ral care  of  no  more  souls  than  they 
could  hold  personal  communion  with  in 
(Jotl's  worship  ;  for  they  were  such  as 
all  the  people  were  to  know,  esteem, 
and  loue,  as  those  that  not  onl}'  Averc 
over  them,  but  also  '  closely  laljoured 
among  them,  and  admonished  them.' 
But  diocesan  bishops,  whom  ordinarily 
the  hundredth  part  of  their  flo^k  never 
hear  nor  see,  cannot  be  those  bishops 
by  whom  that  flock  is  admonished  ;  nor 
can  thev  be  what  Peter  requires  the  bi- 
shops of  the  Jewish  converts  to  be,  en- 
samfiles  to  the  Jlock.  It  is  the  opinion 
of  Dr.  Hammond,  who  was  a  very  learn- 
ed divine,  and  a  zealot  for  episcopacy, 
that  the  elders  whom  the  apostle  James 
desires  (Jam.  v.  14.)  the  sick  to  call  for, 
were  of  the  highest  pemianent  order  of 
ecclesiastical  officers ;  but  it  is  self-evi- 
dent that  those  elders  cannot  have  been 
diocesan  bishops,  otherwise  the  sick 
must  have  been  often  without  the  reach 
of  the  remedy  proposed  to  them. 

"  There  is  nothing  in  Scripture  upon 
which  the  Episcopalian  is  more  ready 
to  rest  his  cause  than  the  alleged  epis- 
copacy of  Timothy  and  Titus,  of  whom 
the  former  is  said  to  have  been  l)ishop 
cf  Ephesus,  and  the  latter  bishop  of 
Crete  ;  yet  the  Presbyterian  thinks  it  is 
clear  as  the  noon-day  sun,  tliat  the 
presbyters  of  Ephesus  were  supreme 
govcriiors,  under  Christ,  of  the  Ephe- 
sian  churches,  at  the  veiy  time  that 
Timothy  is  pretended  to  have  been  their 
proper  diocesan. 

"  In  Acts,  XX.  17,  &c.  we  read,  that 
'from  Miletus  Paul  sent  to  Ephesus, 
and  called  the  elders  (presbyters)  of 
the  church.  And  when  they  were  come 
to  him,  he  said  unto  them,  Ye  know,  from 
the  iirst  day  that  I  came  into  Asia,  af- 
ter whijt  manner  I  have  been  with  you 


at  all  seasons.  And  now,  I  know  tha* 
ye  all,  among  whom  I  have  gone  preach- 
ing the  kingdom  of  God,  shall  see  my 
face  no  more.  Wherefore  I  take  you 
to  record  this  day,  that.  I  am  pure  from 
the  blood  of  all  men.  For  I  have  not 
shunned  to  declare  unto  you  all  the 
counsel  of  God.  Take  heed,  therefore, 
unto  yourselves,  and  to  all  the  flock 
over  which  the  Holy  Ghost  hath  made 
you  overseers  (ettkixcttolis,  bishops,)  to 
feed  the  church  of  God,  which  he  hath 
purchased  with  his  own  blood.  For  I 
know  this,  that  after  my  departure  shall 
grievous  wolves  enter  in  among  you, 
not  sparing  the  flock.  Also  of  your  own 
selves  shall  men  arise,  speaking  per- 
verse things,  to  draw  away  disciples  af- 
ter them.  Therefore  watch,  and  re- 
member that,  by  the  space  of  three 
years,  I  ceased  not  to  warn  every  one 
night  and  day  with  tears.  And  now, 
brethren,  I  commend  you  to  God,  and 
to  the  Avord  of  his  grace,'  8cc. 

"  From  this  passage  it  is  evident  that 
there  was  in  the  city  of  Ephesus  a  plu- 
rality of  pastors  of  equal  autliority, 
without  any  superior  pastor  or  bishop 
over  them  ;  for  the  apostle  directs  his 
discourse  to  them  all  in  common,  and 
gives  them  equal  power  over  the  whole 
flock.  Dr.  Hammond,  indeed,  imagines, 
that  the  elders  whom  Paul  called  to  Mi- 
letus, were  the  bishops  of  J.sia,  and 
that  he  sent  for  them  to  Ephesus,  be- 
cause that  city  was  the  metropolis  of 
this  province.  But,  were  this  opinion 
well  founded,  it  is  not  conceivable  that 
the  sacred  writer  Avould  have  called 
them  the  elders  of  the  church  of  Efihe- 
sus,  but  the  elders  of  the  church  in 
geyieral,  or  the  elders  of  the  churches  in 
^isia.  Besides,  it  is  to  be  remembered, 
that  the  apostle  was  in  such  haste  to  be 
at  Jerusalem,  that  the  sacred  histonan 
measures  his  time  by  clays  ;  whereas  it 
must  have  required  several  months  to 
call  together  the  bishops  or  elders  of  ali 
the  cities  of  Asia ;  and  he  might  cer- 
tainly have  gone  to  meet  them  at  Ephe- 
sus in  less  time  than  would  be  requisite 
for  their  meeting  in  that  city,  andpro- 
cecding  thence  to  him  at  Miletus.  They 
nuist  therefore  have  been  either  the 
joint  pastors  of  one  congregation,  or  the 
pastors  of  different  congregations  in  one 
city ;  and  as  it  was  thus  in  Ephesus,  so 
it  was  in  Pliilippi ;  for  we  find  the  apos- 
tle addressing  his  epistle  'to  all  the 
saints  in  Jesus  Clirist  which  are  at  Phi- 
lippi,  Avith  the  bishops  and  deacons.' 
Fmm  the  passage  bcroi-e  us  it  is  lijic- 
wise  j)lain,  that  the  presbyters  of  Ephe- 
sus liad  not  only  the  name,  but  the 
whole  power  of  bishops  given  to  them 


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by  the  Holy  Ghost ;  for  they  are  en- 
joined to  do  the  whole  work  of  bishops 

— iroi(jaivEiv  TTiv  £xxX-n(Tiav  rov  ^icv — whlCh  Sig- 
nifies to  nile  as  well  asfred  the  church 
of  God.  Whence  we  see  that  the  apos- 
tle makes  the  power  of  governing  inse- 
parable from  that  of  jireaching  and 
ivatchmg  ;  and  that,  according  to  him, 
all  who  are  preachers  of  God's  word, 
and  watchmen  of  souls,  are  necessarily 
rulers  or  governors  of  the  church,  with- 
out being  accountable  for  their  manage- 
ment to  any  prelate,  but  only  to  their 
Lord  Christ,  from  whom  their  power  is 
derived. 

"  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  apos- 
tle Paul,  left  in  the  church  of  Ephesus, 
which  he  had  planted,  no  other  succes- 
sors to  himselr  than  presbijter-bishops, 
or  Presbyterian  ministers,  and  that  he 
did  not  devolve  his  power  upon  any 
prelate.    Timoth)',  whom  the  Episco- 

Ealians  allege  to  have  been  the  first 
ishop  of  Ephesus,  was  present  when 
this  settlement  was  made,  Acts,  xx.  5  ; 
and  it  is  surely  not  to  be  supposed  that, 
had  he  been  their  bishop,  the  apostle 
v/ould  have  devolved  the  whole  epis- 
copal power  upon  the  presbyters  before 
his  face.  If  ever  there  were  a  season 
fitter  than  another  for  pointing  out  the 
duty  of  this  supposed  bishop  to  his  dio- 
cese, and  his  presbyters'  duty  to  him,  it 
was  surely  when  Paul  was  taking  his 
final  leave  of  them,  and  discoursing  so 
pathetically  concerning  the  duty  of 
overseers,  the  coming  of  ravenous 
wolves,  and  the  consequent  hazard  of 
the  flock.  In  this  farewell  discourse  he 
tells  them  that  '  he  had  not  shunned  to 
declare  unto  them  all  the  counsel  of 
God.'  But  with  what  truth  could  this 
have  been  said,  if  obedience  to  a  dio- 
cesan bishop  had  been  any  part  of  their 
duty,  either  at  the  time  of  the  apostle's 
.speaking,  or  at  any  future  period  ?  He 
foresaw  that  ravenous  wolves  would  en- 
ter in  among  them,  and  that  even  some 
of  themselves  should  arise  speaking  pei'- 
verse  things;  and  if,  as  the  Episcopalians 
allege,  diocesan  episcopacy  was  the  re- 
medy provided  for  these  evils,  is  it  not 
strange,  passing  strange,  that  the  in- 
sjjired  preacher  did  iiot  foresee  that 
1  imothy,  who  was  then  standing  beside 
him,  was  destined  to  fill  that  important 
office  :  or,  if  he  did  foresee  it,  that  he 
omitted  to  recommend  him  to  his  future 
charge,  and  to  give  him  proper  instioic- 
tions  for  the  discharge  of  his  duty  ? 

"  But  if  Timothy  was  not  bishop  of 
Ephesus,  what,  it  may  be  asked,  was 
his  office  in  that  city  ?  for  that  he  re- 
sided there  for  some  time,  and  was  by 
t^ie  apostle  invested  with  authority  to 


ordain  and  rebuke  presbyters,  are  facts 
about  which  all  parties  are  agreed,  an& 
which,  indeed,  cannot  be  controverted 
by  any  reader  of  Paul's  epistles.  To 
this  the  Presbyterian  replies,  with  con- 
fidence, that  the  power  which  Timo- 
thy exercised  in  the  church  of  Ephesus 
was  that  of  an  evangelist,  Tim.  li.  4,  5. 
and  not  a  fixed  prelate.  But,  according 
to  Eusebius,  the  work  of  an  evangelist 
was, '  to  lay  the  foundations  of  the  faith, 
in  barbarous  nations,  and  to  constitute 
among  them  pastors,  after  which  he 
passed  on  to  other  countries.'  Accord- 
mgly  we  find  that  Timothy  was  resi- 
dent for  a  time  at  Philippi  and  Corinth 
(Phil.  ii.  19.  1  Cor.  iv.  17.  xvi.  10,  11.) 
as  well  as  Ephesus,  and  that  he  had  as 
much  authority  over  those  churches  as 
over  that  of  which  he  is  said  to  have 
been  the  fixed  bishop.  '  Now,  if  Timo- 
theus  come,  see  that  he  may  be  with 
}-ou  without  fear,  for  he  worketh  the 
work  of  the  Lord,  as  I  also  do.  Let  no 
man,  therefore,  despise  him.'  This  text 
might  lead  us  to  suppose  that  Timothy 
was  bishop  of  Corinth  as  well  as  of 
Ephesus ;  for  it  is  stronger  than  that 
upon  which  his  episcopacy  of  the  latter 
church  is  chiefly  built.  The  apostle 
says,  1  Tim.  i.  3.  'I  besought  thee  to 
abide  still  at  Ephesus,  when  I  vvent  into 
Macedonia,  that  thou  mightest  charge 
some  that  they  teach  no  other  doctrine.' 
But,  had  Timothy  been  the  fixed  bishop 
of  that  city,  there  would  surely  have 
been  no  necessity  for  beseeching  him  to 
abide  with  his  flock.  It  is  to  be  oijserved, 
too,  that  the  first  epistle  to  Timothy, 
which  alone  was  written  to  him  during 
his  residence  at  Ephesus,  was  of  a  date 
prior  to  Paul's  meeting  with  the  elders 
of  that  church  at  Miletus ;  for  in  the 
epistle  he  hopes  to  come  to  him  shortly ; 
whereas  he  tells  the  elders  at  Miletus 
that  they  should  see  his  face  no  more. 
This  being  the  case,  it  is  evident  that 
Timothy  was  left  by  the  apostle  at 
Ephesus  only  to  supply  his  place  during 
his  temporary  absence  at  Macedonia ; 
and  that  he  could  not  possibly  have  been 
constituted  fixed  bishop  of  that  church, 
since  the  episcopal  jiowers  were  after- 
wards committed  to  the  presbyters  by 
the  Holy  Ghost  in  his  presence. 

"  The  identity  of  the  office  of  bishop 
and  presbyter  being  thus  clearly  esta- 
blished, it  follows,  that  the  presbyterate 
is  the  highest  permanent  office  in  the 
church,  and  that  every  faitiiiul  pas^tor 
of  a  flock  is  successor  to  the  apostles  in 
every  thing  in  which  they  were  to  have 
any  successors.  In  the  apostolic  office 
there  were  in^deed  some  things  peculiar 
and  extraordmary,  such  as  their  imme» 


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diate  call  by  Christ,  theii*  iiiftUlibility, 
their  being  ^viiuesses  of  our  Lord's  re- 
surrection, and  tlieir  unlimited  juris- 
diction over  the  whole  world.  These 
powers  and  privileges  could  not  be  con- 
veyed by  imposition  of  hands  to  any  suc- 
cessors, whether  called  presbyters  or 
bishops  ;  but  as  nilers  or  office-bearers 
in  particular  churches,  we  have  the 
confession  of  *the  very  chiefest  apos- 
tles,' Peter  and  John,  that  they  were 
nothing  more  than  presbyters,  or  pa- 
rish ministers.  This  being  the  case,  the 
dispute  which  has  been  so  warmly  agi- 
tated concerning  the  validity  of  Presby- 
terian ordination  may  be  soon  decided  ; 
for  if  the  ceremony  of  ordination  be  at 
all  essential,  it  is  obvious  that  such  a 
ceremony  performed  by  presbyters  must 
be  valid,  as  there  is  no  higher  order  of 
ecclesiastics  in  the  church  by  w^hom  it 
can  be  perfoiTned.  Accordingly  we 
find,  that  Timotliy  himself,  though  said 
to  be  a  bishop,  was  ordained  by  the  lay- 
ing on  of  the  hands  of  a  presbytery.  At 
that  ordination,  indeed,  St.  Paul  pre- 
sided, but  he  could  preside  only  as 
finmus  in  /laribus;  for  we  have  seen 
that,  as  permanent  officers  in  the  church 
of  Christ,  the  apostles  themselves  were 
no  more  than  presbyters.  If  the  apos- 
tles' hands  wei-e  imposed  for  any  other 
purpose,  it  must  have  been  to  commu- 
nicate those  charismata,  or  mii'aculous 
gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  were 
then  so  frequent ;'  but  which  no  modem 
presbyter  or  bishop  will  pi'etend  to  give, 
unless  his  understanding  be  clouded  by 
the  grossest  ignorance,  or  perverted  by 
the  most  frantic  enthusiasm." 

The  members  of  the  church  of  Scot- 
land are  strict  Presbyterians.  Their 
mode  of  ecclesiastical  government  was 
brought  tliither  from  Geneva  by  John 
Knox,  the  famous  Scotch  reformer,  and 
who  has  been  styled  the  apostle  of 
Scotland. 

Their  doctrines  are  Calvmistic,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  confession  of  faith, 
and  the  larger  and  shorter  catechisms  ; 
though  it  is  supposed  that  the  clergy, 
when  composing  instructions,  either  for 
their  i-espective  parishes,  or  the  public 
at  large,  are  no  more  fettered  by  the 
confession,  than  tlie  clergy  of  the  church 
of  England  arc  by  the  thiity-nine  arti- 
cles. '  Many  in  both  communities,  it 
seems,  tiike  a  more  extensive  latitude 
tlian  tlieir  formulas  allow  them. 

As  to  the  church  government  among 
the  Scotch  Presby  tenans,  no  one  is  igno- 
lant,  that,  from  the  first  dawn  of  the 
reformation  among  us  till  the  xra  of  tl\e 
rcvoluti(jn,  there  was  a  perpetual  strug- 
gle between  the  court  and  the  ])eople. 


I  for  the  establishment  of  an  episcopal  or 
j  a  presby terian  form :  the  former  model 
;  of  ecclesiastical  polity  was  patronised 
j  by  the  house  of  Stuart  on  account  of  the 
I  support  which  it  gave  to  the  preroga- 
I  tives  of  the  crown  ;  the  latter  was  the 
fa\'ourite  of  the  majority  of  the  people, 
1  pei'haps  not  so  much  on  account  of  its 
I  superior  claim  to  apostolical  institution, 
as  because  the  laity  are  mixed  with  the 
clergy  in  church  judicatories,  and  the 
I  two  orders,  which  under  episcopacy  are 
I  kept  so  distinct,  incorj^oi'ated,  as  it  were, 
\  into  one  body.    In  the  Scottish  church, 
j  every    regulation    of   public   worship, 
I  every  act  of  discipline,  and  every  ec- 
1  clesiastical    censure,    which    in    other 
i  churches  flows  from  tlie  authority  of  a 
I  diocesan  bishop,  or  from  a  convocation 
I  of  the  clergy,   is   the   joint  work  of  a 
cei'tain  number  of  clergymen  ar.d  lay- 
men acting  together  with  equal  authori- 
ty, and  deciding  every  question  by  a  plu- 
rality of  voices.     The  laymen  wiio  thus 
form  an  essential  part  oi  the  ecclesias- 
tical courts  of  Scotland  are  called  ruling 
elders,  and  hold  the  same  office,  as  well 
as  the  same  name,  with  those  brethren 
(Acts  XV.)  who  joined  with  the  apostles 
and  elders  at  Jeioisalem  in  determining 
the  imponant  question  concerning  the 
necessity  of  imposing  upon  the  Gentile 
converts  the  ritual  obser\'ances  of  the 
law  of  Moses.    These  lay-elders  Paul 
enjoined  Timothy,  (1  Tim.  v.  17.)  to  ac- 
count worthy  of  double  honour,  if  they 
should  rule  well,  and  discharge  the  du- 
ties for  which  they  were  separated  from 
the  multitude  of  their  bi-ethren.    In  the 
church  of  Scotland  every  parish  has  two 
or  thi-ee  of  those  lay-elders,  who  are 
;  grave  and  serious  persons  chosen  from 
among  the  heads  of  families,  of  known 
orthodoxy,   and    steady    adherence    to 
the  worship,  discipline,  and  government 
of  the  church.    Being  solemnly  engaged 
to  use  their  utmost  endeavours  for  the 
suppression  of  vice  and  the  cherishing 
of  piety  and  virtue,  and  to  exercise  dis- 
cipUne  faithfully  and  diligently,  the  mi- 
nister, in  the  presence  of  the  congrega- 
tion, sets  tliem  apart  to  their  office  by- 
solemn  prayer ;  and  concludes  the  cere- 
mony, which  is  sometimes  called  ordi-  , 
nation,  with  exhorting  both  elders  and 
people  to  their  respective  duties. 

The  kirk  session,  which  is  the  lowest 
ecclesiastical  judicatory,  consists  of  the 
minister  and  those  elders  of  the  congre- 
gation. The  minister  is  ex  officio  mo- 
clerator,  but  has  no  negative  voice  over 
the  decision  of  the  session  ;  nor,  indeed, 
hDs  he  a  right  to  vote  at  all,  unless  when 
the  voice  of  the  elders  are  equal  and 
opposite.    He  may,  indeed,  enter  his 


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protest    against  their  sentence,  if   he 
think  it  improper,  and   appeal  to  the 

■;  judgement  of  the  presbytery  ;  but  this 
privilege  belongs  equally  to  every  elder, 
as  well  as  to  e\'ery  person  who  may  be- 
lieve himself  aggrieved  by  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  session.  The  deacons, 
wliose  proper  office  it  is  to  take  care  of 
the  pool",  may  be  present  in  every  ses- 
sion, and  offer  their  counsel  on  all  ques- 

1"     tions  that  come  before  it ;  but,  except 

I'  in  what  relates  to  the  distribution  of 
alms,  they  have  no  decisive  vote  with 
the  minister  and  elders. 

'  The  next  judicatory  is  thefiresbytery, 
which  consist  of  all  the  pastors  within  a 
certain  district,  and  one  ruling  elder 
from  each  parish,  commissioned  by  his 
brethren  to  represent,  in  conjunction 
with  the  minister,  the  session  of  that 
parish.  The  presbyterj^  treats  of  such 
matters  as  concern  the  particular 
churches  within  its  limits ;  as  the  ex- 
amination, admission,  ordination,  and 
ceu'^uring  of  ministers ;  the  licensing  of 
probationers,  rebuking  the  gross  or  con- 
tumacious sinners,  the  directing  the  sen- 
tence of  excommunication,  the  deciding 
upon  references  and  appeals  fi'om  kirk 
sessions,  resolving  cases  of  conscience, 
explaining  difficulties  in  doctrine  or  dis- 
cipline ;  and  censuring,  according  to  the 
word  of  God,  any  hei'esy  or  erroneous 
doctrine  which  hath  either  been  public- 
ly or  privately  maintained  within  the 
bounds  of  its  jurisdiction.  Some  of  them 
have  frankly  acknowledged  that  they 
cannot  altogether  approve  of  that  part 
of  her  constitution  which  gives  an  equal 
vote,  in  questions  of  heresy,  to  an  illite- 
rate mechanic  and  his  enlightened  pas- 
tor. We  are  persuaded  (say  they)  that 
it  has  been  the  source  of  much  trouble 
to  many  a  pious  clergyman,  who  from 
the  laudable  desire  of  explaining  the 
Scriptures,  and  declaring  to  his  flock 
all  the  counsel  of  God,  has  employed  a 
varietj'  of  expressions  of  the  same  im- 
port to  illustrate  those  articles  of  faith, 
which  may  be  obscurely  expressed  in 
the  established  standards.  The  fact, 
however,  is,  that  in  presbyters  the  only 
prerogatives  which  the  pastors  have 
over  the  ruling  elders  are,  the  power  of 
ordination  by  imposition  of  hands,  and 
the  privilege  of  ha^g  the  moderator 
chosen  from  their  body. 

From  the  judgment  of  th.e  presbytery 
there  lies  an  appeal  to  the  /irovincial 
nynod,  which  ordinarily  meets  twice  in 
the  year,  and  exercises  over  the  pres- 
byteries Avithin  the  pi'ovince  a  jurisdic- 
tion similar  to  that  which  is  vested  in 
each  presbytery  over  the  sevei-al  kirk 
sessions  within  its  bounds.  Of  these  s}'- 


nods  there  are  in  the  church  of  Scot- 
land fifteen,  which  are  composed  of  the 
members  of  the  several  presbyteries 
within  the  respective  provinces  which 
give  names  to  the  s}Tiods. 

The  highest  authoj-ity  in  the  church 
of  Scotland  is  the  general  asseitibly, 
which  consists  of  a  certain  number  or 
ministers  and  ruling  elders  delegated 
from  each  presbytery,  and  of  commis- 
sio!iers  from  the  universities  and  royal 
boroughs.  A  presbytery  in  Avhich  there 
are  fewer  than  tweh  e  parishes  sends 
to  the  general  assemblv  two  ministers 
and  one  ruling  elder;  If  it  contain  be- 
tween twelve  and  eighteen  ministers,  it 
sends  three  of  these,  and  one  raling  el- 
der :  if  it  contain  between  eighteen  and 
twenty-fom-  ministers,  it  sends  four  mi- 
nisters, and  two  ruling  eiders ;  and  of 
twenty-four  ministers,  wlien  it  contains 
so  many,  it  sends  five,  with  two  iniling 
elders.  Every  royal  borough  sends  one 
ruling  elder,  and  Edinburgh  two,  whose 
election  must  be  attested  by  the  kirk 
sessions  of  their  respective  boroughs. 
Every  university  sends  one  commission- 
er fi'om  its  own  body.  The  commission- 
ers are  chosen  annually  six  weeks  before 
the  meeting  of  the  assembly;  and  the 
ruling  elders  are  often  men  of  tlie  first 
eminence  in  the  kingdom  for  rank  and 
talents.  In  this  assembly,  which  meets 
once  a  year,  the  king  presides  by  his 
commissioner,  who  is  always  a  noble- 
man, but  he  has  no  voice  in  their  deli- 
berations. The  order  of  their  proceed- 
ings is  regular,  though  sometimes  the 
number  of  members  creates  aconfusion;^ 
which  the  moderator,  who  is  chosen 
from  among  the  ministers  to  be,  as  it 
were,  the  speaker  of  the  house,  has  not 
sufficient  authority  to  prevent.  Appeals 
are  brought  from  all  the  other  eccle- 
siastical courts  in  Scotland  to  the  gene- 
ral assembly;  and  in  questions  purely- 
religious,  no  appeal  lies  from  its  detei"- 
minations.  See  Halt's  View  of  a  Gos- 
ftel  Church  ;  JEnc.  Brt.  art.  Presbyte- 
rians;  Bro%vn's  Vindication  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Form  of  Church  Government; 
Scotch  Confession  and  Directory.  For 
the  other  side  of  the  question,  and 
against  Presbyterian  church  govern- 
ment, see  arf)"les  Brownists,  Church 
Congregational,  Episcopacy,  and 
Independents. 

PRESBYTERIANS,  Cumber  land, 
this  is  a  body  of  Presbyterians  who  prin- 
cipallv  reside  in  the  states  of  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee,  and  in  the  adjacent  ter- 
ritories. 

They  constituted  a  presbytery  sepa- 
rate from  the  Kentucky  synod  and  ge- 
neral presbyterian  church,  on  the  10th 


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of  February,  1810.  The  causes  that 
led  to  this  are  as  follow  : 

About  the  year  1799  or  1800,  God 
revived  religion  in  a  remarkable  man- 
ner ill  the  western  country,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  some  presbyterian 
preachers ;  consequently,  many  new 
congregations  were  soon  formed  and 
organized.  But  to  continue  to  supply 
them  all,  by  the  tlum  licensed  and  or- 
dained ministers  was  impracticable. 

A  venerable  father  in  the  ministiy 
who  came  from  a  distance,  discovering 
the  necessity  for  supplies,  proposed  to 
the  preachers  who  were  engaged  in 
promoting  the  revival,  to  choose  from 
amongst  the  laity  some  men  (whose  ta- 
lents, gifts,  piety,  &c.  would  justify  such 
a  step,)  and  encourage  them  to  prepare 
for  the  work  of  the  ministry:  though 
they  might  not  have  a  classical  educa- 
tion'. This  proposition  was  readily  ac- 
ceded to,  and  sevei-al  persons  were 
spoken  to  on  the  subject,  and  encou- 
raged to  improve  their  talent  by  ex- 
hortation, and  to  prepare  written  dis- 
courses to  exhibit  to  the  next  Transyl- 
vania presbytery,  as  specimens  of  their 
abilities  to  "sermonize,  8cc.  with  which 
they  accordingly  complied.  The  dis- 
covi'rses  were  read  to  the  aged  member 
who  first  recommended  the  measure, 
and  tolerably  well  approved.  They 
were  not  now  received  as  candidates  for 
the  ministry,  but  were  directed  to  pre- 
pare other  discourses  to  read  to  the  next 
presb\tei'y,  where  the  debate  became 
very  animated,  whether  they  should  be 
adi^iitted  as  candidates  for  the  holy  mi- 
nistry ;  when  finally  a  majority  of  one 
vote  decided,  one  of  them  only  should 
be  received  at  that  time.  The  next 
presbytery,  however,  decided  by  a  large 
majority  in  favour  of  the  proposed  pkm  ; 
and  accordingly,  after  hearing  popular 
trials,  &c.  proceeded  to  license  three 
men,  to  wit : — Alexander  Anderson, 
Fmis  Ewing,  and  Samuel  King,  to  preach 
the  Gospel  as  probationers.  These 
men,  although  two  of  them  had  no 
knowledge  of  the  dead  languages ;  yet 
from  their  discourses,  extempore,  as 
Avell  as  written,  and  from  the  petitions 
of  hundreds  of  serious  Christians,  pray- 
ing that  they  might  be  licensed ;  the 
presb\tery  thou  tit  they  could  not  be 
out  of  their  duty  in  ]5romoting  them  to 
the  work  of  the  ministn' ;  in  which 
opinion  they  were  afterwards  fiiUy  con- 
fiimed.  Some  members  of  this  presby- 
tery, iiowever,  as  well  as  the  preceding, 
were  ojjposcd  to  tiie  measure,  who  enter- 
ed their  protest,  and  wrote  to  the  synod, 
who,  at  first,  jjaid  but  little  attention  to 
it     About  this  time  tlic  TransyUania I 


presbytery  was  divided,  and  t\\Q.  former, 
Cumberland  presbytery,  constituted,  in 
wliich  there  were  alwaj^s  a  decided  ma- 
jority ill  favour  of  licensing  men  to 
preach  the  Gospel  (when  need  required, 
and  God  called)  who  were  "  apt  to 
teach,"  and  sound  in  the  faith,  though 
they  might  not  possess  a  liberal  educa- 
tion. Therefore,  from  time  to  time 
they  licensed,  (some  of  whom  they  or- 
dained,) men  of  that  description.  This 
measure  was  still  opposed  by  that  part 
of  the  presbytery  who  were  unfriendly 
to  the  revival.  The  synod  took  the  mat- 
ter, and  appointed  a  commission  of  their 
own  body  to  meet  in  the  bounds  of  the 
Cumberland  presbyteryj  and  directed 
the  members  tliereof,  with  all  their  li- 
centiates, candidates,  and  exhorters,  to 
meet ;  which  summons  the  greater  part 
of  them  obeyed.  After  the  commission 
and  the  accused  had  met,  the  former 
exhibited  many  charges  against  the  lat- 
ter; principally  taken  from  the  minutes 
of  the  presbyter}'  and  public  fame  :  all 
of  which  were  chiefly  comprised  in  the 
two  following,  to  wit: — 1st,  Licensing 
men  to  preach  who  had  not  been  ex- 
amined on  the  languages.  2d,  That 
those  men  who  were  licensed,  both 
learned  and  less  learned,  had  been  only 
required  to  adopt  the  confession  of 
faith  partially,  that  is,  as  far  as  they  be- 
lieved it  to  agree  with  God's  word. 

As  to  the  first  ground  of  complaint, 
the  presbytery  not  only  plead  the  ex- 
ception in  the  disci])line,  in  "  extraordi- 
nary cases,"  but  also  the  example  of  a 
number  of  the  presbyteries  in  diflerent 
parts  of  the  united  States.  They 
moreover,  appealed  to  a  higlier  autho- 
rity than  either  of  the  foregoing,  which 
was  the  A''env  Testament,  and  inquired 
if  there  be  any  precept  or  example  in 
that  Book  which  condemns  the  practice 
of  licensing  what  they  (the  commission) 
called  unlearned  men.  It  was  also  ask- 
ed, if  God  could  not  as  easily  call  a 
Presbyterian  not  classically  learned,  to 
preach  the  Gospel,  as  he  could  such  of 
any  other  denomination  ? 

With  respect  to  doctrines ;  the  presby- 
tery believed  their  candidates  had  de- 
parted from  no  essential  doctrine  taught 
in  tlie  confession  of  faith  ;  and  therefore 
ought  to  have  been  indulged  in  their 
conscientious  scruples  about  tenets  not 
essential  or  important.  This  reasoning, 
however,  was  not  satisfactory  to  the 
commission,  who  demanded  all  the 
young  men  to  be  gi\'en  up  to  them  for 
re-examination.  The  presbytery  re- 
fused  ;  viewing  the  demand  unprece- 
dented, and  directly  making  dangerous 
encroachments  on  the  liberties  and  pri- 


PRE 


487 


PRE 


vileges  of  presbyteries,  who,  according 
to  the  discipline,  were  sole  judges  of  the 
faith  and  qualifications  of  their  own 
candidates  for  the  ministry.  The  young 
men  then  being  summoned  to  submit, 
and  refusing,  the  commission  pi-oceeded 
solemnly  to  pi-ohibit  them  all,  learned 
and  less  learned,  from  preaching  or  ad- 
ministering any  more  as  Presbyterians ; 
and  summoned  the  majority  of  the  pres- 
bytery to  appear  at  their  next  synod,  to 
answer  for  not  surrendering  their  young 
brethren,  and  to  be  examined  them- 
selves on  doctrines.  The  presbytery 
thought  it  a  very  extraordinary  step  in- 
deed, for  a  commission  of  the  synod  to 
silence,  or  prohibit,  a  number  of  re- 
spectable and  useful  ministers  of  Jesus, 
without  process  or  trial,  men,  whose 
moral  chai-acters  were  unexceptionable, 
and  who  had  never  been  called  before 
their  own  presbytery  to  answer  any 
charge ;  and  men,  wlio  were  never  con- 
victed of  either  heresy,  itnmorality,  or 
contumacy,  before  any  judicatui'e  what- 
soevei'.  The  presbytery  being  con- 
scious that  the  commission  had  acted 
illegally,  determined  to  petition  the  ge- 
neral assembly.  In  the  mean  time  they 
foi-nied  themselves  into  a  council;  in- 
tending, with  their  young  brethren,  to 
promote  religion  as  well  as  they  could  in 
that  capacity ;  refraining  from  presby- 
terial  acts,  until  they  could  learn  the 
derision  of  the  assembly  ;  the  first  de- 
cision of  which  appeared  favourable. 
This  encouraged  the  council  to  expect 
the  assembly  would  eventuallv  redi'ess 
their  grievances.  They  therefore  wait- 
ed and  petitioned,  until  they  were  con- 
vinced by  an  act,  or  decision  of  the  as- 
sembly, that  the  synod  were  justified  in 
their  unconstitutional  and  unprecedent- 
ed conduct  toward  the  young  preachers: 
which,  (after  another  fruitless  appli- 
cation to  the  synod  and  Ti'ansylvania 
presbytery)  determined  three  of  the  re- 
maining ordained  ministers  to  constitute 
a  separate  presbytery ;  which  was  done 
in  the  following  manner : 

"  In  Dickson  Countv,  Tennessee  State, 
at  the  Rev.  S.  M'Adbw's,  this  4th  day 
of  February,  1810:" 

"  We,  Samuel  M'Adow,  Finis  Ewing, 
and  Samuel  Kin^  regularly  ordained 
ministers  in  the  Presbyterian  church, 
against  whom  no  charge  either  of  im- 
morality or  heresy  has  ever  been  exhi- 
bited, before  any  church  judicatures ; 
having  waited  in  vain  more  than  four 
years ;  in  the  mean  time  petitioning  the 
General  Assembly  for  a  redress  of 
grievances,  and  a  restoration  of  our  vio- 
lated rights,  have,  and  do  hereby  agree 
and  determine,  to  oonstitute  a  Presby- 


tery, known  by  the  name  of  the  Cum- 
berland Presbytery,  on  the  following 
conditions :" 

All  candidates  for  the  ministry  who 
may  hereafter  be  licensed  by  this  pres- 
bytery, and  all  licentiates  or  probation- 
ers who  may  hereafter  be  ordained  by 
this  presbyteiy,  shall  be  recjuired  be- 
fore such  licensure  and  ordmation,  to 
receive  and  adopt  the  confession  and  dis- 
cipline* of  the  presbyterian  church,  ex- 
cept the  idea  of  fatality  that  seems  to 
be  taught  unde'r  the  mysterious  doctrine 
of  predestination. 

It  is  to  be  understood,  however,  that 
such  as  can  adopt  the  confession  with- 
out such  exception,  shall  not  be  re- 
quired to  make  any.  Moreover,  all 
licentiates,  before  they  are  set  apart  to 
the  whole  woi'k  of  the  ministry,  (or- 
dained) shall  be  required  to  undergo  an 
examination  on  English  Grammar,  Ge- 
ography, Astronomy,  natural  and  mo- 
ral Philosophy,  and  Church  Histon-.f 
The  presbytery  may  also  require  an  ex- 
amination on  all  or  any  part  of  the 
above  branches  of  literature  before 
licensure,  if  they  deem  it  expedient. 

Doctrines.  It  has  been  already  ob- 
served, that  the  Presbyterian  confession 
is  their  confession,  "  except  the  idea  of 
fatality."  But  as  some  may  think  this 
too  indefinite,  it  may  be  proper  here  to 
state  explicitly  all  the  essential  doc- 
trines or  tenets  they  hold. 

1st,  That  Adam  was  made  upright, 
pure  and  free;  that  he  was  necessarily 
under  the  moral  law,  which  binds  all 
intelligences;  and  having  transgressed 
it,  he  was  consequently,  with  all  liis  pos- 
terity, exposed  to  eternal  punishment 
and  miser}\ 

2d,  That  Christ  the  second  Adam  re- 
presented just  as  many  as  the  first,  con- 
sequently made  an  atonement  for  all, 
"  which  will  be  testified  in  due  time." 
But  that  the  benefit  of  that  atonement 
will  be  only  received  by  the  true  believer. 

3d,  That  all  Adam's  family  are  to- 
tally depraved,  "conceived  in  sin; 
going  astray  from  the  womb,  and  all 
children  of  wrath ;"  therefore  must 
"  be  born  again,"  justified  and  sancti- 
fied, or  they  never  can  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  God. 

4th,  That  justification  is  by  faith  alone 
as  the  Instrument  ;  by  the  merits  of 


*  The  reception  of  the  disciple  is  to  be  un- 
derstood in  conforniit}-  to  tlie  blanches  of  lite- 
rature required  by  this  body. 

f  It  will  not  be  understood  that  examination 
on  Thcolo.iry,  experimental  religion,  and  a  call 
to  the  ininisir}',  will  be  omitted. 


PRE 


488 


PRE 


Christ's  active  and  passive  obedience, 
as  the  meritorious  cause;  and  by, the 
operation  of  God's  Spirit  as  the  effi- 
cient, or  active  cause. 

5th,  That  as  the  sinner  is  justified  on 
the  account  of  Christ's  rigliteousness 
being  imptited  or  accounted  to  him  ;  on 
the  same  account  he  will  be  enabled  to 
go  on  from  one  degree  of  grace  to 
another,  in  a  progressive  life  of  sanctifi- 
cation,  until  he  is  fit  to  be  gathered  into 
the  garner  of  God,  who  will  certamly 
take  to  glory  every  man  who  has  been 
really  jurtihcd :  that  is,  he,  Christ,  has 
become  wisdom,  (light  to  convince,) 
righteousness,  (to  justify)  sanctification, 
(to  clcahse)  and  redemption,  (to  glori- 
fy,) to  every  tnily  regenerated  soul. 

6th,  That  there  are  thiee  persons  in 
one  God,  coequal,  essential,  and  eter- 
nal; or  the  Father,  Word,  and  Holy 
Ghost:  that  the  mediator  is  very  God 
and  ■very  man ;  two  distinct  natures  in 
one  peison ;  therefore  while  the  hu- 
manity obeys  and  suffers,  there  is  infi- 
nite worth  or  merit  given  to  that  obe- 
dience and  suffering,  by  the  union  of  the 
divinity. 

They  dissent  from  the  Confession — 
in,  1st,  That  there  are  no  eternal  repro- 
bates.— 2d,  That  Christ  died  not  for  a 
fiart  only,  but  for  all  mankind. — 3d, 
That  all  infants,  dying  in  infancy  are 
saved  through  Christ,  and  sanctification 
of  the  Spirit. — 4-th,  That  the  Spirit  of 
God  operates  on  the  nvorld,  or  as  co-ex- 
tensively  as  Christ  has  made  the  atone- 
ment, in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  all 
men  inexcusable. 

As  to  the  doctrines  of  predestination 
and  election,  they  think,  (with  many 
eminent  and  modest  divines  who  have 
written  on  tlie  subject,)  they  are  mys- 
terious, and  they  are  not  well  pleased 
with  the  application  that  rigid  Calvin- 
ists,  or  Arminians  make  of  them.  They 
think  the  truth,  or  tkat,  as  well  as  many 
other  points  in  divinity,  lies  between  the 
opposite  extremes.  They  are  confident 
however,  that  those  doctrines  should 
not,  on  the  one  hand  be  so  construed  as 
to  make  any  thing  the  creature  has 
done,  or  can  do,  at  all  meritorious  in  his 
salvation  ;  or  to  lay  any  ground  to  say 
"  well  done  I ;"  or  to  take  the  least  de- 
gree of  the  honour  of  our  justification 
and  perseverance  from  God's  unmerit- 
ed grace,  and  Christ's  pure  righteous- 
ness. ()n  the  other  hand,  tHey  are 
equally  confident  those  doctrines  should 
not  be  so  construed  as  to  make  God  tie 
author  of  sin,  directly  or  indirectly ; 
either  of  Adam's  sin,  or  any  subsequent 
sin  of  his  fallen  race ;  or  to  contradict 
the  express  and  repeated  declarations 


of  God's  word,  on  the  extent  of  the 
atonement  and  operations  of  the  Spirit ; 
or  to  contradict  the  sincerity  of  God's 
expostulations  with  sinners,  and  make 
his  oath  to  have  no  meaning,  when  he 
swears  he  has  no  pleasure  in  their 
death  ;  or  to  resolve  the  whole  charac- 
ter of  the  Deity  into  his  sovereignty, 
without  a  due  regard  to  all  other  of  his 
adorable  attributes.  Finally,  they  think 
those  doctrines  ought  to  be  thought  and 
spoken  of  in  a  consistency  with  God's 
moral  government,  which  always  has  for 
its  object  the  happiness  of  his  intelligent 
creatures,  when  it  consists  with  his  jus- 
tice and  the  honour  of  the  divine  throne. 
Discijiline.  Their  discipline  is  Pres- 
byterian. Their  congregations  are  go- 
verned by  church  sessions,  presbyte- 
ries, and  they  now  have  appointed  to 
constitute  a  synod  to  be  called  the  Cum- 
berland Svnod.  They  are  tenacious  of 
the  presLyterial  form  of  cliurch  go- 
vernment ;  because  they  believe  it  to  be 
equitable,  just,  and  scriptural ;  and  be- 
cause it  tends  to  cherish  in  their  minds, 
and  the  minds  of  their  congregations,  a 
love  of  civil,  as  well  as  religious  liber- 
ty ;  its  being  so  congenial  to  the  repub- 
lican form  of  government  established 
in  these  United  States;  which  stands 
equally  aloof  from  monarchy  and  anar- 
chy. 

On  the  subject  of  their  deviation  from 
the  old  rule  with  respect  to  literary  qua- 
lification for  the  ministry,  they  would 
not  be  understood  as  undervaluing  that 
precious  handmaid  to  the  useful  work 
of  a  Gospel  minister.     They  have  in 
two    publications    called    "  a    circular 
letter,"  and  "  a  i-eply,"  given  abundant 
evidence  of  their  anxiety  to  acquire  and 
promote  useful  knowledge  ;  by  recom- 
mending the  study  of  tlie  Greek  scrip- 
tures, and  by  their  exertion  to  procure 
a  circulating  library  of  theological,  his- 
torical, and  scientific  books,  which  tin  y 
arejncreasing  from  time  to  time.    Not- 
withstanding they  are  persuaded  that 
(iod  has  and  does  call  many  to  preach 
the  Gospel,  who  have  no  knowledge  of 
the  original  languages,  and  who  have 
been  and  are  eminently  useful  in  their 
profession.    They  have  therefore  dis- 
pensed with  that  condition,  as  not  being 
absolutely  necessary  ;  'yet  they  recom- 
mend it,  when  it  can  conveniently  be 
acquired.     From   pursuing  this  course 
they  have,  as  might  he  expected,  some 
learned  and  some  less  learned  preach- 
ers of  the  everlasting  Gospel :  the  lat- 
ter of  whom  appear  in  many  instances, 
to  be  as  useful  m  promoting  the  word 
of  God  as  the  former. 
Progress.  Since  they  first  constituted 


PRE 


489 


PRE 


a  separate  prcsb> ttvy  they  have  made 
considerable  pvoirress.  At  first  there 
were  but  nine  preachers  in  the  connec- 
tion, four  of  whom  only  were  ordained. 

At  that  time  their  organized  congre- 
gations were  but  few;  but  since,  they 
have  ijicreased  to  about  eighty,  exclu- 
sive of  a  number  not  yet  organized. 
Their  preachers  have  increased  from 
nine  to  eighteen,  fourteen  of  whom  are 
ordained  ;  and  there  are  now  about  ten 
candidates  for  the  ministry.  At  their 
stated  session  in  April  1813,  they  di- 
vided their  body  into  three  presbyte- 
ries, and  appointed  to  constitute  a  synod 
on  the  first  Wednesday  in  October  fol- 
lowing. They  have  pursued  the  itine- 
rant mode  of  preaching  the  Gospel, 
which  appears  to  have  a  good  effect, 
and  to  be  the  best  in  a  frontier  country. 
The  demand  for  preaching,  however,  is 
increasing  faster  than  their  preachers. 

They  continue  to  obsen^e  a  custom 
which  was  introduced  early  in  the  glo- 
rious revival  in  that  countiy,  which  is, 
to  encamp  on  the  gi'ound  at  their  com- 
munion for  four  days  and  nights:  and 
it  has  been  remarked  that  they  have 
rarely  had  a  communion  since  they  con- 
stituted, but  more  or  less  have  given  sa- 
tisfactory evidence  of  having  become 
subjects  of  vital  religion.  Sometimes, 
however,  there  are  but  few,  at  other 
times,  there  are  as  many  as  thirty  or 


they  are  called,  adopt  nearly  the  same 
mode  of  church  government  with  the 
Independents.  Their  chief  difference 
from  the  Independents  is,  that  they  are 
less  attached  to  Calvinism. 

PRESBYTERY  REFORMED— 
The  reformed  presbytery  in  Scotland 
trace  their  origin  as  far  back,  as  the  re- 
formation, and  consider  themselves,  as 
the  only  pure  Presbyterians  since  the 
revolution.  They  piofess  to  adhere  to 
the  solemn  league  and  covenant  agreed 
to  by  the  nation  before  the  restoration, 
in  which  they  abjure  popery  and  pre- 
lacy, and  resolve  to  maintain  and  de- 
fend the  doctrines,  worship,  discipline, 
and  goveniment  of  the  church,  as  ap- 
proved by  the  parliament  and  assembly 
at  Westminster,  and  by  the  general  as- 
sembly of  the  church  and  parliament  of 
Scotland,  1645-9.  It  seems,  they  object 
not  so  much  to  a  religious  establishment, 
but  to  the  religious  establishment  as  it 
exists ;  they  object  not  to  an  alliance  of 
the  church  with  the  state,  but  to  the  al- 
liance of  the  church  with  an  uncovenant- 
ed  king  and  government.  Their  num- 
ber, it  is  said,  amounts  to  about  four 
thousand  persons. 

PRESCIENXE  OF  GOD,  is  his  fore- 
knowledge, or  that  knowledge  which 
God  has  of  things  to  come.  The  doc- 
trine of  predestination  is  founded  on 
the  prescience  of  God,  and  on  the  sup- 


forty,  who  have  made  a  credible  pro-  i|  position  of  all  futurity  being  present  to 
fession  of  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus.  A  ||  nim.  Properly  speaking,  indeed,  pre- 
great  part  of  their  increase  consists  of  |  science  follows  that  of  predestination; 


new  converts,  whose  lives  and  conver- 
sation manifest  "  they  have  been  with 
Jesus." 

While  God  thus  evidently  owns  their 
humble  efforts  to  spread  a  savour  of 
his  name,  they  hope  to  bear  with  firm- 
ness all  the  opposition  they  may  meet, 
from  individuals  or  sectaries. 

P.  S.  When  they  receive  candidates 
for  the  ministry,  they  allow  them  to  ex- 
ercise their  gift  in  public  speaking,  un- 
der the  immediate  eye  of  the  church  ; 
thereby  they  are  better  able  to  judge  of 
their  "  aptness  to  teach,"  than  they 
could  be  by  their  written  discourses 
alone,  which  they  require  also. 

PRESBYTERIANS  ENGLISH. 
The  appellation  Presbyterian  in  England 
is  appropriated  to  a  body  of  dissenters, 
who  have  not  any  attachment  to  the 
Scotch  mode  of  church  government  any 
more  than  to  episcopacy  among  us;  and 


for  if  we  allow  that  God  from  all  eter- 
nity foresaw  all  things,  he  must  thus 
have  foreseen  them  m  consequence  of 
his  permitting  or  fore-appointing  them. 
Hence  events  are  not  certain  merely  be- 
cause foi'eknown;  but  foreknown  be- 
cause antecedently  certain  on  account 
of  pre-determining  reasons.    See  Fore- 

KXOWLEDGE,  PREDESTINATION. 

PRESCRIPTION,  in  theology,  was 
a  kind  of  argument  pleaded  by  Tertul- 
lian  and  others  in  the  third  centuiy 
against  en'oneous  doctors.  This  mode 
of  arguing  has  been  despised  by  some, 
both  because  it  has  been  used  by  Pa- 
pists, and  because  they  think  that'truth 
has  no  need  of  such  a  support.  Others, 
however,  think  that  if  it  can  be  shown 
that  any  particular  doctrine  of  Chi-is- 
tianity  was  held  in  the  earliest  ages, 
even  approaching  the  apostolic,  it  must 
have  very  consLierable  weight ;  and,  in- 


thcrefore  the  term  Presbyterian  is  here  '!  deed,  that  it  has  so,  appears  from  the 
improperly  applied.    How  this  misap-  j  universal  appeals  of  all  parties  to  those 


j^lication  came  to  pass  cannot  be  easily 

determined ;  but  it  has  occasioned  many 

wrong  notions,  and  should  therefore  be 

'  rtified.      English    Presbyterians,    as 


early  times  in  support  of  their  particular 
opinions.  Besides,  the  thing  is  in  itself 
natural ;  for  if  a  man  finds  a  variety  of 
opinions  in  the  world  upon  important 
3Q 


PRE 


490 


PRI 


passages  in  Scripture,  where  sliall  he 
be  so  apt  to  get  the  true  seiioe  as  from 
contemporary'  writers  or  others  who 
lived  very  near  the  apostohc  age  P  And 
if  such  a  man  shall  find  any  doctrine  or 
inteipretations  to  have  been  universally 
believed  in  the  first  ages,  or,  as  Vicentius 
Lirinensis  words  it,  semfier  ubujiie  et  ub 
omnibus,  he  will  unquestionably  be  dis- 
posed to  think  such  early  and  universal 
consent,  or  such  ]jrescriiition,  of  very 
considerable  weight  in  determining  his 
opinion. 

PRESUMPTION,  as  it  relates  to  the 
mind,  is  a  supposition  formed  before  ex- 
amination. As  it  relates  to  the  conduct 
or  moral  action,  it  implies  aiTogance 
and  irreverence.  As  it  relates  to  reli- 
gion in  general,  it  is  a  bold  and  daring 
confi.dence  in  the  goodness  of  God,  with- 
out obedience  to  his  will.  Presumptuous 
sins  must  be  distinguished  from  sins  of 
infirmity,  or  those  failings  peculiar  to 
human  nature,  Ecc.  vii.  20.  1  John  i.  8, 
9;  from  sins  done  through  ignorance, 
Luke  xii.  48  ;  and  from  sins  into  which 
men  are  hurried  by  sudden  and  violent 
teinptatioH,  Gal.vi.  1.  The  ingredients 
which  i-ender  sin  presumptuous  are, 
knowledge,  John,  xv.  22;  deliberation 
and  contrivance,  Prov.  vi.  14.  Psal. 
xxxvi.  4 ;  obstinacy,  Jer.  xliv.  16.  Deut. 
i.  13 ;  inattention  to  the  remonstrances 
of  conscience,  Acts,  vii.  51.;  opposition 
to  the  dispensations  of  Providence,  2 
Chi-on.  xxviii.  22 ;  and  repeated  com- 
mission of  the  same  sin,  Psal.  Ixxviii. 
17.  Presumptuous  sins  are  numerous ; 
such  as  profane  swearing,  perjury,  theft, 
adultery,  drunkenness,  sabbath-break- 
ing, Sec.  These  may  be  more  particu- 
larly considered  as  presumptuous  sins, 
because  they  are  generally  committed 
against  a  known  law,  and  so  often  re- 
peated. Such  sins  are  most  heinous  in 
their  nature,  and  most  pernicious  in 
their  effects.  They  are  said  to  be  a 
reproach  to  the  Lord,  Numb.  xv.  3; 
they  harden  the  heart,  1  Tim.*iv.  2; 
draw  down  judgments  from  heaven, 
Numb.  XV.  31  ;  even  when  repented  of, 
are  seldom  pardoned  without  some  vi- 
sible testimony  of  God's  displeasure,  2 
Sam.  xii.  10.  As  it  respects  professors 
of  religion,  as  one  oliserves,  they  sin 
presumptuously,  1.  when  they  take  up 
a  profession  of  religion  without  princi- 

Ele ;  2.  when  they  jjrofcss  to  ask  the 
Icsbing  of  God,  and  yet  go  on  in  for- 
bidden courses ;  3.  when  thev  do  not 
take  religion  as  they  find  it  in  the  Scrip- 
tures ;  4.  when  they  make  their  feel- 
ings the  test  of  their  religion,  without 
considering  the  diffei'ence  between  ani- 
mal passions  aiid  the  operations  of  the 


Spirit  of  God ;  5.  when  they  nm  into 
temptation ;  6.  when  they  indulge  in 
self-confidence  and  self-complacency; 
7.  when  they  bring  the  spirit  of  the 
world  into  the  ch^irch;  8.  when  they 
form  apologies  for  that  in  some  which 
they  condemn  in  others  ;  9.  when  pro- 
fessing to  believe  in  the  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel,  they  live  licentiously ;  10.  when 
they  create,  magnify,  and  pervert  their 
troubles;  11.  when  they  arraign  the  con- 
duct of  God  as  unkind  and  unjust.  See 
R.  Walker's  Ser.  vol.  i.  ser.  3  ;  South's 
Ser.  vol.  vii.  ser.  10,  11,  and  12  ;  Tillot- 
son's  Ser.  ser.  147 ;  Saurin's  Ser.  ser. 
11.  vol.  i.  Robinson's  translation;  Bfi. 
Ho/ikins  on  the  J\''ature,  Danger,  and 
Cure  of  Presumptuous  Sins.  See  his 
Works. 

PRIDE  is  inordinate  and  unreasonable 
self-esteem,  attended  with  insolence, 
and  nide  treatment  of  others.  "  It  is 
sometimes,"  says  a  good  writer,  "  con- 
founded with  vanity,  and  sometimes 
with  dignity  ;  but  to  the  former  passion 
it  has  no  i-escmblance,  and  in  many  cir- 
cumstances it  differs  from  the  latter. 
Vanity  is  tlie  parent  of  loquacious 
boasting ;  and  the  person  subject  to  it, 
if  his  pretences  be  admitted,  has  no  in- 
clination to  insult  the  company.  The 
proud  man,  on  the  other  hand,  is  na- 
turally silent,  and,  wrapt  up  in  his  own 
importance,  seldom  speaks  but  to  make 
his  audience  feel  their  inferiority." 
Pride  is  the  high  opinion  that  a  poor  lit- 
tle conti'acted  soul  entertains  of  itself. 
Dignity  consists  in  just,  great,  and  uni- 
foi-m  actions,  and  is  the  opjjosite  to 
meanness. — 2.  Pride  manifests  itself  by- 
praising,  ourselves,  adorning  our  per- 
sons, attempting  to  appear  before  others 
in  a  superior  liglit  to  what  we  are  ;  con- 
tempt and  slander  of  others ;  envy  at 
the  excellencies  others  possess  ;  anxiety 
to  gain  applause ;  distress  and  rage 
when  slighted;  impatience  of  contra- 
diction, and  opposition  to  God  himself. 
— 3.  The  evil  effects  of  pride  are  beyond 
computation.  It  has  spread  itself  uni- 
versally in  all  nations,  among  all  cha- 
racters ;  and  as  it  was  the  first  sin,  as 
some  suppose,  that  entered  into  the 
world,  so  it  seems  the  last  to  be  con- 
quered. It  may  be  considered  as  the 
parent  of  discontent,  ingratitude,  covet- 
ousness,  poverty,  presumption,  passion, 
extravagance,  bigotry,  war,  and  perse- 
cution. In  fact,  there  is  hardly  an  evil 
perpetrated  but  what  pride  is  connected 
with  it  in  a  proximate  or  remote  sense. 
— 4.  To  suj)press  this  evil,  we  should 
consider  what  we  are.  "  If  we  could 
trace  our  descents,"  says  Seneca,  "  we 
should  find  all  slaves  to  come  from 


PRT 


491 


PRI 


pi'inces,  and  all  princes  from  slaves.  To 
be  proud  of  knowledge,  is  to  be  blind  in 
the  light ;  to  be  proud  of  virtue,  is  to 
poison  ourselves  with  the  antidote ;  to 
be  proud  of  authoi-ity,  is  to  make  our 
rise  our  downfall."  The  imperfection  of 
our  nature,  our  scanty  knowledge,  con- 
tracted powers,  nari'ow  conceptions, 
and  moral  inability,  are  strong  motives 
to  excite  us  to  humility-  ^^'e  should  con- 
sider also,  what  punishment  this  sin  has 
brought  on  mankind.  See  the  cases  of 
Pharaoh,  Haman,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Herod,  and  others.  How  particularly 
it  is  prohibited,  Prov.  xvi.  18.  1  Pet.  v. 
5.  James  iv.  6.  Prov.  xxix.  23  ;  what  a 
torment  it  is  to  its  possessor,  Esther  v. 
13 ;  how  soon  all  things  of  a  sublunary 
nature  will  end  ;  how  disgraceful  it  ren- 
ders us  in  the  sight  of  God,  angels,  and 
men  ;  what  a  barrier  it  is  to  our  felicity 
and  communion  with  God ;  how  fruit- 
ful it  is  of  discord ;  how  it  precludes 
our  usefulness,  and  renders  us  I'eally 
contenyitible.    See  Humility. 

PRIEST,  a  person  set  apart  for  the 
performance  of  sacrifice,  and  other  of- 
fices and  ceremonies  of  religion.  Before 
the  promulgation  of  the  law  of  Moses, 
the  first-born  of  every  family,  the  fa- 
thers, the  princes,  and  the  kings,  were 
priests.  Thus  Cain  and  Abel,  Noah, 
Abraham,  Melchizedec,  Job,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  offered  themselves  their  own  sa- 
crifices. Among  the  Israelites,  after 
their  departure  from  Egypt,  the  priest- 
hood was  confiiied  to  one  tribe,  and  it 
consisted  of  three  orders,  the  high- 
priest,  /iriests,  and  Levitcs.  The  priest- 
hood was  made  hereditary  in  the  family 
of  Aaron  ;  and  the  first-born  of  the  old- 
est branch  of  that  family,  if  he  had  no 
legal  blemish,  was  always  the  high- 
priest.  This  divine  appointment  was 
observed  with  considerable  accuracy 
till  the  Jews  fell  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Romans,  and  had  their  faith  cor- 
rupted by  a  false  philosophy.  Then, 
indeed,  the  high-priesthood  was  some- 
times set  up  to  sale,  and,  instead  of  con- 
tinuing for  life,  as  it  ought  to  have  done, 
it  seems,  fi'om  some  passages  in  the 
New  Testament,  to  have  been  nothing 
more  than  an  annual  office.  There  is 
sufficient  reason,  however,  to  believe, 
that  it  was  never  disposed  of  but  to 
some  descendant  of  Aaron  capable  of 
filling  it,  had  the  older  branches  been 
extinct.  [For  the  consecration  and  of- 
fices of  the  Jewish  priesthood,  we  refer 
our  readers  to  the  books  of  Moses.]  In 
the  time  of  David,  the  inferior  priests 
■were  divided  into  twenty-four  compa- 
nies, who  were  to  serve  in  rotation,  each 
company  by  itself,  for  a  week.    The  or- 


der in  which  the  several  courses  were 
to  scr\e  was  determined  by  lot ;  and 
each  course  was,  in  all  succeeding  ages, 
called  by  the  name  of  its  original  chief. 

It  has  been  much  disputed,  whether 
in  the  Christian  church  there  be  any 
such  officer  as  a  priest,  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  word.  If  the  word  priest 
be  taken  to  denote  a  person  commis- 
sioned by  divine  authority  to  offer  up  a 
real  sacrifice  to  God,  we  may  justly  de- 
ny that  there  is  a  priest  upon  earth. 
Under  the  Gospel,  there  is  but  one 
priest,  which  is  Christ:  and  but  one  sa- 
crifice, that  of  the  cross.  The  church 
of  Rome,  however,  erroneously  believe 
tlieir  priests  to  be  em]DOwered  to  offer 
up  to  the  Divine  Majesty  a  real  proper 
sacrifice,  as  were  the  priests  under  the 
Old  Testament.  Ecclesiastical  history 
informs  us  that,  in  the  second  century, 
some  time  after  the  reign  of  the  em- 
peror Adrian,  when  the  Jews,  by  the 
second  destruction  of  Jeinisalem,  were 
bereaved  of  all  hopes  of  the  restoration 
of  their  go\'ernmcnt  to  its  former  lustre, 
the  notion  that  the  ministers  of  the 
Christian  church  succeeded  to  the  cha- 
racter and  prerogatives  of  the  Jewish 
priesthood,  was  industriously  propaga- 
ted by  the  Christian  doctors;  and  that, 
in  consequence,  the  bishops  claimed  a 
rank  and  character  similar  to  that  of 
the  Jewish  high-priest ;  the  presbvtcrs 
to  that  of  the  priests  ;  and  the  deacons 
to  that  of  the  Levites.  One  of  the  per- 
nicious effects  of  this  groundless  com- 
parison and  pretension  seems  to  have 
been,  the  introduction  of  the  idea  of  a 
real  sacrifice  in  the  Christian  church, 
and  of  sacrificing  priests. 

In  the  church  of  England,  the  word 
firiest  is  retained  to  denote  the  second 
order  in  hei-  hierarchy,  but  we  believe 
with  very  different  significations,  ac- 
cording to  the  different  opinions  enter- 
tained of  the  Lord's  supper.  Some  few 
of  her  divines,  of  great  learning,  and  of 
undoubted  protestantism,  maintain  that 
the  Lord's  supper  is  a  commemorative 
and  eucharistical  sacrifice.  These  con- 
sider all  who  are  authorized  to  admi- 
nister that  sacrament  as  in  the  strictest 
sense  priests.  Others  hold  the  Lord's 
supper  to  be  a  feast  upon  the  one  sa- 
crifice, once  offered  on  the  cross ;  and 
these,  too,  must  consider  themselves  as 
clothed  with  some  kind  of  priesthood. 
Great  numbers,  however,  oi  the  Eng- 
lish clergy,  perhaps  the  majority,  agree 
with  the  church  of  SroUand,  in  main- 
taining that  the  Lord's  Mipper  is  a  rite 
of  no  other  moral  impoit  t!\an  the  mere 
commemoration  of  the  death  of  Christ 
These  cannot  consider  themselves  as 


inn 


4f>2 


PRI 


priests  in  the  rigid  sense  of  the  word, 
but  only  as  fircsbyters,  of  which  the 
word  priest  is  a  contraction  of  the 
same  import  with  elder.  See  Lord's 
Supper. 

PRIMACY,  the  highest  post  in  the 
church.  The  Romanists  contend  that 
St.  Peter,  by  our  Lord's  appointment, 
had  a  primacy  of  sovereign  authority 
and  jurisdiction  over  the  apostles.  This, 
however,  is  denied  by  the  Protestants, 
and  that  upon  just  grounds.  Dr.  Bar- 
row observes,  (Works,  vol.  i.  p.  557,) 
that  tliere  are  several  sorts  of  primacy 
which  may  belong  to  a  person  in  re- 
spect of  others.  1.  A  primacy  of  worth 
or  personal  excellency. — 2.  A  primacy 
of  reputation  and  esteem. — 3.  A  pri- 
macy of  order  or  bare  dignity  and  pre- 
cedence.— 4.  A  primacy  of  power  and 
jurisdiction.  As  for  the  first  of  these,  a 
primacy  of  worth,  we  may  well  grant  it 
to  Peter,  admitting  that  probably  he  did 
exceed  the  rest  of  his  brethren  in  per- 
sonal endowments  and  c  .pacities  ;  par- 
ticularly in  quickness  of  apprehension, 
boldness  of  spirit,  readiness  of  speech, 
charity  to  our  Lord,  and  zeal  for  his 
service. — 2.  As  to  the  primacy  of  re- 
pute, which  St.  Paul  means  when  he 
speaks  of  those  who  had  a  special  re- 

fjutation,  of  those  who  seemed  to  be  pil- 
ars, of  the  supereminent  apostles.  Gal. 
ii.  6,  9.  2  Cor.  xi.  5.  xii.  11.  this  advan- 
tage cannot  be  refused  him,  being  a  ne- 
cessary consequent  of  those  eminent 
qualities  resplendent  in  him,  and  of  the 
illustrious  performances  achieved  by 
him  beyond  the  rest.  This  may  be  in- 
ferred from  that  renown  which  he  hath 
had  from  the  beginning ;  and  likewise 
from  his  being  so  constantly  ranked  in 
the  first  place  before  the  rest  of  his 
brethren. — 3.  As  to  a  primacy  of  order 
or  bai-e  dignity,  impoi'ting  that  common- 
ly in  all  meetings  and  proceedings,  the 
other  apostles  did  yield  him  the  prece- 
dence, may  be  questioned  ;  for  this  does 
not  seem  suitable  to  the  gravity  of  sucli 
pei-sons,  of  their  condition  and  circum- 
stances, to  stand  upon  ceremonies  of  re- 
spect ;  for  our  Lord's  rules  seem  to  ex- 
clude all  semblance  of  ambition,  all 
kind  of  inequality  and  distance  between 
his  apostles.  But  yet  this  primacy  may 
be  granted  as  probable  upon  divers  ac- 
counts of  use  and  convenience  ;  it  might 
be  useful  to  pi-eserve  order,  and  to  pro- 
mote expedition,  or  to  prevent  confu- 
sion, distraction,  and  dilatory  obstniction 
in  the  management  of  th'mgs. — 4.  As  to 
a  primacy  importing  a  superiority  in 
command,  power  or  jijrisdiction,  this 
we  have  great  reason  to  deny  upon  the 
following  considerations.    1.  For  such  a 


power  it  was  needful  that  a  commission 
from  God,  its  founder,  should  be  grant- 
ed in  absolute  and  perspicuous  terms  ; 
but  no  such  commission  is  extant  in 
Scripture. — 2.  If  so  illustrious  an  office 
was  instituted  by  our  SaA'iour,  it  is 
strange,  that  no  where  in  the  evangeli- 
cal or  apostolical  history  there  should  be 
any  express  mention  of  that  institution. 
— 3.  If  St.  Peter  had  been  instituted 
sovereign  of  the  apostolical  senate,  his 
office  and  state  had  been  in  nature  and 
kind  very  distinct  from  the  common  of- 
fice of  the  other  apostles,  as  the  office  of 
a  kbig  from  the  office  of  any  subject; 
and  probably  would  have  been  signified 
by  some  distinct  name,  as  that  of  arch- 
apostle,  arcli-pastor,  the  Vicar  of  Christ, 
or  the  like  ;  but  no  such  name  or  title 
was  assumed  by  him,  or  was  by  the  rest 
attributed  to  him. — 4.  There  was  no  of- 
fice above  that  of  an  apostle,  known  to 
the  aposties  or  primitive  church,  Eph. 
iv.  11.  1  Cor.  xii.  28. — 5.  Our  Lord 
himself  declared  against  this  kind  of 
primacy,  prohibiting  his  apostles  to  af- 
fect, to  seek,  to  assume,  or  admit  a  su- 
periority of  power  one  above  another, 
Luke  xxii.  14 — 24.  Mark  ix.  35. — 6. 
We  do  not  find  any  peculiar  adminis- 
tration committed  to  St.  Peter,  nor  any 
privilege  conferred  on  him  which  was 
not  also  gi-anted  to  the  other  apostles, 
John  XX.  23.  Mark  xvi.  15.— -7.  When 
Peter  wrote  two  catholic  epistles,  thei'e 
does  not  appear  in  either  of  them  any 
intimation  or  any  pretence  to  this  arch- 
apostolical  power. — 8.  In  all  relations 
which  occur  in  Scripture  about  contro- 
versies incident  of  doctrine  or  practice, 
there  is  no  appeal  made  to  St.  Peter's 
judgment  or  allegation  of  it  as  decisive, 
no  argument  is  built  on  his  authority. — 

9.  St.  Peter  no  where  appears  inter- 
meddling as  a  judge  or  governor  para- 
rnount  in  such  cases ;  yet  where  lie  doth 
himself  deal  with  heretics  and  disorder- 
ly persons,  he  proceedeth  not  as  a  pope 
decreeing ;  but  as  an  apostle,  warning, 
arguing  and  persuading  against  them.— 

10.  The  consideration  of  the  apostles 
proceeding  in  the  conversion  of  people, 
in  the  foundation  of  churches,  and  in 
administration  of  their  spiritual  affiiirs, 
will  exclude  any  probability  of  St.  Pe-  ' 
ter's  jurisdiction  over  them. '  They  went 
about  their  business,  not  by  order  or  li- 
cence from  St.  Peter,  but,  according  to 
special  direction  of  God's  Spirit. — 11. 
The  nature  of  the  apostolic  mhiiiitry, 
their  not  being  fixed  in  one  phace  of  re- 
sidence, but  continually  moving  about 
the  world  ;  the  state  of  things  at  that 
time,  and  the  manner  of  St.  Peter's  life, 
render  it  unlikely  that  he  had  such  a 


PRI 


493 


PRO 


jurisdiction  over  the  apostles  as  soimc 
aBsi^Ti  him. — 12.  It  \va.s  indeed  most  re- 
quisite that  every  apostle  should  have 
a  complete,  absolute,  independent  au- 
thority in  managing  the  duties  and  con- 
cerns of  the  office,  that  he  might  not 
anv  wise  be  obstructed  in  the  discharge 
of  them,  not  clogged  with  a  need  to  con- 
sult others,  not  hampered  with  orders 
from  those  who  were  at  a  distance. — 13. 
The  discourse  and  behaviour  of  St.  Paul 
towards  St.  Peter  doth  evidence  that  he 
did  not  acknowledge  any  dependence  on 
him,  or  any  subjection  to  him.  Gal.  ii. 
11. — 14.  If  St.  Peter  had  been  appoint- 
ed sovereign  of  the  church,  it  seems 
that  it  should  have  been  requisite  that 
he  should  have  outlived  all  the  apostles ; 
for  otherwise,  the  church  would  have 
wanted  a  head,  or  there. must  have  been 
an  inextricable  controversy  who  that 
head  was.  But  St.  Peter  died  long  be- 
foi-e  St.  John,  as  all  agree,  and  perhaps 
before  divers  others  of  the  apostles. 

From  these  arguments  we  must  evi- 
dently see  what  little  ground  the  church 
of  Rome  hath  to  derive  the  supremacy 
of  the  pope  from  the  supposed  primacy 
of  St.  Peter. 

PRIMATE,  an  archbishop  who  is  in- 
vested with  a  jurisdiction  over  other  bi- 
:5hops.    See  Archbishop. 

PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS,  those 
who  lived  in  the  first  ages  of  Christianity, 
especially  the  apostles  and  immediate 
followers  of  our  Lord. 

PRINCIPLE,  an  essential  truth  from 
which  others  are  derived :  the  ground 
or  motiv'e  of  action.  See  Disposition 
and  Doctrine. 

PRIOR,  the  head  of  a  convent ;  next 
in  dignity  to  an  abbot. 

PRISCILLIANISTS,  the  followers 
of  Priscillian,  in  the  fourth  century.  It 
appears  from  authentic  records,  that 
the  difference  between  their  doctrine 
and  that  of  the  Manicheans  was  not 
very  considerable.  For  they  denied  the 
reality  of  Christ's  birth  and  incarnation ; 
maintained  that  the  visible  universe 
was  not  the  production  of  the  Supreme 
Deity,  but  of  some  dxmon  or  malignant 
pnnciple ;  adopted  the  doctrines  of 
sons,  or  emanations  from  the  divine  na- 
ture ;  considered  human  bodies  as  pri- 
sons formed  by  the  author  of  evil  to  en- 
slave celestial  minds;  condemned  mar- 
riage, and  disbelieved  the  resurrection 
of  the  body.  Their  rule  of  life  and 
manners  was  rigid  and  severe  ;  the  ac- 
counts, therefore,  which  many  have  j 
given  of  their  lasciviousness  and  intem- 1 
perance  deserve  not  the  least  credit,  as 
they  are  totally  destitute  of  evidence  and 
authority.  That  the  Priscillianists  were 


g-nilty  of  dissimulation  upon  some  occa- 
sions, and  deceived  their  adversaries  by 
cunning  stratagems,  is  trae;  but  that 
they  held  it  as  a  maxim,  that  lying  and 
perjury  were  lawful,  is  a  most  notorious 
falsehood,  without  even  the  least  shadow 
of  probability. 

PROBITY,  honesty,  sincerity,  or  ve- 
racity. "  It  consists  in  the  habit  of  ac- 
tions usefiil  to  society,  and  in  the  con- 
stant observance  of  the  laws  which  jus- 
tice and  conscience  impose  upon  us. 
The  man  who  obeys  all  the  laws  of  so- 
ciety with  an  exact  punctuality,  is  not, 
therefore,  a  man  of  probity ;  laws  can 
only  respect  the  external  and  definite 
parts  of  human  conduct ;  but  probity 
respects  our  more  private  actions,  and 
such  as  it  is  impossible  in  all  cases  to 
define ;  and  it  appears  to  be  in  morals 
what  charity  is  in  religion.  Probity- 
teaches  us  to  perform  in  socictv  those 
actions  which  no  external  power  can 
oblige  us  to  perform,  and  is  that  quality 
in  the  human  mind  from  which  we  clairrt 
the  performance  of  the  rights  common- 
ly called  iinfierfect" 

PROCESSION,  a  ceremony  in  the 
Romish  church,  consisting  of  a  formal 
march  of  the  clergy  and  people,  putting 
up  prayers,  &c.  and  in  this  manner  vi- 
siting some  church,  &c.  They  have 
processions  of  the  host  or  sacrament ; 
of  our  Saviour  to  mount  Calvary;  of 
the  Rosarif,  &c. 

Processions  are  said  to  be  of  Pagan 
original.  The  Romans,  when  the  em- 
pire was  distressed,  or  after  some  vic- 
toiy,  used  constantly  to  order  proces- 
sions, for  several  days  together,  to  be 
made  to  the  temples,  to  beg  the  assis- 
tance of  the  gods,  or  to  return  them 
thanks. 

The  first  processions  mentioned  in  ec- 
clesiastical histoiy,  are  those  set  on  foot 
at  Constantinople,  by  St.  Chrysostom 
The  Arians  of  that  cit^,  being  forced  to 
hold  their  meetings  without  the  town, 
went  thither  night  and  morning,  singing 
anthems.  Chrysostom,  to  prevent  their 
perverting  the  Catholics,  set  up  coun- 
ter-processions, in  which  the  clergy  and 
people  marched  by  night,  singing  pray- 
ers and  hymns,  and  canying  crosses  and 
flambeaux.  From  this  period  the  cus- 
tom of  processions  was  introduced 
among  the  Greeks,  and  afterwards 
among  the  Latins;  but  they  have 
subsisted  longer,  and  been  more  fre- 
quently used  in  the  Western  than  in^ 
the  Eastern  church. 

PROCESSION  OF  THE  HOLY 
GHOST,  a  term  made  use  of  in  i-efer- 
ence  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  proceeding 
from  the  Father,  or  .*"rom  tne  Father 


PRO 


494 


PRO 


and  the  Son.  It  seems  to  be  founded  on 
that  passage  in  John  xv.  26.  "  When 
the  Comforter  is  come,  whom  I  will 
send  unto  you  from  the  Father,  even 
the  Spirit  of  Truth  which  proceedeth 
from  the  Father,  He  shall  testify  of  me." 
The  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  it  is 
said,  is  expressly  taught  by  Christ,  in 
very  strong  terms,  in  this  text.  This 
procession,  it  is  alleged,  is  _  here  evi- 
dently distinguished  from  his  mission ; 
for  it  is  said,  "Whom  I  will  send  to  you 
from  the  Father,  even  the  Spirit  of 
Truth,  \\\vv:\\ proceeds  from  the  Father." 
If  his  mission  and  proceeding  were  the 
same  thing,  there  would  be  a  tautology 
in  the  words,  his  mission,  according  to 
that  interpretation,  being  mentioned 
twice  in  the  same  verse.  Dr.  Watts, 
however,  observes,  that  the  procession 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father,  re- 
spects not  his  nature  or  substance,  but 
his  mission  only  ;  and  that  no  distinct 
and  clear  ideas  can  be  formed  of  this 
procession ;  consequently  it  must  be 
given  up  as  popish,  scholastic,  incon- 
ceivable, and  indefensible.  But,  it  is 
answered,  what  clear  idea  can  be  given 
us  of  the  originate,  self-existent,  eternal 
being  of  the  Father?  Shall  we,  there- 
fore, deny  him  to  be  without  beginning 
or  end,  and  to  be  self-existent,  because 
we  know  not  how  he  is  so  ?  If  not,  why 
must  we  give  up  the  procession  of  the 
Spirit,  because  we  know  not  the  mode 
of  it.  We  can  no  more  explain  the  man- 
ner how  the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the 
Father,  than  we  can  explain  the  eternal 
generation  and  hypostatical  union  of  the 
two  natures  of  the  Son.  We  may  say 
to  the  objector,  as  Gregory  Nazianzen 
formerly  did  to  his  adversary,  "  Do  you 
tell  me  how  the  Father  is  unbegotten, 
and  I  will  attempt  to  tell  you  how  the 
Son  is  begotten,  and  the  Spirit  pro- 
ceeds." 

The  clearest  and  fullest  account  of 
this  procession,  next  to  that  in  the 
above-mentioned  text,  is  that  in  1  Cor. 
ji.  12.  "  The  Spirit  which  is  of  God ;" 
that  is  (say  the  advocates  for  this  doc- 
trine,) the  Spirit  which  is  the  same  in 
nature  and  essence  with  the  Father,  and 
so  is  said  to  be  of  him,  or  out  of  him,  not 
as  to  local  separation,  but  with  respecl?' 
to  identity  of  nature. 

About  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries 
there  was  a  very  warm  dispute  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  whether 
the  Spirit  proceeded  from  the  Father 
only,  or  from  the  Father  and  the  Son ; 
and  the  controversy  arose  to  such  a 
height,  that  they  charged  one  another 
with  heresy  and  scliism,  when  neitlier 
side  well  understood  what  they  contend- 


ed for.  The  Latin  church,  however, 
has  not  scrupled  to  say  that  the  Spii-it 
proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the  Son ; 
but  the  Greek  church  chooses  to  ex- 
press it  thus  :  the  Spirit  proceeds  from 
the  Father  by  or  through  the  Son,  or  he 
receives  of  the  Son,  Gal.  iv.  6.  See 
Holy  Ghost  ;  Bishop  Pearson  on  the 
Orerf,  p.  324 ;  Watfs's  IVor/cs,  8vq.  ed. 
vol.  V.  p.  199;  Hurrion  on  the  Holy 
Spirit,  p.  204;  Pidgiey's  Div.  qu.  II- 
Dr.  Lighffoot's  JVor/cs,'vo\.  i.  p.  482. 

PROFANE,  a  term  used  in  opposi- 
tion to  holy ;  and  in  general  is  applied 
to  all  persons  who  have  not  the  sacred 
character,  and  to  things  which  do  not 
belong  to  the  service  of  religion. 

PROFESSION,  among  the  Roman- 
ists, denotes  the  entering  into  a  religious 
order,  whereby  a  person  offers  himself 
to  God  by  a  vow  of  inviolably  observing 
obedience,  chastity,  and  poverty. 

Christians  are  required  to  make  a 
profession  of  their  faith,  1.  Boldly,  Rom. 
i.  16.— 2.  Explicitly,  Matt.  v.  16.— 3. 
Constantly,  Heb.  x.'23. — 4.  Yet  not  os- 
tentatiously, but  with  humility  and 
meekness. 

PROFESSOR,  a  term  commonly 
used  in  the  religious  world,  to  denote 
any  person  who  makes  an  open  acknow- 
ledgment of  the  religion  of  Christ,  or 
who  outwardly  manifests  his  attach- 
ment to  Christianity.  All  real  Chris- 
tians are  professors,  but  all  professors 
are  not  real  Christians.  In  this,  as  in 
all  other  things  of  worth  and  impor- 
tance, we  find  counterfeits.  There  are 
many  who  become  professors,  not  from 
principle,  from  investigation,  from  love 
to  the  truth  ;  but  from  interested  mo- 
tives, pi-ejudice  of  education,  custom, 
influence  of  connections,  novelty,  &c.  as 
Saul,  Jehu,  Judas,  Demas,  the  foolish 
virgins,  &c.  See  article  Christian  : 
Jinj's  Ser7nons,  ser.  9  ;  Mead's  jilmost 
Christian;  Bellamy's  True  Religion  de- 
lineated; Shepherd's  Sincere  Convert, 
and  on  the  Parable  of  the  Ten  Vir- 
gi7is  ;  Secke7''s  A'onsHch  Professor. 

PROMISE  is  a  solemn  asseveration, 
by  which  one  pledges  his  veracity  that 
he  shall  perform,  or  cause  to  be  per- 
formed, the  thing  which  he  mentions. 

The  obligation  of  promises  arises  from 
the  necessity  of  the  well-being  and  ex- 
istence of  society.  "Virtue  requires," 
as  Dr.  Doddridge  observes,  "  that  pro- 
mises be  fulHUed.  The  pi-omisee,  i.  e. 
the  person  to  whom  the  promise  is 
made,  acquires  a  pi-operty  in  virtue  of 
the  promise.  The  uncertainty  of  pro- 
perty would  evidently  be  attended  with 
great  inconvenience.  By  failing  to  ful- 
fil my  promise,  I  either  show  that  I  was 


PRO 


495 


PRO 


not  sincere  in  making  it,  or  that  I  have 
little  constancy  or  resolution,  and  either 
way  injure  my  character,  and  conse- 
quently my  usefulness  in  life.  Promises, 
however,  are  not  binding,  1.  If  they 
were  made  by  us  before  we  came  to 
such  exercise  of  reason  as  to  be  fit  to 
transact  affairs  of  moment ;  or  if  by  any 
distemper  or  sudden  surprise  we  are  de- 
prived of  the  exercise  of  our  reason  at 
the  time  when  the  promise  is  made. — 

2.  If  the  promise  was  made  on  a  false 
presumption,  in  which  the  promiser,  af- 
ter the  most  diligent  inquiiy,  was  im- 
posed upon,  especially  if  he  were  de- 
ceived by  the  fraud  of  the  promisee. — 

3.  If  the  thing  itself  be  vicious  ;  for  vir- 
tue cannot  require  that  vice  should  be 
committed. — 4.  If  the  accomplishment 
of  the  promise  be  so  hard  and  intolera- 
ble, that  there  is  reason  to  believe  that,  | 
had  it  been  foreseen,  it  would  have  been  i 
an  excepted  case. — 5.  If  the  promise  be  ' 
not  accepted,  or  if  it  depend  on  condi-  I 
tions  not  performed."  See  Doddridge's  \ 
Lee.  lee.  69  ;  Grot,  de  Jure,  lib.  ii.  cap. 
11 ;  Paley's  Mor.  Phil.  ch.  5,  vol.  i. ;  \ 
Grove's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  ii.  p.  2,  c.  12 ;  | 
Watts's  Ser.  ser.  20. 

PROMISES  OF  GOD  are  the  kind  i 
declarations  of  his  word,  in  which  he 
hath  assured  us  he  will  bestow  blessings 
upon  his  people.  The  promises  con- 
tained in  the  sacred  Scriptures  may  be 
considered,  1.  Divine  as  to  their  origin. — 
2.  Suitable  as  to  their  nature. — 3.  Abun- 
dant as  to  their  number. — 4.  Clear  as  to 
their  expression. — 5.  Certain  as  to  their 
accomplishment.  The  consideration  of 
them  should,  1.  Prove  an  antidote  to 
despair. — 2.  A  motive  to  p'atience. — 3. 
A  call  for  prayer. — 4.  A  spur  to  perse- 
verance. See  Clark  on  the  Promises,  a 
book  that  Dr.  Watts  says,  "he  could 
dare  put  into  the  hands  of  every  Chris- 
tian, among  all  their  divided  sects  and 
parties   in   the  world."    Buck's  Serm. 

PROPHECY,  a  word  derived  from 
irjKpnlEio,  and  in  its  original  import  signi- 
fies the  prediction  of  "future  events.  It 
is  tlius  defined  by  Witsius:  "A  know- 
ledge and  manifestation  of  secret  things, 
which  a  man  knows  not  from  his  own 
sagacity,  nor  from  the  relation  of  others, 
but  by  an  extraordinary  revelation  of 
God  from  heaven."  In  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  the  word  is  not  al- 
ways confined  to  the  foretelling  of  fu- 
tui-e  events.  In  several  instances  it  is 
of  the  same  import  with  preaching,  and 
denotes  the  faculty  of  illustrating  and 
applying  to  present  practical  purposes 
the  doctrines  of  prior  revelation.  Thus, 
in  Nehemiah  it  is  said,  "  Thou  hast  ap- 


pointed prophets  to  preach,"  ch.  vi. 
ver.  7;  and  whoever  speaketh  unto  men 
to  edification,  and  exhortation,  and  com- 
fort, is  by  St.  Paul  called  a  profihet, 
1  Cor.  xiv.  3.  Hence  it  was  that  there 
were  schools  of  prophets  in  Israel,  where 
young  men  wei-e  insti'ucted  in  the  truths 
of  religion,  and  fitted  to  exhort  and  com- 
fort the  people.  It  is  prophecy,  how- 
ever, according  to  the  first  definitioH 
given  abo\e,  we  shall  here  consider. 

Prophecy  (with  the  power  of  work- 
ing mii'acles)  may  be  considered  as  the 
highest  evidence  that  can  be  given  of  a 
supernatural  com.munion  with  the  Deity. 
Hence,  among  the  professors  of  almost 
eveiy  religious  system,  there  have  been 
numberless  pretenders  to  the  gift  of 
prophecy.  Pagans  had  their  oracleSj 
augurs,  and  soothsayers ;  modern  idola- 
ters their  necromancers  and  diviners ; 
and  the  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mahome- 
tans, their  prophets.  The  pretensions 
of  Pagans  and  impostors,  have,  how- 
ever, been  justly  exposed ;  while  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  prophecies  carry 
with  them  evident  marks  of  their  va- 
lidity. Hence  St.  Peter  observes,  "  We 
have  a  more  sure  word  of  prophecy, 
whereunto  we  do  well  to  take  heed,  as 
unto  a  light  that  shineth  in  a  dark  place; 
for  the  prophecy  came  not  in  old  time 
by  the  will  of  man,  but  holy  men  of  God 
spake  as  they  were  moved  bv  the  Holy 
Ghost."  2  Pet.  ii.  19,  21.  '  Scripture 
prophecy,  therefore,  hath  God  for  its 
origin.  It  did  not  arise  from  the  genius 
of  the  mind,  the  temperament  of  the 
body,  the  influence  of  the  stars,  &c. 
but  from  the  sovereign  will  of  God.  The 
ways  by  which  the  Deity  made  known 
his  mind  were  various ;  such  as  by 
dreams,  visions,  angels,  symbolic  repre- 
sentations, impulses  on  the  mind.  Numb, 
xii.  6.    Jer.  xxxi.  26.    Dan.  viii.  16,  17 

As  to  the  language  of  prophecy :  "  It 
is,"  says  Mr.  Gray,  "remarkable  for 
its  magnificence.  Each  prophetic  wri- 
ter is  distinguished  for  f>eculiar  beau- 
ties ;  but  their  style  in  general  may  be 
characterised  as  strong,  animated,  and 
impressive.  Its  oniaments  are  derived 
not  from  accumulation  of  epithet,  or  la- 
boured harmony;  but  from  the  real 
grandeur  of  its  images,  and  the  majestic 
torce  of  its  expressions.  It  is  varied 
with  striking  propriety,  and  enlivened 
with  quick  but  easy  transitions.  Its  sud- 
den bursts  of  eloquence,  its  earnest 
warmth,  its  affecting  exhortations  and 
appeals,  affoi-ds  very  interesting  proofs 
of  that  lively  impression,  and  of  that  in- 
spired conviction,  under  which  the  pro- 
phets wi-ote  ;  and  which  enabled  them, 
among  a  people  not  distinguished  for 


PRO 


496 


PRO 


genius,  to  surpass,  in  every  variety  of 
composition,  the  nmst  admired  produc- 
tions of  Pagan  antiquity.  If  the  imagery 
emi^loycd  by  the  sacred  writers  appears 
sometimes  to  partake  of  a  coarse  and 
indelicate  cast,  it  must  be  recollected, 
that  the  Eastern  manners  and  languages 
required  the  most  forcible  representa- 
tions ;  and  that  the  masculine  and  in- 
dignant spirit  of  the  prophets  led  them 
to  adopt  the  most  energetic  and  descrip- 
tive expressions.  No  style  is,  perhaps, 
so  highly  figurative  as  that  of  the  pro- 
phets. Every  object  of  nature  and  of 
art  which  could  funiish  allusions  is  ex- 
plored with  industry ;  every  scene  of 
creation,  and  every  page  of  science, 
seems  to  have  unfolded  its  rich  varieties 
to  the  sacred  writers,  who,  in  the  spirit 
of  Eastern  poetry,  delight  in  every  kind 
of  metaphorical  embellishment.  Thus, 
by  way  of  illustration,  it  is  obvious  to  re- 
mark, that  earthly  dignities  and  powers 
are  symbolized  by  the  celestial  bodies ; 
the  eft'ects  of  moral  evil  are  shown  un- 
der the  storms  and  convulsions  of  na- 
ture ;  the  pollutions  of  sin  are  repre- 
sented by  external  impurities ;  and  the 
beneficial  hifluence  of  righteousness  is 
depicted  by  the  serenity  and  confidence 
of  peaceful  life.  This  allegorical  lan- 
guage, being  founded  in  ideas  univer- 
sally prevalent,  and  adhered  to  with  in- 
variable relation  and  regular  analogy, 
has  furnished  great  ornament  and  ele- 
Kunce  to  the  sacred  writings.  Some- 
times, however,  the  inspired  penmen 
drew  their  allusions  from  local  and  tem- 
porary sources  of  metaphoi- ;  from  the 
peculiar  scenery  of  their  country ;  fi-om 
the  idolatries  of  heathen  nations ;  from 
their  own  history  and  circumstances; 
from  the  service  of  their  temple,  and  the 
cei'emonies  of  their  religion ;  from  man- 
ners that  have  faded,  and  customs  that 
have  elapsed.  Hence  many  appropri- 
ate beauties  have  vanished.  Many  de- 
scriptions and  many  representations, 
that  must  have  had  a  solemn  importance 
among  the  Jews,  are  now  considered, 
from  a  change  of  circumstances,  in  a  de- 
graded point  of  view.  Hence,  likewise, 
here  and  there  a  shade  of  obscurity.  In 
general,  however,  the  language  of  Scrip- 
ture, though  highly  sublime  and  beauti- 
ful, is  easy  and  intelligible  to  all  capaci- 
ties." 

2.  Of  the  use  and  intent  of  {irofihecy. 

As  prophecy  is  so  striking  a  proof  of 
a  supernatural  communion  witli  tlie 
Deity,  and  is  of  so  eai-ly  a  date,  we  may 
rest  assured  it  was  given  for  wise  and 
important    ends.    "  It   cannot   be   sup- 

gosed,"  says  bishop    Sherlock,    "that 
rod  delivered  prophecies  only  to  satis- 


fy or  employ  the  curiosity  of  the  inqui- 
sitive, or  that  he  gave  his  Spirit  to  mra 
merely  to  enable  them  to  give  forth 
predictions  for  the  amusement  and  en- 
tertainment of  the  world:  there  must 
be  some  end  worthy  of  the  aiithbr." 
Now,  what  end  could  this  be,  but  to 
keep  alive  in  the  minds  of  those  to  whom 
it  was  given,  a  sense  of  religion,  and  a 
hope  of  future  deliverance  from  the 
curse  of  the  fall  through  Jesus  Chi-ist? 
"  The  uses  of  prophecy,"  says  Dr.  Jor- 
tin,  "  besides  gradually  opening  and  un- 
folding the  things  relating  to  the  Mes- 
siah, and  the  blessings  which  by  him 
should  be  conferred  upon  mankind,  are 
many,  great,  and  manifest. 

"  1.  It  served  to  secure  the  belief  of  a 
God,  and  of  a  providence. 

"  As  God  is  invisible  and  spiritual, 
there  was  cause  to  feai-,  that,  ui  the 
first  and  ruder  ages  of  the  world,  when 
men  were  busier  in  cultivating  the  earth 
than  in  cultivating  arts  and  sciences,  and 
in  seeking  the  necessaries  of  life  than  in 
the  study  of  morality,  they  might  forget 
their  Creator  and  Governor;  and,  there- 
fore, God  maintained  amongst  thesn  the 
great  article  of  faith  in  him,  by  mani- 
festations of  himself;  by  sending  an- 
gels to  declare  his  willj  by  mii'acles, 
and  by  prophecies. 

"  2.  It  was  intended  to  give  men  the 
profoundest  veneration  for  that  amazing 
knowledge  from  which  nothing  was  con- 
cealed, not  even  the  future  actions  of 
creatures,  and  the  things  which  as  yet 
were  not.  How  could  a  man  hope  to 
hide  any  counsel,  any  design  or  thought, 
from  such  a  Being  ? 

"  3.  It  contributed  to  keep  up  devo- 
tion and  true  religion,  the  religion  of  the 
heart,  which  consists  partly  in  enter- 
taining just  and  honourable  notions  of 
God,  and  of  his  perfections,  and  which 
is  a  more  rational  and  a  more  accepta- 
ble service  than  rites  and  ceremonies. 

"  4.  It  excited  men  to  rely  upon  God, 
and  to  love  him  who  condescended  to 
hold  this  mutual  intercourse  with  his 
creatures,  and  to  permit  them  to  con- 
sult him,  as  one  fnend  asks  advice  of 
another. 

"5.  It  was  intended  to  keep  the  peo- 

f)le,  to  whom  God  revealed  himself, 
rom  idolatry  ;  a  sin  to  which  the  Jews 
would  be  inclined,  both  from  the  dispo- 
sition to  it  whicli  they  had  acquired  in 
Egypt,  and  from  the  contagion  of  bad 
example. 

The  people  of  Israel  were  strictly 
forbidden  to  consult  the  diviners  and 
the  gods  of  other  nations,  and  to  use  any 
enchantments  and  wicked  arts;  and 
that  they  might  have  no  temptation  to 


PRO 


497 


PRO 


it,  God  permitted  them  to  apply  to  him 
and  to  his  prophets,  even  upon  small 
occasions;  and  he  raised  up  amongst 
them  a  succession  of  prophets,  to  whom 
they  might  have  recourse  for  advice  and 
direction.  Tliese  pi'opliets  were  re- 
verenced abroad  as  well  as  at  home, 
and  consulted  by  foreign  princes ;  and, 
ui  times  of  the  captivity,  they  were  ho- 
noured by  great  kings,  and  advanced  to 
high  stations." 

As  it  respects  us,  prophecy  connect- 
ed with  miracles  affords  a  considerable 
evidence  of  the  tinith  of  revelation,  as 
well  as  of  a  superintending  Providence. 
This  evidence  too,  is  a  gi-owing  evi- 
dence. "The  divine  design,  uniformly 
pursued  through  a  series  of  successive 
generations,  opens  witli  a  greater  de- 
gree of  clearness,  in  pi'opoition  to  the 
lapse  of  time  and  the  number  of  events. 
An  increase  of  age  is  an  addition  to  its 
strength  ;  and  the  nearer  we  approach 
the  point  towards  which  the  dispensa- 
tions of  God  unvaiyingly  tend,  the  more 
elearlj'  shall  we  discern  the  wonderful 
regularity,  consistencv,  and  beauty  of 
this  stupendous  plan  for  universal  good. 
Of  the  great  use  of  prophecies  whicli 
have  been  fulfilled,  as  a  direct  and 
strong  argument  to  convert  unbeHevers 
to  Christianity,  and  to  establish  Chris- 
tians in  the  faith,  we  have  the  most  am- 
ple proofs.  Our  Lord  himself  made 
^•ery  frequent  appeals  to  prophecy  as 
evidence  of  his  divine  mission :  he  re- 
ferred the  Jews  to  their  own  Scriptures, 
as  most  fiilly  and  clearly  bearing  wit- 
ness of  himself.  Upon  them  he  ground- 
ed the  necessity  or  his  sufferings ;  upon 
them  he  settled  the  faith  of  the  disci- 
ples at  Emmaus,  and  of  the  apostles  at 
Jenisalem.  The  same  source  supplied 
the  eloquence  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
and  the  means  with  which  Apollos 
'mightily  convinced  the  Jews.'  This 
was  a  powerful  instrument  of  persuasion 
in  the  succeeding  ages  of  the  church, 
when  used  by  the  prunitive  apologists. 
Upon  this  topic  were  employed  the 
zeal  and  diligence  not  only  of  Justin 
Martyr,  but  TertuUian,  Cyprian,  and 
Augustin.  It  would  never  have  been  so 
frequently  employed,  if  it  had  not  been 
well  adapted  to  the  desired  end ;  and 
that  it  did  most  completely  answer  this 
end,  by  the  conversion  of  unbelievers, 
is  evident  from  the  accounts  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  the  records  of  the  primitive 
chm-ch. 

"Prophecy  keeps  the  attention  of 
Christians  alive  to  the  tinith  and  impor- 
tance of  their  holy  religion:  to  its  truth, 
because  prophecy  and  Christianity  had 
one  and  the  same  origin,  both  being  dc- 


i  rived  from  the  same  fountain  of  per- 
fection ;  it  keeps  them  alive  to  its  im- 
portance, because  prophecy  shows  that 
the  Supreme  Being  has  vouchsafed, 
through  a  long  succession  of  ages,  to 
prepare  mankind,  by  gradual  revela- 
tions of  his  will,  for  future  blessings; 
and  has  proved,  by  sending  chosen  mes- 
sengers to  usher  in  this  final  dispensa- 
tion, that '  the  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the 
spirit  of  prophecy.'  ■  It  confirms  the 
general  belief  of  a  God,  and  points  out 
to  a  careless  world  the  plain  traces  of 
his  watchful  providence.  It  displays  the 
counsels  of  inspiration,  incessantly  di- 
recting the  course  of  events,  without 
violating  the  order  of  reason  and  of  hu- 
man action.  Such  knowledge  is  too 
wonderful  for  us  I  such  power  is  above 
our  comprehension !  But  the  fact  is 
placed  before  our  eyes.  We  see,  or  may 
see,  a  regular  ti-ain  of  prophecies  tend- 
ing towards  one  declared  end,  accurate- 
ly fulfilled  and  fulfilling  amidst  all  the 
contiision  and  opposition  of  this  tumultu- 
ous world ;  and  we  see  that  these  pro- 
phecies are  clear,  both  in  prediction 
and  accomplishment,  in  proportion  to 
their  importance  in  fixing  our  belief  in 
the  providence  of  God,  and  in  the  great 
truths  of  divine  revelation.  Thus  it  ap- 
pears that  the  chief  design  of  prophecy 
is  to  bear  constant  witness  to  religious 
truth  ;  but  though  to  convince  gainsay- 
ers  of  this  truth  is  justly  considered  as 
its  principal  use,  it  has  another  very 
important  object,  to  which  it  well  be- 
comes us  to  pay  attention,  ft'om  motives 
of  gratitude,  as  well  as  from  fear  of  in- 
curring the  blame  which  Scripture  in- 
variably imputes  to  those  who  neglect 
to  take  advantage  of  the  light  afforded 
them.  It  is  designed  to  protect  be- 
lievers in  the  word  of  God  from  the 
dangers  arising  from  the  prevalent  cor- 
i"uptions,  errors,  and  vices  of  the  age  in 
which  they  live.  The  due  consideration 
of  prophecy  will  administer  consolation 
amidst  present  distres.s,  and  enliven 
faith  and  elevate  hope,  whilst  passing 
through  tlinse  dark  depressing  scenes, 
which,  without  this  gracious  aid,  might 
lead  through  the  intricacies  of  doubt  to 
the  gloom  of  despair." 

Objections,  however,  have  been  raised 
against  the  prophecies  from  their  ob- 
scurity. But  to  this  it  is  answered,  that 
they  have  often  a  first,  or  partial,  and  an 
ultimate  completion,  of  which  the  for- 
mer may  be  genei'ally  considered  as  an 
earnest  of  the  latter.  It  is  principally 
this  double  sense  of  prophecy  which 
renders  it  obscure  ;  for  though  the  pre- 
dictions of  the  prophets  were  sometimes 
positive  and  exacth-  desci-iptive,  and  de- 
3R 


PRO 


498 


PRO 


livered  -with  an  accurate  and  definite 
designation  of  names  and  times,  pro- 
phecy was  not  generally  designed  to  be 
clear  before  its  accomplishment.  It  is, 
howevei',  always  sufficiently  exact  in  its 
descriptions  to  authenticate  its  preten- 
sions to  a  divine  authority  ;  to  pioduce, 
when  it  comes  to  pass,  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  its  unerring  certainty ;  and  to 
demonstrate  the  wisdom  and  power  of 
God.  As  Bishop  Newton  observes,  pro- 
phecies are  the  only  species  of  writing 
Avhich  are  designed  more  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  future  ages  than  of  the  times 
wherein  they  are  written.  In  this  re- 
spect, as  the  world  groweth  older,  it 
groweth  wiser.  Time,  that  detracts 
something  from  the  evidence  of  other 
■writers,  is  still  adding  somethhig  to  the 
credit  and  authority  of  the  prophets. 
Future  ages  wiU  comprehend  more 
than  the  pi'esent,  as  the  present  under- 
stands more  than  the  past;  and  the 
perfect  accomplishment  will  produce  a 
perfect  knowledge  of  all  the  prophe- 
cies. 

3.  Of  the  fulfilment  of  firofihecy. 

Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  give  a 
copious  account  of  the  various  prophe- 
cies which  have  been  remarkably  ful- 
filled ;  but  whoever  has  examined  pro- 
fane histoiy  with  any  degree  of  atten- 
tion, and  compared  it  with  the  predic- 
tions of  Scripture,  must,  if  he  be  not 
blinded  by  prejudice,  and  hardened  by 
infidelity,  be  convinced  of  the  truth  of 

firophecy  by  its  exact  accomplishment. 
t  is  in  vain  to  say  that  these  prophecies 
■were  delivered  suice  the  events  have 
taken  place  ;  for  we  see  the  prophecies, 
the  latest  whereof  were  delivered  about 
1700  years  ago,  and  some  of  them  above 
3000  years  ago,  fulfilling  at  this  very 
time ;  and  cities,  and  countries,  and 
kingdoms,  in  the  veiy  same  condition, 
and  all  brought  about  in  the  -very  same 
manner,  and  with  the  very  same  cir- 
cumstances, as  the  prophets  had  foi-e- 
told.  "VVe  see,"  says  Bishop  New- 
ton, "the  descendants  of  Shem  and 
Japheth,  ruling  and  enlarged  in  Asia 
and  Europe,  and  perhaps  in  America, 
and  'the  curse  of  servitude,'  still  at- 
tending the  wretched  descendants  of 
Ham  in  Africa.  We  see  the  posteritv 
of  Ishmael,  '  multiplied  exceedingly,' 
and  become  *a  great  nation,'  in  the  Ara- 
bians; yet  living  like  'wild  men,'  and 
shifting  from  place  to  place  in  the  wil- 
derness; 'their  hand  against  every 
man,  and  every  man's  hand  against 
them ;'  and  still  dwelling  an  indepen- 
dent and  free  people,  '  in  the  presence 
of  all  their  brethren,'  and  in  the  pre- 
sence of  iill  their  enemies.    We  see  tlie 


family  of  Esau  totally  extinct,  and  that 
of  Jacob  subsisting  at  this  day;  'the 
sceptre  departed  from  Judah,'  and  the 
people  living;  no  where  in  authority, 
every  where  in  subjection ;  the  Jews  still 
dwelling  alone  among  the  nations,  while 
'  the  remem.brance  of  Amalek  is  utter- 
ly put  out  from  under  heaven.'  We  see 
the  Jews  severely  punished  for  their  in- 
fidelity and  disobedience  to  their  great 
prophet  like  unto  Moses:  'plucked 
from  off  their  own  land,  and  removed 
into  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth  ;  op- 
pressed and  spoiled  evei-more;'  and 
made  '  a  proverb  and  a  by-word  among 
all  nations.'  We  se^'Ephraim  so  bro- 
ken as  to  be  no  more  a  people,'  while 
the  whole  nation  is  comprehended  un- 
der the  name  of  Judah  ;  the  Jews  won- 
derfully pi-eserved  as  a  distinct  people, 
while  their  great  conquerors  are  every 
where  destroyed ;  their  land  lying  de- 
solate, and  themselves  cut  off  from  be- 
ing the  people  of  God,  while  the  Gen- 
tiles are  advanced  in  their  room.  We 
See  Nineveh  so  completely  destroyed, 
that  the  place  thereof  is  not  and  cannot 
be  known ;  Babylon  made  '  a  desola- 
tion for  ever,  a  ipossession  for  the  bit- 
tern, and  pools  of  water ;'  Tyre  become 
'like  the  top  of  a  rock,  a  place  for 
fishers  to  spread  their  nets  upon ;'  and 
Egypt,  'a  base  kingdom,  the  basest  of 
the  kingdoms,'  and  still  tributary  and 
subject  to  strangers.  We  see,  of  the 
four  great  empires  of  the  world,  the 
fourth  and  last,  which  was  gi-eater  and 
more  powerful  than  any  of  the  foi-mer, 
divided  in  the  Avestern  pait  thereof  into 
ten  lesser  kingdoms ;  and  among  them 
a  power  'with  a  triple  crown  differs 
from  the  first,'  with  '  a  mouth  speaking 
very  great  things,'  and  with  'a  look 
more  stout  than  his  fellows,  speaking 
great  words  against  the  Most  High, 
wearing  out  the  saints  of  the  Most 
High,  and  changing  times  and  laws.' 
We  see  a  power  '  cast  down  the  truth 
to  the  ground,  and  prosper,  and  prac- 
tise, and  destroy  the  holy  people,  not  re- 
garding the  God  of  his  fathers,  nor  the 
desire  of  wives,  but  honouring  Mahuz- 
zini,'  gods-protectors,  or  saints-protec- 
tors, '  and  causing'  the  priests  of  Ma- 
huzzim  •  to  i-ule  over  many,  and  to  di- 
vide the  land  for  gain.'  We  see  the 
Turks  'stretching  forth  their  hand 
over  the  countries,'  and  particularly 
' over  the  land  of  Eg>pt,  the  Lybians  at 
their  steps,'  and  the  Arabians  still 
•  escaping  out  of  their  hand.'  We  see 
the  Jews  'led  away  captive  into  aU  na- 
tions, and  Jeinisalem  trodden  down  of 
the  Gentiles,'  and  likely  to  continue  so 
'  until  the  times  of  the  Gentiles  be  ful- 


PRO 


499 


PRO 


filled,'  as  the  Jews  arc  l)y  a  constant 
miracle  preserved  a  distinct  people  for 
the  completion  of  other  prophecies  re- 
lating to  them.  We  see  one  *  who  op- 
!)oseth  and  exalteth  himself  above  all 
aws,  divine  and  human, '  sitting  as  God 
in  the  church  of  God,  and  showing  him- 
self that  he  is  God,  whose  coming  is  af- 
ter the  working  of  Satan,  with  all  power, 
fcnd  signs,  and  lying  wonders,  and  with 
all  deceivableness  of  unrighteousness.' 
We  see  a  great  apostacy  in  the  Chris- 
tian church,  which  consists  chiefly  in 
the  worship  of  demons,  angels,  or  de- 
parted saints,  and  is  promoted '  through 
the  hypocrisy  of  liars,  forbidding  to  mar- 
ry, and  commanding  to  abstain  from 
meats.  We  see  the  seven  churches  of 
Asia  lying  in  the  same  forlorn  and  deso- 
late condition  that  the  angel  had  signi- 
fied to  St.  John,  their  '  candlestick  re- 
moved out  of  its  place,'  their  churches 
turned  into  mosques,  their  Avorship  into 
superstition.  In  short,  we  see  the  cha- 
racters of  *  the  beast  and  the  false  pro- 
phet,' and  '  the  whore  of  Babylon,'  now 
exemplified  in  every  particular,  and  in 
a  city  that  is  seated  '  upon  seven  moun- 
tains ;'  so  that,  if  the  bishop  of  Rome 
had  set  for  his  picture,  a  greater  resem- 
blance and  likeness  could  not  have  been 
drawn. 

"  For  these  things  we  have  the  attes- 
tation of  past,  and  the  experience  of 
present  times ;  and  we  cannot  well  be 
deceived,  if  we  will  only  believe  our  own 
eyes  and  observation.  We  actually  see 
the  completion  of  many  of  the  prophe- 
cies m  the  state  of  men  and  things 
around  us;  and  we  have  the  prophecies 
themselves  recorded  in  books,  which 
books  have  been  read  in  public  assem- 
blies these  1700  or  2000  years,  have 
been  dispersed  into  several  countries, 
have  been  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages, and  quoted  and  commented 
upon  by  different  nations,  so  that  there 
is  no  room  to  suspect  so  much  as  a  pos- 
sibility of  forgery  or  illusion." 

4.  Rules  for  understanding  the  firo- 
phecies. 

In  order  to  understand  the  prophe- 
cies, and  to  form  a  right  judgment  of 
the  argument  for  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity, we  must  not  consider  them  singly 
and  apart,  but  as  a  grand  whole,  or  a 
chain  reaching  through  several  thousand 
years,  yet  manifestly  subservient  to  one 
and  the  same  end.  This  end  is  no  other 
than  the  establishment  of  the  universal 
empire  of  truth  and  righteousness  under 
the  dominion  of  Jesus  Christ.  We  are 
not,  indeed,  to  suppose  that  each  of  the 
prophecies  recorded  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment expressly  points  out,  and  clearly 


characttrizes  Jesus  Christ;  yet,  taken 
as  a  whole,  this  grand  system  refers  to 
him  ;  for  the  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the 
spirit  of  prophecy.  "All  the  devolu- 
tions of  divine  providence  have  him  for 
their  scope  and  end.  Is  an  empire,  or 
kingdom  erected?  that  empire,  or  king- 
dom is  erected  with  a  view,  directly  or 
indirectly,  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Mes- 
siah. Is  an  empire,  or  kingdom,  sub- 
verted or  overthrown  ?  that  empire,  or 
kingdom,  is  overthrown  in  subsei-viency 
to  the  glory  of  his  kingdom  and  em- 
pire, which  shall  know  neither  bounds 
nor  end,  but  whose  limits  shall  be  no 
other  than  the  limits  of  the  universe, 
and  whose  end  no  other  than  the  days  of 
eternity.  Jesus  Christ,  then,  is  the  only 
person  that  ever  existed  in  whom  all 
the  prophecies  meet  as  in  a  centre." 
In  order,  therefore,  to  oppose  error  and 
confront  the  infidel,  we  must  study  the 
prophecies  not  as  independent  of  each 
oihci',  but  as  connected ;  for  "  the  ar- 
gument from  prophecy,"  says  Bishop 
Hurd,  "is  not  to  be  formed  from  the 
consideration  of  single  prophecies,  but 
from  all  the  prophecies  taken  together, 
and  considered  as  making  one  system  ; 
in  which,  from  the  mutual  dependence 
and  coimection  of  its  parts,  preceding 
prophecies  prepare  and  illustrate  those 
which  follow ;  and  these,  again,  i-eflect 
light  on  the  foregoing:  just  as  in  any 
philosophical  system,  that  which  shows 
the  solidity  of  it  is  the  harmony  and  cor- 
respondence of  the  whole,  not  the  ap- 
plication of  it  in  particular  instances. 

"  Hence,  though  the  evidence  be  but 
small  fi'om  the  completion  of  any  one 
prophecy  taken  separately,  yet  that 
evidence,  being  always  something,  the 
amount  of  the  whole  evidence  resulting 
from  a  gi'eat  number  of  pi-ophecies,  all 
relative  to  the  same  design,  may  be 
considerable ;  like  many  scattei'ed  rays, 
which,  though  each  be  weak  in  itself, 
yet,  concentrated  into  one  point,  shall 
form  a  strong  light,  and  strike  the  sense 
very  powerfully.  Still  moi-e ;  this  evi- 
dence is  not  merely  a  growing  evi- 
dence, but  is  indeed  multiplied  upon 
us,  from  the  number  of  reflected  lights 
which  the  several  component  parts  of 
such  a  system  reciprocally  throw  upon 
each ;  till,  at  length,  the  conviction 
rises  unto  a  high  degree  of  moral  cer- 
tainty." 

Farther,  in  order  to  understand  the 
prophecies,  we  must  endeavour  to  find 
out  the  true  subject  of  prophecy  ;  that 
is,  precisel)'^  what  the  prophets  speak  of, 
and  the  characters  that  are  applied  to 
that  subject.  The  literal  sense  should 
be  always  kept  in  vie-\v,  and  a  know- 


PRO 


500 


PRO 


ledge  of  oriental  customs  attended.  The 
beginning  and  end  of  trie  prophetic  ser- 
mons'^iiust  be  carcfulh'^  observed.  The 
time,  as  near  as'possible,  cf  the  predic- 
tion, should  be  ascertained.  An  ac- 
quaintance with  the  method  of  salvation 
by  Christ  will  greatly  assist  us  in  this 
work.  The  mind  must  be  unprejudiced, 
and  we  should  be  well  acquainted  with 
the  Scriptures  at  large.  These  rules, 
with  dependence  on  the  divine  teaching, 
Avill  assist  us  in  understanding  the  pro- 
phecies. See  Bisho/i  J\''eivton's  Dis- 
sertations  on  the  Prophecies ;  Bishofi 
Sherlock's  Use  and  Latent  of  Prophecy ; 
Bisho/i  Hurd's  Ser»207is  on  the  Prophe- 
cies ;  Sir  Isaac  A''eivt07i's  Observations 
on  the  Prophecies  of  Daniel  and  the 
apocalypse ;  Gray's  Key  to  the  Old 
Testament;  Simpson's  Key  to  the  Pro- 
phecies; Illustrations  of  F*rophecy ; 
Fitrinq-a's  Typhus  Doctrinee  Propheti- 
cse;  Gill  on  the  Prophets;  F.ttrick's 
second  Pljcodus,  or  Peniarks  on  the 
PropJ'.edcis  vf  the  Lust  J'ime.s ;  Kelt's 
JFItsiory  the  "inicrfrr'ter  cf  Prophecy. 
See  also  the  woiks  of  Alcde,  Smith, 
Halifax,  Apthorp,  and  Faher,  on  the 
subject. 

PROPHESYINGS,  religious  exer- 
cises of  the  clergy  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  instituted  for  the  puqiose  of 
promoting  knowledge  and  piety.  The 
ministers  of  a  pai-ticular  division  at  a 
set  time  met  together  in  some  church  of 
a  mai-ket  or  other  large  town,  and  there 
each  in  their  order  explained,  according 
to  their  abilities,  some  portion  of  Scrip- 
ture allotted  to  them  before.  This  done, 
a  moderator  made  his  observations  on 
what  had  been  said,  and  determined 
the  true  sense  of  the  place,  a  certain 
space  of  time  being  fixed  for  dispatching 
the  whole.  These  institutions,  like  all 
others,  however,  it  seems,  were  abused, 
by  irregularity,  disputations,  and  divi- 
sions. Archbishop  Grindal  endeavoured 
to  regulate  the  prophesyings,  and  cover 
them  from  the  objections  that  the  court 
made  against  them,  by  enjoining  the 
ministers  to  oliserve  decency  and  order, 
by  fbrbidding  them  to  meddle  with  poli- 
tics and  church  government,  and  by 
prohibiting  all  non-conformist  mini.sters 
and  laymen  from  being  speakers.  The 
queen,  however,  was  resolved  to  sup- 
press them  ;  and  having  sent  for  the 
archbishop,  told  him  she  was  informed 
that  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the 
church  were  not  duly  observed  in  these 
prophesyings;  that  pcnsons  not  law- 
fullv  called' to  be  ministers  exercised  in 
them ;  that  the  assembrics  themselves 
■were  illegal,  not  being  allowed  by  pub- 
lic authority ;  that  the  laity  neglected 


their  secular  affairs  by  repairing  to 
these  meetings  which  filled  their  heads 
witli  notions,  and  might  occasion  dis- 
putes and  sedition  in  the  state ;  that  it 
was  good  for  the  church  to  have  but 
few  preachers,  three  or  four  in  a  coun- 
ty being  sufficient.  She  further  declar- 
ed her  dislike  of  the  number  of  these 
exercises,  and  therefore  commanded 
him  peremptorily  to  put  them  down. 
The  archbishop,  hoAvever,  instead  of 
obeying  the  commands  of  his  royal  mis- 
tress, thought  that  she  had  made  some 
infringement  upon  his  office,  and  wrote 
the  queen  a  long  and  earnest  letter,  de- 
claring that  his  conscience  would  not 
suffer  him  to  comply  with  her  com- 
mands. The  queen  was  so  inftamed 
with  tliis  letter,  that  the  archbishop  was 
sequestered  from  his  office,  and  he  ne- 
ver afterwards  recovered  the  queen's 
favour.  Thus  ended  the  prophesyings; 
"a  useful  institution,"  says  Neale,  "for 
proniotuig  Christian  knowledge  and 
piety,  at  a  time  when  both  were  at 
a  very  low  ebb  in  the  nation.  The 
queen  put  them  down  for  no  other  rea- 
son, but  because  they  enlightened  the 
people's  mmds  in  the  Scriptures,  and 
encouraged  their  inquiries  aftei-  tnith ; 
her  majesty  being  always  of  opinion 
that  knowledge  and  leaniing  m  the  laity 
would  only  endanger  their  peaceable 
submission  to  her  absolute  will  and 
pleasure." 

PROPHET,  a  person  who  foretels 
future  events.  It  is  particulai-ly  applied 
to  such  inspired  persons  among  the  Jews 
as  were  commissioned  by  God  to  declare 
his  will  and  pui-poses  to  that  people. 
See  Prophecy. 

False  Prophets.  See  Impostors; 
and  Josephus's  Hist,  of  the  Jews. 

Sons  of  the  Prophets,  an  appellation 
given  to  young  men  who  were  educated 
in  the  schools  or  colleges  under  a  proper 
master,  who  was  commonly,  if  not  al- 
ways, an  inspired  prophet  in  the  know- 
ledge of  religion,  and  in  sacred  music, 
and  thus  were  qualified  to  be  public 
preachers,  1  Sam.  x.  1  Sam.  xi.  2  Sam. 
xix.  2  Kings,  ii. 

PROPITIATION,  a  sacrifice  offered 
to  God  to  assuage  his  wrath,  and  render 
him  propitious.  Among  the  Jews,  there 
were  both  ordinary  and  public  sacrifices, 
as  holocausts,  &;c.  offered  by  way  of 
thanksgiving;  and  extraordinary  ones, 
offered  by  persons  guilty  of  any  crime, 
by  way  of  propitiation.  The  Romish 
church  believe  the  mass  to  be  a  sacri- 
fice of  propitiation  for  the  living  and  the 
dead.  The  reformed  churches  allow  of 
no  propitiation,  but  that  one  offered  by 
Jesus  on  the  cross,  whereby  divine  jus- 


PRO 


501 


PRO 


tice  is  appeased,  and  our  sins  forgiven, 
Rom.  iii.  25.  1  John,  ii.  2. 

As  it  respects  the  unbloody  propitia- 
tory sacrifice  of  the  mass  above-men- 
tioned, httle  need  be  said  to  confute  such 
a  doctrine.  Indeed,  it  is  owned  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  that  there  is  no  otlier 
foundation  for  the  belief  of  it  than  an 
unwritten  tradition.  There  is  no  hint 
jn  the  Scripture  of  Chi'ist's  offering  his 
body  and  blood  to  his  Father  at  his  in- 
stitution of  the  eucharist.  It  is  also  a 
manifest  contradiction  to  St.  Paul's  doc- 
trine, who  teaches,  that,  without  shed- 
ding of  blood,  there  is  no  remission ; 
therefore  there  can  be  no  remission  of 
sins  in  the  mass.  The  sacrifice  of  Christ, 
according  to  the  same  apostle,  is  not  to 
be  repeated.  A  second  oblation  would 
be  superfluous ;  consequently  the  pre- 
tended tnie  and  proper  sacrifice  of  the 
mass  must  be  superfluous  and  useless. 

The  propitiation  made  by  Jesus  Christ 
is  that  which  atones  for  and  covers  our 
guilt,  as  the  mercy-seat  did  the  tables  of 
the  law;  or  it  may  be  defined  thus: 
"  It  is  the  avei"ting  the  punishment  due 
to  any  one,  by  undergoing  the  penalty  in 
ihe  i-oom  of  the  guilty."  Thus  Jesus 
Christ  is  called  the  propitiation  or 
'ttonement,  as  his  complete  righteous- 
ness appeases  his  Father,  and  satisfies 
iiis  law  and  justice  for  all  our  trans- 
gressions. See  Atonement,  and  books 
under  that  article. 

PROPORTION  OF  FAITH.  See 
Analogy  of  Faith. 

PROSELYTE,  a  new  convert  to 
some  religion  or  religious  sect.  Among 
the  Hebrews,  proselytes  were  distin- 
guished into  two  sorts :  the  first  called 
proselytes  of  the  gate,  because  suffered 
to  live  among  them,  and  were  those  who 
observed  the  moral  law  only,  and  the 
ndes  imposed  on  the  children  of  Noah  ; 
the  second  were  called  proselytes  of 
justice,  who  engaged  to  receive  circum- 
cision, and  the  whole  law  of  Moses,  and 
enjoyed  all  the  privileges  of  a  native 
Hebrew. 

PROSEUCHE,  from  w^otfwxv,  signi- 
fies prayer;  but  it  is  taken  for  the  places 
of  prayer  of  the  Jews,  and  was  pretty 
near  the  same  as  their  synagogues.  But 
the  synagogues  were  originally  in  the  ci- 
ties, and  were  covered  places ;  where- 
as, for  the  most  part,  the  proseuches, 
were  out  oi  the  cities,  and  on  the  banks 
of  rivers,  having  no  covering,  except, 
perhaps,  the  shade  of  some  trees  or 
covered  ealleries,  Acts  xvi.  13. 

PROSPERITY,  a  state  wherein 
things  succeed,  according  to  our  wishes, 
and  are  productive  of  affluence  and 
ease.  However  desirable  prosperity  be, 


it  has  its  manifest  disadvantages.  It  too 
often  alienates  the  soul  from  God  ;  ex- 
cites pride ;  exposes  to  temptation ; 
hardens  the  heart ;  occasions  idleness ; 
promotes  effeminacy ;  damps  zeal  and 
energ}- ;  and,  too  often  has  a  baneful 
relative  influence.  It  is  no  wonder, 
therefore,  that  the  Almighty  in  general 
withholds  it  from  his  children ;  and  that 
adversity  should  be  their  lot  rather  than 
prosperity.  Indeed  ad\ersity  seems 
more  beneficial  on  the  whole,  although 
it  be  so  unpleasant  to  our  feelings.  "  The 
advantages  of  prosperity,"  says  Bacon, 
"  are  to  be  %vished ;  but'  the  advantages 
of  adversity  are  to  be  admired.  The 
principal  virtue  of  prosperity,  is  tem- 
perance ;  the  principal  vntue  of  adver- 
sity, is  fortitude,  which  in  morality  is 
allowed  to  be  the  most  heroical  virtue  : 
prosperity  best  discovers  vice,  adversity 
best  discovers  virtue,  which  is  like  those 
perfumes  that  are  most  fragrant  when 
burnt  or  bruised."  It  is  not,  however, 
to  be  understood,  that  prosperity  in  it- 
self is  unlawful.  The  world  with  all  its 
various  productions  was  formed  by  the 
Almighty  for  the  happiness  of  man,  aqd 
designed  to  endear  himself  to  us,  and  to 
lead  our  minds  up  to  him.  What  how- 
ever God  often  gives  us  as  a  blessing, 
by  our  own  folly  we  pen  eit  and  turn 
into  a  curse.  Where  prosperity  is 
given,  there  religion  is  absolutely  ne- 
cessaiy  to  enable  us  to  act  under  it  as 
we  ought.  Where  this  divine  principle 
influences  the  mind,  prosperity  may  be 
enjoyed  and  become  a  blessing;  for 
"  While  bad  men  snatch  the  pleasures 
of  the  world  as  by  stealth,  without 
countenance  from  God,  the  proprietor 
of  the  world ;  the  righteous  sit  openly 
down  to  the  feast  of  life,  under  the 
smile  of  heaven.  No  guilty  fears  damp 
their  joys.  The  blessing  of  God  rests 
upon  all  they  possess.  Their  piety  re- 
flects sunshine  from  heaven  upon  the 
prosperity  of  the  world  ;  unites  in  one 
point  of  view  the  smiling  aspect,  both 
of  the  powers  above,  and  of  the  objects 
below.  Not  only  have  tiiey  as  full  a 
relish  as  others  of  the  innocent  plea- 
sures of  life,  but  moreovei',  in  them 
they  hold  communion  with  God.  In  all 
that  is  good  or  fair,  they  trace  his  hand. 
From  the  beauties  of  nature,  from  the 
improvements  of  art,  from  the  enjoy- 
ments of  social  life,  they  raise  their  af- 
fections to  the  source  of  all  the  happi- 
ness which  surrounds  them,  and  thus 
widen  the  sphere  of  their  pleasures,  by 
adding  intellectual  and  spiritual  to 
earthly  joys.  B/air's  Sermons,  vol.  i. 
ser.  3.  Bates's  Works,  p.  29". 
Spiritual  prosfierity  consists  in  the 


PRO  502 

coiitinual  progre^  of  the  mind  in  know- 
ledge, purity,  and  joy.  It  arises  from 
the  participation  of  the  divine  blessing ; 
and  evidences  itself  by  fi-equency  m 
pra)^er ;  love  to  God's  word ;  delight 
in  his  people;  attendance  on  his  ordi- 
nances ;  zeal  in  his  cause ;  submission 
to  his  will ;  usefulness  in  his  church ; 
and  increasing  abhon-ence  of  every  thing 
that  is  derogatory  to  his  glory. 

PROTEST AlSTT,  a  name  first  given 
in  Germany  to  those  who  adhered  to 
the  doctrine  of  Luther,  because  in  1529, 
they  protested  against  a  deci'ee  of  the 
empei'or  Charles  V.  and  the  diet  of 
Spires;  declaring  that  they  appealed 
to  a  general  council.  The  same  has  also 
been  given  to  those  of  the  sentiments  of 
Calvin ;  and  is  now  become  a  common 
denomination  for  all  those  of  the  reform- 
ed churches.  See  article  Reforma- 
tion ;  FeWs  Four  Letters  on  genuine 
Protestantism;  Chillingnvorth's  Reli- 
gion of  the  Protestants;  Robertson's 
Hist,  of  Charles  V.  vol.  ii.  p.  249,  250. 

PROVIDENCE,  the  superintendence 
and  care  which  God  exercises  over 
ci-eation.  The  arguments  for  the  pro- 
vidence of  God  are  generally  drawn 
from  the  light  of  nature ;  the  being  of  a 
God ;  the  creation  of  the  world ;  the 
wondei'fully  disposing  and  controlling 
the  affairs  and  actions  of  men ;  from  the 
absolute  necessity  of  it ;  from  the  va- 
rious blessings  enjoyed  by  his  creatures ; 
the  awful  judgments  that  have  been  in- 
flicted ;  and  from  the  astonishing  pre- 
servation of  the  Bible  and  the  church 
through  every  age,  notwithstanding  the 
attempts  of  earth  and  hell  against  them. 
Providence  has  been  divided  into  im- 
mediate and  mediate,  ordinary  and  ex- 
traordinary, common  and  special,  uni- 
versal and  particular.  Immediate  pro- 
vidence is  what  is  exercised  by  God 
himself,  without  the  use  of  any  instru- 
ment or  second  cause ;  mediate  provi- 
dence is  what  is  exercised  in  the  use 
of  means ;  ordinary  providence  is  what 
is  exercised  in  the  common  course  of 
means,  and  by  the  chain  of  second 
causes ;  extraordinary  is  what  is  out  of 
the  common  way,  as  miraculous  opera- 
ions  ;  common  providence  is  what  be- 
ongs  to  the  whole  world ;  special,  what 
relates  to  the  church  ;  imiversul  relates 
to  the  general  upholding  and  preserving 
all  things;  particular  relates  to  indivi- 
duals in  every  action  and  circumstance. 
This  last,  however,  is  denied  by  some. 
But,  as  a  good  writer  observes,  "  The 
opinion  entertained  by  some  that  the 
providence  of  God  extends  no  farther 
than  to  a  general  superintendence  of 
the  laws  of  nature,  ^vithout  inteiposing 


PRO 

in  the  particular  concerns  of  individuals, 
is  contrary  both  to  reason  and  to  Scrip- 
ture. It  renders  the  government  of  the 
Almighty  altogether  loose  and  contin- 
gent, and  would  leave  no  ground  for 
reposing  any  trust  under  its  protection  ; 
for  the  majority  of  human  affairs  would 
then  be  allowed  to  fluctuate  in  a  fortui- 
tous course,  without  moving  in  any  regu- 
lar direction,  and  without  tending  to  any 
one  scope.  The  uniform  doctrine  of  the 
sacred  writings  is,  that  throughout  the 
universe  nothmg  happens  without  God-, 
that  his  hand  is  ever  active,  and  his  de- 
cree or  permission  intervenes  in  all ; 
that  nothing  is  too  great  or  unwieldy 
for  his  management,  and  nothing  so  mi- 
nute and  inconsiderable  as  to  be  below 
his  inspection  and  care.  While  he  is 
guiding  the  sun  and  moon  in  their 
cmrse  through  the  heavens;  while  in 
tnis  inferior  world  he  is  rulmg  among 
empires,  stilling  the  ragings  of  the  wa- 
ters, and  the  tumults  of  the  people,  he, 
is  at  the  same  time  watching  over  the 
humble  good  man,  who,  in  the  obscurity 
of  his  cottage,  is  serving  and  worship- 
pine  him." 

"In  what  manner,  indeed.  Provi- 
dence intei-poses  in  human  affairs;  by 
what  means  it  influences  the  thoughts 
and  counsels  of  men,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  influence  it  exerts,  leaves 
to  them  the  freedom  of  choice,  are 
subjects  of  dark  and  mysterious  nature, 
and  which  have  given  occasion  to  many 
an  intricate  controversy.  Let  us  re- 
member, that  the  manner  in  which 
God  influences  the  motion  of  all  the 
heavenly  bodies,  the  nature  of  that  se- 
cret power  by  which  he  is  ever  direct- 
ing the  sun  and  the  moon,  the  planets, 
stars,  anu  comets,  in  their  course 
through  the  heavens,  while  they  ap- 
pear to  move  themselves  in  a  free 
course,  are  matters  no  less  inexplicable 
to  us  than  the  manner  in  which  he  in- 
fluences the  councils  of  men.  But 
though  the  mode  of  divine  operation  re- 
mains unknown,  the  fact  of  an  over- 
ruling influence  is  equally  ceitain  in  the 
moral  as  it  is  in  the  natural  world.  In 
cases  where  the  fact  is  clearly  authen- 
ticated, we  are  not  at  liberty  to  call  its 
ti-uth  ir)  question,  mei-ely  because  we 
understand  not  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  brought  about.  Nothing  can  be  more 
clear,  from  the  testimony  of  Scripture, 
than  that  God  takes  part  in  all  that 
happens  among  mankind ;  directing  and 
over-i-uling  the  whole  course  of  events 
so  as  to  make  every  one  of  them  answer 
the  designs  of  his  wise  and  righteous 
government.  We  cannot,  indeed,  con- 
ceive God  acting  as  the  governor  of  the 


PRO 


503 


PRO 


world  at  all,  unless  his  government  were 
to  extend  to  all  the  events  that  happen. 
It  is  upon  the  supposition  of  a  particu- 
lar providence  that  our  worship  and 
prayers  to  him  are  founded.  AH  his 
perfections  would  be  utterly  insignifi- 
cant to  us,  if  they  were  not  exercised, 
on  every  occasion,  according  as  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  creatui'es  required. 
The  Almighty  would. then  be  no  more 
than  an  unconcei'ned  spectator  of  the 
behaviour  of  his  subjects,  regarding  the 
obedient  and  the  rebellious  with  an 
equal  eye. 

"  The  experience  of  every  one  also, 
must,  more  or  less,  bear  testimony  to  it. 
We  need  not  for  this  purpose  have  re- 
course to  those  sudden  and  unexpected 
vicissitudes  which  have  sometimes  as- 
tonished whole  nations,  and  drawn  their 
attention  to  the  conspicuous  hand  of 
heaven.  We  need  not  appeal  to  the 
history  of  the  statesman  and  the  war- 
rior; of  the  ambitious  and  the  enter- 
prising. We  confine  our  observation  to 
those  whose  lives  have  been  most  plain 
and  simple,  and  who  had  no  desire  to 
depart  fi-om  the  ordinaiy  train  of  con- 
duct. In  how  many  instances  have  we 
found,  that  we  are  held  in  subjection  to 
a  higher  Power,  on  whom  depends  the 
accomplishment  of  our  wishes  and  de- 
signs ?  Fondly  we  had  projected  some 
favourite  plan :  we  thought  that  we  had 
forecast  and  provided  for  all  that  might 
happen;  we  had  taken  our  measures 
with  such  vigilant  prudence,  that  on 
every  side  we  seemed  to  ourselves  per- 
fectly guarded  and  secure ;  but,  lo  I 
some  little  event  hath  come  about,  un- 
foreseen by  us,  and  in  its  consequences 
at  the  first  seemingly  inconsiderable, 
which  yet  hath  turned  the  whole  course 
of  things  into  a  new  direction,  and 
blasted  all  our  hopes.  At  other  times 
our  counsels  and  plans  have  been  per- 
mitted to  succeed :  we  then  applauded 
our  own  wisdom,  and  sat  down  to  feast 
en  the  happiness  we  had  attained.  To 
our  surprise  we  found  that  happiness 
was  not  there,  and  that  God's  decree 
had  appointed  it  to  be  only  vanity.  We 
labour  for  prosperity,  and  obtain  it  not. 
Unexpected,  it  is  sometimes  made  to 
drop  upon  us  as  of  its  own  accord.  The 
happiness  of  man  depends  on  secret 
springs  too  nice  and  delicate  to  be  ad- 
justed by  human  art :  it  requires  a  fa- 
vourable combination  of  external  cir- 
cumstances with  the  state  of  his  own 
mind.  To  accomplish  on  every  occa- 
sion such  a  combination,  is  far  beyond 
his  power:  but  it  is  what  God  can  at  all 
times  effect ;  as  the  whole  series  of  ex- 
ternal causes  are  arranged  according  to 


his  j)leasure,  and  the  hearts  of  all  men 
are  in  his  hands,  to  turn  them  luhereso- 
ever  he  ivill,  as  rivers  of  nvater.  From 
the  imperfection  of  our  knowledge  to 
ascertaui  what  is  good  for  us,  and  from 
the  defect  of  our  power  to  bring  about 
that  good  when  known,  arise  all  those 
disappointments  which  continually  tes- 
tify that  the  nvay  of  man  is  not  in  him- 
self; that  he  is  not  the  master  of  his 
own  lot ;  that,  though  he  may  devise,  it 
is  God  wlio  directs ;  God,  who  can 
make  the  smallest  incident  an  effectual 
instrument  of  his  providence  for  over- 
turning the  most  laboured  plans  of 
men. 

"  Accident,  and  chance,  and  fortune, 
are  words  which  we  often  hear  men- 
tioned, and  much  is  ascribed  to  them  in 
the  life  of  man.  But  they  are  words 
without  meaning ;  or,  as  far  as  they 
have  any  signification,  they  are  no  other 
than  names  for  the  unknown  operations 
of  Providence ;  for  it  is  certain  that  in 
God's  universe  nothing  comes  to  pass 
causelessly,  or  in  vain.  Every  event  has 
its  own  determined  direction.  That 
chaos  of  human  affairs  and  intrigues 
where  we  can  see  no  light,  that  mass  of 
disorder  and  confusion  which  they  of- 
ten present  to  our  view,  is  all  clearness 
and  order  in  the  sight  of  Him  who  is 
governing  and  directing  all,  and  bring,- 
ing  forward  every  event  in  its  due  time 
and  place.  The  Lord  sitteth  on  the 
flood.  The  Lord  maketh  the  nvrath  of 
mail  to  praise  him,  as  he  maketh  the 
hail  and  the  rain  obey  his  word.  He 
hath  prepared  his  throne  in  the  heavens; 
and  his  kingdom  ruleth  over  all.  A 
man's  heart  deviseth  his  way,  but  the 
Lord  directeth  his  steps." 

"To  follow  the  leadings  of  provi- 
dence,  means  no  other  than  to  act 
agreeably  to  the  law  of  duty,  prudence, 
and  safety,  or  any  particular  circum- 
stance, according  to  the  direction  or  de- 
termination of  the  word  or  law  of  God. 
He  follows  the  dictates  of  Providence, 
who  takes  a  due  survey  of  the  situation 
he  is  placed  in,  compares  it  with  the 
rules  of  the  word  which  reaches  his 
case,  and  acts  accordingly.  To  know 
the  will  of  God  as  it  respects  provi- 
dence, there  must  be,  1.  Deliberation. 
— 2.  Consultation. — 3.  Supplication.  The 
tokens  of  the  divine  will  and  pleasure  in 
any  particular  case  are  not  to  be  g-ath- 
ei'ed  from  our  inclinations,  particular 
frames,  the  form  of  Scripture  phrases, 
impulses,  nor  even  the  event,  as  that 
cannot  always  be  a  nile  of  judgment ; 
but  whatever  appears  to  be  proper  du- 
ty, true  prudence,  or  real  necessity,  t^iat 
we  should  esteem  to  be  his  will."    See 


PRU 


504 


PUR 


Chai-nock,  Flavel,  Hoakiuell,  Hopkins, 
Sherlock,  Collmgs,  and  Fawcet  on  Pro- 
vidence;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity; 
jRidg-ley's  Body  of  Divinity,  qu.  18  ; 
Blaii-'s  Ser.  ser.  18,  vol.  v. ;  Forsyihe's 
.Piece  on  Providence,  Enc.  Brit. ;  Wol- 
laston's  Religion  of  JVature  delineated, 
sec.  5;  Thomson's  Seasons,  Winter, 
conclusion. 

PRUDENCE  is  the  act  of  suiting 
words  and  actions  according  to  the 
circumstance  of  things,  or  rules  of  right 
reason:  Cicero  thus  defines  it:  "Est 
rerum  expetendarum  fugiendarum  sci- 
entia." — "The  knowledge  of  what  is 
to  be  desired  or  avoided."  Grove  thus : 
"Prudence  is  an  ability  of  judging  what 
is  best  in  the  choice  both  of  ends  and 
means."  Mason  thus :  "  Prudence  is  a 
conformity  to  the  i-ules  of  reason,  truth, 
and  decency,  at  all  times,  and  in  all  cir- 
cumstances. It  diflFers  from  wisdom 
only  in  degree ;  wisdom  being  nothing 
but  a  more  consummate  habit  of  pru- 
dence ;  and  prudence  a  lower  degree 
or  weaker  habit  of  wisdom."  It  is 
divided  into,  1.  Christian  pnidence, 
Avhich  directs  to  the  pursuit  of  that 
blessedness  which  the  Gospel  discovers 
by  the  use  of  Gospel  means. — 2.  Moral 
piTidence  has  for  its  end  peace  and  sa- 
tisfaction of  mind  in  this  world,  and  the 
greatest  happiness  after  death. — 3.  Ci- 
vil prudence  is  the  knowledge  of  what 
ought  to  be  done  in  order  to  secure  the 
outward  happiness  of  life,  consisting  in 
prosperity,  liberty,  &c. — 4.  Monastic, 
relating  to  any  circumstances  in  which 
a  man  is  not  charged  with  the  care  of 
others. — 5.  (Econo'mical  prudence  re- 
gards the  conduct  of  a  family. — 6.  Po- 
litical refers  to  the  good  government 
of  a  state. 

The  idea  of  prudence,  says  one,  in- 
cludes £i.(3s\ia,  or  due  consultation :  that 
is,  concerning  such  things  as  demand 
consultation  in  a  right  manner,  and  for 
a  competent  time,  that  the  resolution 
taken  up  may  be  neither  too  precipitate 
nor  too  slow  ;  and  mMCM,  or  a  facultv  of 
discerning  proper  means  when  tliey  oc- 
cur. To  the  perfection  of  prudence 
these  three  things  are  farther  i-equircd. 
viz.  6£iv:lT)j,or  a  natural  sagacity.  Ayxiwto, 
presence  of  mind,  or  a  ready  tuni  of 
thought;  and  Euwiya,  or  experience. 

Plato  styles  pnidence  the  leading 
virtue;  and  Cicero  obsen'cs,  "tliat  not 
one  of  the  virtues  can  want  prudence," 
which  is  certainly  most  tnie,  since  with- 
out pnidence  to  guide  them,  piety  would 
des^cncrnte  into  superstition,  zeal  into 
bigotry,  temperance  into  austerity,  cou- 
rage into  rashness,  and  justice  itself  into 
foUy.  See  Watts' a  Ser.  ser.  28 ;  Grove's 


Moral  Phil.  vol.  ii.  ch.  2;  Mason's 
Christian  Mor.  vol.  i.  ser.  4;  Evans's 
Christ.  Temper,  ser.  38. 

PSALMODY,  the  art  or  act  of  sing- 
ing psalms.  Psalmody  was  always  es- 
teemed a  considerable  part  of  devotion, 
and  usually  performed  in  the  standing 
posture ;  and  as  to  the  manner  of  pro- 
nunciation, the  plain  song  was  some- 
times used,  being  a  gentle  inflection  of 
the  voice,  not  much  different  from  read- 
ing, like  the  chant  in  cathedrals;  at 
other  times  more  artificial  compositions 
were  used,  like  our  anthems. 

As  to  the  persons  concerned  in  sing- 
ing, sometimes  a  single  pei'son  sung 
alone ;  sometimes  the  whole  assembly 
joined  together,  which  was  the  most  an- 
cient and  general  practice.  At  other 
times,  the  psalms  were  sung  alternately, 
the  congregation  dividing  themselves 
into  two  parts,  and  singing  verse  about, 
in  their  turns.  There  was  also  a  fourth 
way  of  singing,  pretty  common  in  the 
fourth  century,  which  was,  when  a  sin- 
gle person  began  the  verse,  and  the 
people  joined  with  him  in  the  close : 
this  was  often  used  for  variety  in  the 
same  service  with  alternate  psalmody. 
See  Singing. 

PSATYRIANS,  a  sect  of  Arians  who 
in  the  council  of  Antioch,  held  in  the 
year  360,  maintained  that  the  Son  was 
not  like  the  Father  as  to  will ;  that  he 
was  taken  from  nothing,  or  made  of 
nothing ;  and  that  in  God  generation 
was  not  to  be  distinguished  from  crea- 
tion. 

PURGATORY  is  a  place  in  which 
the  just  who  depart  out  of  this  life  are 
supposed   to   expiate   certain   offences 
which  do  not  merit  eternal  danmation. 
Broughton  has  endeavoured  to  prove 
that  this  notion  has  been  held  by  Pa- 
gans, Jews,  and  Mahometans,  as  well 
as  by  Christians;  and  that,  in  the  days 
of  the  Maccaliecs,  the  Jews  believed 
that  sin  might  be  expiated  by  sacrifice 
after  tlic  death  of  the  sinner.    The  ar- 
guments advanced  by  the   Papists  for 
purgatory  are  these :  1.  Every  sin,  how 
sliglit  soever,  though  no  more  than  an 
idle  word,  as  it  is  an  offience  to  (iod,  de- 
serves punishment  from  him,  and  will 
be  punished   by  him  hereafter,  if  not 
cancelled  l)y  repentance  hcrf. — 2.  Such 
small  sins  do  not  deserve  eternal  pun- 
ishiVient. — 3.    Few  depart   this   life  so 
pure  as  to  be  totally  exempt  fi-om  spots 
of  tliis  nature,  antlfrom  eveiy  kind  of 
debt  due  to  God's  justice. — 4.  I'here- 
forc  few  will  escape  witliout  suflering 
something    from    his  justice   for  such 
debts  as  they  have  carried  with  them 
out  of  this  world,  according  to  that  rule 


PUR 


505 


PUR 


of  divine  justice  by  which  he  treats 
every  soul  hereafter  according  to  its 
own  'works,  and  according  to  the  state  in 
which  he  finds  it  in  death.  From  these 
propositions,  whicli  the  Papist  considers 
as  so  many  self-evident  tiiiths,  he  infers 
that  there  must  be  some  third  place  of 
punishment ;  for  since  the  infinite  good- 
ness of  God  can  admit  nothing  into  hea- 
ven which  is  not  clean  and  pure  from 
all  sin  both  great  and  small,  and  his  in- 
finite justice  can  permit  none  to  receive 
the  reward  of  bliss  who  as  yet  are  not 
out  of  debt,  but  have  something  in  jus- 
tice to  suffer,  there  must  of  necessity, 
be  some  place  or  state,  where  souls  de- 
parting this  life,  pardoned  as  to  the  ex- 
ternal guilt  or  pain,  yet  obnoxious  to 
some  tempoi'al  penalty,  or  with  the 
guilt  of  some  venial  faults,  are  purged 
and  purified  before  their  admittance  in- 
to heaven.  And  this  is  what  he  is  taught 
concerning  purgatory,  which,  though  he 
.know  not  where  it  is,  of  Avhat  nature 
the  pains  are,  or  how  long  each  soul  is 
detained  there,  yet  he  believes  that 
those  who  are  in  this  place  are  i-elieved 
Dy  the  prayers  of  their  fellow-members 
here  on  earth,  as  also  by  alms  and 
masses  offered  up  to  God  for  their 
souls.  And  as  for  such  as  have  no  re- 
lations or  friends  to  pray  for  them,  or 
give  alms  or  procure  masses  for  their 
relief,  they  are  not  neglected  by  the 
church,  which  makes  a  general  com- 
memoration of  all  the  faithful  departed 
in  every  mass,  and  in  everv  one  of  the 
canonical  hours  of  the  divine  office. 
Besides  the  above  arguments,  the  fol- 
lowing passages  are  alleged  as  proofs  : 
2  Maccabees,  xii.  43,  44,  45.  Matt.  xii. 
31,  32.  1  Cor.  iii.  15.  1  Pet.  iii.  19.  But  it 
may  be  observed,  1.  That  the  books  of 
Maccabees  have  no  evidence  of  inspi- 
ration, therefore  quotations  from  them 
are  not  to  be  regarded. — 2.  If  they 
were,  the  texts  referred  to  would  rather 
prove  that  there  is  no  such  place  as 
purgatory,  since  Judas  did  not  expect 
the  souls  departed  to  reap  any  benefit 
from  his  sin-offering  till  the  resurrection. 
The  texts  quoted  from  the  Scriptures 
have  no  reference  to  this  doctrir?,  as 
may  be  seen  by  consulting  the  context, 
and  any  just  commentator  thereon. — 3. 
Scripture,  in  general,  speaks  of  depart- 
ed souls  going  immediately  at  death  to 
a  fixed  state  of  happiness  or  misery, 
and  gives  us  no  idea  of  purgatory,  Isa. 
Ivii.  2.  Rev.  xiv.  13.  Luke,  xvi.'  22.  2 
Cor.  v.  8. — 4.  It  is  derogatory  from  the 
doctrine  of  Christ's  satisfaction.  If 
Christ  died  for  us,  and  redeemed  us 
from  sin  and  hell,  as  the  Scripture 
speaks,  then  the  idea  of  farther  merito- 


rious suffering  detracts  from  the  per- 
fection of  Christ's  work,  and  places 
merit  still  in  the  creature  ;  a  doctrine 
exactly  opposite  to  Scripture.  See 
Doddridge's  Lee.  lee.  270;  Limborch's 
TheoL  1.  6,  ch.  10,  §  10,  22  ;  Earrs  Ser- 
mon, hi  the  Sermons  against  Popei-y, 
vol.  ii.  No.  1 ;  Burnett  on  the  Art.  22 ; 
Fleurifs  Catec/iism,  vol.  ii.  p.  250. 

PURIFICATION,  a  ceremony  which 
consists  in  cleansing  any  thing  from  pol- 
lution or  defilement.  Purifications  are 
common  to  Jews,  Pagans,  and  Maho- 
metans.   See  Impurity. 

PURITANS,  a  name  given  in  the 
primitive  church  to  the  Novatians,  be- 
cause they  would  never  admit  to  com- 
munion any  one,  who  from  dread  of 
death,  had  apostatized  from  the  faith ; 
but  the  word  has  been  chiefly  applied  to 
those  who  were  professed  favourers  of 
a  farther  degree  of  reformation  and  pu- 
rity in  the  church  before  the  act  of  uni- 
formity, in  1662.  After  this  period,  the 
term  Nonconformists  became  common, 
to  which  succeeds  the  appellation  Dis- 
senter. 

"During  the  reign  of  queen  Eliza- 
beth, in  Avhich  the  royal  prerogative 
was  carried  to  its  utmost  limits,  there 
were  found  many  daring  spirits  who 
questioned  the  right  of  the  sovereign  to 
prescribe  and  dictate  to  her  subjects 
what  principles  of  religion  they  should 
profess,  and  what  forms  they  ought  to 
adhere  to.  The  ornaments  and  habits 
worn  by  the  clergy  in  the  preceding 
reign,  when  the  Romish  religion  and 
rites  were  triumphant,  Elizabeth  was 
desirous  of  preserving  in  the  Protestant 
service.  This  was  the  cause  of  great 
discontent  among  a  large  body  of  her 
subjects ;  multitudes  refused  to  attend 
at  those  churches  where  the  habits 
and  ceremonies  were  used ;  the  con- 
forming clergy  they  treated  with  con- 
tumely; and  from  the  superior  purity 
and  simplicity  of  the  modes  of  worship 
to  which  they  adhered,  they  obtained 
the  name  of  Puritans.  The  queen 
made  many  attempts  to  repress  every 
thing  that  appeared  to  her  as  an  innova- 
tion in  the  religion  established  by  her 
authority,  but  without  success :  by  her 
almost  unlimited  authority  she  readily 
checked  open  and  avowed  opposition, 
but  she  could  not  extinguish  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Puritans,  '  by  whom  alone,' 
I  according  to  Mr.  Hume,  'the  precious 
I  spark  of  liberty  had  been  kindled  and 
I  was  preserved,  and  to  whom  the  Eng- 
I  lish  owe  the  whole  freedom  of  their 
1  constitution.'  Some  secret  attempts 
j  that  had  been  made  by  them  to  establish 
,  a  separate  congregation  and  discipline, 
3  S 


PUR 


506 


PYR 


hnd  been  carefully  repressed  by  the 
strict  bar.d  which  lElizabeth  held  over 
all  her  subjects.  The  most,  therefore, 
that  they  could  effect  was,  to  assemble 
in  privn.te  lionses,  for  the  purpose  of 
■worshippins^  God  according  to  the  dic- 
tates of  their  own  consciences.  These 
practices  were  at  first  connived  at,  but 
afterwards  eveiy  mean  was  taken  to 
suppress  them,  and  the  most  cruel  me- 
thods were  made  use  of  to  discover 
persons  who  were  disobedient  to  the 
royal  pleasure." 

The  sevei'e  persecutions  carried  on 
against  the  Puritans  during  the  reigns 
pf  Elizabeth  and  the  Stuarts,  served  to 
lay  the  foundation  of  a  new  empire  in 
the  western  world.  Thither  as  into  a 
wilderness  they  fled  from  the  face  of 
their  persecutors,  and,  being  protected 
in  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion, 
continued  to  increase,  till  in  about  a 
century  and  a  half  they  became  an  in- 
dependent nation.  The  different  prin- 
ciples, however,  on  which  they  had  ori- 
ginally divided  from  the  church  esta- 
blishment at  home,  operated  in  a  Avay 
that  might  have  been  expected  when 
they  came  to  the  possession  of  the  civil 
power  abroad.  Those  who  formed  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts'  Bay,  having 
never  relinquished  the  principles  of  a 
national  chuixh,  and  of  the  power  of  the 
civil  magistrate  in  matters  of  faith  and 
Avoi-ship,  were  less  tolerant  than  those 
Avho  settled  at  New  Plymouth,  at  Rhode 
Island,  and  at  Providence  Plantations. 
'Ihe  A'ery  men  (and  they  were  good 
men  too)  who  had  just  escaped  the  per- 
secutions of  the  English  prelates,  now 
in  their  turn  persecuted  others  who  dis- 
sented from  them,  till  at  length  the 
liberal  system  of  toleration  established 
in  the  parent  country  at  the  revolution, 
extending  to  the  colonies,  in  a  good 
measure  put  an  end  to  these  pi'occed- 
ings. 

Neither  the  Puritans  before  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Bartholomew  act  in  1662,  nor 
the  Nonconformists  after  it,  appear  to 
have  disapproved  of  the  articles  of  the 
established  church  in  matters  of  doc- 
trine. The  number  of  them  who  did  so, 
however,  was  very  small.  While  the 
great  body  of  the  bishops  and  clergy  had 
iFrom  the  days  of  archbishop  Laud 
abandoned  their  own  articles  in  favour 
of  Armhiianism,  they  were  attached  to 
the  principles  of  the  first  reformers ; 


and  by  their  labours  and  sufferings  the 
spirit  of  the  i*eformation  was  kept  alive 
in  the  land.  But  after  the  revolution, 
one  part  of  the  Protestant  Dissenters, 
chiefly  Presbyterians,  first  veered  to- 
wards Arminianism,  then  revived  the 
Arian  controversy,  and  by  degrees  many 
of  them  settled  in  Socinianism.  At  the 
same  time  another  pai't  of  them,  chiefly 
Indeperidents  and  Baptists,  earnestly 
contending  for  the  doctrines  of  grace, 
and  conceiving  as  it  would  seem,  that 
the  danger  of  erring  lay  entirely  on  one 
side,  first  veered  towards  high  Calvin- 
ism, then  forbore  the  unregenerate  to 
repent,  believe,  or  do  any  thing  practi- 
cally good,  and  by  degrees  many  of 
themj  it  is  said,  settled  in  Antinomian- 
ism. 

Such  are  the  principles  which  have 
found  place  amongst  the  descendants  of 
the  Puritans.  At  the  same  time,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  acknowledged  that  a 
goodly  number  of  each  of  the  three  de- 
nominations have  adhered  to  the  doc- 
trine and  spirit  of  their  forefathers ;  and 
have  proved  the  efficacy  of  their  prin- 
ciples by  their  concern  to  be  holy  m  all 
manner  of  conversation.  See  articlev'^ 
Brownists, Independents, and  Non- 
conformists, in  this  work.  See  also 
list  of  books  under  the  last-mentioned 
article. 

PURITY,  the  freedom  of  any  thing 
from  foreign  admixture  ;  but  more  par- 
ticularly it  signifies  the  temper  directly 
opposite  to  criminal  sensualities,  or  the 
ascendency  of  irregular  passions.  [See 
Chastity.] 

Purity  implies,  1.  A  fixed  habitual 
abhorrence  of  all  forbidden  indulgences 
of  the  flesh. — 2.  All  past  impurities, 
either  of  heart  or  life,  will  be  reflected 
on  with  shame  and  sorrow. — 3.  The 
heart  will  be  freed,  in  a  great  measure, 
from  impure  and  irregular  desires. — 4. 
It  will  discover  itself  by  a  cautious  fear 
of  the  least  degree  of  impurity. — 5.  It 
implies  a  careful  and  habitual  guard 
against  every  thing  which  tends  to  pol- 
lute the  mind.  See  Evanses  Sermons 
o>i  the  Christian  Temper,  ser.  23 ;  and 
IVai^-s  Sermons,  ser.  27. 

PURPOSE  OF  GOD.  See  Decree. 

PITSILLANLMITY  is  a  feebleness 
of  mind,  by  which  it  is  terrified  at  mere 
trifles  or  imaginary  dangers,  unautho- 
rised by  the  most  distant  probability. 

PYRRHONISTS.    See  Sceptics. 


(     «07     ) 


Q 


QUAKERS,  a  sect  which  took  its  rise 
in  England  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  centmy,  and  rapidly  found 
its  way  into  other  countries  in  Europe, 
and  into  the  English  settlements  in 
North  America.  The  members  of  this 
societjf,  we  believe,  called  themselves  at 
first  Seekers,  from  their  seeking  the 
truth  ;  but  after  the  society  was  form- 
ed, they  assumed  the  appellation  of 
Friends.  The  name  of  Quakers  was 
given  to  them  by  their  enemies,  and 
though  an  epithet  of  reproach,  seems  to 
be  stamped  upon  them  indelibly.  George 
Fox  is  supposed  to  be  their  first  founder; 
but,  after  the  restoration,  Penn  and  Bar- 
clay gave  to  their  principles  a  more  re- 
gular form. 

The  doctrines  of  the  society  have 
been  variously  represented  ;  and  some 
have  thought  and  taken  pains  to  prove 
them  favourable  to  Socmianism.  But, 
according  to  Penn,  they  believe  in  the 
Holy  Three,  or  the  trinity  of  the  Fa- 
ther, Word,  and  Spirit,  agreeable  to  the 
Scripture.  In  reply  to  the  charge  that 
they  deny  Christ  to  be  God,  Penn  says, 
"  that  it  is  a  most  untnie  and  unchari- 
table censure — that  they  truly  and  ex- 
pi-essly  own  him  to  be  so  according  to 
the  Scripture."  To  the  objection  that 
they  deny  the  human  nature  of  Christ, 
he  answers,  "  V\'e  never  taught,  said, 
or  held  so  gross  a  thing,  but  believe 
him  to  be  truly  and  properly  man  like 
us,  sin  only  excepted."  The  doctrines 
of  the  fall  and  of  the  redemption  by 
Christ  are,  according  to  him,  believed 
firmly  by  them  ;  and  he  declares  "  that 
they  own  Jesus  Christ  as  their  sacrifice, 
atonement,  and  propitiation." 

But  we  shall  here  state  a  further  ac- 
count of  their  principles  and  disciplme, 
as  extracted  from  a  summaiy  transmit- 
ted to  me  from  one  of  their  most  re- 
spectable members. 

They  tell  us,  that,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  a  number 
of  men,  dissatisfied  with  all  the  modes  of 
religious  worship  then  known  in  the 
world,  withdrew  from  the  communion 
of  every  visible  church  to  seek  the 
Lord  in  retirement.  Among  these  was 
their  honourable  elder,  George  Fox, 
who,  being  q^uickened  by  the  immediate 
touches  of  divine  love,  could  not  satisfy 
his  apprehensions  of  duty  to  God  with- 
out directing  the  people  Avhere  to  find 


the  like  consolation  and  instruction.  In 
the  course  of  his  travels,  he  met  with 
many  seeking  persons  in  circumstances 
similar  to  his  own,  and  these  readily  re- 
ceived his  testimony.  They  then  give 
us  a  short  account  of  their  sufferings 
j  and  different  settlements;  they  also  vin- 
I  dicate  Charles  II.  from  the  character 
of  a  persecutor ;  acknowledging  that, 
though  they  suffered  much  during  his 
reign,  he  gave  as  little  countenance  as 
he  could  to  the  severities  of  the  legisla- 
ture. They  even  tell  us  that  he  exert- 
ed his  influence  to  rescue  their  friends 
from  the  unprovoked  and  cruel  perse- 
cutions they  met  with  in  New  England ; 
and  they  sjDcak  with  becoming  gratitude 
of  the  different  acts  passed  in  their  fa- 
vour during  the  reigns  of  XA'^illiam  and 
Mary,  and  George  I.  They  tlien  pro- 
ceed to  gi\  e  us  the  following  account  of 
their  doctrine. 

"  We  agi-ee  with  other  professors  of 
the  Christian  name,  in  the  belief  of  one 
eternal  God,  the  Creator  and  Pre- 
server of  the  universe  ;  and  in  Jesus 
Christ  his  Son,  the  Messiah  and  me- 
diator of  the  new  covenant,  Heb.  xii.  24. 
"  When  we  speak  of  the  gi'acious 
display  of  the  love  of  God  to  mankind, 
in  the  mii'aculous  conception,  birth,  life, 
miracles,  death,  resurrection,  and  as- 
cension of  our  Saviour,  we  prefer  the 
use  of  such  terms  as  we  find  in  Scrip- 
ture ;  and  contented  with  that  know- 
ledge which  divine  wisdom  hath  seen 
meet  to  I'eveal,  we  attempt  not  to  ex- 
plain those  mysteries  which  remain  un- 
der the  veil ;  nevertheless  we  acknow- 
ledge and  assert  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
who  is  the  wisdom  and  power  of  God 
unto  salvation,  1  Cor.  i.  24. 

"  To  Christ  alone  we  give  the  title  of 
the  Word  of  God,  John,  i.  1.  and  not  to 
the  Scriptures,  although  we  highly  es- 
teem these  sacred  writings,  in  subordi- 
nation to  the  Spirit  (2  Pet.  i.  21.)  from 
which  they  were  given  forth  ;  and  we 
hold  with  the  apostle  Paul,  that  they 
are  able  to  make  wise  unto  salvation, 
through  faith,  which  is  m  Chi'ist  Jesus, 
2  Tim.  iii.  15. 

"  We  reverence  those  most  excellent 
precepts  which  are  recorded  in  Scrip- 
ture to  have  been  delivered  by  our  great 
Lord ;  and  we  firmly  believe'  that  they 
are  practicable,  and  binding  on  every 
Christian  ;  and  that  in  the  life  to  come 


QUA 


508 


QUA 


every  man  will  l)c  rewarded  according 
to  his  works.  Matt.  xvi.  27.  And  fur- 
ther ;  it  is  our  belief,  that  in  order  to 
enable  mankind  to  put  in  practice 
these  sacred  precepts,  many  of  which 
are  contradictory  to  the  unregenerate 
will  of  man,  John,  i.  9.  every  man 
coming  into  the  world  is  endued  v/ith  a 
measure  of  the  light,  grace,  or  good 
Spirit  of  Christ ;  by  which,  as  it  is  at- 
tended to,  he  is  enabled  to  distinguish 
good  from  evil,  and  to  correct  the  dis- 
orderly passions  and  corrupt  propensi- 
ties of  his  nature,  which  mere  reason  is 
altogether  insufficient  to  overcome.  For 
all  that  belongs  to  man  is  fallible,  and 
within  the  reach  of  temptation ;  but 
this  divine  grace,  which  comes  by  him 
who  hath  overcome  the  world,  John, 
xvi.  33.  is,  to  those  who  humbly  and 
sincerely  seek  it,  an  all-sufficient  and 
present  help  in  time  of  need.  By  this 
the  snares  of  the  enemy  are  detected, 
his  alhu'ements  avoided,  and  deliver- 
ance is  experienced  through  faith  in  its 
effectual  operation  ;  whereby  the  soul 
is  translated  out  of  the  kingdom  of  dark- 
ness, and  from  under  the  power  of  Sa- 
tan, unto  the  marvellous  light  and  king- 
dom of  the  Son  of  God. 

"  Being  thus  persuaded  that  man, 
without  the  Spirit  of  Christ  inwardly 
revealed,  can  do  nothing  to  the  glory  of 
God,  or  to  effect  his  own  salvation,  we 
think  this  influence  especially  necessary 
to  the  performance  of  the  highest  act 
of  which  the  human  mind  is  capable  ; 
even  the  worship  of  the  Father  ot  lights 
and  of  spirits,  in  spirit  and  in  truth : 
therefore  we  consider  as  obstinictions  to 
pure  worship,  all  forms  which  divert  the 
attention  of  the  mind  from  the  secret 
influence  of  this  unction  from  the  Holy 
One,  1  John,  ii.  20,  27.  Yet,  although 
true  worship  is  not  confined  to  time  and 
place,  we  think  it  incumbent  on  Chris- 
tians to  meet  often  together,  Heb.  x. 
25.  in  testimony  of  their  dependence  on 
the  heavenly  Father,  and  for  a  renewal 
of  their  spiritual  strength :  nevertheless, 
in  the  performance  of  worship,  we  dare 
not  depend  for  our  acceptance  with 
him  on  a  formal  repetition  of  the  words 
and  experiences  of  others  ;  but  we  be- 
lieve it  to  be  our  duty  to  lay  aside  the 
activity  of  the  imagination,  and  to  wait 
in  silence  to  have  a  true  sight  of  our 
condition  bestowed  upon  us ;  l)elieving 
even  a  single  sigh  (Rom.  vii.  24.)  ai'ising 
from  such  a  sense  of  our  infirmities,  and 
of  the  need  we  have  of  divine  help,  to 
be  more  acceptable  to  God  than  any 
performances,  however  specious,  which 
originate  in  the  will  of  man. 

"  From  what  has  been  said  respect- 


ing worship,  it  follows  that  the  ministry 
we  approve  must  have  its  origin  from 
the  same  source ;  for  that  which  is 
needful  for  man's  own  direction,  and 
for  his  acceptance  with  God,  Jer.  xxiii. 
30,  to  32,  must  be  eminently  so  to  enable 
him  to  be  helpful  to  others.  Accord- 
ingly we  believe  that  the  renewed  as- 
sistance of  the  light  and  power  of  Christ 
is  indispensably  necessary  for  all  true 
ministry;  and  that  this  holy  influence  is 
not  at  our  command,  or  to  be  procured 
by  study,  but  is  the  free  gift  of  God  to 
chosen  and  devoted  servants.  Hence 
arises  our  testimony  against  preaching 
for  hire,  in  contradiction  to  Christ's  po- 
sitive command,  '  Freely  ye  have  I'e- 
ceived,  freely  give,'  Matt.  x.  8.  and 
hence  our  conscientious  refusal  to  sup- 
port such  ministry  by  tithes,  or  other 
means. 

"  As  we  dare  not  encourage  any  mi- 
nistry but  that  which  we  believe  to 
spring  from  the  influence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  so  neither  dare  we  attempt  to 
restrain  this  influence  to  persons  of  any 
condition  in  life,  or  to  the  male  sex 
alone  ;  but,  as  male  and  female  are  one 
in  Christ,  we  allow  such  of  the  female 
sex  as  we  believe  to  be  endued  with  a 
right  qualification  for  the  ministry,  to 
exercise  then-  gifts  for  the  general  edi- 
fication of  the  church  ;  and  this  liberty 
we  esteem  a  peculiar  mark  of  the  Gos- 
pel dispensation,  as  foretold  by  the  pro- 
phet Joel,  Joel,  ii.  28,  29.  and  noticed  by 
the  apostle  Peter,  Acts,  ii.  16,  17. 

"  There  are  two  ceremonies  in  use 
among  most  professors  of  the  Christian 
name — water-baptism,  and  what  is 
termed  the  Lord's  supper.  The  first  of 
these  is  generally  esteemed  the  essen- 
tial means  of  initiation  into  the  church 
of  Christ ;  and  the  latter  of  maintaining 
communion  with  him.  But  as  we  liave 
been  convinced  that  nothing  short  of  his 
redeeming  power,  invariably  revealed, 
can  set  the  soul  free  from  the  tliraldom 
of  sin,  by  this  power  alone  we  believe 
salvation  to  be  affected.  We  hold,  that, 
as  there  is  one  Lord  and  one  faith,  Eph. 
iv.  5.  so  his  baptism  is  one,  in  nature  and 
operation  ;  that  nothing  short  of  it  can 
make  us  living  members  of  his  mystical 
body;  and  that  the  baptism  with  water; 
administei'cd  by  his  forerunner  John, 
belonged,  as  the  latter  confessed,  to  an 
inferior  dispensation,  John,  iii.  30. 

"  With  respect  to  the  other  rite,  we 
believe  that  communion  between  Christ 
and  his  church  is  not  maintained  by 
that,  nor  any  other  external  perform- 
ance, but  only  by  a  real  participation  of 
his  divine  nature  (1  Pet.  ii.  4.)  through 
faith  i  that  this  is  the  supper  alluded  to 


QUA 


509 


QUA 


10  ihe  Revelation,  Rev.  vii.  20.  '  Behold 
I  stand  at  the  door,  and  knock  :  if  any 
man  hear  my  voice,  and  open  the  door, 
I  will  come  in  to  him,  and  will  sup  with 
him,  and  he  with  ine ;'  and  that  where 
the  substance  is  attained,  it  is  unneccs- 
sarv  to  attend  to  the  shadow,  which  doth 
not' confer  grace,  and  concerning  which, 
opinions  so  different,  aiad  animosities  so 
violent,  have  arisen. 

"  Now,  as  we  thus  believe  that  the 
grace  of  God,  which  comes  by  Jesus 
Christ,  is  alone  sufficient  for  salvation, 
we  can  neither  admit  that  it  is  conferred 
on  a  few  only,  whilst  others  are  left 
■without  it,  nor  thus  asserting  its  univer- 
sality, can  we  limit  its  operation  to  a 
partial  cleansing  of  the  soul  from  sin, 
even  in  this  life.  We  entertain  worthier 
notions  both  of  the  power  and  goodness 
of  our  heavenly  Father,  and  believe  that 
he  doth  vouchsafe  to  assist  the  obedient 
to  experience  a  total  surrender  of  the 
natural  will  to  the  guidance  of  his  pure 
unerring  Spirit ;  through  whose  renew- 
ed assistance  they  are  enabled  to  bring 
forth  fruits  unto  hohness,  and  to  stand 
pei-fect  in  their  present  rank.  Matt.  v. 
48.  Eph.  iv.  13.  Col.  iv.  12. 

"  I'here  are  not  many  of  our  tenets 
more  generally  known  than  our  testi- 
mony against  oaths,  and  against  war. 
With  respect  to  the  former  of  these,  we 
abide  literally  by  Christ's  positive  in- 
junction, delivered  in  his  sermon  on  the 
mount,  '  Swear  not  at  all,"  Matt.  v.  34. 
From  the  same  sacred  collection  of  the 
most  excellent  precepts  of  moral  and 
religious  dutv,  from  the  example  of  our 
Lord  himself.  Matt.  v.  39,  44,  &c.  Matt, 
xxvi.  52,  53.  Luke,  xxii.  51.  John, 
xviii.  11.  and  from  the  correspondent 
convictions  of  his  Spirit  in  our  hearts, 
we  are  confirmed  in  the  belief  that  wars 
and  fightings  are  in  their  origin  and  ef- 
fects utterly  repugnant  to  the  Gospel, 
which  still  breathes  peace  and  good- 
vvill  to  men.  W^e  also  are  clearly  of 
the  judgment,  that  if  the  benevolence 
of  the  Gospel  were  generally  prevalent 
in  the  minds  of  men,  it  would  effectually 
prevent  them  from  oppressing,  much 
more  from  enslaving,  their  brethren  (of 
whatever  colour  or  complexion,)  for 
whom,  as  for  themselves,  Christ  died ; 
and  would  even  influence  their  conduct 
in  their  treatment  of  the  brute  creation, 
which  would  no  longer  groan,  the  vic- 
tims of  their  avarice,  or  of  theu'  false 
ideas  of  pleasure. 

"Some  of  our  ideas  have  in  former 
times,  as  hath  been  sho%vn,  subjected 
our  friends  to  much  suffering  fi'om  go- 
vernment, though  to  the  salutary-  pur- 
poses of  government  our  principles  are 


a  security.  They  inculcate  submission 
to  the  laws  in  all  cases  wherein  con- 
science is  not  violated.  But  we  hold, 
that,  as  Christ's  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
world,  it  is  not  the  business  of  the  civil 
magistrate  to  interfere  in  matters  of  re- 
ligion, but  to  maintain  the  external 
peace  and  good  order  of  the  commu- 
nity. We  therefore  think  persecution, 
even  in  the  smallest  degree,  unwar- 
rantable. We  are  careful  in  requiring 
our  members  not  to  be  concerne.d  in 
illicit  ti-ade,  nor  in  any  manner  to  de- 
fraud the  revenue. 

•'  It  is  well  known  that  the  society, 
from  its  first  appearance,  has  disused 
those  names  of  the  months  and  days, 
which,  having  been  given  in  honour  of 
the  heroes  or  false  gods  of  the  heathen, 
originated  in  their  flattery  or  supersti- 
tion ;  and  the  custom  of  speaking  to 
a  single  person  in  the  plural  number,  as 
having  arisen  also  from  motives  of  adu- 
lation. Compliments,  supei-fluity  of  ap- 
parel and  furniture,  outward  shows  of 
rejoicing  and  mourning,  and  the  obser- 
vation of  days  and  times,  we  esteem  to 
be  incompatible  with  the  simplicity  and 
sincerity  of  a  Christian  life  ;  and  public 
diversions,  gaming,  and  other  vain 
amusements  of  the  world,  we  cannot 
but  condemn.  They  are  a  waste  of 
that  time  which  is  given  us  for  nobler 
pui-poses ;  and  divert  the  attention  of 
the  mind  from  the  sober  duties  of  life, 
and  from  the  reproofs  of  instruction  by 
wliich  we  are  guided  to  an  everlasting 
inheritance. 

"  To  conclude :  although  we  have 
exhibited  the  several  tenets  which  dis- 
tinguish our  religious  society  as  objects 
of  our  belief,  yet  we  are  sensible  that  a 
true  and  living  faith  is  not  produced  in 
the  mind  of  man  bv  his  own  effort,  but 
is  the  free  gift  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus, 
Eph.  ii.  8.  nourished  and  increased  by 
the  progi-essive  operation  of  his  Spirit  in 
our  hearts,  and  our  proportionate  obe- 
dience, John,  vii.  17.  Therefore,  al- 
though for  the  presei'\ation  of  the  tes- 
timonies gi^en  us  to  bear,  and  for  the 
peace  and  good  order  of  the  society,  we 
deem  it  necessaiy  that  those  who  are  ad- 
mitted into  membership  with  us  should 
be  previously  convinced  of  those  doc- 
trines which  we  esteem  essential,  yet 
we  require  no  formal  subscription  to 
any  articles,  either  as  a  condition  of 
membership,  or  a  qualification  for  the 
service  of  the  church.  ^Ve  prefer  the 
judging  of  men  by  their  fruits,  and  de- 
pending on  the  aid  of  Him,  who,  by  his 
prophet,  hath  pi-omised  to  be  'a  spirit  of 
judgment,  to  him  that  sitteth  in  judg- 
ment,' Isa.  xxviii.  6,  Without  this,  there 


QUA 


510 


QUA 


is  a  danger  of  receiving;  numbers  into 
outward  communion,  without  any  addi- 
tion to  that  spintuivl  sheep-fold,  whereof 
our  blessed  Lord  declared  himself  to  be 
both  the  door  and  the  shepherd,  John, 
7.  11 ;  that  is,  such  as  know  his  voice 
and  follow  him  in  the  paths  of  obedi- 
ence. 

"In  the  practice  of  discipline,  we 
think  it  indispensable  that  the  order  re- 
commended by  Christ  himself  be  inva- 
riably observed.  Matt,  xviii.  15 — 17. 

"  To  effect  the  salutary  purposes  of 
discipline,  meetings  were  appointed  at 
an  early  period  of  the  society,  which, 
from  the  times  of  their  being  held,  were 
called  quarterly  meetings.  It  was  af- 
terwards found  expedient  to  divide  the 
districts  of  those  meetings,  and  to  meet 
more  frequently' :  from  whence  arose 
monthly  meetings,  subordinate  to  those 
held  quarterly.  At  length,  in  1669,  a 
yearly  meeting  was  established,  to  su- 
perintend, assist,  and  pi'ovide  rides  for 
the  whole,  previously  to  which  general 
meetings  had  been  occasionally  held. 

"  A  monthly  meeting  is  usually  com- 
posed of  several  particular  congi'ega- 
tions,  situa.ted  within  a  convenient  dis- 
tance from  each  other.  Its  business  is 
to  provide  for  the  subsistence  of  the 
poor,  and  for  the  education  of  their  off- 
spring ;  to  judge  of  the  sincerity  and  fit- 
ness of  persons  appearing  to  be  con- 
vinced of  the  religious  principles  of  the 
society,  and  desiring  to  be  admitted  into 
membership  ;  to  excite  due  attention  to 
the  discharge  of  religious  and  moral 
duty ;  and  to  deal  with  disorderly  mem- 
bers. Monthly  meetings  also  grant  to 
such  of  their  members  as  remove  into 
other  monthl\-  meetings  certificates  of 
their  membership  and  conduct ;  with- 
out which  they  cannot  gain  member- 
ship in  such  meetings.  Lach  monthly 
meeting  is  required  to  appoint  certain 
persons,  under  the  name  of  overseers, 
who  are  to  take  care  that  the  rules  of 
our  discipline  be  put  in  pi'actice ;  and 
when  any  case  of  complaint,  or  disor- 
derly conduct,  comes  to  their  know- 
ledge, to  see  that  private  admonition, 
agreeably  to  the  (lospel  rule  before 
mentioned,  be  given,  jireviously  to  its 
being  laid  before  the  niontlily  meeting. 

"  W'hen  a  case  is  introduced,  it  is 
usual  for  a  small  committee  to  be  ap- 
pointed to  visit  the  offender,  to  eu'lea- 
vour  to  convince  him  of  his  error,  and 
to  induce  him  to  forsake  and  condemn 
it.  If  they  succeed,  the  person  is  by 
minute  declared  to  have  made  satis-fac- 
tion  for  the  offence ;  if  not,  he  is  dis- 
owned as  a  member  of  the  society. 

"In  disputes  between  individuals,  it 


has  long  been  the  decided  judgment  of 
the  society,  that  its  members  should  not 
sue  each  other  at  law.  It  therefore  en- 
joins all  to  end  their  differences  by- 
speedy  and  impartial  arbitration,  agree- 
ably to  rules  laid  down.  If  any  refuse 
to  adopt  this  mode,  or,  having  adopted 
it,  to  submit  to  the  award,  it  is  the  di- 
rection of  the  yearly  meeting  that  such 
be  disowned. 

"To  monthly  meetings  also  belongs 
the  allowing  of  marriages ;  for  our  so- 
ciety hatli  always  scrupled  to  acknow- 
ledge the  exclusive  authority  of  the 
priests  in  the  solemnization  of  marriage. 
Those  who  intend  to  marry  appear  to- 
gether, and  propose  their  intention  to 
the  monthly  meeting ;  and  if  not  at- 
tended by  their  parents  and  guardians, 
produce  a  written  certificate  of  their 
consent,  signed  in  the  presence  of  wit- 
nesses. The  meeting  then  appoints  a 
committee  to  inquire  whether  they  be 
clear  of  other  engagements  respecting 
marriage  ;  and  if  at  a  subsequent  meet- 
ing, to  which  the  parties  also  come  and 
declare  the  continuance  of  their  inten- 
tion, no  objections  be  reported,  they 
have  the  meeting's  consent  to  solem- 
nize their  intended  marriage.  This  is 
done  in  a  ]5ublic  meeting  for  worship, 
towards  the  close  whereof  the  parties 
stand  up,  and  solemnly  take  each  other  . 
for  husband  and  wife.  A  certificate  of 
the  proceedings  is  then  publicly  read, 
and  signed  by  the  parties,  and  after- 
wards bv  the  relations  and  others  as 
witnesses.  Of  such  marriage  the  month- 
ly meeting  keeps  a  record ;  as  also  of 
the  births  and  burials  of  its  members. 
A  certificate  of  the  date  of  the  name  of 
the  infant,  and  of  its  parents,  signed  by  vii 
those  present  at  the  birth,  is  the  sub-  * 
ject  of  one  of  these  last-mentioned  re- 
cords^ and  an  order  for  the  interment, 
countersigned  by  the  grave-maker,  of 
the  other.  The  naming  of  children  is 
without  ceremony.  Burials  are  also  con- 
ducted in  a  simple  manner.  The  body, 
followed  by  the  relations  and  friends,  is 
sometimes,  previously  to  interment,  car- 
ried to  a  meeting ;  and  at  the  grave  a 
pause  is  generally  made :  on  both  which 
occasions  it  frequently  falls  out  that  one 
or  more  friends  present  have  somewhat 
to  ex])ress  for  the  edification  of  those 
who  attend ;  but  no  religious  rite  is  con- 
sidered as  an  essential  part  of  burial. 

"  Several  monthly  meetings  compose 
a  quaiterly  meeting.  At  the  quarterly 
meetings  are  ])roduced  written  answers 
from  the  monthly  meetings  to  certain 
queries  respecting  the  conduct  of  their 
members,  and  the  meeting's  care  over 
them.    The  accounts  thus  received  arc 


QUA 


511 


QUA 


digested  into  one,  which  is  sent,  also  in  i 
the  form  of  answers  to  queries,  by  re- 
presentatives to  the  yearly  meeting. 
Appeals  from  the  judgment  of  monthly 
meetings  are  brought  to  the  quarterly 
meetings,  whose  business  also  it  is  to 
assist  in  any  difficult  case,  or  where  re- 
missness appears  in  the  care  of  the 
monthly  meetings  over  the  individuals 
who  compose  them. — There  are  seven 
yearly  meetings,  viz.  I.London,  to  which 
come  representatives  from  Ireland ; — 
2.  New  England  ; — 3.  New  York ; — 
4.  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  ; — 5. 
Maryland  ; — 6.  Virginia  ; — 7.  the  Caro- 
linas  and  Georgia. 

"  The  yearly  meeting  has  the  general 
superintendence  of  the  society  in  the 
country  in  which  it  is  established ;  and, 
therefore,  as  the  accounts  which  it  i'^- 
ceives  discover  the  state  of  inferior 
meetings,  as  particular  exigencies  re- 
quire, or  as  the  meeting  is  impressed 
with  a  sense  of  duty,  it  gives  forth  its 
advice,  making  such  regulations  as  ap- 
pear to  be  requisite,  or  excites  to  the 
obsen^ance  of  those  already  made  ;  and 
sometimes  appoints  committees  to  visit 
those  quarterly  meetings  which  appear 
to  be  in  need  of  immediate  advice.  Ap- 
peals from  the  judgment  of  quarterly 
meetings  are  here  finally  determined  ; 
and  a  brotherly  correspondence,  by 
epistles,  is  maintained  with  other  yearly 
meetings. 

"  In  this  place  it  is  proper  to  add,  that, 
as  w^e  believe  women  may  be  rightly 
called  to  the  work  of  the  ministry,  we 
also  think  that  to  them  belongs  a  share 
in  the  support  of  our  Christian  disci- 
pline ;  and  that  some  parts  of  it,  where- 
in their  own  sex  is  concerned,  devolve 
on  them  with  peculiar  propriety ;  ac- 
cordingly they  have  monthly,  quarterly, 
and  yearly  meetings  of  their  own  sex, 
held  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same 
place  with  those  of  the  men  ;  but  sepa- 
rately, and  without  the  power  of  making 
rales;  and  it  may  be  remarked,  that, 
during  the  persecutions  which  in  tiie  last 
centuiy  occasioned  the  imprisonment  of 
so  many  of  the  men,  the  care  of  the 
poor  often  fell  on  the  women,  and  was 
by  them  satisfactorily  administered. 

"  In  order  that  those  who  are  in  the 
situation  of  Ministers  may  have  the  ten- 
der sympathy  and  counsel  of  those  of 
either  sex,  who  by  their  experience  in 
the  work  of  religion,  are  qualified  for 
that  senice,  the  monthly  meetings  are 
advised  to  select  such,  under  the  deno- 
mination of  elders.  These,  and  minis- 
ters approved  by  their  monthly  meet- 
ings, have  meetings  peculiar  to  them- 
selves, called  meetings  of  ministers  and 


elders ;  in  which  they  haA'e  an  oppor- 
,  tunity  of  exciting  each  other  to  a  dis-^ 
charge  of  their  several  duties,  and  of 
extending  advice  to  those  who  may  ap- 
pear to  be  weak,  without  any  needless 
exposure.  Such  meetings  are  generally 
held  in  the  compa.ss  of  each  monthly, 
quarterly,  and  yearly  meeting.    They 
are  conducted  by  rules  prescribed  by 
the  yearly  meeting,  and  have  no   au- 
thority to  make  any  alteration  or  addi- 
tion to  them.    The  members  of  them 
unite  with  their  brethren  m  the  meet- 
ings for  discipline,  and  are  equally  ac- 
countable to  the  latter  for  their  conduct. 
"  It  is  to  a  meeting  of  this  kind  in 
London,  called  the  second-day's  morn- 
ing meeting,  that  the  revisal  of  manu- 
jl  scripts  concerning  our  principles,  pre- 
11  viously  to  publication,  is  intrusted  by  the 
|i  yearly  meeting  held   in   London ;  and 
jj  also  the  granting,  in  the  intervals  of  the 
ij  yearly  meeting,  of  certificates  of  appro- 
ij  bation  to  such  ministers  as  are  concem- 
jl  ed  to  travel  in  the  work  of  the  minis- 
!|  tiy  in  foreign  parts,  in  addition  to  those 
ij  granted  by  their  monthly  and  quarterly 
meetings.    When  a  visit   of  this  kind 
doth  not  extend  beyond  Great  Britain, 
a  certificate  fi'om  the  monthly  meeting 
jof  which  the  minister  is  a  member  is 
]■  sufficient ;  if  to  Ireland,  the  concurrence 
l'  of  the  quarterly  meeting  is  .also  re- 
quired.   Regulations  of  similar  tenden- 
cy obtain  in  other  yearly  meetings. 

"  The  yearly  meeting  of  London,  in 
the  year  1675,  appointed  a  meeting  to 
be  held  in  that  city,  for  the  pui-pose  of 
advising  and  assisting  in  case  of  suiTer- 
ing   for   conscience-sake,  Avhich    hath 
continued  with  great  use  to  the  society 
to  this  day.    It  is  composed  of  friends, 
under  the  name  of  corresi^ondents,  cho- 
sen by  the  several  quarterly  meetings, 
and  who  reside  in  or  near  the  society. 
The  same  meetings  also  appoint  mem- 
bers of  their  own  in  the  country  as  cor- 
respondents, who  are  to  join  their  bre- 
j  thren  in  London  on  emergency.    The 
I  names  of  all  these  cciTespondents,  pre- 
'  viously  to  their  being  recorded  as  sucli, 
are  submitted  to  the  appi-obation  of  the 
I  yearly   meeting.     Those   of    the   men 
i  who  arc  fipproied   ministers  are  also 
!  members  of  this  meeting,  which  is  call- 
I  ed  the  meeting  for  sufferings  ;  a  name 
arising  from  its  original  purpose,  which 
is  not  yet  become  entirely  obsolete. 
i     The  yearly  meeting  has  intrusted  the 
!  meeting  for  sufferings  with  the  care  of 
printing  and  distributing  books,  and  with 
the  management  of  its  stock ;  and,  con- 
i  sidered  as  a  standing  committee  of  the 
j  yearly  meeting,  it  hath  a  general  care 
I  of  whatever  may  arise,  during  the  in- 


QUI 


512 


QUI 


tei'vjils  of  that  meeting,  affecting  the 
society,  and  requiring  immediate  at- 
tention, particularly  of  those  circum- 
stances which  may  occasion  an  appli- 
cation to  gQ\  erament. 

"  There  is  not,  in  any  of  the  meetings 
%vhich  have  been  mentioned,  any  pi-esi- 
dent,  as  we  believe  that  divine  wisdom 
alone  ought  to  preside  ;  nor  hath  any 
member  a  right  to  claim  pre-eminence 
over  the  rest.  The  office  of  clerk,  with 
a  few  exceptions,  is  undertaken  volun- 
tarily by  some  meuiber ;  as  is  also  the 
keeping  of  the  recoi-ds.  When  these 
are  very  voluminous,  and  require  a 
house  for  their  deposit,  (as  is  the  case  in 
London,  where  the  general  records  of 
the  society  in  Great  Britain  are  kept,) 
a  clerk  is  hired  to  have  the  care  of  them; 
but  except  a  few  clerks  of  this  kind,  and 
persons  who  have  the  care  of  meet-  I 
mg-houses,  none  receive  any  stipend  or 
gratuity  for  their  services  in  our  reli-  I 
gious  society."  See  a  pamphlet  enti-  ', 
tied,  A  Summary  of  the  History,  Doc- 
trine, and  Discifiline  of  the  Quakers; 
Sevjell's  and  Rutty's  Hist,  of  the  Qua- 
kers ;  Fesse's  Sufferings  of  the  Qua- 
kers;  Penn's  Works;  Barclay's  Afio- 
logy  for  the  Quakers  ;  A'eale's  Hist,  of 
the  Puritans;  Claridge's  Life  and  Post- 
humous Works;  Bevan's  Defence  of 
the  Doctrines  of  the  Quakers;  Adams  s 
Vieiv  of  Beligions ;  Tuke's  Princifiles 
of  Religion  as  professed  by  the  Qua- 
kers ;  Gou^i's  History  of  Quakers; 
Clarkson\<i  Portraiture  of  Quakerism. 

QUIETISTS,  a  sect  famous  towards 
the  close  of  the  seventh  century.  They 
were  so  called  from  a  kind  of  aljsolute 
rest  and  inaction,  which  they  supposed 
the  soul  to  be  in  when  p.rrived  at  that 
state  of  perfection  which  they  called 
the  unitive  life ;  in  which  state  tlicy 
imagined  the  soul  wholly  employed  in 
contemplating  its  Go6,  to  whose'  influ- 
ence it  was  entirely  submissi^'e,  so  that 
he  could  turn  and  drive  it  where  and  j 
how  he  would. 

Molinos,  a  Spanish  priest,  is  the  re- 

fiuted  author  of  Quietism  ;  though  the 
lluminati,  in  Spain,  had  certainly 
taught  something  like  it  before.  Molinos 
had  numerous  disciples  in  Italy,  Spain, 
France,  and  the  ISethcrlands.  One  of 
the  principal  patrons  and  propagators 
of  Quietism  in  P' ranee  was  Marie  Bou- 
veres  de  la  Mntte  Guyon,  a  woman  of 
fashion,  and  remarkable  for  her  piety. 
Her  religious  sentiments  made  a  great 
noise  in  the  vcar  1687,  and  were  de- 
clared unsound  by  several  leai'ncd  men, 
especially  Bossuet,  who  opposed  them 
in  the  year  1697.  Hence  arose  a  con- 
troversy between  the  prelate  last  men- 


tioned and  Fcnelon,  archbishop  of  Cam- 
hray,  who  seemed  disposed  to  favour 
the  system  of  Guyon,  and  who,  in  1697, 
published  a  book  containing  several  of 
her  tenets.  Fenelon's  book,  by  means 
of  Bossuet,  was  condemned  in  the  year 
1699,  by  Innocent  XII.  and  the  sentence 
of  condemnation  was  read  by  Fenelon 
himself  at  Cambray,  who  exhorted  the 
people  to  respect  and  obey  the  papal 
decree.  Notwithstanding  this  seemrng 
acquiescence,  the  archbishop  persisted 
to  the  end  of  his  days  in  the  sentiments, 
which,  in  obedience  to  the  order  of  the 
pope,  he  retracted  and  condemned  in  a 
public  manner. 

A  sect  similar  to  this  appeared  at 
Mount  Athos,  in  Thessaly,  near  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  centuiy,  called  Hesy- 
chasts,  meaning  the  same  with  Quietists. 
They  were  a  branch  of  the  Mystics,  or 
those  more  perfect  monks,  who,  by  long 
and  intense  contemplation,  endeavour- 
ed to  arrive  at  a  tranquillity  of  mind 
fi-ee  from  ever}'  degree  of  tumult  and 
perturbation. 

QUIETNESS,  in  a  moral  sense,  u 
opposed  to  disorderly  motion,  to  turbu- 
lency,  to  contention,  to  pragmatical  cu- 
riositv,  to  all  such  exorbitant  behaviour, 
whereby  the  right  of  others  is  infringed, 
their  peace  disturbed,  their  just  interest 
or  welfare  any  ways  prejudiced.  It  is  a 
calm,  steady,  regular  way  of  proceed- 
ing within  the  bounds  and  measures 
prescribed  by  reason,  justice,  and  chari- 
ty, modesty  and  sobriety.  It  is  of  such 
importance,  that  we  find  it  enjoined  in 
the  sacred  Scripture  ;  and  w.-  are  com- 
manded to  study  and  peri'se  it  with 
the  greatest  diligence  •.  :;d^  care,  1 
Thess.  iv.  11.  The  gre-t  Dr.  Barrow- 
has  two  admirable  serm 'ns  on  this  sub- 
ject in  the  first  volume  of  his  Works. 
He  justlv  observes,  1.  That  quietness 
is  just  and  equal. — 2.  It  indicates  hu- 
niilitv,  modesty,  and  sobriety  of  mind. — 
3.  It'is  beneficial  to  the  world,  preserv- 
ing the  general  order  of  things. — 4.  It 
preserves  concord  and  amity. — 5.  It 
begets  tranquillity  and  peace. — 6.  It  is 
a  decent  and  lovely  thing,  indicating  a 
good  disposition,  and  producing  good 
effects. — 7.  It  adometh  any  profession, 
bringing  cren^t  and  respect  thereto. — 8. 
It  is  a  safa  p-actice,  keeping  us  from 
needless  encumbrances  and  hazards: 
whereas,  prap,maticalness,  interfering 
with  the  business  and  concerns  of  others, 
often  raises  dissensions,  involves  in  guilt, 
injures  others,  shov/s  our  vanity  and 
pride,  and  exposes  to  continual  trquble 
and  danger. 

QUINQUAGESIMA,  a  Sunday  so 
called,  because  it  is  tlie  fiftieth  day  be- 


RAN 


51; 


REA 


fore   Easter,  reckoned  in  whole  num- 
bers, Shrove  Sunday. 

QUINTILIANS,  a  sect  that  appear-  [I 
ed  in  Phrygia,  about  189 ;  thus  called " 
from  their  prophetess  Quintilia.  In  this 
sect  the  women  wei-e  admitted  to  per- 
form the  sacerdotal  and  episcopal  func- 
tions. They  attributed  extraordinary 
gifts  to  Eve  for  having  first  eaten  of  the 
tree  of  knowledge  ;  told  great  things  of 
Mai7,  the  sister  of  Moses,  as  having 


been  a  prophetess,  &c.  They  added, 
that  Philip  the  deacon  had  four  daugh- 
ters, who  were  all  prophetesses,  and 
were  of  their  sect.  In  these  assem.blies 
it  was  usual  to  see  the  virgins  entering 
in  white  I'obes,  personating  prophetess- 
es. The  errors  of  the  Quintilians  were 
at  first  looked  u])on  as  folly  and  mad- 
ness; but,  as  they  appeared  to  gain 
ground,  the  council  of  Laodicea,  in  320, 
condemned  it. 


R. 


RANTERS,  a  denomination  which 
arose  in  the  year  1645.  They  set  up  the 
light  of  nature  under  the  name  of  Christ 
in  men.  With  regard  to  the  church. 
Scripture,  ministry,  &c.  their  sentiments 
were  the  same  as  the  Seekers.  See 
Seekers. 

RASHNESS  consists  in  undertaking 
an  action,  or  pronouncing  an  opinion, 
without  a  due  examination  of  the 
grounds,  motives,  or  arguments,  that 
ought  first  to  be  weighed. 

RASH  JUDGING.     See  Judging 

READING  (public)  OF  THE 
SCRIPTURES.     See  Scriptures. 

REALISTS,  a  term  made  use  of  to 
denote  those  Trinitarians  who  are  the 
most  orthodox,  in  opposition  to  the  So- 
cinian  and  Sabellian  schemes.  It  was 
also  the  name  of  a  sect  of  school  philo- 
sophers, formed  in  opposition  to  the 
Nominalists.  The  former  believed  that 
universals  are  realities,  and  have  an 
actual  existence  out  of  the  mind ;  while 
the  latter  contended  that  they  exist  only 
in  the  mind,  and  are  only  ideas. 

REASON,  a  faculty  or  power  of  the 
mind,  whereby  it  draws  just  conclu- 
sions from  the  tnae  and  clear  princi- 
ples. Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  prove  reason  inimical  to  revelation ; 
but  nothing  can  be  more  evident  than 
that  it  is  of  considerable  use  in  know- 
ing, distinguishing,  proving,  and  de- 
fending the  mysteries  of  revelation  ;  al- 
though it  must  not  be  considered  as  a 
perfect  standard  by  which  all  the  mys- 
teries of  religion  must  be  measured  be- 
fore they  are  received  by  faith.  "In 
things,"  says  Dr.  Watts,  "which  are 
plainly  and  expressly  asserted  in  Scrip- 
ture, and  that  in  a  sense  which  contra- 
dicts not  other  parts  of  Scripture,  or 
natural  light,  our  I'eason  must  submit, 
and  believe  the  thing,  though  it  cannot 
fiiid  the  modus  or  manner  of  its  being  ; 


so  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  In- 
carnation, which  are  above  the  reach  of 
our  reason  in  this  present  state.  But  we 
cannot,  nor  must  we,  be  led  to  take  the 
words  of  Scripture  in  such  a  sense  as 
expressly  and  evidently  contradicts  ail 
sense  and  reason,  as  transubstantiation  : 
for  the  two  great  lights  of  God,  reason 
and  revelation,  never  conti-adict  each 
other,  though  one  be  superior  to  the 
other. 

"  Therefore  reason  'has  a  gi-eat  deal 
to  do  in  religion,  viz.  to  find  out  the  iiile 
(of  faith,)  to  compare  the  parts  of  this 
rule  with  one  another,  to  explain  the 
one  by  the  other,  to  give  the  gramma- 
tical and  logical  sense  of  the  expres 
sions,  and  to  exclude  self-contradictoiy 
interpretations,  as  well  as  interpreta- 
tions contrary  to  reason.  But  it  is  not 
to  set  itself  up  as  a  jud^e  of  those  truths 
expressed  therein,  which  are  asserted 
by  a  superior  and  infallible  dictator, 
God  himself;  but  reason  requires  and 
commands  even  the  subjection  of  all  its 
own  powers  to  a  tnith  thus  divinely  at- 
tested ;  for  it  is  as  possible  and  as  pro- 
per that  God  should  propose  doctrines 
to  our  understanding  which  it  cannot 
comprehend,  as  duties  to  our  practice 
which  we  cannot  see  the  reason  of;  for 
he  is  equally  superior  to  our  understand- 
ing and  will,  and  he  puts  the  obedience 
of  both  to  a  trial."  See  Religion  and 
Revelation,  and  books  there  )x;com- 
mended;  also  Porteus's  Serm07is,  ser. 
5,  vol.  i. ;  Jeyiyns^s  Internal  E-'idence,  p. 
122;  Ry land's  Conteinpla-ions,  vol.  i. 
p.  83;  Theological  Miscellany,  vol.  ji, 
p.  533  ;  An  Essay  on  thf  Use  and  Abuse 
of  Reason  in  Matters  of  Religion,  by 
IVitsius,  and  translated  by  Carter;  Dr. 
Watts's  Strength  and  Weakness  of  Hw 
man  Reason- 

RECLL-iE,  among   the  Papists,   a 
person  shut  up  in  a  small  cell  of  an  her- 
mitage or  monasteiy,  and  cut  off  not 
3T 


REC 


514 


REC 


only  from  all  conversation  with  the 
M'orld,  but  even  with  the  house.  This  is 
a  kind  of  voluntaiy  imprisonment  from 
a  motive  either  of  devotion  or  penance. 
RECONCILIATION,  the  restoring 
to  favour  or  friendship  those  who  were 
at  variance.  It  is  more  particularly 
used  in  reference  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
atonement.  Thus  God  is  said  to  I'econ- 
cile  us  to  himself  by  Jesus  Christ,  2  Cor. 
V.  18.  Our  state  by  nature  is  that  of 
enmity,  dissatisfaction,  and  disobedience. 
But  by  the  sufferings  and  merit  of  Christ 
we  are  reconciled  and  brought  near  to 
God.  The  blessings  of  reconciliation  are 

Eardon,  peace,  friendship,  confidence, 
oliness,  and  eternal  life.  The  judicious 
Guyse  gives  us  an  admirable  note  on 
this  doctrine,  which  I  shall  here  trans- 
cribe. "  When  the  Scripture  speaks  of 
reconciliation  by  Christ,  or  bxj  his  cross, 
blood,  or  death,  it  is  commonly  ex- 
pressed by  God^s  reconciling  us  to  him- 
self, and  not  by  his  being  reconciled 
tuito  us ;  the  reason  of  which  seems  to 
be,  because  God  is  the  offended  party, 
and  we  are  the  offenders,  who,  as  such, 
have  need  to  be  reconciled  to  him  :  and 
the  price  of  reconciliation,  by  the  blood 
of  Christ,  is  paid  to  him,  and  not  to  us. 
Grotius  observes,  that,  in  heathen  au- 
thors, 7ne)i's  being  reconciled  to  their 
gods  is  always  understood  to  signify  ap- 
peasing the  anger  of  their  gods.  Con- 
demned rebels  may  be  said  to  be  recon- 
ciled to  their  sovereign,  when  he,  on 
one  consideration  or  another,  pardons 
them ;  though,  perhaps,  they  still  re- 
main rebels  in  their  hearts  against  him. 
And  when  our  Lord  ordered  the  offend- 
ing (0  go  and  be  reconciled  to  his  of- 
fended brother,  Matt.  v.  23,  24,  the 
plain  meaning  is,  that  he  should  go  and 
try  to  appease  his  anger,  obtain  his  for- 
giveness, and  regain  his  favour  and 
friendship,  by  humbling  himself  to  him, 
asking  his  pardon,  or  satisfying  him  foi- 
any  injury  that  he  might  have  done  him. 
In  like  manner,  God^s  reconciling  ns  to 
himself  by  the  cross  of  Christ  does  not 
signify,  as  the  Socinians  contend,  our 
being  reconciled  by  conversion  to  a  reli- 
gious turn  in  our  hearts  to  God,  but  is  a 
reconcMiation  that  results  from  God's 
graciously  providing  and  accepting  an 
atonemem  tor  us,  that  he  might  not  in- 
flict the  puiishment  upon  us  which  we 
desei-ved,  ana  the  law  condemned  us 
to;  but  might  b«  at  peace  with  us,  and 
receive  us  into  favour  on  Christ's  ac- 
count. For  this  reconciliation,  by  the 
cross  of  Chrint  is  in  a  way  of  atonement 
or  satisfaction  to  divine  justice  for  sin  ; 
and  with  respect  hereunto,  we  are  said 
to  be  reconciled  to  God  by  the  death  of 


hi.s  So?7  while  we  are  enemies,  which  is 
of  much  the  same  import  with  Christ's 
dying  for  the  urigodly,  and  nvhile  we 
were  yet  sijiners,  Rom.  v.  6,  8,  10.  And 
our  being  reconciled  to  God,  by  ap- 
proving and  accepting  of  his  method  of 
reconciliation  by  Jesus  Christ,  and,  on 
that  encouragement,  turning  to  him,  is 
distinguished  from  his  reconciling  us  to 
himself  and  not  imfiuting  our  tres- 
passes to  us,  on  account  of  Christ's 
having  been  made  sin  for  us,  that  we 
might  be  made  the  righteousness  of 
God  in  him,  2  Cor.  v.  is,  21.  This  is 
called  Christ's  making  reconciliation 
for  iniquity,  and  making  reconciliation 
for  the  sins  of  the  /ico/ile,  Dan.  ix.  24. 
Heb.  ii.  17,  and  answers  to  the  ceremo- 
nial and  typical  reconciliation  which  was 
made  by  the  blood  of  the  sacrifices  un- 
der the  law  to  make  atonement  and  re- 
conciliation for  Israel,  2  Chron.  ,xxix. 
24.  Ezek.  xlv.  15,  17,  and  which  was 
frequently  styled  making  atonement  for 
sin,  and  an  atonement  for  their  souls. 
Now  as  all  the  legal  sacrifices  of  atone- 
ment, and  the  truly  expiatory  sacrifices 
of  Christ,  were  offered  not  to  the  of- 
fenders, but  to  God,  to  reconcile  him  to 
them,  what  can  reconciliatioti  by  the 
deu  h,  blood,  or  cross  of  Christ  mean, 
but  diat  the  law  and  justice  of  God  were 
thereby  satisfied,  and  all  obstructions, 
on  his  part,  to  peace  and  friendship  to- 
ward smners  are  removed,  that  he  might 
not  pursue  his  righteous  demands  upon 
them,  according  to  the  holy  resentments 
of  his  nature  and  will,  and  the  threaten- 
ings  of  his  law  for  their  sins  ;  but  might 
mercifully  forgive  them,  and  take  them 
into  a  state  of  favour  with  himself, 
upon  their  receiving  the  atonement,  or 
(KalaUa-xny)  reconciliation  (Rom.  v.  11,) 
by  faith,  after  the  offence  that  sin  had 
given  him,  and  the  breach  it  had  made 
upon  the  original  friendship  between 
hmi  and  them  ?"  See  articles  Atonf- 
MKNT,  Mediator,  and  Propitia- 
tion ;  Grot,  de  Satisf.  cap.  7 ;  Dr. 
Owen's  jinswer  to  Biddle's  Catechism; 
Guyse's  A''ote  on  Coloss.  i.  20 ;  Char- 
nock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  241 ;  Johii  Rey- 
nolds on  Reconciliation. 

RECTITUDE,  or  Uprightness,  is 
the  choosing  and  pursuing  those  things 
which  the  mind,  upon  due  inquiry  and 
attention,  clearly  perceives  to  be  good, 
and  avoiding  tliosc  that  are  evil. 

RECTOR,  a  term  applied  to  several 
per.sons  whose  offices  are  very  different, 
as,  1.  The  rector  of  a  parish  is  a  clergy- 
man that  has  the  charge  and  care  of  a 
parish,  and  possesses  all  the  tithes,  &c. 
— 2.  The  same  name  is  also  given  to  the 
chief  elective  officer  in  several  foreign 


RED 


515 


REF 


universities,  and  also  to  the  head  mas- 
ter of  large  schools. — 3.  Rector  is  also 
used  in  several  convents  for  the  supe- 
rior officer  who  governs  the  house.  The 
Jesuits  gave  this  name  to  the  superiors 
of  such  of  their  houses  as  were  either 
seminaries  or  colleges. 

RECUSANTS,  such  persons  as  ac- 
knowledge tlie  pope  to  be  the  supreme 
head  of  the  church,  and  refuse  to  ac- 
knowledge the  king's  supremacy  ;  who 
are  hence  called  popish  recusants. 

REDEMPTION,  in  theology,  denotes 
our  recovery  from  sin  and  death  by  the 
obedience  and  sacrifice  of  Christ,  who, 
on  this  account,  is  called  The  Redeemer, 
Isaiah  lix.  20.  Job  xix.  25.  Our  Eng- 
lish word  redemfition,  says  Dr.  Gill,  is 
from  the  Latin  tongue,  and  signifies 
buying  again  ;  and  several  words,  in  the 
Greek  language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, are  used  in  the  affair  of  our  re- 
demption, which  signify  the  obtaining  of 
something  by  paying  a  proper  price  for 
it :  sometimes  the  simple  verb  a7oja(u, 
to  buy,  is  used :  so  the  redeemed  are 
said  to  be  bought  unto  God  by  the  blood 
of  Christ,  and  to  be  bought  from  the 
earth,  and  to  be  bought  from  among 
men,  and  to  be  bought  with  a  price ; 
that  is,  with  the  price  of  Christ's  blood, 
1  Cor.  vi.  20.  Hence  the  church  of 
God  is  said  to  be  purchased  with  it, 
Acts  XX.  28.  Sometimes  the  compound 
word  £^070? a{co  is  used  ;  which  signifies 
to  buy  again,  or  out  of  the  hands  of  ano- 
ther, as  the  redeemed  are  bought  out  of 
the  hands  of  justice,  as  in  Gal.  iii.  13. 
and  Gal.  iv.  5.  In  other  places,  xut?ov 
is  used,  or  others  derived  from  it,  which 
sig-nifies  the  deliverance  of  a  slave  or 
captive  from  thraldom,  by  paying  a  ran- 
som price  for  him  :  so  the  saints  are 
said  to  be  redeemed  not  with  silver  or 
gold,  the  usual  price  paid  for  a  ransom, 
but  with  a  far  greater  one,  the  blood 
and  life  of  Christ,  which  he  came  into 
this  world  to  give  as  a  ransom  price 
for  many,  and  even  himself,  which  is 
avTiAuT?ov,  an  answerable,  adequate,  and 
full  price  for  them,  1  Pet.  i.  18.  The 
evils  from  which  we  are  redeemed  or 
delivered  are  the  curse  of  the  law,  sin, 
Satan,  the  world,  death,  and  hell.  The 
moving  cause  of  redemption  is  the  love 
of  God,  John  iii.  16.  The  procuring 
cause,  Jesus  Christ,  1  Pet.  i.  18,  19. 
The  ends  of  redemption  are,  that  the 
justice  of  God  might  be  satisfied;  his 
people  reconciled,  adopted,  sanctified, 
and  brought  to  glory.  The  firoperties 
of  it  ai-e  these  :  1.  It  is  agreeable  to  all 
the  perfections  of  God. — 2.  What  a  crea- 
ture npver  could  obtain,  and  therefore 
entirely  of  free  grace. — 3.  It  is  special 


and  particular. — 4.  Full  and  complete 

And,  5,  lastly,  It  is  eternal  as  to  its 
blessings.  See  articles  Propitiation, 
Reconciliation,  Satisfaction  ;  and 
Edivai-ds's  History  of  Redemfition; 
Cole  on  the  Sovereignty  of  God;  Lime 
Street  Lect.  lect.  5  ;  Watts's  Ruin  and 
Recovery;  Dr.  Oiven  on  the  Death  and 
Satisfaction  of  Christ;  Gill's  Body  of 
Divinity. 

REFORMATION,  in  general,  an 
act  of  reforming  or  correcting  an  error 
or  abuse  in  religion,  discipline,  or  the 
like.  By  way  of  eminence,  the  word  is 
used  for  that  great  alteration  and  re- 
foi-mation  in  the  cornipted  system  of 
Christianity,  begun  by  Luther  in  the 
year  1517. 

Before  the  period  of  the  reforma- 
tion, the  pope  had  in  the  most  audacious 
manner  declared  himself  the  sovereign 
of  the  whole  world.  All  the  parts  of  it 
which  were  inhabited  by  those  who  were 
not  Christians,  he  accounted  to  be  inha- 
bited by  nobody;  and  if  Christians  took 
it  into  their  heads  tp  possess  any  of  tliose 
countries,  he  gave  them  full  liberty  to 
make  war  upon  the  inhabitants  witliout 
any  provocation,  and  to  treat  Ihem  with 
no  more  humanity  than  they  would  ha\'e 
treated  wild  beasts.  The  countries,  if 
conquered,  were  to  be  parcelled  out  ac- 
cording to  the  pope's  pleasure ;  and 
dreadful  was  the  situation  of  that  prince 
who  refused  to  obey  the  will  of  the  holy 
pontiff.  In  consequence  of  this  extra- 
ordinary authority  which  the  pope  had 
assumed,  he  at  last  granted  to  the  king 
of  Portugal  all  the  countries  to  the  east^ 
wai*d  of  Cape  Non  m  Africa,  and  to  the 
king  of  Spain  all  the  countries  to  the 
westwai'd  of  it.  In  this  was  completed 
in  his  person  the  character  of  .Antichrist 
sitting  in  the  temple  of  God,  and  show- 
ing himself  as  God.  He  had  long  be- 
fore assumed  the  supremacv  belonging 
to  the  Deity  himself  in  spiritual  mat- 
ters; and  now  he  assumed  the  same 
supremacy  in  woi'ldly  matters  also, 
giving  the  extreme  regions  of  the  earth 
to  whom  he  pleased. 

Every  thing  was  quiet,  every  heretic 
exterminated,  and  the  whole  Christian 
world  supinely  acquiesced  in  the  enor- 
mous absurdities  which  were  inculcated 
upon  them;  when,  in  1517,  the  empire 
of  superstition  began  to  decline,  and  has 
continued  to  do  so  ever  since.  The  per- 
son who  made  the  first  attack  on  the 
extravagant  superstitions  then  prevail- 
ing was  Martin  Luther,  the  occasion  of 
which  is  fully  I'elated  under  the  article 
Lutherans. 

The  reformation  began  in  the  city  of 
Wittemberg,  in  Saxony,  but  was  not 


REF 


did 


REF 


long  confiiied  either  to  that  city  or  pro- 
vince. In  1520,  the  Franciscan  fnars, 
who  had  the  care  of  pronmls^ating  in- 
dulgences in  Switzeriand,  were  opposed 
by  Zuinghus,  a  man  not  inferior  in  un- 
derstanding and  knowledge  to  Luther 
himself.  He  proceeded  with  the  great- 
est vigour,  even  at  the  very  beginning, 
to  overturn  the  whole  fabric  of  popery; 
but  his  opinions  were  declared  erro- 
neous by  the  universities  of  Cologne  and 
Louvaiii.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  ma- 
gistrates of  Zurich  approved  of  his  pro- 
ceedings ;  and  that  whole  canton,  to- 
gether with  those  of  Bern,  Basil,  and 
Chaffausen,  embraced  his  opinions. 

In  Gel-many,  Luther  continued  to 
make  great  advances,  without  being  in 
the  least  intimidated  by  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal censures  which  were  thundered 
against  him  from  all  quarters,  he  being 
continually  protected  by  the  German 
princes,  either  from  religious  or  politi- 
cal motives,  so  that  his  adversaries 
could  not  accomplish  his  destiiiction,  as 
they  had  done  that  of  others.  Melanc- 
thon,  Carlostadius,  and  other  men  of 
eminence,  also  greatly  forwarded  the 
work  of  Luther ;  and  in  all  probability 
the  popish  hierarchy  would  have  soon 
come  to  an  end,  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe  at  least,  had  not  the  emperor 
Charies  V.  given  a  severe  check  to  the 
progress  of  reformation  in  Germany. 

During  the  confinement  of  Luther  in 
a  castle  near  Warburg,  the  reformation 
advanced  rapidly ;  almost  every  city  in 
Saxony  embracing  the  Lutheran  opi- 
nions. At  this  time  an  alteration  in  the 
established  forms  of  worship  was  first 
ventured  upon  at  Wittemberg,  by  abo- 
lishing the  celebration  of  private  masses, 
and  by  giving  the  cup  as  well  as  the 
bread  to  the  laity  in  the  Lord's  supper. 
In  a  short  time,  however,  the  new  opi- 
nions were  condemned  by  the  university 
of  Paris,  and  a  refutation  of  them  was 
attempted  by  Heni7  VIII.  of  England. 
But  Luther  was  noUto  be  thvis  intimi- 
dated. He  published  his  aniirmdver- 
sions  on  both  with  as  much  acrimony  as 
if  he  had  been  refuting  the  meanest  ad- 
versary ;  and  a  controversy  managed  by 
such  illustrious  antagonists  drew  a  ge- 
neral attention,  and  the  reformers  daily 
gamed  new  converts  both  in  France 
and  England. 

But  while  the  efforts  of  Luther  were 
thus  every  where  crowned  with  success, 
the  divisions  began  to  prevail  which 
have  since  so  much  agitated  the  reform- 
ed churches. — The  first  dispute  was  be- 
tween Luther  and  Zuinglius  concerning 
the  manner  in  which  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  were  present  in  the  euchurist. 


Both  parties  maintained  their  tenets 
with  the  utmost  obstinacy ;  and,  by  their 
divisions,  first  gave  their  adversaries  an 
argument  against  them,  which  to  this 
day  the  Catholics  urge  with  great  force ; 
namely,  that  the  Protestants  are  so  di- 
vided, that  it  is  impossible  to  know  who 
are  right  or  wi-ong;  and  that  there 
cannot  be  a  stronger  proof  than  these  di- 
visions that  the  whole  doctrine  is  fiilse. 
To  these  intestine  divisions  were  added 
the  hoiTors  of  a  civil  war,  occasioned  by 
oppression  on  the  one  hand,  and  en- 
thusiasm on  the  other.  See  Anabap- 
tists. 

These  proceedings,  however,  were 
checked.  Luther  and  Melancthon  were 
ordered  by  the  elector  of  Saxony  to 
draw  up  a  body  of  laws  relating  to  the 
form  of  ecclesiastical  government,  the 
method  of  public  worship,  &c.  which 
was  to  be  proclaimed  by  heralds  through- 
out his  dominions.  He,  with  Melanc- 
thon, had  translated  part  of  the  New 
Testament  in  1522 ;  on  the  reading  of 
which  the  people  were  astonished  to 
find  how  different  the  laws  of  Christ 
were  to  those  which  they  had  imposed 
by  the  pope,  and  to  which  they  had 
been  subject.  The  jn-inces  and  the 
people  saw  that  Luther's  opinions  were 
founded  on  truth.  They  openly  re- 
nounced the  papal  supremacy,  and  the 
happy  morn  of  the  retormation  was  wel- 
comed by  those  who  had  long  sat  in  su- 
perstitious darkness. 

This  open  resolution  so  exasperated 
the  patrons  of  popery,  that  they  intended 
to  make  war  on  the  Lutherans,  who 
prepared  for  defence.  In  1526,  a  diet 
was  assembled  at  Spire,  when  the  em- 
peror's ambassadors  were  desired  to 
use  their  utmost  endeavours  to  suppress 
all  disputes  about  religion,  and  to  insist 
upon  the  rigoi-ous  execution  of  the 
sentence  which  had  been  pronounced 
against  Luther  at  Wonns.  But  this 
opinion  was  opposed,  and  the  diet  proved 
favourable  to  the  reformation.  But  this 
tranquillity,  which  they  in  consequence 
enjoyed,  did  not  last  long.  In  1529,  a 
ncNv  diet  was  formed,  and  the  power 
which  had  been  granted  to  princes  of 
managmg  ecclesiastical  affairs  till  the 
meeting  of  a  general  council,  was  now  ' 
revoked,  and  every  change  declared 
unlawful  that  should  be  introduced  into 
the  doctrine,  discipline,  or  worship  of 
the  established  religion,  before  the  de- 
termination of  the  approaching  council 
was  known.  This  decree  was  consider- 
ed as  iniquitous  and  intolerable  by  se- 
veral members  of  the  diet ;  and  when 
they  found  that  all  their  argumencs  and 
remonstrances  were  in  vain,  they  en- 


REF 


il7 


REF 


tired  a  solemn  protest  against  the  de- 
cree on  the  19th  of  April,  and  appealed 
to  the  emperor  and  a  future  council. 
Hence  arose  the  deriomination  of  Pro- 
testants, which  from  that  time  has  been 
given  to  those  who  separate  from  the 
church  of  Rome. 

Charles  V.  was  in  Italy,  to  whom  the 
dissenting  princes  sent  ambasadors  to 
lay  their  grievances  before  him ;  but 
they  met  with  iio  encouraging  reception 
fi-om  him.  The  pope  and  the  emperor 
were  in  close  union  at  this  time,  and  they 
had  interviews  upon  the  busuiess.  The 
pope  thought  the  emperor  to  be  too  cle- 
ment, and  alleged  that  it  was  his  duty 
to  execute  vengeance  upon  the  heretical 
faction.  To  this,  however,  the  empe- 
ror paid  no  regard,  looking  upon  it  as 
unjust  to  condemn,  unheard,  a  set  of 
men  who  had  always  approved  them- 
selves good  citizens  1  he  emperor, 
therefore,  set  out  for  Germany,  having 
already  appointed  a  diet  of  the  empire 
to  be  held  at  Augsbui-g,  wliere  he  ar- 
lived,  and  found  there  a  full  assembly 
of  the  members  of  the  diet.  Here  the 
gentle  and  pacific  Melancthon  had  been 
ordered  to  draw  up  a  confession  of  their 
faitli,  which  he  did,  and  expressed  his 
sentiments  and  doctrine  with  the  great- 
est elegance  and  perspicuity ;  and  thus 
came  forth  to  view  the  famous  confessmt 
of  jiugsbu7-g. 

This  was  attempted  to  be  refuted  by 
the  divines  of  the  church  of  Rome,  and 
a  conti'oversy  took  place,  which  the 
emperor  endeavoured  to  reconcile,  but 
without  success ;  all  hopes  of  bringing 
about  a  coalition  seemed  utterly  despe- 

ate.    The  votaries  of  the  church   of 
ome,  therefore,  had  recourse  to  the 

lowerful  arguments  of  imperial  edicts 
,d  the  force  of  the  secular  arm ;  and, 
bn  the  19th  of  November,  a  decree  was 
issued  by  the  emperor's  orders  every 
way  injurious  to  the  reformers.  Upon 
which  they  assembled  at  Smalcald, 
where  they  concluded  a  league  of  mu- 
tual defence  against  all  aggressors,  by 
which  they  formed  the  Protestant  states 
into  one  body,  and  resolved  to  apply  to 
the  kings  of  Prance  and  England  to  im- 
plore them  to  patronize  their  new  con- 
federacy. The  king  of  France,  being 
the  avowed  rival  of  the  emperor,  de- 
termined secretly  to  cherish  those 
sparks  of  political  discord ;  and  the 
king  of  England,  highly  incensed  against 
Charles,  in  complaisance  to  whom  the 

f)ope  had  long  retarded,  and  now  open- 
y  opposed,  his  long  solicited  divorce, 
was  equally  disposed  to  strengthen  a 
league  which  might  be  rendered  formi- 
dable to  the  emperor.    Being,  however, 


so  taken  up  with  the  scheme  of  divorce, 
and  of  abolishing  the  papal  jurisdiction 
1  in  England,  he  had  but  little  leisure  to 
attend  to  them.  Meanwhile  Charles 
was  convmced  that  it  was  not  a  time  to 
extiipate  heresy  by  violence ;  and  at 
last  terms  of  pacification  were  agreed 
upon  at  Nuremberg,  and  ratified  so- 
lemnly in  the  diet  at  Ratisbon :  and  af- 
fairs so  ordered  by  Divine  Providence, 
tliat  the  Protestants  obtained  terms 
which  amounted  almost  to  a  toleration 
of  their  religion. 

Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace 
at  Nuremburg,  died  John,  elector  of 
Saxony,  who  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
John  Frederic,  a  prince  of  invincible 
fortitude  and  magnanimity,  but  whose 
reign  was  little  better  than  one  con- 
tinued train  of  disappointments  and 
calamities.  The  religious  truce,  how- 
ever, gave  new  vigour  to  the  reforma- 
tion. Those  who  had  hitherto  been  on- 
ly secret  enemies  to  the  Roman  pontiff, 
now  publicly  threw  oif  his  yoke ;  and 
various  cities  and  provinces  of  Ger- 
many enlisted  themselves  under  the  re- 
ligious standards  of  Luther.  On  the 
other  hand,  as  the  emperor  had  now  no 
other  hope  of  terminating  the  religious 
disputes  but  by  the  meeting  of  a  general 
council,  he  repeated  his  requests  to  the 
pope  for  that  purpose.  The  pontiff 
(Clement  VII.)  whom  the  history  of 
past  councils  filled  with  the  greatest 
uneasiness,  endeavoured  to  retard  what 
he  could  not  with  decency  refuse.  At 
last,  in  1533,  he  made  a  proposal  by  his 
legate,  to  assemble  a  council  at  Mantua, 
Placentia,  or  Bologna;  but  the  Pro- 
testants refused  their  consent  to  the  no- 
mination of  an  Italian  council,  and  in- 
sisted that  a  controversy  which  had  its 
rise  in  the  heart  of  Germany  should  be 
determined  within  the  limits  of  the  em- 
pire. The  pope,  by  his  usual  artifices, 
eluded  the  performance  of  his  own  pro- 
mise ;  and  in  1534,  was  cutoff  by  death, 
in  the  midst  of  his  stratagem.  His  suc- 
cessor Paul  III.  seemed  to  show  less  re- 
luctance to  the  assembling  a  general 
council,  and,  in  the  year  1535,  expressed 
his  inclination  to  convoke  one  at  Man- 
tua ;  and,  in  the  year  following,  actual- 
ly sent  circular  letters  for  that  puipose 
through  all  the  states  and  kingdoms  un- 
der his  jurisdiction.  This  council  was 
summoned  by  a  bull  issued  out  on  the 
second  of  June  1536,  to  meet  at  Man- 
tua the  following  year .-  but  several  ob- 
stacles pi-evented  its  meeting ;  one  of 
the  most  material  of  which  was,  that 
Frederic  duke  of  Mantua  had  no  incli- 
nation to  receive  at  once  so  many  guests, 
some  of  them  very  turbulent,  into  the 


REF 


518 


REF 


Elace  of  his  residence.  On  the  other 
and,  the  Protestants  were  firmly  per- 
suaded, that,  as  the  council  was  assem- 
bled in  Italy,  and  by  the  authority  of  the 
pope  alone,  the  latter  must  have  had  an 
undue  influence  in  that  assembly ;  of 
consequence  that  all  things  must  have 
been  canned  by  the  votaries  of  Rome. 
For  this  reason  they  assembled  at  Smal- 
cald  in  the  year  1537,  where  they  so- 
lemnly protested  against  this  partial  and 
corrupt  council  ;  and,  at  the  same  time, 
had  a  new  summary  of  tlieir  doctrine 
drawn  up  by  Luther,  in  order  to  pre- 
sent it  to  the  assembled  bishops,  if  it 
should  be  requiied  of  them.  This  sum- 
mary, which  had  the  title  of  The  Arti- 
cles of  Smalcald,  is  commonly  joined 
with  the  creeds  and  confessions  of  the 
Lutheran  church. 

After  the  meeting  of  the  general 
council  in  Mantua  was  thus  prevented, 
many  schemes  of  accommodation  wei-e 

Proposed  both  by  the  emperor  and  the 
rntestanls  ;  but,'  by  the  artifices  of  the 
church  of  Rome,  all  of  them  came  to 
nothing.  In  1541,  the  emperor  appomted 
a  meeting  at  \'\'^orms  on  the  subject  of 
religion,  between  persons  of  piety  and 
learning,  chosen  from  the  contending 
parties.  This  conference,  however, 
was,  for  certain  reasons,  removed  to  the 
diet  that  was  to  be  held  at  Ratisbon  the 
same  year,  and  in  which  the  principal 
subject  of  deliberation  was  a  memorial 
presented  by  a  person  unknown,  con- 
taining a  project  of  peace.  But  the 
conference  produced  no  other  effect 
than  a  mutual  agreement  of  the  con- 
tending parties  to  refer  their  matters  to 
a  general  council,  or,  if  the  meeting  of 
such  a  council  should  be  prevented,  to 
the  next  German  diet. 

The  resolution  was  rendered  ineffec- 
tual by  a  variety  of  incidents,  which 
widened  the  breach,  and  put  off  to  a 
farther  day  the  deliberations  which 
were  designed  to  heal  it.  The  pope  or- 
dered his  legate  to  declare  to  the  diet 
of  Spire,  assembled  in  1542,  that  he 
would,  according  to  the  promise  he  had 
already  made,  assemble  a  general  coun- 
cil, and  that  Trent  should  be  the  place 
of  its  meeting,  if  the  diet  had  no  ob- 
jection to  that  city.  Ferdinand,  and  the 
princes  who  adhered  to  the  cause  of  the 
pope,  gave  their  consent  to  this  propo- 
sal ;  but  it  was  vehemently  ol)jccted  to 
by  the  Protestants,  both  because  the 
council  was  summoned  I)y  the  authority 
of  the  pope  onlj-,  and  also  because  the 
place  was  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
pope ;  whereas  they  desired  a  free 
council,  which  should  not  be  biassed  by 
the  dictates  nor  awed  by  the  proximity 


of  the  pontiflT.  But  this  protestation 
produced  no  effect.  Paid  III.  persisted 
m  his  purpose,  and  issued  out  his  cir- 
cular letters  for  the  convocation  of  the 
council,  with  the  approbation  of  the  em- 
peror. In  justice  to  this  pontiff,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  observed,  that  he  show- 
ed himself  not  to  be  averse  to  eveiy 
reformation.  He  appointed  four  cardi- 
nals, and  three  other  persons  eminent 
for  their  leaniing,  to  draw  up  a  plan  for 
the  reformation  of  the  church  m  gene- 
ral, and  of  the  church  of  Rome  in  par- 
ticular. The  refoiTOation  proposed  in 
this  plan  was,  indeed,  extremely  super- 
ficial and  partial ;  yet  it  contained  some 
particulars  which  could  scai'cely  have 
been  expected  from  those  who  com- 
posed it. 

All  this  time  the  emperor  had  been 
labouring  to  persuade  the  Protestants 
to  consent  to  the  meeting  of  the  coun- 
cil at  Trent ;  but,  when  he  found  them 
fixed  in  their  opposition  to  this  mea- 
sure, he  began  to  listen  to  the  sanguinary 
measures  of  the  pope,  and  resolved  to 
terminate  the  disputes  by  foixe  of  arms. 
The  elector  of  baxony  and  landgrave 
of  Hesse,  who  were  the  chief  supporters 
of  the  Protestant  cause,  upon  this,  took, 
proper  measures  to  prevent  their  being 
surprised  and  overwhelmed  by  a  su- 
perior force ;  but,  before  the  horrors  of 
war  commenced,  the  great  reformer 
Luther  died  in  peace  at  Ayselben,  the 
place  of  his  nativity,  in  1546. 

The  emperor  and  the  pope  had  mu- 
tually resolved  on  the  destiniction  of  all 
who  should  dare  to  oppose  the  council 
of  Trent.  The  meeting  of  it  was  to 
serve  as  a  signal  for  taking  up  arms ; 
and  accordingly  its  deliberations  were  . 
scarcely  begun,  in  1546,  when  the  Vyo-  a 
testants  perceived  undoubted  signs  of  " 
the  approaching  storm,  and  a  formida- 
ble union  betwixt  the  emperor  and  the 
pope,  which  threatened  to  crush  and 
overwhelm  them  at  once.  This  year, 
indeed,  there  had  been  a  new  conference 
at  Ratisbon  upon  the  old  subject  of  ac- 
commodating differences  in  religion; 
but,  from  the  manner  in  which  the  de- 
Ijates  were  carried  on,  it  plainly  ap- 
peared that  these  differences  could  on- 
ly be  decided  in  the  field  of  battle.  The 
council  of  Trent,  in  the  mean  time,  pro- 
mulgated their  decrees ;  while  the  re- 
formed princes,  in  the  diet  of  Ratisbon, 
protested  against  their  authority,  and 
were  on  that  account  proscribed  by  the 
emperor,  who  raised  an  army  to  reduce 
them  to  obedience. 

The  elector  of  Saxony  and  the  land- 
grave of  Hesse  led  their  forces  into  Ba- 
varia against  the  emperor,  and  cannona- 


REF 


519 


REF 


ded  his  camp  in  Ingoldstadt.  It  was 
supposed  that  this  would  bring  on  an 
engagement,  which  would  probably 
have  been  advantageous  to  the  cause  of 
the  reformed ;  but  this  was  prevented 
chiefly  by  the  perfidy  of  Maurice,  duke 
of  Saxony,  who  invaded  the  dominions 
of  his  uncle.  Divisions  were  also  fo- 
mented among  the  confederate  princes 
by  the  dissimulation  of  the  emperor ; 
and  France  failed  in  paying  the  subsidy 
which  had  been  promised  by  its  mo- 
narch ;  all  which  so  discouraged  the 
heads  of  the  Protestant  party,  that  their 
army  soon  dispersed,  and  the  elector  of 
Saxony  was  obliged  to  direct  his  march 
homewards.  But  he  was  pursued  by 
the  emperor,  who  made  several  forced 
marches  with  a  view  to  destroy  his 
enemy  befoi-e  he  should  have  time  to 
recover  his  vigour.  The  two  armies 
met  near  Muhlberg,  on  the  Elbe,  on  the 
24th  of  April,  1547 ;  and,  after  a  bloody 
action,  the  elector  was  entirely  defeat- 
ed, and  himself  taken  prisoner.  Mau- 
rice, who  had  so  basely  betrayed  him, 
was  now  declared  elector  of  Saxony ; 
and,  by  his  entreaties,  Philip,  landgrave 
of  Hesse,  the  other  chief  of  the  Pi-o- 
testants,  was  persuaded  to  throw  him- 
self on  the  mercy  of  the  emperor,  and 
to  implore  his  pai'don.  To  this  he  con- 
sented, relying  on  the  promise  of  Charles 
for  obtaining  forgiveness,  and  being  I'e- 
stored  to  liberty  ;  but,  notwithstanding 
these  expectations,  he  was  unjustly  de- 
tained prisoner,  by  a  scandalous  viola- 
tion of  the  most  solemn  convention. 

The  affairs  of  the  Protestants  now 
seemed  to  be  desperate.  In  the  diet  of 
Augsburg,  which  was  soon  after  called, 
the  emperor  required  the  Protestants 
to  leave  the  decision  of  these  religious 
disputes  to  the  wisdom  of  the  council 
which  was  to  meet  at  Trent.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  members  consented 
to  this  proposal,  being  convinced  by  the 
powerful  argument  of  an  imperial  ar- 
my, which  was  at  hand  to  dispel  the 
darkness  from  the  eyes  of  such  as  might 
otherwise  have  been  blind  to  the  force 
of  Charles's  reasoning.  However,  this 
general  submission  did  not  produce  the 
effect  which  was  expected  from  it.  A 
plague  which  broke  out,  or  was  said  to 
do  so,  in  the  city,  caused  the  greatest 

Eart  of  the  bishops  to  retire  to  Bologna, 
y  which  means  the  council  was  in  ef- 
fect dissolved ;  nor  could  all  the  en- 
treaties and  remonstrances  of  the  em- 
peror prevail  upon  the  pope  to  re-as- 
semble it  without  delay.  During  this 
interval,  therefore,  the  emperor  judged 
it  necessaiy  to  fall  upon  some  method 
of  accommodating  the  religious  differ- 


ences, and  maintaining  peace  until  the 
council  so  long  expected  should  be 
finally  obtained.  With  this  view  he  or- 
dered Julius  Pelugius,  bishop  of  Naum- 
berg,  Michael  Sidonius,  a  creature  of 
the  pope,  and  John  Agricola,  a  native  of 
Ayselben,  to  draw  up  a  formulary  which 
might  serve  as  a  rule  of  faith  and  wor- 
ship till  the  council  should  be  assembled ; 
but  as  this  was  only  a  temporary  expe- 
dient, and  had  not  the  force  of  a  per- 
manent or  perpetual  institution,  it 
thence  obtained  the  name  of  the  Li- 
tcrim. 

This  project  of  Charles  was  formed 
partly  with  a  design  to  vent  his  resent- 
ment against  the  pope,  and  partly  to  an- 
swer other  political  purposes.  It  con- 
tained all  the  essential  doctrines  of  ti»e 
church  of  Rome,  though  considerably 
softened  by  the  artful  terms  which, 
were  employed,  and  which  were  quite 
different  from  those  employed  before 
and  after  this  period  by  the  council  of 
Trent.  There  was  even  an  affected 
ambiguity  in  many  of  the  expressions, 
which  made  them  susceptible  of  differ- 
ent senses,  and  applicable  to  the  senti- 
ments of  both  communions.  The  con- 
sequence of  all  this  was,  that  the  impe- 
rial creed  was  reprobated  by  both  par- 
ties. [See  Interim.]  In  the  year  1542, 
the  pope  (Paul  III.)  died  ;  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Julius  III.  who,  at  the  re- 
peated solicitations  of  the  emperor,  con- 
sented to  the  re-assembling  of  a  coun- 
cil of  Trent.  A  diet  was  again  held  at 
Augsburg,  under  the  cannon  of  the  im- 
perial army,  and  Charles  laid  the  mat- 
ter before  the  princes  of  the  empire. 
Most  of  those  present  gave  their  con- 
sent to  it,  and,  among  the  rest,  Maurice 
elector  of  Saxony ;  who  consented  on 
the  following   conditions:    1.  That  the 

Eoints  of  doctrine  which  had  already 
een  decided  there  should  be  re-ex- 
amined.— 2.  That  this  examination 
should  be  made  in  presence  of  the  Pro- 
testant divines. — 3.  That  the  Saxon 
Protestants  should  have  a  liberty  of 
voting  as  well  as  of  deliberating  in  the 
council. — 4.  That  the  pope  should  not 
pretend  to  preside  in  the  assembly, 
either  in  person  or  by  his  legates.  This 
declaration  of  Maurice  was  read  in  the 
diet,  and  his  deputies  insisted  upon  its 
being  entered  into  the  registers,  which 
the  archbishop  of  Mentz  obstinately  re- 
fused. The  diet  was  concluded  in  1551 ; 
and,  at  its  breaking  up,  the  emperor  de- 
sired the  assembled  princes  and  states 
to  prepare  all  things  for  the  approach- 
ing council,  and  promised  to  use  his  ut- 
most endeavours  to  procure  modera- 
tion and  harmony,  impartiality  and  cjia- 


REF 


520 


REF 


rity,  in  the  transactions    of  that    as- 
sembly. 

On  the  breaking  up  of  the  diet,  the 
Prcitestants  took  such  steps  as  they 
thought  most  proper  for  their  own  safety. 
The  Saxons  employed  Melancthon,  and 
the  Wirtembergevs  Brengius,  to  draw 
up  confessions  of  faith  to  be  laid  before 
the  new  council.  The  Saxon  divines, 
however,  proceeded  no  farther  than 
Nuremberg,  having  received  secret 
orders  from  Maurice  to  stop  there  ;  for 
the  elector  perceiving  that  Charles  had 
formed  designs  against  the  liberties  of 
the  German  princes,  resolved  to  take 
the  most  effectual  measures  for  crush- 
ing his  ambition  at  once.  He  therefore 
entered  with  the  utmost  secrecy  and 
expedition  into  an  alliance  with  the  king 
of  France  and  several  of  the  German 
princes,  for  the  security  of  the  rights 
and  liberties  of  the  empire ;  after  which, 
assembling  a  powerful' army  in  1552,  he 
marched  against  the  emperor,  who  lav 
with  a  handful  of  troops  at  Inspruck, 
and  expected  no  such  thing.  By  this 
sudden  and  unforeseen  accident,  Charles 
was  so  much  dispirited,  that  he  was 
willing  to  make  peace  almost  on  any 
terms.  The  consequence  of  this  was, 
that  he  concluded  a  treaty  at  Passau, 
which  by  the  Protestants  is  considered 
as  the  basis  of  their  religious  liberty. 
By  the  first  three  articles  of  this  treaty 
it  was  agreed  that  Maurice  and  the 
confederates  should  lay  down  their  arms, 
and  lend  their  troops  to  Ferdinand,  to 
assist  him  against  the  Turks;  and  that 
the  landgrave  of  Hesse  should  be  set  at 
liberty.  By  the  fourth  it  was  agreed 
that  the  rule  of  faith  called  the.  Interim 
should  be  considered  as  null  aiid  void  ; 
that  the  contending  parties  should  en- 
joy the  free  and  undisturbed  exercise 
of  their  religion  until  a  diet  should 
be  assembled  to  determine  amicablv 
the  present  disputes  (which  diet  was 
to  m.eet  in  the  space  of  six  months;) 
and  that  this  religious  liberty  should 
continue  alwavs,  in  case  it  should  be 
found  impossible  to  come  to  a  uni- 
formity in  doctrine  and  worship.  It 
was  also  determined,  that  all  those  who 
had  suffered  banishment  or  any  other 
calamity,  on  account  of  their  having 
been  concerned  in  the  league  or  war  of 
Smalcald,  should  be  reinstated  in  their 
privileges,  possessions,  and  employ- 
ments ;  that  the  imperial  chamber  at 
Spire  should  be  open  to  the  Protestants 
as  well  as  to  the  Catholics ;  and  that 
there  jhould  always  be  a  certain  num- 
ber of  Lutherans  in  that  high  court. 
To  this  peace  Albert,  marquis  of  Bran- 
denburg, refused  to  subscribe ;  and  con- 


tinued the  war  against  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholics, committed  such  ravages  in  the 
empire,  that  a  confederacy  was  at  last 
'formed  against  him.  At' the  head  of 
this  confederacy  was  Maurice,  elector 
of  Saxony,  who  died  of  a  wound  he  re- 
I  ceived  in  a  battle  fought  on  the  occa- 
'  sion  in  1553. 

I  The  assembly  of  the  diet  promised  by 
I  Charles  was  prevented  by  various  ac- 
;  cidents ;  however,  it  met  at  Augsburg, 
'  in  1555,  where  it  was  opened  by  Ferdi- 
nand in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  and 
terminated  those  deplorable  calamities 
which  had  so  long  desolated  the  empire. 
After  various  debates  the  following  acts 
were  passed  on  the  twenty-fifth  of  Sep- 
tember:— That  the  Protestants  who 
followed  the  confession  of  Augsburg 
should  be  for  the  future  considered  as 
entirely  free  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Roman  pontiff  and  from  the  authority 
and  superintendence  of  the  bishops ; 
that  they  were  left  at  perfect  liberty  to 
enact  laws  for  themselves  relating  to 
their  religious  sentiments,  discipline,  and 
worship  ;  that  all  the  hihabitants  of  t!ie 
Gerinm  empire  should  be  allowed  to 
judge  for  themselves  in  religious  mat- 
ters, and  to  join  themselves  to  that 
church  whose  doctrine  and  worship 
they  thought  the  most  pure  and  conso- 
nant to  the  spirit  of  true  Christianity ; 
and  that  all  those  who  should  injure  or 
prosecute  any  persori  under  religious 
pretences,  and  on  account  of  their  opi- 
nions, should  be  declared  and  proceeded 
against  as  public  enemies  of  the  empire, 
invaders  of  its  liberty,  and  disturbers  of 
its  peace. 

Thus  was  the  reformation  established 
in  many  parts  of  the  German  empire, 
where  it  continues  to  this  day;  nor  have 
the  efforts  of  the  popish  powers  at  any 
time  been  able  to  suppiessit,  or  even  to 
prevent  its  gaining  ground.  It  was  not, 
howe^  er,  in  Germany  alone  that  a  re- 
formation of  religion  took  place.  Al- 
most all  the  kingdoms  of  Euroj)e  began 
to  open  their  eyes  to  the  t.  !\th  about  tlie 
same  time.  The  reformed  -elision  was 
propagated  in  Siueden,  soon  after  Lu- 
ther's rupture  with  the  church  of  Rome, 
by  one  of  his  disciples  named  Olaiis 
Patri.  The  zealous  efforts  of  tii-s  mis- 
sionaiy  were  seconded  by  Gustavus 
Vasa,"whom  the  Swedes  had  raised  to 
the  throne  in  the  place  of  Christieni, 
king  of  Denmark,  whose  horrid  bar- 
barity lost  him  the  crown.  This  prince, 
however,  was  as  prudent  as  he  was 
zealous;  and,  as  the  minds  of  the 
Swedes  were  in  a  fluctuating  state,  he 
wisely  avoided  all  kinds  of  vehemence 
and  precipitation  in  spreading  the  new 


REF 


<2l 


REF 


doctrine.    Accordingly  the  first  object  [] 
of  his  attention  was  the  instruction  of  | 
his  people  in  the  sacred  doctrines  of  the 
holy  Scriptures ;  for  which  pui-pcse  he  I 
invited  into  his  dominions  several  learn-  j 
ed Germans,  and  spread  abroad  through  i 
the  kingdom  the  Swedish  translation  of  j 
the  Bible  that  had  been  made  by  Olaus  j 
Petri.    Some  time  after  this,  in  1526,  he  j 
appointed  a  conference  at  Upsal,  be- 
tween the  reformer  and  Peter  Gallius, 
a  zealous  defender  of  the  ancient  super-  { 
iJition,  in  which  each  of  the  champions 
was  to  bring  forth  his  arguments,  that 
it  might  be  seen  on  which  side  the  truth 
lay.    In  this  dispute  Olaus  obtained  a 
signal  victory ;  which  contributed  much 
to  confirm  Gustavus  in  his  persuasion  of ; 
the  truth  of  Luther's  doctrine,  and  to ' 
promote  its  progress  in  Sweden.    The 
following  year  another  event  gave  the 
finishing  stroke  to  its  propagation  and 
.success.    This  was  the  assembly  of  the 
states  at  Westeraas,  where   Gustavus 
recommended  the  doctrine  of  the  re- 
formers with  such  zeal,  that  after  warm 
debates,  fomented  by  the  clergy  in  ge- 
neral,   it    was    unanimously    I'esolved 
that  the  reformation  introduced  by  Lu- 
ther should   have    place    in    Sweden. 
This  resolution  was  principally  owing 
to   the   firmness  and   magnanimity   of 
Gusta^^ls,  who  declared  publicly,  that  ji 
he  would  lay  down  the  sceptre,  and  re-  I 
tire  from  the  kingdom,  rather  than  rule  ;i 
a  people  enslaved  by  the  orders  and  au-  j 
thority  of  the  pope,  and  more  controlled  jl 
by  the  tyranny  of  their  bishops  than  by  ;j 
the  laws  of  their  monarchs.     From  this ; 
time  the  papal  empire  in  Sweden  was  i 
entirely  overthrown,  and  Gustavus  de-  || 
clared  head  of  tlie  church.  I 

In  Denmark,  the  reformation  was  in-  !l 
troduced  as  early  as  the  year  1521,  in 
consequence  of  the  ardent  desire  dis- 
covered by  Christiem  II.  of  having  his 
subjects  instructed  in  the  doctrines  of 
Luther.  This  monarch,  notwithstanding 
his  cruelty,  for  which  his  name  has  been 
rendered  odious,  was  nevertheless  desi- 
rous of  delivering  his  dominions  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  church  of  Rome.  For 
this  purpose,  in  the  year  1520,  he  sent 
for  Martin  Reinard,  one  of  the  disciples 
of  Carlostadt,  out  of  Saxonv,  and  ap- 

Eointed  him  professor  of  divinity  at 
[asnia ;  and  after  his  death  which  hap- 
Eened  in  1521,  he  invited  Carlostadt 
imself  to  fill  that  important  place. 
Carlostadt  accepted  of  this  office,  in- 
deed, but  in  a  short  time  returned  to 
Germany  ;  upon  which  Christiem  used 
his  utmost  endeavours  to  engage  Lu- 
^ther  to  visit  his  dominions,  but  in  vain. 
'  IjLowever,  the  progress  of  Christiem  in 


reforming  the  religion  of  his  subjects, 
or  rather  of  advancing  his  own  power, 
above  that  of  the  church,  was  checked, 
in  the  vear  1523,  by  a  conspiracy,  by 
which  he  was  deposed  and  banished ; 
his  uncle  Frederic,  duke  of  Holstein 
and  Sleswic,  bemg  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor. . 

Frederic  conducted  the  reformation 
with  much  greater  pi-udence  than  his 
predecessor.  He  permitted  the  Pro- 
testant doctors  to  preach  publicly  the 
sentiments  of  Luther,  but  did  not  ven- 
ture to  change  the  established  govern- 
ment and  discipline  of  the  church. 
However,  he  contributed  greatly  to  the 
progress  of  the  reformation  bv  his  suc- 
cessful attempts  in  favour  of  religious 
liberty  in  an  assembly  of  the  states  held 
at  Odensee  in  1527.  Here  he  procured 
the  publication  of  a  famous  edict,  by 
which  every  subject  of  Denmark  was 
declared  fi'ee  either  to  adhere  to  the  te- 
nets of  the  church  of  Rome,  or  to  the 
doctrine  of  Luther.  The  papal  tyran- 
ny was  totally  destroyed  by  his  succes- 
sor Christiem  III.  He  began  by  sup- 
pressing the  despotic  authority  of  the 
bishops,  and  restoring  to  their  lawful 
o^vners  a  great  part  of  the  wealth  and 
possessions  which  the  church  had  ac- 
quired by  various  stratagems.  This  was 
followed  by  a  plan  of  religious  doctrine, 
woi-ship,  and  discipline,  laid  down  by 
Bugenhagius,  whom  the  king  had  sent 
for  from  Wittemberg  for  that  purpose  ; 
and  in  1539,  an  assembly  of  the  states  at 
Odensee  gave  a  solemn  sanction  to  all 
these  transactions. 

In  Frayice,  also,  the  reformation  be- 
gan to  make  some  progress  very  early. 
Margaret,  queen  of  NavaiTe,  sister  to 
Francis  I.  the  perpetual  rival  of  Charles 
V.  was  a  great  friend  to  the  new  doc- 
trine ;  and  it  appears  that,  as  early  as 
the  year  1523,  there  were  in  several  of 
the  provinces  of  France  great  numbers 
of  people  who  had  conceived  the 
greatest  aversion  both  to  the  doctrine 
and  tyranny  of  the  church  of  Rome; 
among  whom  were  many  of  the  first 
rank  and  dignity,  and  even  some  of  the 
episcopal  order.  But  as  their  number 
increased  daily,  and  troubles  and  com-- 
motions  were  excited  in  several  places 
on  account  of  the  religious  differences, 
the  authority  of  the  king  intervened, 
and  many  persons  eminent  for  their  vir- 
tue and  piety  were  put  to  deatli  in  the 
most  barbarous  manner.  Indeed,  Fran- 
cis, who  had  either  no  religion  at  all,  or, 
at  best,  no.  fixed  and  consistent  system 
of  religious  principles,  conducted  him- 
self towards  the  Protestants  in  such  a 
!  manner  as  best  answered  his  piivate 
3  U 


REF 


522 


REF 


views.  Sometimes  he  resolved  to  invite 
Melancthon  into  France,  probably  with 
a  view  to  please  his  sister,  the  queen  of 
NavaiTe,  whom  he  loved  tenderly,  and 
who  had  strongly  imbibed  the  Protes- 
tant principles.  At  other  times  he  ex- 
ercised the  most  infernal  cruelty  to- 
wards the  reformed ;  and  once  made 
the  following  mad  declaration.  That, 
if  he  thought  the  blood  of  his  arm  was 
tainted  by  the  Lutheran  heresy,  he 
would  have  it  cut  off;  and  that  he  would 
not  even  spare  his' own  children,  if  they 
entertained  sentiments  contraiy  to  those 
of  the  Catholic  church. 

About  this  time  the  famous  Calvin 
began  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  pub- 
lic, but  more  especially  of  the  queen  of 
Navan-e.  His  zeal  exposed  him  to 
danger ;  and  the  friends  of  the  re- 
formation, whom  Francis  was  daily 
committing  to  the  flames,  placed  him 
more  than  once  in  the  most  perilous 
situation,  from  which  he  was  delivered 
by  the  interposition  of  the  queen  of 
Navarre.  He  therefore  retired  out  of 
France  to  Basil,  in  Switzerland,  where 
he  published  his  Christian  Institutions, 
and  became  afterwards  so  famous. 

Those  among  the  French  who  first 
renomiced  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Ro- 
mish church  are  commonly  called  Lu- 
therans by  the  writers  of  those  early 
times ;  hence  it  has  been  supposed  that 
they  had  all  imbibed  the  peculiar  senti- 
ments of  Luther.  But  this  appears  by 
no  means  to  have  been  the  case ;  for  the 
vicinity  of  the  cities  of  Geneva,  I^au- 
sanne,  &c.  which  had  adopted  the  doc- 
trines of  Calvin,  produced  a  remarka- 
ble effect  upon  the  French  Protestant 
ciuu-ches ;  insomuch  that,  about  the 
middle  of  this  century,  they  all  entered 
into  commimion  with  the  church  of 
Geneva.  The  French  Protestants  were 
called  Hui^uenots,  [see  Huguknots,] 
by  their  adversaries,  by  way  of  con- 
tempt. Their  fate  was  very  severe, 
being  persecuted  v/ith  unparalleled  fu- 
ry ;  and  though  many  princes  of  the 
blood,  and  of  the  first  nobility,  had  em- 
braoed  their  serAiments,  yet  in  no  part 
of  the  world  did  the  reformers  suffer  so 
nmch.  At  last,  all  commotions  were 
quelled  by  the  fortitude  and  magnfini- 
niity  of  Henry  IV.  who,  in  the  year 
1598,  granted  all  his  subjects  full  liberty 
of  conscience  by  the  famous  edict  of 
Nantes,  and  seemed  to  have  thoroughly 
established  the  reformation  throughout 
liis  dominions.  During  the  minority  of 
Louis  XIV.  however,  this  edict  was  re- 
voked by  cardinal  Mazarine,  since 
■u'hicli  time  the  Protestants  have  often 
been  cmcUy  persecuted :  nor  was  the 


profession  of  the  reformed  religion  in 
France  at  any  time  so  safe  as  in  most 
other  countries  of  Europe. 

In  the  other  parts  of  Europe  the  op- 
position to  the  church  of  Rome  was  but 
faint  and  ambiguous  before  the  diet  of 
Augsburg.  Before  that  period,  how- 
ever, it  appears,  from  undoubted  testi- 
mony, that  the  doctine  of  Luther  had 
made  a  considerable,  though  probably 
secret  progress  through  Spain,  Hun- 
gary, Bohemia,  Britain,  Poland,  and  the 
Netherlands;  and  had  in  all  these  coun- 
tries many  friends,  of  whom  several  re- 
paired to  Wittemberg,  in  order  to  en- 
large their  knowledge  by  means  of 
Luther's  conversation.  Some  of  these 
countries  threw  off  the  Romish  yoke 
entirely,  and  in  others  a  prodigious 
number  of  families  embraced  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  reformed  religion.  It  is 
certain,  indeed,  and  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics themselves  acknoAvledge  it  without 
hesitation,  that  the  papal  doctrines  and 
authority  woidd  have  fallen  into  ruin  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  at  once,  had  not 
the  force  of  the  secular  arm  been  em- 
ployed to  support  the  tottering  edifice. 
In  the  Netherlands,  particularly,  the 
most  gi'ievious  persecutions  took  place» 
so  that  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  up- 
wards of  100,000  ^vere  destroyed,  Avhfle 
still  greater  cruelties  were  exei'cised 
upon  the  people  by  his  son  Philip  II. 
1  he  revolt  of  the  United  Provinces  how- 
ever, and  motives  of  real  policy,  at  last 
put  a  stop  to  these  furious  proceedings  ; 
and  though  in  many  provinces  of  the 
Netherlands,  the  establishment  of  the 
Popish  religion  was  still  continued,  the 
Protestants  have  been  long  free  from 
the  danger  of  persecution  on  account  of 
theii'  principles. 

The  reformation  made  a  considerable 
progress  in  S/niin  and  Italij  soon  after 
the  rupture  between  Luther  and  the 
Roman  pontifl'.  In  all  the  provinces  of 
Italy,  liut  more  especially  in  the  terri- 
tories of  ^'cnice,  1  uscany,  and  Naples, 
the  superstition  of  Rome  lost  ground, 
and  great  numl)crs  of  people  of  all 
ranks  expressed  an  aversion  to  the  pa- 
])al  yoke.  This  occasioned  vicjlent  and 
dangerous  commotions  in  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  in  the  year  1546 ;  which, 
howcAcr,  were  at  last  quelled  by  the 
united  effoi'ts  of  Charles  V.  ajid  his 
viceroy  Don  Pedro  di  Toledo.  In  se- 
veral places  the  pope  put  a  stop  to  the 
progi'css  of  the  reformation  by  letting 
loose  the  inquisitors,  who  spread  dread- 
ful marks  of  their  barbaritv  through 
tlie  greatest  part  of  Italy.  Those  for- 
midable ministers  of  superstition  put  so 
many  to  death,  and  pei-petrated  such 


REF 


523 


REF 


'horrid  acts  of  ciiielty  and  opjii-ession, 
that  most  of  the  reformed  consulted 
their  safety  bv  a  voluntaiy  exile,  while 
others  returned  to  the  religion  of  Rome, 
at  least  in  external  appearance.  But 
the  inquisition,  which  fi-ightened  into 
the  profession  of  popery  several  Pro- 
testants in  other  parts  of  Italy,  could 
never  make  its  way  uito  the  kingdom  of 
Naples ;  nor  could  either  the  authority 
or  entreaties  of  the  pope  engage  the 
Neapolitans  to  admit  even  visiting  in- 
quisitors. 

In  Spain,  several  people  embraced 
the  Protestant  religion,  not  only  from 
the  controversies  ot  Luther,  but  even 
from  those  divines  whom  Chaiies  V. 
had  brought  with  him  into  Germany  in 
order  to  refiite  the  doctrines  of  Luther ; 
for  these  doctors  imbibed  the  pretended 
lieresy,  instead  of  refuting  it,  and  pro- 
pagated it  more  or  less  on  their  return 
home.  But  the  inquisition,  which  could 
obtain  no  footing  in  Naples,  reigned  tri- 
umphant in  Spain  ;  and  by  the  most 
dreadful  methods  frightened  the  peo- 
ple back  into  popery,  and  suppressed 
the  desire  of  exchanging  their  super- 
stition for  a  mwe  rational  plan  of  reli- 
gion. It  was,  indeed,  presumed  that 
Charles  himself  died  a  ProtestaTit ;  and, 
it  seems  to  be  certain,  that,  when  the 
approach  of  death  had  dissipated  those 
schemes  of  ambition  and  grandeurwhich 
had  so  long  blinded  him,  his  sentiments 
became  much  more  rational  and  agree- 
able to  Christianity  than  they  had  ever 
been.  All  the  ecclesiastics  who  had  at- 
tended him,  as  soon  as  he  expired,  were 
sent  to  the  inquisition,  and  committed  to 
the  flames,  or  put  to  death  by  some 
other  method  equally  terrible.  Such 
was  the  fate  of  Augustine  Casal,  the  em- 
peror's preacher ;  of  Constantine  Pon- 
tius, his  confessor ;  of  Egidius,  whom  he 
had  named  to  the  bishopric  of  Tortosa  ; 
of  Bartholomew  de  Caranza,  a  Domini- 
can, who  had  been  confessor  to  king 
Philip  and  queen  Mary ;  with  twenty 
others  of  less  note. 

In  England,  the  principles  of  the  re- 
formation began  to  be  adopted  as  soon 
as  an  account  of  Luthei-  s  doctrines 
could  be  conveyed  thither.  In  that 
kingdom  there  were  still  great  remains 
of  the  sect  called  Lollards,  whose  doc- 
trine resembled  that  of  Luther;  and 
among  whom,  of  consequence,  the  sen- 
timents of  our  reformer  gained  gi-eat 
credit.  Henry  VIII.  king  of  England  at 
that  time,  was  a  violent  partisan  of  the 
church  of  Rome,  and  had  a  particular 
veneration  for  the  writings  of  Thomas 
Aquinas.  Being  informed  that  Luther 
spoke  of  his  favourite  author  with  con- 


tempt, he  conceived  a  violent  prejudice 
against  the  reformer,  and  even  wrote 
against  him,  as  we  have  already  ob- 
served. Luther  did  not  hesitate  at 
writing  against  his  majesty,  overcame 
him  in  argument,  and  ti-eated  him  with 
very  little  ceremony.  The  first  step 
towards  public  reforaiation,  however, 
was  not  taken  till  the  year  1529. 
Cireat  complaints  had  been  made  in 
England,  and  of  a  very  ancient  date,  of 
the  usurpations  of  the  clerg)' ;  and,  by 
the  prevalence  of  the  Lutheran  opi- 
nions, these  complaints  were  now  be- 
come more  general  than  befoie.  The 
House  of  Commons,  finding  the  occasion 
favourable,  passed  several  bills,  re- 
straining the  impositions  of  the  clergy  ; 
but  what  threatened  the  ecclesiastical 
order  with  the  greatest  danger,  were, 
the  severe  i-eproaches  thrown  out  al- 
most without  opposition  in  the  House 
against  the  dissolute  lives,  ambition,  and 
avarice  of  the  priests,  and  their  con- 
tinual encroachments  on  the  privileges 
of  the  laity.  The  bills  for  regulating 
the  clergy  met  with  opposition  in  the 
House  of  Loi'ds;  and  bishop  Fisher  im- 
puted them  to  want  of  faith  in  the  Com- 
mons, and  to  a  formed  design,  proceed- 
ing from  heretical  and  Lutheran  prin- 
ciples, of  robbing  the  church  of  her  pa- 
trimony, and  overturning  the  national 
religion.  The  Commons,  however, 
complained  to  the  king,  by  their  speak- 
er, sir  Thomas  Audley,  of  these  re- 
flections thrown  out  against  them  ;  and 
the  bishop  was  obliged  to  retract  his 
words. 

Though  Henry  had  not  the  least  idea 
of  rejecting  any,  even  of  the  most  ab- 
surd Romish  superstitions,  yet,  as  the 
oppressions  of  the  clergy  suited  very 
ill  with  the  violence  of  his  own  temper, 
he  was  pleased  with  every  opportunity 
of  lessening  their  power.  In  the  par- 
liament of  1531  he  showed  his  design  of 
humbling  the  clergy  m  the  most  ef- 
fectual manner.  An  obsolete  statute 
was  revived,  from  which  it  was  pre- 
tended that  it  was  criminal  to  submit  to 
the  legatine  power  which  had  been  ex- 
ercised by  cardinal  Wolsey.  By  this 
stroke  the  whole  body  of  the  clergy  was 
declared  guilty  at  once.  They  were  too 
well  acquainted  with  Henry's  disposi- 
tion, however,  to  reply,  that  their  main 
would  have  been  the  certain  conse- 
quence of  their  not  submitting  to  Wol- 
sey's  commission,  which  had  been  given 
by  royal  authority.  Instead  of  making 
any  defence  of  tliis  kind,  they  chose  to 
throw  themselves  upon  the  mercy  of 
I  their  sovereign ;  which,  however,  it  cost 
I  them  118,840/.  to  procure.  A  confession 


REF 


5-24 


REF 


was  likewise  extorted  from  them,  that 
the  king  was  pi-otector  and  supreme 
head  of  the  church  of  England ;  though 
some  of  them  had  the  dexterity  to  get  a 
clause  inserted  which  invalidated  the 
whole  submission,  viz.  in  so  far  as  is 
fiertnitted  by  the  laiv  of  Chrik. 

The  king,  having  thus  begun  to  re- 
duce the  power  of  the  clergy,  kept  no 
bounds  with  them  afterwai'ds.  He  did 
not,  indeed,  attempt  any  reformation  in 
religious  matters ;  nay,  he  persecuted 
most  violently  such  as  did  attempt  this 
in  the  least.  Indeed,  the  most  essential 
article  of  his  creed  seems  to  have  been 
his  own  supremacy ;  for  whoever  de- 
nied this  was  sure  to  suffer  the  most  se- 
vere penalties,  whether  Protestant  or 
Papist. 

He  died  in  1547,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  only  son  Edward  VI.  This  amia- 
ble prince,  whose  early  youth  was  crown- 
ed with  that  wisdom,  sagacity,  and  \  ir- 
tue,  that  would  have  done  honour  to 
advanced  years,  gave  new   spirit   and 
vigour  to  the  Protestant  cause,  and  was 
its  brightest  ornament,  as  well  as  its 
most  effectual  support.   He  encouraged 
leai'ned  and  pious  men  of  foreign  coun- 
tries to  settle  in  England,  and  addi-essed 
a  particular  invitation  to  Martin  Bucer 
and  Paul    Fagius,  whose    moderation 
added  a  lustre  to  their  other  virtues, 
that  by  the  ministry  and  labours  of  these 
eminent  men,  in  concert  with  those  of 
the  friends  of  the  reformation  in  Eng- 
land, he  might  pm-ge  his  dominions  from 
the  sordid  fictions  of  popery,  and  esta- 
blish the  pure  doctrines  of  Christianity 
in  their  place.    For  this  purpose  he  is- 
sued out  the  wisest  orders  for  the  re- 
storation of  true  religion ;  but  his  reign 
was  too  short  to  accomplish  fully  such  a 
glorious  purpose.    In  the  year  1553  he 
was  taken  from  his  loving  and  afflicted 
subjects,  whose  sorrow  was  inexpressi- 
ble, and  suited  to  their  loss.     His  sister 
Mary,  (the  daughter  of  Catharine   of 
Arragon,  from  whom  Henry  had  been 
separated  by  the  famous  divorce,)  a  fu- 
rious bigot  to  the  church  of  Rome,  and  a 
princess  whose  natural  character,  like 
the  spii'it  of  her  rehgion,  was  despotic 
and  cruel,  succeeded  him  on  the  British 
throne,  and  imposed  anew  the  arbitrary 
laws  and  the  tyrannical  yoke  of  Rome 
upon  the  people  of  England.  Nor  were 
the  methods  which  she  employed  in  the 
cause  of  superstition  better  than   the 
cause  itself,  or  tempered  by  any  senti- 
ments of  equity  or  compassion.    Barba- 
rous tortures,  and  death  in  the  most 
shocking  forms,  awaited  those  who  op- 
posed her  will,  or  made  the  least  stand 
against  the  restoration  of  popery ;  and. 


among  many  other  victims,  the  learned 
and  pious  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, who  had  been  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  instruments  of  the  reforma- 
tion in  England,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  her 
fury.  This  odious  scene  of  persecu- 
tion was  happily  concluded  in  the  year 
1558  by  the  death  of  the  queen,  who  left 
no  issue  ;  and,  as  soon  as  her  successor 
the  lady  Elizabeth  ascended  the  throne, 
all  things  assumed  a  new  and  pleasing 
aspect.  This  illustrious  princess,  whose 
sentiments,  counsels,  and  projects, 
breathed  a  spirit  superior  to  the  natural 
softness  and  delicacy  of  her  sex,  exerted 
this  vigorous  and  manly  spirit  in  the  de- 
fence of  oppressed  conscience  and  ex- 
piring liberty,  broke  anew  the  despotic 
yoke  of  papal  authority  and  supersti- 
tion ;  and,  delivering  her  people  from 
the  bondage  of  Rome,  estabhshed  that 
foi-m  of  i-eligious  doctrine  and  ecclesias- 
tical government  which  still  subsists  in 
England.  This  religious  establishment 
differs  in  some  respects  from  the  plan 
that  had  been  formed  by  those  whom 
Edward  VI.  had  employed  for  promoting 
the  cause  of  the  reformation,  and  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  the  rites  and  disci- 
pline of  former  times;  though  it  is  wide- 
ly different,  and  in  the  most  important 
points,  entirely  opposite  to  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Roman  hierarchy. 

The  cause  of  the  reformation  under- 
went in  Ireland  the  same  vicissitudes 
and  revolutions  that  had  attended  it  in 
England.  When  Henry  VIII.  after  the 
abolition  of  the  papal  authority,  was  de- 
clared supreme  head  upon  earth  of  the 
church  of  England,  George  Brown,  a 
nati\'e  of  England,  and  a  monk  of  the 
Augustine  order,  Avhom  that  monarch 
had  created,  in  the  year  1535,  archbi- 
shop of  Dublin,  began  to  act  with  the 
utmost  vigour  in  consequence  of  this 
change  in  the  hierarchy.  He  purged 
the  churches  of  his  diocese  from  super- 
stition in  all  its  various  forms,  pulled 
down  images,  destroyed  relics,  abolish- 
ed absurd  and  idolatrous  rites  ;  and,  by 
the  influence  as  well  as  authority  he  had 
in  Ireland,  caused  the  king's  supremacy 
to  be  acknowledged  in  that  nation. 
Henry  showed,  soon  after,  that  this  su- 
premacy was  not  a  vain  title ;  for  he 
banished  the  monks  out  of  that  king- 
dom, confiscated  their  revenues,  and  de- 
stroyed their  convents.  In  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.  still  further  progress  was 
made  in  the  removal  of  popish  supersti- 
tions by  the  zealous  labours  of  bishop 
Brown,'  and  the  auspicious  encourage- 
ment he  granted  to  all  who  exerted 
themselves  in  the  cause  of  the  reforma- 
tion.   But  the  death  of  this  excellent 


REF 


525 


REF 


prince,    and    the    accession    of   queen 
Mary,  had  like   to  have  changed  the 
face  of  affairs  in  Ireland  as  much  as  in 
England ;  but  her  designs  were  disap- 
pointed by  a  very  curious  adventure,  of 
which  the  following  account  has  been 
copied  from  the  papers  of  Richard  earl 
of  Coriv : — "  Queen  Mary  having  dealt 
severely  with  the  Protestants  in  England, 
about  the  latter  end  of  her  reign,  signed 
a  commission  for  to  take  the  same  course 
with  them  in  Ireland  ;  and,  to  execute 
the  same  with  greater  force,  she  nomi- 
nates Dr.  Cole  one  of  the  commission- 
ers. This  doctor  coming  with  the  com- 
mission to  Chester  on  his  journey,  the 
mayor  of  that  city,  hearing  that  her  ma- 
jesty was  sending  a  messenger  into  Ire- 
land, and  he  being  a  churchman,  waited 
on  the  doctor,  who  in  discourse  with  the 
mayor  taketh  out  of  a  cloke-bag  a  lea- 
ther box,  saying  unto  him,   Here  is  a 
commissioii  that  shall  lash  the  heretics 
of  Ireland,  calling  the  Protestants  by 
that  title.      The   good  woman  of  the 
house  being  well  affected  to  the  Pro- 
testant religion,  and  also  having  a  bro- 
ther, named /o/i?z  £dmu}2cls,oii\\e  same, 
then   a  citizen  in  Dublin,  was  much 
troubled   at  the   doctor's  words ;  but, 
watching  her  convenient  time  while  the 
mayor  took  his  leave,  and  the  doctor 
complimented  him  down  the  stairs,  she 
opens  the  box,  takes  the   commission 
out,  and  places  in  lieu  thereof  a  sheet  of 
paper  with  a  pack  of  cards  wrapt  up 
therein,  the  knave  of  clubs  being  faced 
uppermost.    The  doctor  coming  up  to 
his  chamber,  suspecting  nothing  of  what 
had  been  done,  put  up  the  box  as  for- 
merly.   The   next   day,   going  to  the 
water-side,  wind  and  weather  serving 
him,  he  sails  towards  Ireland,  and  land- 
ed on  the  7th  of  October,  1558,  at  Dub- 
lin.   Tl\en  coming  to  the  castle,  the 
lord   Fitz  Walter,  being  lord-deputy, 
sent  for  him  to  come  before  him  and  the 
privy  council ;  who  coming  in,  after  he 
had  made  a  speech  relating  upon  what 
account  he  came  over,  he  presents  the 
box  unto  the  lord-deputy  ;  who  causing 
it  to    be    opened,  that  the    secretary 
might  read  the  commission,  there  was 
nothing  save  a  pack  of  cards  with  the 
knave  of  clubs  uppermost;  which  not 
only  startled  the  lord-deputy  and  coun- 
cil, but  the  doctor,  who  assured  them  he 
had  a  commission,  but  knew  not  how  it 
was  gone.    Then  the  lord-deputy  made 
answei'i  Let  us  have  another  commis- 
sion, and  we  will  shuffle  the  cards  in  the 
mean  while.    The  doctor  being  trou- 
bled in  his  mind,  went  away,  and  re- 
turned into  England,  and  coming  to  the 
court,    obtained  another    commission ; 


but,  staying  for  a  wind  on  the  water- 
side, news  came  to  him  that  the  queen 
was  dead  :  and  thus  God  preserved  the 
Protestants  of  Ireland." — Queen  Eliza- 
beth was  so  delighted  with  this  story, 
which  was  related  to  her  by  lord  Fitz- 
Walter  on  his  retui'n  to  England,  that 
she  sent  for  Elizabeth  Edmunds,  whose 
husband's  name  was  Mattershad,  and 
gave  her  a  pension  of  40/.  durbig  her 
life. 

In  Scotland  the  seeds  of  reformation 
were  veiy  early  sown  by  several  noble- 
men who  had  resided  hi  Germany  dur 
ing  the  religious  disputes  there  ;  but  for 
many  years  it  was  suppressed  by  the 
power  of  the  pope,  seconded  by  inhu- 
man laws  and  barbarous  executions. 
The  most  eminent  ojiposer  of  the  papal 
jurisdiction  was  John  Knox,  a  disciple  of 
Calvin,  a  man  of  great  zeal  and  invinci- 
ble fortitude.  On  all  occasions  he  raised 
the  drooping  spirits  of  the  reformers, 
and  encouraged  them  to  go  on  with  their 
work,  notwithstanding  the  opposition 
and  treachery  of  the  queen-regent ;  till 
at  last,  in  1561,  by  the  assistance  of  an 
English  army  sent  by  Elizabeth,  popery- 
was,  in  a  manner,  totally  extirpated 
throughout  the  kingdom.  From  tliis  pe- 
riod the  form  of  doctrine,  worship,  and 
discipline,  established  by  Calvin  at 
Geneva,  has  had  the  ascendancy  in 
Scotland. 

On  the  review  of  this  article,  what 
reason  have  we  to  admire  Infinite  Wis- 
dom, in  making  human  events  appa- 
rently fortuitous,  subservient  to  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel !  What  reason  to 
Adore  that  Divine  Power  which  was 
here  evidently  manifested  in  opposition 
to  all  the  powers  of  the  world  !  \A^hat 
reason  to  praise  that  Goodness,  which 
thus  caused  light  and  truth  to  break 
forth  for  the  happiness  and  salvation  of 
millions  of  the  human  race  ! 

For  farther  information  on  this  inte- 
resting subject  we  refer  our  readers  to 
the  works  of  Burnet  and  Brandt ;  to 
Beaiisobre's  Historie  de  la  Reformation 
dans  I'  Empire,  et  les  FJats  de  la  Con- 
fessio?i  d'Auffusbourg  definis  1517-1530, 
in  4  vols.  8vo.  Berlin,  1785  ;  Mosheiin's 
Ecclesiastical  History  ;  and  particular- 
ly the  Alifiendix  to  Vol.  iv.  p.  136,  on 
the  spirit  of  the  reformers,  by  Dr. 
Maclaine.  See  also  Sleidun  De  Statu 
Religionis  et  Rei/mblicte  Carolo  V.  ; 
Father  Paul's  Hist,  of  the  Council  of 
Trent ;  Robertson's  Hist,  of  Charles 
V. ;  Knox's  and  Dr.  Gilbert  Steward's 
Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland  ; 
Enc.  Brit.;  .4ti  .Essay  on  the  Spirit  and 
Influence  of  the  Reformation  by  Luther, 
by  B.  C.  nlliers,  which  work  obtained 


REG 


526 


REL 


the  prize  on  this  question  (proposed  by 
the  jSfational  Institute  of  France  in  the 
public  sitting  of  the  15th  Germinal,  in 
the  year  10,)  "  What  has  been  the  in- 
fluence of  tlie  reformation  by  Luther  on 
the  political  situation  of  the  different 
states  of  Europe,  and  on  the  progress 
of  knowledge  ?  H.  Moore's  Hints  to  a 
Young'  Princess,  vol.  ii.  eh.  35. 

REFORMED  CHURCH.  See 
Church  Reformed. 

REFUGEES,  a  term  first  applied  to 
the  French  Protestants,  who,  by  the  re- 
vocation of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  were 
constrained  to  fly  from  persecution,  and 
take  refuge  in  foreign  countries.  Since 
that  time,  however,  it  has  been  extend- 
ed to  all  such  as  leave  their  country  in 
times  of  distress.    See  Huguenots. 

REGIUM  DONUM  MONEY,  mo- 
ney allowed  by  government  to  the  Dis- 
senters. The  origin  of  it  was  in  the 
year  1725.  As  the  Dissenters  approved 
themselves  strong  friends  to  the  house 
of  Brunswick,  they  enjoyed  favour ;  and, 
being  excluded  all  huhative  preferment 
in  the  church,  the  prime  minister  wish- 
ed to  reward  them  tbi-  their  loyalty,  and, 
by  a  retaining  fee,  preserve  them  stead- 
fast. A  considerable  sum,  therefore, 
was  annually  lodged  with  tlie  heads  of 
the  Presbyterians,  Independents,  and 
Baptists,  to  be  distributed  among  the 
necessitous  ministers  of  their  congi'ega- 
tions. 

REGENERATION,  a  new  birth  ; 
that  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  which 
we  experience  a  change  of  heart.  It  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  bufitism  which 
is  an  extei-nal  i-ite,  though  some  have 
confounded  them  together.  Nor  does  it 
signify  a  mei'e  reformation  of  the  out- 
ward conduct.  Nor  is  it  a  conversion 
fi'om  one  sect  or  creed  to  another ;  or 
even  from  atheism.  Nor  are  new  fa- 
culties given  in  this  change.  Nor  does 
it  consist  in  new  n^velations,  succession 
■of  terroi-s  or  consolations  ;  or  any  whis- 
per as  it  were  from  God  to  the  heart, 
concerning  his  secret  love,  choice,  or 
puipose  to  save  us.  It  is  expressed  in 
Scripture  l)y  being  born  again,  John, 
iii.  7.  bom  from  above,  so  it  may  be  ren- 
dered, John,  iii.  2,  7,  2".  being  quicken- 
ed, Ephes.  ii.  1.  Christ  formed  in  the 
heart.  Gal.  iv.  12.  a  partaking  of  the 
Divine  nature,  2  Pet.  i.  4.  Tlie  efficient 
cause  of  regeneration  is  the  Divine  Sjn 
rit.  That  man  is  not  the  author  of  it  is 
evident,  if  we  consider,  1.  The  case  in 
which  men  are  before  it  takes  place  ;  a 
state  of  ignorance  and  inability,  John, 
iii.  4. — 2.  The  nature  of  the  work  shows 
plainly  that  it  is  not  in  the  power  of 
pnen  to  do  it :  it  is  called  a  creation,  a 


production  of  a  new  principle  which  was 
not  before,  and  which  man  could  not 
himself  produce,  Eph.  ii.  8,  10. — 3.  It  is 
expressly  denied  to  be  of  men,  but  det 
clared  to  be  of  God,  John,  i.  12,  13. 
1  John,  iii.  9.  The  instrumental  cause, 
if  it  may  be  so  called,  is  the  word  of 
God,  Jam.  i.  18.  X  Cor.  iv.  15.  The 
evidences  of  it  are,  conviction  of  sin, 
holy  sorrow,  deep  humility,  knowledge, 
faith,  repentance,  love,  and  devotedness 
to  God's  glory.  The  properties  of  it 
are  these :  1.  It  is  a  passive  work,  and 
herein  it  differs  from  conversion.  In 
regeneration  we  are  passive,  and  receive 
from  God ;  in  conversion  we  are  active, 
and  turn  to  him. — 2.  It  is  an  irresistible, 
or  rather  an  invincible,  work  of  God's 
grace,  Eph.  iii.  8. — 3.  It  is  an  instanta- 
neous act,  for  there  can  be  no  medium 
between  life  and  death  ;  and  here  it 
differs  from  sanctification,  which  is  pro- 
gressive.— 4.  It  is  a  complete  act,  and 
perfect  in  its  kind  ;  a  change  of  the 
whole  man,  2  Cor.  v.  17. — 5.  It  is  a 
great  and  important  act,  both  as  to  its 
author  and  effects,  Eph.  ii.  4,  5. — 6.  It  is 
an  internal  act,  not  consisting  in  bare 
outward  forms,  Ezek.  xxxvi.  26,  27. — 
7.  Visiljle  as  to  its  effects,  1  John,  iii.  14. 
—8.  Delightful,  1  Pet.  i.  8.-9.  Neces- 
sary, John,  iii.  3. — 10.  It  is  an  act,  the 
blessings  of  which  we  can  never  finally 
lose,  John,  xiii.  1.  See  Calling,  Con- 
version ;  and  Charnock's  IVorks,  vol. 
ii.  p.  1.  to  230 ;  Cole  and  Wright,  but 
especially  Witherspoon  on  Regenera- 
tion ;  Doddridge's  Ten  Sermons  on  the 
Subject;  Dr.  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity, 
article  Regeneration  ;  Dr.  Owen  on  the 
Spirit ;  Lime  Street  Lectures,  ser.  8. 

RELICS,  in  the  Roman  church,  the 
remains  of  the  bodies  or  clothes  of  saints 
or  martyrs,  and  the  instruments  by 
which  they  were  put  to  death,  devoutly 
preserved,  in  honour  to  their  memory  ; 
kissed,  revered,  and  carried  in  pi"oces- 
sion. 

The  respect  which  was  justly  due  to 
the  martyrs  and  teachers  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  in  a  few  ages,  increased  al- 
most to  adoration  ;  and  at  length  adora- 
tion was  really  paid  both  to  departed 
saints,  and  to  relics  of  holy  men,  or  holy 
things.  The  abuses  of  the  church  of 
Rome  with  respect  to  relics,  are  veiy 
flagrant  and  notorious;  for  such  was 
the  rage  for  them  at  one  time,  that,  as 
F.  Mabillon,  a  Benedictine,  justly  com- 
plains, the  altars  were  loaded  with  sus- 
pected relics ;  numerous  spurious  ones 
being  every  where  offered  to  the  piety 
and  devotion  of  the  faithful.  He  adds, 
too,  that  bones  are  often  consecrated, 
which,  so  fai"  from  belonging  to  saints, 


REL 


527 


REL 


|«t)bably  do  not  belong  to  Christians. 
From  the  catacombs  numerous  rehcs 
have  been  taken,  and  yet  it  is  not  known 
who  were  the  persons  interred  therein. 
In  the  eleventh  centmy,  relics  were 
tried  by  fire,  and  those  which  did  not 
consume  were  reckoned  genuine,  and 
the  rest  not.  Relics  were,  and  still  are, 
preserved  on  the  altars  whereon  mass 
is  celebrated;  a  square  hole  being  made 
in  the  middle  of  the  altar  big  enough  to 
receive  the  hand  ;  and  herein  is  tlie  re- 
lic deposited,  being  first  wrapped  in  red 
silk,  and  enclosed  in  a  leaden  box. 

The  Romanists  plead  antiquity  in  be- 
half of  relics ;  for  the  Manichees,  out  of 
hatred  to  the  flesh,  which  they  consi- 
dered as  an  evil  principle,  refused  to 
honour  the  relics  of  saints ;  which  is 
reckoned  a  kind  of  proof  that  the  Ca- 
tholics did  it  in  the  first  ages. 

"\^'e  know,  indeed,  that  the  touching 
of  linen  clothes,  or  relics,  from  an  opi- 
nion of  some  extraordinary  virtue  de- 
rived therefrom,  was  as  ancient  as  the 
first  ages,  there  being  a  hole  made  in 
the  coffins  of  the  forty  martyrs  at  Con- 
stantinople expressly  for  that  purpose. 
The  honouring  the  relics  of  saints,  on 
which  the  church  of  Rome  afterwards 
founded  her  superstitious  and  lucrative 
use  of  them,  as  objects  of  devotion,  as 
a  kind  of  charms,  or  amulets,  and  as 
instruments  of  pretended  miracles,  ap- 
pears to  have  originated  in  a  very  an- 
cient custom  that  prevailed  among 
Christians,  of  assembling  at  the  ceme- 
teries or  burying  places  of  the  martyrs, 
for  the  purpose  of  commemorating 
them,  and  of  performing  divine  wor- 
ship. When  the  profession  of  Christi- 
anity obtained  the  protection  of  civil  go- 
vernment, under  Constantine  the  Great, 
stately  churches  v>'ere  erected  over  se- 
pulchres, and  their  names  and  memo- 
ries were  treated  Avith  every  possible 
token  of  affection  and  respect.  This  re- 
verence, however,  gradually  exceeded 
all  reasonable  bounds ;  and  those  pray- 
ers and  religious  services  were  thought 
to  have  a  peculiar  sanctity  and  viitue 
which  were  performed  over  their  tombs: 
hence  the  practice  which  afterwards  ob- 
tained of  depositing  relics  of  saints  and 
martyrs  under  the  altars  in  all  churches. 
This  practice  was  then  thought  of  such  j 
importance,  that  St.  iVmbrose  would  not  j 
consecrate  a  church  because  it  had  no 
relics ;  and  the  council  of  Constanti- 
nople in  TruUo  ordained, -that  those  al- 
tars should  be  demolished  under  which 
there  were  found  no  relics.  The  rage 
of  procuring  relics  for  this  and  other 
pui-poses  of  a  similar  nature  became 
so  excessive,  that  in  386,  the  emperor 


Theodosius  the  Great  was  obliged  t« 
pass  a  law,  forbidding  the  people  to  dig 
up  the  bodies  of  the  martyrs,  and  to 
traffic  in  their  relics. 

Such  was  the  origin  of  that  respect 
for  sacred  relics,  which  afterwards  was 
perverted  into  a  formal  worship  of  them, 
and  became  the  occasion  of  innumerable 

f)rocessions,  pilgrimages,  and  miracles, 
rom  which  the  church  of  Rome  hath 
derived  incredible  advantage.  In  the 
end  of  the  ninth  centuiy  it  was  not  suffi- 
cient to  rc\erence  departed  saints,  and 
to  confide  in  their  intercessions  and  suc- 
cours; to  clothe  them  with  an  imaginary 
poAver  of  healing  diseases,  workijig  mi- 
racles, and  delivei-ing  fi-om  all  s<.irts  of 
calamities  and  dangers ;  their  bones, 
their  clothes,  the  apparel  and  furniture 
they  had  possessed  during  their  lives, 
the  very  gi-ound  which  they  had  touch- 
ed, or  in  which  their  putrefied  carcasses 
were  laid,  were  treated  Avith  a  stupid 
Aeneration,  and  supposed  to  retain  the 
marvellous  viitue  oi  healing  all  disor- 
ders, both  of  body  and  mind,  and  of  de- 
fending such  as  possessed  them  against 
all  the  assaults  and  devices  of  the 
devil.  The  consequence  of  all  this  Avas, 
that  CAeiy  one  Avas  eager  to  provide 
himself  Avith  these  salutary  remedies ; 
consequently  great  numbers  undertof)k 
fatiguing  and  perilous  voyages,  and  sub- 
jected themselves  to  all  sorts  of  hard- 
ships ;  Avhile  others  made  use  of  this  de- 
lusion to  accumulate  their  riches,  and  to 
impose  upon  the  miserable  multitude 
by  the  most  impious  and  shocking  in- 
ventions. As  the  demand  for  relics  Avas 
prodigious  and  uniA-ersal,  the  clergy  em- 
ployed the  utmost  dexterity  to  satisfy 
all  demands,  and  Avere  far  from  being 
nice  in  the  methods  they  used  for  that 
end.  The  bodies  of  the  saints  Avere 
sought  b)'  fasting  and  prayer,  instituted 
bv  the  ])Viest,  in  order  to  obtain  a  di- 
vine answer,  and  an  infallible  direction  ; 
and  this  pretended  direction  never  failed 
to  accomplisli  their  desires :  the  holy 
carcass  Avas  ahvays  found,  and  that  al- 
Avays  in  consequence,  as  tiiey  impiously 
gave  out,  of  the  suggestion  and  inspira- 
tion of  God  himself  Each  discoveiy  of 
this  kind  Avas  attended  Avith  excessive 
demonstrations  of  joy,  and  animated  the 
zeal  of  these  devout  seekers  to  enrich 
the  church  still  more  and  more  Avith 
this  new  kind  of  treasure.  Many  tra- 
velled Avith  this  vieAV  into  the  eastern 
provinces,  and  frequented  the  places 
Avhich  Christ  and  his  disciples  had  ho- 
noured Avith  their  presence;  that  Avith 
the  bones  and  other  sacred  remains  of 
the  first  heralds  of  the  Gospel,  they 
might  comfort   dejected  minds,  calm 


REL 


528 


REL 


trembling  consciences,  save  sinking 
states,  and  defend  theii'  inhabitants  from 
all  sorts  of  calamities.  Nor  did  these 
pious  travellers  return  home  empty  : 
the  craft,  dexterity,  and  kna\evy  of  the 
Greeks,  found  a  rich  prey  in  the  stupid 
credulity  of  the  Latin '  relic-huntei-s, 
and  made  a  profitable  commerce  of  this 
new  devotion.  The  latter  paid  consi- 
derable svims  for  legs  and  arms,  skulls, 
and  jaw-bones  (several  of  which  were 
Pagan,  and  some  not  human,)  and  other 
things  that  were  supposed  to  have  be- 
longed to  the  primitive  worthies  of  the 
Christian  cliurch  ;  and  thus  the  Latin 
churches  came  to  the  possession  of  those 
celebrated  relics  of  St.  Mark,  St.  James, 
St.  Bartholomew,  Cyprian,  Pantaleon, 
and  otliers,  which  tliey  show  at  this  day 
with  so  much  ostentation.  But  there 
were  mony,  who,  unable  to  procure  for 
themselves  these  spiritual  treasures  by 
voyages  and  prayers,  had  recourse  to 
violence  and  theft ;  for  all  sorts  of 
means,  and  all  soils  of  attempts,  in  a 
cause  of  this  nature,  were  considered, 
when  successful,  as  pious  and  accepta- 
ble to  the  Supreme  Being.  Besides  the 
arguments  ft-om  antiquity,  to  which  the 
Papists  refer  in  vindication  of  their  wor- 
ship of  relics,  of  whicli  the  reader  may 
form  some  judgment  from  this  article, 
Bellarmine  appeals  to  Scripture  in  sup- 
port of  it ;  and  cites  the  following  pas- 
sages, viz.  Exod.  xiii.  19.  Deut.  xxxiv. 
6.  2  Kings,  xiii.  21.  2  Kings,  xxiii.  16, 
17,  18.  Isaiah,  xi.  10.  Mat.  xi.  20,  21, 
22.  Acts,  V.  12,  15.  Acts,  xix.  11, 12. 

The  Roman  Catholics  in  Great  Bri- 
tain do  not  acknowledge  any  worship  to 
be  due  to  relics,  but  merely  a  high  ve- 
neration and  respect,  by  which  means 
they  tiiink  they  iionour  God,  who,  they 
say,  has  often  wrought  A-ery  extraordi- 
nary miracles  by  them.  But,  however 
proper  this  veneration  and  respect  may 
be,  its  abuse  has  been  so  great  and  so 
general,  as  fully  to  warrant  the  rejec- 
tion of  them  altogether. 

Belies  are  forbidden  to  be  used  or 
brought  into  England  by  sevei-al  sta- 
tutes ;  and  justices  of  peace  are  em- 
Eowered  to  search  houses  for  popish 
ooks  and  relics,  Avhich,  when  found, 
are  to  be  defaced,  and  burnt,  &c.  3  Jac. 
I.  am.  26. 

RELIEF,  a  species  of  Dissenters  in 
Scotland,  whose  only  difference  from 
the  Scotch  established  church  is  the 
choosing  their  own  pastors.  They  were 
separated  from  the  church  in  the  A'car 
1752,  occasioned  by  Mr.  Thomas  Gilles- 
pie being  deposed  for  refusing  to  assist 
at  the  admission  of  a  minister  to  a  pa- 
rish vrho  were  unwilling  to  receive  him. 


\Mien  Mr.  Gillespie  was  deprived  of 
his  parish,  he  removed  to  Dumferlinc, 
and  preached  there  to  a  congregation 
who  were  attached  to  him,  and  vehe- 
mently opposed  the  law  of  patronage. 
Being  excluded  from  the  communion  of 
the  church,  he,  with  two  or  three  other 
ministers,  constituted  themselves  into  a 

gresbvter}%  called  the  Presbytery  of 
.elief ;  willing  to  afford  relief  to  all 
"  who  adhered  to  the  constitution  of  the 
church  of  Scotland,  as  exhibited  in  her 
creeds,  canons,  confessions,  and  forms 
of  worship."  They  are  unwillingj^  it  is 
said,  to  be  reckoned  secedei-s.  Their 
licentiates  are  educated  under  the  esta- 
blished church  professors,  whose  certi- 
ficates they  acknowledge.  Many  of  their 
people  receive  the  Lord's  supper  with 
equal  readiness  in  the  established 
church  as  in  their  own.  The  relief 
synod  consists  of  about  sixty  congrega- 
tions, and  about  36,000  persons. 

RELIGION  is  a  Latin  word,  derived, 
according  to  Cicero,  from  rele^ere, 
"  to  re-consider ;"  but  according  to 
Servius  and  most  modem  grammarians, 
from  religare,  "  to  bind  fast."  If  the 
Ciceronian  etymology  be  the  true  one, 
the  word  religion  will  denote  the  dili- 
gent study  whatever  pertains  to  the 
worship  of  God  ;  but,  according  to  the 
other  derivation,  it  denotes  that  obliga- 
tion which  we  feel  on  our  minds  from 
the  relation  in  which  we  stand  to  some 
superior  power.  The  word  is  sometimes 
used  as  synonymous  with  sect ;  but,  in  a 
practical  sense,  it  is  generally  consider- 
ed as  the  same  with  godliness,  or  a  life 
devoted  to  the  worship  and  fear  of  God. 
Dr.  Doddridge  thus  defines  it :  "  Reli- 
gion consists  in  the  resolution  of  the 
will  for  God,  and  in  a  constant  care  to 
avoid  whatever  we  are  persuaded  he 
would  disapprove,  to  despatch  the  work 
he  has  assigned  us  in  lite,  and  to  pro- 
mote his  glory  in  the  happiness  of  man- 
kind." See  Godliness.]  The  foun- 
dation of  all  religion  rests  on  the  belief 
of  the  existence  of  God.  As  we  have, 
however,  already  considered  the  evi- 
dences of  the  divine  existence,  they 
need  not  be  enumerated  again  in  this 
place  ;  the  reader  will  find  them  under 
the  article  Existenck  of  God. 

Religion  has  been  divided  into  natural 
and  revealed.  By  natural  religion  is 
meant  that  knowledge,  veneration,  and 
love  of  God,  and  the  practice  of  those 
duties  to  him,  our  fellow-creatures,  and 
ourselves,  which  arc  discoverable  by 
the  right  exercise  of  our  rational  facul- 
ties, from  considering  the  nature  and 
perfections  of  God,  and  our  relation  to 
him  and  to  one  another.    Bv  revealed 


REL 


529 


REL 


relipon   is   understood   that  discovery  !j 
which  he  has  made  to  vis  of  his  mind  '. 
and  will  in  the  Hoh^  Scriptures.    As  it  | 
respects  natural  religion,  some  doubt  j 
■whether,  properly  speaking,  there  can  i 
be  any  such  thing ;  since,  through  the  i 
fall,  reason  is  so  depraved,  that  man 
without  revelation  is  under  the  greatest  i 
darkness  and  misery,  as  may  be  easily  !i 
9een  by  considering  the  history  of  those  1 
nations  who  are  destitute  of  it,  and  who  J 
are  given  up  to  barbarism,  ignorance, 
cruelty,  and  evils  of  eveiy  kind.    So  far  u 
as  this,  however,  may  be  observed,  that  1; 
the  light  of  nature  can  give  us  no  pro-  ' 
per  ideas  of  God,  nor  inform  us  what  ii 
worship  will  be  acceptable  to  him.    It  ' 
does  not  tell  us  how  man  became  a  fallen  ' 
sinful  creature,  as  he  is,  nor  how  he  can 
be  recovered.     It  affords  us  no  intelli-  | 
gence  as  to  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  j; 
the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  a  fu-  i 
Sure  state  of  happiness  and  miseiy.  The  . 
apostle,  indeed,  observes,  that  the  Gen- 
tiles  have   the    law  written    on   their  i 
hearts,  and  are  a  law  unto  themselves ; 
yet  the  greatest  moralists  among  them 
were  so  blinded  as  to  be  guilty  of,  and  ! 
actually  to   countenance    the    greatest ; 
vices.    Such  a  system,  therefore,  it  is  i 
supposed,  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  re-  \ 
in^ious  which  leaves  man  in  such  un-  j 
certainty,  ignorance,  and  impiety.  [See  i 
Revelation.]     On  the  other  side  it  is  : 
observed,  "  that,   though    it    is   in  the  : 
highest  degree  probable  that   the  pa-  j 
rents  of   mankind    received    all    their 
theological  knowledge  by  sufiernatural  \ 
means,  it  is  yet  obvious  that  some  parts  ! 
of  that  knowledge  must  have  been  capa-  i 
ble  of  a  proof  purely  rational,  otherwise  | 
not  a  single  religious  truth  could  have  j 
been  conveyed  through  the  succeeding  i 
generations  of  the  human  race  but  by  ; 
the  immediate  inspiration  of  each  indi- 
vidual.    We,  indeed,  admit  many  pro- 
positions as  certainly  true,  upon  the  sole  ^ 
authority  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
Scriptures,  and  we  receive  these  Scrip- 
tures with  gi'atitude  as  the  lively  ora- 
cles of  God ;  but  it  is  self-evident  that 
we  could  not  do  either  the  one  or  the  ; 
other,  were  we  not  convinced  by  natural 
means  that  God  exists;  that  he  is  a 
being  of  goodness,  justice,  and  power; 
and  that  he  inspired  with  divine  wisdom 
the  penmen  of  these  sacred  volumes. 
Now,  though  it  is  very  possible  that  no 
man,  or  body  of  men,  left  to  themselves 
f^om  infancy  in  a  desert  world,  would 
CA-er  have  made  a  theological  discovery, 
yet,  whatever  propositions  relating  to 
the  being  and  attributes  of  the  First 
■  Cause,  and  duty  of  man,  can  be  demon- 
strated by  human  reason,  independent ; 


of  written  revelation,  may  be  called  na- 
tural theology,  and  are  of  the  utmost 
importance,  as  being  to  us  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  all  religion.  Natural  theology, 
in  this  sense  of  the  word,  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Christian  revelation ;  for, 
without  a  previous  knowledge  of  it,  we 
could  have  no  evidence  that  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
are  indeed  the  word  of  God." 

The  religions  which  exist  in  the  world 
have  been  generally  divided  into  four, 
the  Pagan,  the  Jewish,  the  Mahome- 
tan, and  the  Christian ;  to  which  arti- 
cles the  reader  is  referred.  The  va- 
rious duties  of  the  Christian  religion 
also  are  stated  in  their  different  places. 
See  also,  as  connected  with  this  article, 
the  articles  Inspiration,  Revela- 
tion, and  Theology,  and  books  there 
I'ecommended. 

I     RELIGIOUS,  in    a   general    sense, 
t  something  that  relates  to  religion.    It  is 
also  used  for  a  person  engaged  by  so- 
lemn vows  to  the  monastic  life ;  or  a 
'  person  shut  up  in  a  monasteiy,  to  lead  a 
life  of  devotion  and  austerity  under  some 
;  rule  or  institution.     The  male  I'eligious 
\  are  called  monks   and  friars;  the  fe- 
males, mins  and  canonesses. 
1     RELLY ANISTS,  or  Rellyan  Uni- 
versalists,    the     followers    of    Mr 
James  Relly.     He  tirst  commenced  his 
'  ministerial  character  in  connection  with 
Mr.  Whitfield,  and  was  received  with 
great  popularity.    Upon  a  change  of  his 
j  views,    he  encountered  reproach,  and 
!  was  pronounced  by  many  as  an  enemy 
;to  godliness.    He  "believed  that  Christ 
as  a  Mediator  was  so  united  to  man- 
kind,  that  his  actions  were  theirs,  his 
obedience   and   sufferings  theirs ;   and, 
I  consequently,  that  he  has  as  fully  re- 
{  stored  the  whole  human  race  to  the  di- 
*  vine  favour,  as  if  all  had  obeyed  and 
suffered  in  their  own  persons ;  and  upon 
,  this  persuasion  he  preached  a  finished 
'  salvation,   called  by  the  apostle  Jude, 
"The  common  salvation."  Many  of  his 
I  followers  are  removed  to  the  world  of 
spirits,  but  a  branch  still  sui-vives,  and 
meets  ^  the  chapel  in  Windmill-street, 
I  Moorfields,  London ;  where  there  are 
j  different  brethren  who  speak.    They 
i  are  not  observers  of  ordinances,  such  as 
water-baptism  and  the  sacrament ;  pro- 
fessing to  believe  only  in  one  baptism, 
which  they  call  an  immersion  of  the 
mind  or   conscience   into  truth  by  the 
teaching  of  the  Spirit  of  God ;  and  by 
the  same  Spirit  they  are  enabled  to  feed 
on  Chi-ist  as  the  bread  of  life,  professing 
that  in  and  with  Jesus  they  possess  all 
things.    They  inculcate  and  maintain 
good   works   for   necessaiy  purposes ; 
3  X 


REM 


530 


REP 


but  contend  that  the  principal  and  only 
works  which  ought  to  be  attended  to,  is 
the  doing  real  good  without  religious  os- 
tentation; that  to  i-elieve  the  miseries 
and  distresses  of  mankind  according  to 
our  ability,  is  doing  more  real  good  than 
the  superstitious  observance  of  religious 
ceremonies.  In  general  they  appear  to 
believe  that  there  will  be  a  resurrection 
to  life,  and  a  resurrection  to  condemna- 
tion ;  that  believers  only  will  be  among 
the  former,  who  as  first  fruits,  and 
kings  and  priests,  will  have  part  in  the 
first  resuri'ection,  and  shall  reign  with 
Christ  in  his  kingdom  of  the  millennium; 
that  unbelievers  who  are  after  raised, 
must  wait  the  manifestation  of  the  Sa- 
viour of  the  world,  under  that  con- 
demnation of  conscience  which  a  mind 
in  darkness  and  wrath  must  necessarily 
feel ;  that  believers,  called  kings  and 
priests,  will  be  made  the  medium  of 
communication  to  their  condemned  bre- 
thren ;  and  like  Joseph  to  his  brethren,, 
though  he  spoke  roughly  to  them,  in 
reality  overflowed  with  affection  and 
tenderness ;  that  ultimately  every  knee 
shall  bow,  and  every  tongup  confess 
that  in  the  Lord  they  have  righteous- 
ness and  strength  ;  and  thus  every  ene- 
my shall  be  subdued  to  the  kingdom 
and  glory  of  the  Great  Mediator.  A 
Mr.  ^lurray  belonging  to  this  society 
emigrated  to  America,  and  preached 
these  sentiments  at  Boston  and  else- 
where. Mr.  Relly  published  several 
works,  the  principal  of  which  were, 
*' Union."  "The  Trial  of  Spirits." 
"  Christian  Liberty."  "  One  Baptism." 
"The  Salt  of  Sacrifice."  "Antichrist 
resisted."  "  Letters  on  Universal  Sal- 
vation." "The  Chenibimical  Mvs- 
tery." 

REMEDIAL  LAW.  See  Law;  and 
article  Justification. 

REMONSTRANTS,  a  title  given  to 
the  Arminians,  by  reason  of  the  remon- 
strance which,  in  1610,  they  made  to  the 
states  of  Holland  against  the  sentence 
of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  which  condemned 
them  as  heretics.  Episcopius  and  Gro- 
tius  were  at  the  head  of  the  Remon- 
strants, whose  principles  were  first  open- 
ly patronised  in  England  by  archbishop 
Laud.  In  Holland,  the  Calvinists  pre- 
sented an  address  in  opposition  to  the 
remonstrance  of  the  Arminians,  and 
called  it  a  counter-remonstrance.  See 
Arminians  and  Dort. 

REMORSE,  uneasiness  occasioned 
by  a  consciousness  of  guilt.  Wlien  it  is 
blended  with  the  fear  of  punishment, 
and  rises  to  despaii%  it  constitutes  the 
supreme  wretchedness  of  the  mind. 

REPENTANCE,  in  general,  is  sor- 


row fot-  any  thing  past.    In  theologj'  it 
sigTiifies  that  sorrow  for  sin  which  pro- 
duces newness  of  life.  The  Greek  word 
most  frequently  used  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament for  repentance  is  nijavom,  which 
properly  denotes  an  afterthought,  or  the 
soul  recollecting  its  own  actings;  and 
that  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  sor- 
row in  the  review,  and  a  desire  of  amend- 
ment.     Another    word     also    is    used 
((ifTajifXcuai,)  wliich  signifies  anxiety  or 
uneasiness   upon    the  consideration   of 
what  is  done.    There  are,  however,  va- 
rious kinds  of  repentance  ;  as,  1.  A  na- 
tural  repentance,  or  what  is  merely  the 
effect  of^  natural  conscience. — 2.  A  72a- 
tional  repentance,  such  as  the  Jews  in 
Babylon   were  called   unto ;   to  which 
|[  temporal  blessings  were  promised,  Ezek. 
I  xviii.  30. — 3.  An  external  repentance, 
jl  or  an  outward  humiliation  for  sin,  as  in 
I  the  case  of  Ahab. — 4.  A  hyfiocritkal  re- 
pentance, as  represented  in  E]ihraim, 
||  Hos.   vii.    16. — 5.  A  legal  repentance, 
il  which  is  a  mere  work  of  the  law,  and 
jl  the   effect  of  convictions  of    sin  by  it, 
1}  which  in  time  wear  off,  and    come  to 
'j  nothing. — 6.  An  evangelical  repentance, 

I  which  consists  in  conviction  of  sin  ;  sor- 
row for  it ;  confession  of  it ;  hatred  to 

!j  it ;  and  renunciation  of  it.    A  legal  and 

II  evangelical  repentance  are  distinguish- 
Ij  ed  thus :  1.  A  legal  repentance  flows 
I  only  fi-om  a  sense  of  danger  and  fear 
I  of  wrath ;  but  an  e\'angeiical  repent- 
!|  ance  is  a  tnie  mourning  for  sin,  and  an 
il  earnest  desire  of  deliverance  from  it. — 
I  2.  A  legal  repentance  flows  from  un- 
ij  belief,  but  evangelical  is  always  the  fruit 
jj  and  consequence  of  a   saving   faith. — 

3.  A  legal  repentance  flows  from  an 
aversion  to  God  and  to  his  holy  law, 
but  an  evangelical  from  love  to  both. — 

4.  A  legal  repentance  ordinarily  flows 
from  discouragement  and  despondency, 
but  evangelical  from  encouraging  hope* 
— 5.  A  legal  repentance  is  temporary, 
but  evangelical  is  the  daily  exercise  of 
the  true  Christian. — 6.  A  legal  re- 
pentance does  at  most  produce  only  a 
partial  and  external  reformation,  but  an 
evangelical  is  a  total  change  of  heart 
and  life. 

The  author  of  true  repentance  is 
God,  Acts  V.  31.  The  subjects  of  it 
are  sinners,  since  none  but  those  wlio 
have  sinned  caji  repent.  The  means  of 
repentance  is  the  woi-d,  and  the  minis- 
ters of  it ;  yet  sometimes  consideration, 
sanctified  afflictions,  conversation,  &c. 
havebeen  the  instruments  of  repentance. 
The  blessings  connected  with  repent- 
ance are,  pardon,  peace,  and  everlast- 
ing life,  Acts  xi.  18.  The  time  oi  re- 
pentance is  the  present  life,  Isaiah,  Iv. 


REP 


531 


RES 


5.  Eccl.  ix.  50.  The  cvkltiicea  of  re- 
pentance are,  faith,  humility,  iirayer, 
and  obedience,  Zecli.  xii.  10.  1  he  ne- 
cessity of  repentance  appears  evident 
from  the  evil  of  sin ;  the  misery  it  in- 
volves us  in  here ;  the  commands  given 
us  to  repent  in  God's  word ;  the  pro- 
mises made  to  the  penitent ;  and  the  ab- 
solute incapability  of  enjoying  God  hei-e 
or  hereafter  without  it.  See  Dickin- 
son's Letters,  let.  9 ;  Dr.  Owen  on  the 
loOth  Psalm  ;  GiU's  Body  of  Divini- 
ty, article  Repentance;  Ridgley's  Body 
of  Divinity,  question  76  ;  Davies's  Ser- 
vians, ser.  44.  vol.  iii. ;  Case's  Sermons, 
ser.  4;  Whitejield's  Ser7nons ;  Sauiin's 
Sermons,  ser.  9.  vol.  iii.  Robinson's 
translation;  Scott's  Treatise  on  Re- 
Jientance. 

REPROACH,  the  act  of  finding  fault 
in  opprobrious  terms,  or  attempting  to 
expose  to  infamy  and  disgrace.  In 
whatever  cause  we  engage,  however 
disinterested  our  motives,  however  lau- 
dable our  desims,  reproach  is  what  we 
must  expect.  But  it  becomes  us  not  to 
retaliate,  but  to  bear  it  patiently ;  and 
so  to  liAe,  that  every  charge  brought 
against  us  be  groundless.  If  we  be  re- 
proached for  righteousness'  sake,  we 
have  no  reason  to  be  ashamed  nor  to  be 
afraid.  All  good  men  have  thus  suffer- 
ed, Jesus  Christ  himself  especially.  We 
have  the  greatest  promises  of  support. 
Besides,  it  has  a  tendency  to  humble  us, 
detach  us  from  the  world,  and  excite 
in  us  a  desire  for  that  state  of  blessedness 
where  all  reproach  shall  be  done  away. 

REPROBATION,  the  act  of  aban- 
doning, or  state  of  being  abandoned,  to 
eternal  desti-uction,  and  is  applied  to 
that  decree  or  resolve  which  God  has 
taken  from  all  eternity  to  punish  sin- 
ners who  shall  die  in  impenitence ;  in 
which  sense  it  is  opposed  to  election. 
See  Election  and  Predestination. 

REPROOF,  blame  or  reprehension 
spoken  to  a  person's  face.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  a  reprimand  thus.  He 
who  refiroves  another,  points  out  his 
fault,  and  blames  him.  He  who  rejtri- 
mands,  aiFects  to  punish,  and  mortifies 
the  offended.  In  giving  reproof,  the 
following  rules  may  be  observed  :  1.  We 
should  not  be  forward  in  reproving  our 
elders  or  superiors,  but  rather  to  re- 
monstrate and  supplicate  for  redress. 
What  the  ministei*3  of  God  do  in  this 
kind,  they  do  by  special  commission,  as 
those  that  must  give  an  account,  1  Tim. 
V.  1.  Heb.  xiii.  17. — 2.  We  must  not  re- 

Erove  rashly;  there  should  be  proof 
efore  reproof. — 3.  We  should  not  re- 
prove for  slight  matters,  for  such  faults 
or  defects  as  proceed  from  natural 


frailty,  from  inadvertency,  or  mistake 
in  matters  of  small  consequence. — 4. 
V\'^e  should  never  reprove  unseasonably, 
as  to  the  time,  the  place,  or  the  circum- 
stances.— 5.  We  should  reprove  mildly 
and  sweetly,  in  the  calmest  manner,  in 
the  gentlest  terms. — 6.  We  should  not 
affect  to  be  reprehensive :  perhaps 
there  is  no  one  considered  more  trou- 
blesome than  he  who  delights  in  finding- 
fault  with  others.  In  receiving  reproof 
it  may  be  observed,  1.  That  we  should, 
not  reject  it  merely  because  it  may 
come  from  those  who  are  not  exactly 
on  a  level  with  ourselves, — 2.  We 
should  consider  whether  the  reproof 
given  be  not  actually  deserved ;  and 
that,  if  the  reprover  knew  all,  whether 
the  reproof  would  not  be  sharper  than 
what  it  is. — 3.  Whether,  if  taken  humbly 
and  patiently,  it  will  not  be  of  great  ad- 
vantage to  us. — 4.  That  it  is  nothing 
but  pride  to  suppose  that  we  are  never 
to  be  the  subjects  of  reproof,  since  it  is 
human  to  err. 

RESENTMENT,  generally  used  in 
an  ill  sense,  implying  a  determination 
to  return  an  injury.  Dr.  Johnson  ob- 
serves, that  resentment  is  an  union  of 
sorrow  with  malignity ;  a  combination 
of  a  passion  which  all  endeavour  to 
avoid,  with  a  passion  which  all  concur 
to  detest.  The  man  who  retires  to  me- 
ditate mischief,  and  to  exasperate  his 
own  rage,  whose  thoughts  are  employ- 
ed only  on  means  of  distress  and  con- 
trivances of  ruin,  whose  mind  never 
pauses  from  the  remembrance  of  his 
own  sufferings,  but  to  indulge  some  hope 
of  enjoying  the  calamities  of  another, 
may  justly  be  numbered  among  the  most 
miserable  of  human  beings ;  among 
those  who  are  guilty  ;  who  have  neither 
the  gladness  of  prospciity,  nor  the  calm 
of  innocence. 

RESIGNATION,  a  submission  with- 
out discontent  to  the  will  of  God.  The 
obligations  to  this  duty  arise  from,  1. 
The  perfections  of  God,  Deut.  xxxii.  4. 
— 2.  The  purposes  of  God,  Eph.  i.  11. 
— 3.  The  commands  of  God,  Heb.  xii. 
9. — 4.  The  promises  of  God,  1  Pet.  v. 
7. — 5.  Our  own  interest,  Hos.  ii.  14, 
15. — 6.  The  prospect  of  eternal  felicity, 
Heb.  iv.  9.  See  articles  Affliction, 
Despair,  and  Patience  ;  Wort/iing- 
ton  on  Resignation;  Brook's  Mute 
Christian  ;  Grosvenor's  Mourner;  and 
the  books  under  Affliction. 

RESTITUTION,  that  act  of  justice 
by  which  we  restore  to  our  neighbour 
whatever  we  have  unjustly  deprived 
him  of,  Exod.  xxii.  1.  Luke,  xix.  8. 

Moralists  observe  respecting  restitu- 
tion, 1.  That  where  it  can  be  made  in 


RES  5 

kind,  or  the  injury  can  be  certainly  va- 
lued, we  are  to  i-estorc  the  thing  or  the 
value. — 2.  \^'e  are  bound  to  restore  the 
thing  with  the  natural  increase  of  it, 
that  is,  to  satisfy  for  the  loss  sustained 
in  the  mean  time,  and  the  gain  hinder- 
ed.— 3.  Where  the  thing  cannot  be  re- 
stored, and  the  value  of  it  is  not  certain, 
we  are  to  give  reasonable  satisfaction, 
according  to  a  middle  estimation. — 4. 
We  are  at  least  to  give  by  Avay  of  res- 
titution what  the  law  would  give,  for 
that  is  generally  equal,  and  in  most 
cases  rather  favourable  than  rigorous. 
— 5.  A  man  is  not  only  bound  to  i-estitu- 
tion  for  the  injuiy  he  did,  but  for  all 
that  directly  follows  upon  the  injurious 
act.  For  the  first  injury,  being  wilful, 
we  are  sujijwsed  to  will  all  that  which 
follows  upon  it.  Tillotsoii's  Sermons, 
ser.  170,  171;  Chilling=wo?-th's  Woi'ks, 
ser.  7. 

RESURRECTION,  a  rising  again 
from  the  state  of  the  dead ;  generally 
applied  to  the  resurrection  of  the  last 
day.  This  doctrine  is  argued,  1.  From 
the  resurrection  of  Christ,  1  Cor.  xv. — 
2.  From  the  doctrines  of  grace,  as  union, 
election,  redemption,  &c. — 3.  From 
Sci'iptui'e  testimonies,  Matt.  xxii.  23, 
Sec.  Job,  xix.  25,  27.  Isaiah,  xxvi.  19. 
Phil.  ii.  20.  1  Cor.  xv.  Dan.  xii.  2.  1 
Thess.  iv.  14.  Rev.  xx.  13. — 4.  From 
the  general  judgment,  which  of  course 
requires  it.  As  to  the  nature  of  this  re- 
surrection, it  will  be,  1.  Gene7-al,  Rev. 
XX.  12,  15.  2  Cor.  v.  10.— 2.  Of  the 
same  body.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  the 
body  has  not  always  the  same  particles, 
which  are  continually  changing,  but  it 
has  always  the  same  constituent  parts, 
which  proves  its  identity ;  it  is  the 
same  body  that  is  born  that  dies,  and 
the  same  that  dies  that  shall  rise  again ; 
so  that  Mr.  Locke's  objection  to  the  idea 
of  the  same  body  is  a  mere  quibble. — 3. 
The  resurrection  will  be  at  the  covi- 
viand  of  Christ,  and  by  his  power,  John 
V.  28,  29. — 4.  Perhaps  as  to  the  manner 
it  will  be  successive  ;  the  dead  in  Christ 
rising  first,  1  Cor.  xv.  23.  1  Thess.  iv. 
16.  This  doctrine  is  of  great  use  and 
imfiortance.  It  is  one  of  "the  first  prin- 
ciples of  the  doctrine  of  Christ;  the 
whole  Gospel  stands  or  falls  with  it.  It 
serves  to  enlarge  ovu"  views  of  the  di- 
^"ine  perfections.  It  encourages  our 
faith  and  tnist  in  God  under  all  the  dif- 
iiculties  of  life.  It  has  a  tendency  to 
regulate  all  our  affections  and  moderate 
our  desires  after  earthly  things.  It  sup- 
ports the  saints  under  the  loss  of  near 
relations,  and  enables  them  to  rejoice 
in  the  glorious  pi'ospect  set  befoi-e  them. 
See  Hodrj  on  the  Resurrection ;  Pcar- 


3  RES 

son  on  the  Creed;  Lime  Utrcet  Led. 
ser.  10;  IVatts's  Ontology;  Young's 
Last  Day;  Locke  on  the  Understand- 
ing,  1.  ii.  c.  27 ;  IVarburtoti's  Legation 
of  Moses,  vol.  ii.  p.  553,  &c. ;  Bisho/i 
A'ewton's  Works,  vol.  iii.  p.  676,  683. 

RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST. 
Few  articles  are  more  important  than 
this.  It  deserves  our  particular  atten- 
tion, because  it  is  the  grand  hinge  on 
which  Christianity  turns.  Hence,  says 
tlie  apostle,  he  was  delivered  for  our  of- 
fences, and  raised  again  for  our  justifi- 
cation. Infidels,  however,  have  disbe- 
lieved it,  but  with  what  little  reason  we 
may  easily  see  on  considering  the  sub- 
ject. "If  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ," 
says  Saurin,  "  were  not  raised  from  the 
dead,  it  must  have  been  stolen  away. 
But  this  theft  is  incredible.  Wlio  com- 
mitted it?  The  enemies  of  Jesus  Christ? 
Would  they  have  contributed  to  his 
gloiy  by  countenancing  a  report  of  his 
resurrection  ?  W^ould  liis  disciples  ?  It 
is  probable  they  would  not,  and  it  is 
next  to  certain  they  could  not.  How 
could  they  have  undertaken  to  remove 
the  body?  Frail  and  timorous  creatures, 
people  who  fled  as  soon  as  they  saw 
him  taken  into  custody ;  even  Peter, 
the  most  courageous,  trembled  at  the 
voice  of  a  servant  girl,  and  three  times 
denied  that  he  knew  him.  People  of 
this  character,  would  they  have  dared 
to  resist  the  authority  of  the  governor  ? 
W^ould  they  have  undertaken  to  oppose 
the  determination  of  the  Sanhedrim,  to 
force  a  guard,  and  to  elude,  or  over- 
come, sotdiers  armed  and  aware  of  dan- 
ger? If  Jesus  Christ  were  not  risen 
again  (I  speak  the  language  of  unbe- 
lievers,) he  had  deceived  his  disciples 
with  vain  hopes  of  his  resurrection. 
How  came  the  disciples  not  to  discover 
the  imposture  ?  Would  they  have  ha- 
zarded themselves  by  undertaking  an 
enterprise  so  perilous  in  favour  of  a  man 
who  had  so  cruelly  imposed  on  their 
credulity  ?  But  were  we  to  grant  that 
they  formed  the  design  of  removing  the 
body,  how  could  they  have  executed  it  ? 
How  could  soldiers  armed,  and  on  guaixJ, 
suffer  themselves  to  be  over-reached, 
by  a  few  timorous  people  ?  Either,  says 
St.  Augustine,  they  ivere  asleefi  or 
awake :  if  they  were  awake,  why  should 
they  suffer  the  body  to  be  taken  away  ? 
Ifasl(cfi,how  could  they  know  that  the 
(lisci/iles  took  it  away?  How  dare  they 
the7i,  dt'/iose  that  it  was  stolen. 

The  testimony  of  the  apostles  furnish- 
es us  with  arguments,  and  there  are 
eight  considerations  which  give  the  evi- 
dence sufficient  weight.  1.  The  nature 
of  tliese  witnesses.    They  were  not  men 


RES 


533 


RET 


of  power,  riches,  eloquence,  credit,  to 
impose  upon  the  world;  they  were 
poor  and  mean. — 2.  The  number  of 
these  witnesses.  See  1  Cor.  xv.  Luke, 
xxiv.  34.  Mark,  xvi.  14.  Matt,  xxviii. 
10.  It  is  not  likely  that  a  collusion 
should  have  been  held  among  so  many 
to  support  a  lie,  which  would  be  of  no 
utility  to  them. — 3.  The  facts  them- 
selves wjiich  they  avow  ;  not  supposi- 
tions, distant  events,  or  events  related 
by  others,  but  real  facts  which  they 
saw  wich  their  own  eyes,  1  John,  i. — 4. 
The  agi'eemcnt  of  their  evidence  :  they 
all  deposed  the  same  thing. — 5.  Observe 
the  tribunals  before  which  they  gave 
evidence  :  Jews  and  heathens,  philoso- 
phers and  rabbins,  courtiers  and  law- 
yers. If  they  had  been  impostors,  the 
fraud  certainly  would  have  been  dis- 
covered.-—6.  The  place  in  which  they 
bore  their  testimony.  Not  at  a  distance, 
where  they  might  not  easily  have  been 
detected,  if  false,  but  at  Jerasalem,  in 
the  synagogues,  in  the  pretorium. — 7. 
The  time  of  this  testimony :  not  years 
after,  but  three  days  after,  they  de- 
clared he  was  risen ;  yea,  before  their 
rage  was  quelled,  while  Calvary  was 
yet  dyed  with  the  blood  they  had  spilt. 
If  it  had  been  a  fraud,  it  is  not  likely 
they  would  have  come  forwai'd  in  such 
bi'oad  day-light,  amidst  so  much  oppo- 
sition.— 8.  Lastly,  the  motives  which 
induced  them  to  publish  the  resur- 
rection :  not  to  gain  fame,  riches,  glory, 
profit ;  no,  they  exposed  themselves  to 
suffering  and  death,  and  proclaimed  the 
truth  from  conviction  of  its  importance 
and  certainty. 

"  Collect,"  says  Saurin,  "  all  these 
proofs  together;  consider  them  in  one 
point  of  view,  and  see  how  many  extra- 
vagant suppositions  must  be  advanced, 
if  the  I'esurrection  of  our  Saviour  be  de- 
nied. It  must  be  supposed  that  guards, 
who  had  been  particularly  cautioned  by 
their  officers,  sat  down  to  sleep ;  and 
that,  however,  they  deserved  credit 
when  they  said  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ 
was  stolen.  It  must  be  supposed  that 
men,  who  have  been  imposed  on  in  the 
most  odious  and  cruel  manner  in  the 
world,  hazarded  their  deai'est  enjoy- 
ments for  the  gloiy  of  an  impostor.  It 
must  be  supposed  that  ignorant  and  illi- 
terate men,  who  had  neither  reputa- 
tion, fortune,  nor  eloquence,  possessed 
the  art  of  fascinating  the  eyes  of  all  the 
church.  It  must  be  supposed  either 
that  five  hundred  persons  were  all  de- 
prived of  their  senses  at  a  time,  or  that 
they  were  all  deceived  in  the  plainest 
matters  of  fact ;  or  that  this  multitude 
oi  false  witnesses  had  found  «ut  the  se- 


cret of  never  contradicting  themselves 
or  one  another,  and  of  being  always  uni- 
form in  their  testimony.  It  must  be 
supposed  that  the  most  expert  courts  of 
judicature  could  not  find  out  a  shadow 
of  contradiction  in  a  palpable  imposture 
It  must  be  supposed  that  the  apostles, 
sensible  men  m  other  cases,  chose  pre- 
cisely those  places  and  those  times 
which  were  most  unfavourable  to  their 
views.  It  must  be  supposed  that  mil- 
lions madly  suffered  imprisonments,  tor- 
tures, and  ci'ucifixions,  to  spread  an  il- 
lusion. It  must  be  supposed  that  ten 
tliousand  miracles  were  wrought  in  fa- 
vour of  falsehood,  or  all  these  facts 
must  be  denied;  and  then  it  must  be 
supposed  that  the  apostles  were  idiots ; 
that  the  enemies  of  Christianity  were 
idiots ;  and  that  all  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians were  idiots." 

The  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  affords  us  a  variety  of  useful  in- 
stinictions.  Here  we  see  evidence  of 
divine  power ;  prophecy  accomplished ; 
the  character  of  Jesus  established  ;  his 
work  finished;  and  afutm-e  state  proved. 
It  is  a  ground  of  faith,  the  basis  of 
hope,  a  source  of  consolation,  and  a 
stimulus  to  obedience.  See  Saurin's 
Ser7nojis,  ser.  8.  vol.  ii.  Robinson's 
trcmslation ;  Ditton  and  West  on  the 
Resurrection;  Cook's  Illustration  of 
the  general  evidence  establishing  the 
reality  of  Christ's  resurrection,  p.  323, 
Ecc.  Rev.  vol.  4.  but  especially  a  small 
but  admirable  Essay  on  the  Resurrec- 
tion of  Christ,  by  Mr.  Dore. 

RETIREMENT,  the  state  of  a  per- 
son who  quits'a  public  station  in  order 
to  be  alone.  Retirement  is  of  great  ad- 
vantage to  a  wise  man.  To  him  "  the 
hour  of  solitude  is  the  hour  of -medita- 
tion. He  communes  with  his  own  heart. 
He  reviews  the  actions  of  his  past  life. 
He  corrects  what  is  amiss.  He  re- 
joices in  what  is  right :  and,  wiser  by 
experience,  lays  the  plan  of  his  future 
life.  The  great  and  the  noble,  the  wise 
and  the  learned,  the  pious  and  the 
good,  have  been  lovers  of  serious  re- 
tirement. On  this  field  the  patriot 
forms  his  schemes,  the  philosopher  pur- 
sues his  discoveries,  the  saint  improves 
himself  in  wisdom  and  goodness.  Soli- 
tude is  the  hallowed  ground  which  reli- 
gion in  every  age  has  adopted  as  its  own. 
There  her  sacred  inspiration  is  felt,  and 
her  holy  mysteries  elevate  the  soul; 
there  devotion  lifts  up  the  voice  ;  there 
falls  the  tear  of  contrition ;  there  the 
heai't  pours  itself  forth  before  him  who 
made,  and  him  who  redeemed  it.  Apart 
from  men,  we  live  with  nature,  and  con- 
verse with  God."  Logan's  Sermons,  vol. 


REV 


534 


REV 


ii  sen  2. ;  JBlair's  iS'cr.  ser.  ix.  vol.  i. ; 
Bates's  Rural  Phihsophij;  Breiustei-'s 
Her/use;  Zhyimcrman  on  Solitude. 

REVELATION,  the  ftct  of  reveal- 
ing or  making  a  thing  public  that  was 
befoT'f  unknown ;  it  is  also  used  for  the 
discoveries  made  by  God  to  his  pro- 
phets, and  by  them  to  the  world;  and 
,  more  particukirly  for  the  books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament.  A  revela- 
tion is,  in  the  first  place,  possible.  God 
may,  for  any  thing  we  can  certainly 
tell,  think  proper  to  make  some'  dis- 
covery to  his  ci'eatures  which  they  knew 
not  before.  As  he  is  a  being  of  infinite 
power,  we  may  be  assured  he  cannot  be 
at  a  loss  for  means  to  communicate  his 
will,  and  tliat  in  such  a  manner  as  will 
sufficiently  mark  it  his  own. — 2.  It  is 
desirable.  For,  whate^•er  the  light  of 
nature  could  do  for  man  Ijefore  reason 
was  depraved,  it  is  evident  that  it  has 
done  little  for  man  since.  Though  rea- 
son be  necessary  to  examine  the  autho- 
rity of  divine  revelation,  yet,  in  the 
present  state,  it  is  incapable  of  giving 
us  proper  discoveries  of  God,  the  way 
of  salvation,  or  of  bringing  us  into  a 
state  of  communion  with  God.  It 
therefore  folloAvs. — 3.  That  it  is  Jieces- 
sary.  Without  it  we  can  attain  to  no 
certnin  knowledge  of  God,  of  Christ,  of 
tlie  Holy  Ghost,  of  pardon,  of  justifica- 
tion, of  sanctification,  of  hajjpiness,  of  a 
fut\irc  state  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments.— 4.  No  revelation,  as  Mr.  Brown 
observes,  relative  to  the  redem])tion  of 
mankind,  could  answer  its  respective 
ends,  unless  it  were  sufficiently  marked 
with  internal  and  extejnial  evidmces. 
That  tlie  Bible  hath  internal  evidence, 
is  evident  from  the  ideas  it  gives  us  of 
God's  perfections,  of  the  law  of  nature, 
of  redemption,  of  the  state  of  man,  &c. 
As  to  its  external  evidence,  it  is  easily 
seen  by  the  characters  of  the  men  who 
composed  it,  the  miracles  wrought,  its 
success,  the  fulfilment  of  its  predictions, 
&;c.  [See  Scripture.]  5.  The  contents 
of  revelation  are  agreeable  to  reason.  It 
is  true  there  are  some  things  above  the 
reach  of  reason  ;  but  a  revelation  con- 
taining such  things  is  no  contradiction, 
as  long  as  it  is  not  against  reason  ;  for 
if  every  thing  be  rejected  which  cannot 
be  exactly  com])rehended,  we  nuist  be- 
come unbelievers  at  once  of  almost 
every  thing  ai'ound  us.  The  doctrines, 
the  institutions,  the  threatenings,  the 
precepts,  the  i)romises,  of  the  Bible,  are 
every  way  reasonable.  The  matter, 
form,  and  exhibition  of  revelation  are 
consonant  with  reason. — 6.  The  revela- 
tion contained  in  our  Bible  is  perfectly 
credible.   It  is  an  address  to  the  reason, 


judgment,  and  affections  of  men.    The 
Old    Testament    abounds    with     the 
finest  specimens  of  history,  sublimity, 
and  interesting  scenes  of   Providence. 
The  facts  of  the  New  Testament  are 
supported  by  undoubted  evidence  from 
enemies  and  friends.    The  attestations 
to  the  early  existence  of  Christianity 
are  numerous  from  Ignatius,  Polycarp, 
Irenieus,  Justin  Martyr,  and  Tatian,  who 
were  Christians  ;  and  by  Tacitus,  Sue- 
ton,    Serenus,    Pliny,    &c.    who   were 
Heathens.     [See  Christianity.] — 7. 
The  revelations  contained  in  our  Bible 
are  divinely  inspired.    The  matter,  the 
manner,  the  sco])e,  the  predictions,  mi- 
racles, preservation,  &c.  &c.  all  prove 
this.  [See  Inspiration.] — 8.   Revela- 
tion is  intended  for  imiversal  benefit.  It 
is  a  common  objection  to  it,  that  hither- 
to   it    has  been   confined  to  few,  and 
therefore  could  not  come  from  God  who 
is  so  benevolent ;  but  this  mode  of  ar- 
guing will  equally  hold  good  against  the 
]>ermission  of  sin,  the    inequalities  of 
Providence,  the  dreadful  evils  and  mi- 
series of   mankind  which    God   could 
have  prevented.    It  must  be  farther  ob- 
served, that  none  deserve  a  revelation  ; 
that  men  have  despised  and  abused  the 
early  revelations  he  gave  to  his  people. 
This  revelation,  we  have  reason  to  be- 
lieve, shall  be  made  known  to  mankind. 
Already  it  is  spreading  its  genuine  in- 
fluence.    In   the    cold    regions   of   the 
north,  in    the    burning  regions  of  the 
south,   the  Bible  begins  to  be  known  ; 
and,  from  the  predictions  it  contains, 
wc  believe  the  glorious  sun  of  revela- 
tion shall  shine  and  illuminate  the  whole 
globe. — 9.    The    effects    of   revelation 
which  have  already  taken  place  in  the 
world  have  been  astonishing.    In  pro- 
I  portion  as  the  Bible  has  been  known, 
arts  and  sciences  have  been  cultivated, 
peace  and  liberty  have  been  diffiised, 
civil  and  moral  obligation  have  been  at- 
tended to.  Nations  have  emerged  from 
ignorance  and  barbarity,  whole  com- 
munities have  been  morally  reformed, 
unnatural  practices  abolished,  and  wise 
laws    instituted.     Its    sjiiritual    effects 
have  been  wonderful.     Kings  and  pea- 
sants, conquerors  and  philosophers,  the 
wise  and  the  ignorant,  the  rich  and  the 
poor,  have  been  I)rought  to  the  foot  of, 
the  cross  ;  yea,  millions  have  been  en- 
lightened,    improved,     reformed,    and 
made  happy  by  its  influences.    Let  any 
one  deny  this,  and  he  must  be  a  hard- 
ened, ignorant   infidel,  indeed.     Great 
is  the  truth,  and  must  prevail.     See 
Dr.  Iceland's  A'ecessity  of  Revelation. 
"This  work,"  says  Mr.  Ryland,  "has 
had  no  answer,  and  I  am  persuaded  it 


REV 


535 


ROS 


never  will  meet  with  a  solid  confuta- 
tion. HalyburtOTi  agaiyist  the  Deists; 
Leland's  Vienv  of  Deistical  Writers; 
Broivn's  Compendium  of  JVatural  and 
Revealed  Reli^on  ;  Stillingjleet's  Ori- 
g-ines  Sacree,  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the 
ablest  defences  of  revealed  religion 
ever  written.  De/any's  Revelation  ex- 
amined ivith  CaJidour ;  Arch.  Camfi- 
bell  on  Revelatio7i ;  Rlli.i  on  Divine 
Things;  Gale's  Court  of  the  Gentiles. 

REv'ENGE  means  the  retum  of  in- 
jury for  injury,  or  the  infliction  of  pain 
on  another  in  consequence  of  an  injury 
received  from  him,  farther  than  the 
just  ends  of  reparation  or  punishment 
require.  Revenge  differs  materiallv 
from  resentment,  which  rises  in  the 
mind  immediately  on  being  injured ;  but 
revenge  is  a  cool  and  deliberate  wicked- 
ness, and  is  often  executed  years  after 
the  offence  is  given.  By  some  it  is  con- 
sidered as  a  per\-ersion  of  anger.  Anger, 
it  is  said,  is  a  passion  given  to  man  for 
wise  and  proper  purposes,  but  revenge 
is  the  coiTuption  of  anger ;  is  unnatural, 
and  therefore  ought  to  be  suppressed. 
It  is  observable  that  the  proper  object 
of  anger  is  vice  ;  but  the  object  in  ge- 
neral of  revenge  is  man.  It  transfers  tlie 
hatred  due  to  the  vice  to  the  man,  to 
whom  it  is  not  due.  It  is  forbidden  by 
the  Scriptures,  and  is  unbecoming  the 
character  and  spirit  of  a  peaceful  fol- 
lower of  Jesus  Christ.    See  Anger. 

REVEREND,  venerable ;  deserving 
awe  and  respect.  It  is  a  title  of  respect 
given  to  ecclesiastics.  The  religious 
abroad  are  called  reverend  fathers;  and 
abbesses,  prioresses.  Sec.  reverend  mo- 
thers. In  England,  bishops  are  right 
reverend,  and  archbishops  most  rever- 
end ;  pi'ivate  clergj-men,  reverend.  In 
France,  before  the  revolution,  their  bi- 
shops, archbishops,  and  abbots,  were  all 
alike,  most  reverend.  In  Scotland,  the 
clergy  individually  are,  reverend;  a 
synod  is,  very  reverend ;  and  the  gene- 
ral assembly  is,  venerable.  The  Dis- 
senters, also,  in  England  have  the  title 
of  reverend ;  though  some  of  them  sup- 
pose the  term  imphes  too  much  to  be 
given  to  a  mere  creature,  and  that  of 
God  only  it  may  be  said  with  propriety, 
"Holy  and  reverend  is  his  name," 
Psalm  cxi.  4. 

REVERENCE,  awful  regard :  an  act 
of  obeisance ;  a  submissive  and  humble 
deportment.  See  Lord's  Name  taken 

IN  VaIV. 

RIGHTEOUSNESS,  justice,  holi- 
ness. The  righteousness  of  God  is  the 
absolute  and  essential  perfections  of  his 
nature  ;  sometimes  it  is  put  for  his  jus- 
tice.   The  righteousness  of  Christ  de- 


notes not  only  his  absohite  perfections, 
but  is  taken  for  his  perfect  obedience 
to  the  law,  and  suffering  the  penalty 
thereof  in  our  stead.  The  righteous- 
ness of  the  laiv  is  that  obedience  which 
the  law  requires.  The  righteousness  of 
faith  is  the  righteousness  of  Christ  as 
received  by  faith.  The  saints  have  a 
threefold  righteousness.  1.  The  right- 
eousness of  their  persons,  as  in  Christ, 
his  merit  being  imputed  to  them,  and 
they  accepted  on  the  account  tliereof, 
2  Cor.  V.  21.  Eph.  v.  27.  Isaiah,  xlv. 
24. — 2.  The  righteousness  of  their  prin- 
ciples being  derived  from,  and  formed 
according  to  the  i-ule  of  right,  Psalm 
cxix.  11. — 3.  The  righteousness  of 
their  lives,  produced  by  the  sanctifying 
influence  oi  the  Holy  S])irit,  without 
whicli  no  man  shall  see  the  Lord,  Heb.. 
xiii.  14.  1  Cor.  vi.  11.  See  Imputa- 
tion, Justification,  Sanctifica- 
tion;  Dickinson's  Letters,  let.  12; 
IVithersfioon's  Essay  on  Imfiuted  Righ- 
teousness;  Herx'ey's  Theron  and  As- 
fiasio ;  Dr.  Oiven  on  Justification ; 
Watts's  JVorks,  p.  532,  vol.  iii.  oct.  ed. ; 
Jenks  on  Submission  to  the  Righteous- 
ness of  God. 

RITE,  a  solemn  act  of  religion ;  an 
external  ceremony.  (See  Ceremony.) 
For  the  rites  of  the  Jews,  see  Lmvrnan's 
Hebreiv  Ritual;  Spencer  dc  Heb.  Leg.  ; 
Durell  on  the  Mosaic  Institution  ;  Ri- 
sho/i  Laiv's  Theory  of  Religion,  p.  89. 
6th  ed.;  Godwyn's  Moses  and  Aaron ; 
Edwards^s  Sun-ey  of  all  Religions, 
vol.  i.  ch.  9.;  Jennings's  Jeivish  Anti- 
(juities. 

RITUAL,  a  book  directing  the  order 
and  manner  to  be  observed  in  perfoiTQ- 
ing  divine  service  in  a  particular  church, 
diocese,  or  the  like. 

ROGEREENS,  so  called  from  John 
Rogers  their  chief  leader.  They  ap- 
peared in  New  England  about  1677. 
The  principal  distinguishing  tenet  of 
this  denomination  was,  that  worship 
performed  the  first  day  of  the  week, 
was  a  species  of  idolatry  which  tliey 
ought  to  oppose.  In  consequence  of 
this,  they  used  a  variety  of  measures  to 
disturb  those  who  were  assembled  for 
public  worship  on  the  Lord's  dav. 

ROMISH  CHURCH.  See  Church, 
and  Popery. 

ROSARY,  a  bunch  or  string  of  beads 
on  which  the  Roman  Catholics  count 
their  pravers. 

ROSICRLTCIANS,  a  name  assumed 
by  a  sect  or  cabal  of  hermetical  philoso- 
phers, who  arose,  as  it  has  been  said, 
or  at  least  became  first  taken  notice  of 
in  Germany,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  They  bound  them- 


SAB 


'  536 


-Sab 


selves  together  by  a  solemn  secret, 
which  they  all  swore  inviolably  to  pre- 
sence ;  and.  obliged  themselves,  at  their 
admission  into  the  oi'der,  to  a  strict  ob- 
servance of  certain  established  rules. 
They  pretended  to  know  all  sciences, 
and  chiefly  medicine ;  whereof  they 
published  themselves  the  restorers. 
They  pretended  to  be  masters  of  abun- 
dance of  important  secrets,  and  among 
others,  that  of  the  ]:)hilosopher's  stone  ; 
all  which  they  affimied  to  have  received 
by  tradition  from  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
Chaldeans,  the   Magi,   and  Gymnoso- 

Ehists.  They  have  been  distinguished 
y  several  names,  accommodated  to  the 
several  branches  of  their  doctrine.  Be- 
cause they  pretend  to  protract  the  pe- 


j  riod  of  human  life  by  means  of  certain 
I  nostrums,  and  even  to  restore  youth, 
they  were  cMed  Irtimortales ;  zi  they 
pretended  to  know  all  things,  thej-  have 
been  called  Illuminati ;  and,  because 
they  have  made  no  appearance  for  se- 
(  ^eral  years,  unless  the  sect  of  lUumina- 
t'  which  lately  started  up  on  the  con- 
tinent derives  its  origin  from  them,  they 
have  been  called  the  Invisible  Brothers. 
Their  society  is  frequently  signed  by  the 
letters  F.  R.  C.  which  some  among 
them  interpret  Fratres  Roris  Cocfi ;  it 
being  pretended  that  the  matter  of  the 
philosopher's  stone  is  dew  concocted, 
exhaled,  &c. 

RUSSIAN  CHURCH.   See  Greek 
Church. 


s. 


SABBATARIANS,  those  who  keep 
the  seventh  day  as  the  sabbath.  They 
are  to  be  found  principally,  if  not  wholly 
among  the  Baptists.  They  object  to  the 
reasons  which  are  generally  alleged  for 
keeping  the  first  day;  and  assert,  that 
the  change  from  the  seventh  to  the  first 
was  affected  by  Constantine  on  his  con- 
version to  Christianity.  The  thi'ee  fol- 
lowing propositions  contain  a  summary 
of  their  principles  as  to  this  article  of 
the  sabbath,  by  which  they  stand  distin- 
guished. 1.  That  God  hath  required 
the  observation  of  the  seventh,  or  last 
day  of  every  week,  to  be  observed  by 
mankind  universally  for  the  weekly 
sabbath. — 2.  That  this  command  of 
God  is  perpetually  binding  on  man  till 
time  shall  be  no  more. — And,  3.  That 
this  sacred  rest  of  the  seventh-day  sab- 
bath is  not  (by  divine  authority)  chang- 
ed ft-om  the  seventh  and  last  to  the  fii'st 
day  of  the  week,  or  that  the  Scripture 
doth  no  where  require  the  observation 
of  any  other  day  of  the  week  for  the 
weekly  sabbath,  but  the  seventh  day 
only.  They  hold,  in  common  with  other 
Cliristians,  the  distinguishing  doctrines 
of  Christianity.  There  are  two  congre- 
gations of  the  Sabbatarians  in  London  ; 
one  among  the  general  Baptists,  meeting 
in  Mill  Yard  ;  the  other  among  the  par- 
ticular Baptists,  in  Cripplegate.  There 
are,  also,  a  few  to  be  found  in  different 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  some  it  is  said, 
m  America.  A  tract,  in  support  of  this 
doctrine,  was  published  by  Mr.  Corntii- 
waite,  in  1740.  See  Evmis's  Sketch 
of  the  Deyiomi nations  of  the  Christie/?! 
iVorld;  and  books  under  next  article. 


SABBATH,  in  the  Hebrew  language, 
signifies  rest,  and  is  the  seventh  day  of 
the  week :  a  day  appointed  for  religious 
duties,  and  a  total  cessation  from  work, 
in  commemoration  of  God's  resting  on 
the  seventh  day ;  and  likewise  in  memo- 
rial of  the  redemption  of  the  Israelites 
from  Egyptian  bondage. 

Concerning  the  time  when  the  sab- 
bath was  first  instituted  there  have  Ijeen 
different  opinions.  Some  have  main- 
tained that  the  sanctification  of  the 
seventh  day  mentioned  in  Gen.  ii.  is 
only  there  spoken  of  5ia  7r5'o^ll^l'£Uf,  or  by 
anticipation ;  and  is  to  be  understood  of 
the  sabbath  afterwards  enjoined  in  the 
wilderness;  and  that  the  historian, 
writing  after  it  was  instituted,  there 
gives  the  reason  of  its  institution ;  and 
this  is  supposed  to  be  the  case,  as  it  is 
never  mentioned  during  the  patriarchal 
age.  But  against  this  sentiment  it  is 
urged,  1.  Tliat  it  cannot  be  easily  sup- 
posed that  the  inspired  penman  would 
liave  mentioned  the  sanctification  of  the 
seventh  day  among  theprimreval  trans- 
actions, if  such  sanctification  had  not 
taken  place  until  2500  years  afterwards. 
— 2.  That  considering  Adam  was  re- 
stored to  favour  tlirough  a  Mediator, 
and  a  I'cligious  service  instituted,  which 
man  was  required  to  observe,  in  testi- 
mony not  only  of  his  dependence  on  the 
Creator,  iiut  also  of  his  faith  and  hope 
in  the  promise,  it  seems  reasonable  that 
an  institution  so  grand  and  solemn,  and 
so  neccssaiy  to  the  observance  of  this 
service,  should  be  then  existent. — 3. 
That  it  is  no  proof  against  its  existence 
because  it  is  not  mentioned  iq  the  partri- 


SAB 


537 


SAB 


archical  age,  no  more  than  it  is  against 
its  existence  from  Moses  to  the  end  of 
David's  reign,  which  was  near  440 
years. — 4.  That  the  Sabbath  was  men- 
tioned as  a  well  known  solemnity  before 
the  promulgation  of  the  law,  Exodus, 
xvi.  23.  For  the  manner  in  which  the 
Jews  kept  it,  and  the  awful  consequences 
of  neglecting  it,  we  refer  the  reader  to 
the  Old  Testament,  Lev.  xxvi.  34,  35. 
Neh.  xiii.  16,  18.  Jer.  xvii.  21.  Ezek. 
XX.  16,  17.  Numb.  xv.  23—36. 

Under  the  Christian  disper»sation,  the 
sabbath  is  altered  from  the  seventh  to 
the  first  day  of  the  week.  The  argu- 
ments for  the  change  are  these :  1.  As 
the  seventh  day  v\'as  observed  by  the 
Jewish  church  in  meinoiy  of  the  rest  of 
God  after  the  works  of  the  creation, 
and  their  deliverance  from  Pharaoh's 
tyranny,  so  the  first  day  of  the  week  has 
always  been  observed  bv  the  Christian 
church  in  memory  of  Christ's  I'esur- 
rection. — 2.  Christ  made  repeated  visits 
to  his  disciples  on  that  day. — 3.  It  is 
called  the  Lord's  day.  Rev.  i.  10. — 4.  On 
this  day  the  apostles  were  assem- 
bled, when  the  Holy  Ghost  came  down 
so  visibly  upon  them,  to  qualify  them 
for  the  conversion  of  the  world. — 5.  On 
this  day  we  find  St.  Paul  preaching  at 
TroaSjWhen  the  disciples  came  to  break 
bread. — 6.  The  directions  the  apostles 
give  to  the  Christians  plainly  allude  to 
their  religious  assemblies  on  the  first 
day. — 7.  Pliny  bears  witness  of  the  first 
day  of  the  week  being  kept  as  a  festival, 
in  honour  of  the  i-esurrection  of  Christ ; 
and  the  primitive  Christians  kept  it  in 
the  most  solemn  manner. 

These  arguments,  however,  are  not 
satisfactory  to  some,  and  it  must  be 
confessed  that  there  is  no  law  in  the 
New  Testament  concerning  the  first 
day.  However,  it  may  be  observed 
that  it  is  not  so  much  ttie  precise  time 
that  is  universally  binding,  as  that  one 
day  out  of  seven  is  to  be  regarded.  "  As 
it  IS  impossible,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge, 
"  certainly  to  determine  which  is  the 
seventh  day  from  the  creation  ;  and  as, 
in  consequence  of  the  spherical  form  of 
the  earth,  and  the  absurdity  of  the 
scheme  which  supposes  it  one  great 
plain,  the  change  of  place  will  neces- 
sarily occasion  some  alteration  in  the 
time' of  the  beginning  and  ending  of  any 
day  in  question,  it  being  always  at  the 
same  time,  somewhere  or  other,  sun- 
rising  and  sun-setting,  noon  and  mid- 
night, it  seems  vei  y  unreasonable  to  lay 
such  a  stress  upon  the  particular  day  as 
some  do.  It  seems  abundantly  sufficient 
that  there  be  six  days  of  labour  and  one 
of  religious  rest,  v/hich  there  will  be 


upon  the  Christian  and  the  Jewish 
scheme." 

As  the  sabbath  is  of  divine  institution, 
so  it  is  to  be  kept  holy  unto  the  Lord. 
Numerous  have  been  the  days  appoint- 
ed by  men  for  religious  services  ;  but 
these  are  not  binding,  because  of  human 
institution.  Not  so  the  sabbath.  Hence 
the  fourth  commandment  is  ushered  in 
with  a  peculiar  eniphasis — "Reme?nber 
that  thou  keep  holy  the  sabbath  day." 
This  institution  is  luise  as  to  i(s  ends : 
That  God  may  be  worshipped ;  man 
in.structed  ;  nations  benefited  ;  and  fa- 
milies devoted  to  the  service  of  God.  It 
is  lasting  as  to  its  duration.  The  aboli- 
tion of  it  would  be  unreasonable  ;  un- 
scriptural,  Exod.  xxxi.  13 ;  and  every 
way  disadvantageous  to  the  body,  to  so- 
ciei:y,  to  the  soiil,  and  even  to  the  brute 
creation.  It  is,  however,  awfully  vio- 
lated by  visiting,  feasting,  indolence, 
buying  and  selling,  working,  worldly 
amusements,  and  travelling.  "  Look  in- 
to the  streets,"  says  bishop  Porteus, 
"  on  the  Lord's  day,  and  see  whether 
they  convey  the  idea  of  a  daij  of  rest. 
Do  not  our  servants  and  our  cattle  seem 
to  be  almost  as  fully  occupied  on  that 
day  as  on  any  other  i"  And,  as  if  this  was 
not  a  sufficient  infringement  of  their 
rights,  we  contrive  by  needless  enter- 
tainments at  home,  and  needless  jour- 
neys abroad,  which  are  often  by  choice 
and  inclination  reserued  for  this  very 
day,  to  take  up  all  the  little  remaining 
part  of  their  leisure  time  A  sabbath 
day's  journey  was  among  the  Jews  a 
proverbial  expression  for  a  very  short 
one ;  among  us  it  can  have  no  such 
meaning  affixed  to  it.  That  day  seems 
to  be  considered  by  too  many  as  set 
apart,  by  divine  and  human  authority, 
for  the  purpose  not  of  rest,  but  of  its  di- 
rect opposite,  the  laboiir  of  travelling, 
thus  adding  one  day  more  of  torment  to 
those  generous  but  .wretched  animals 
whose  services  they  hire ;  and  who, 
being  generally  strained  beyond  their 
strength  the  other  six  days  of  the  week, 
have,  of  all  creatures  under  heaven,  the 
best  and  most  equitable  claim  to  sus- 
pension of  labour  on  the  seventh." 

These  are  evils  greatly  to  be  lament- 
ed ;  they  are  an  insult  to  God,  an  injury 
to  ourselves,  and  an  awful  example  to 
our  servants,  our  children,  and  our 
friends.  To  sanctify  this  day,  we  should 
consider  it,  1.  A  day  of  rest ;  not  in- 
deed, to  exclude  works  of  mercy  and 
charit}-,  but  a  cessation  from  all  labour 
and  care. — 2.  As  a  day  o{  reme^nbrunce i 
of  creation,  preservation,  redemption. 
— 3.  As  a  day  of  meditation  and  prayer 
in  wliich  we  should  cultivate  comma- 


SAC 


i36 


SAC 


nion  with  God,  Rev.  i.  10.-4.  As  a  day 
of  public  ivorshifi,  Acts,  xx.  7.  Jolin, 
XX.  19. — 5.  As  a  day  of  joy.  Is.  Ivi.  2. 
Ps.  cxviii.  24. — 6.  As  a  day  of  praise, 
Ps.  cxvi.  12,  14, — 7.  As  a  day  of  anti- 
cipation ;  looking  forward  to  that  holy, 
happy,  and  eternal  sabbath,  that  re- 
mains for  the  people  of  God.  See 
Chandler's  tivo  Sermons  on  the  Sab- 
bath ;  Wri,q-ht  on  the  Sabbath  ;  JVatts's 
Jlol.  of  Times  and  Places ;  Orion's 
Six  Discourses  on  the  Lord's  Day ; 
Kennicott's  Ser.  and  Dial,  on  the  Sab- 
bath ;  Bfi.  Porteus's  Sermons,  ser.  9. 
vol.  1. ;  Watts's  Sermons,  ser.  57.  vol.  i.; 
.S".  Palmer's  Apology  for  the  Christian 
Sabbath  ;  Kennicott  on  the  Oblations  of 
Cain  ajid  Abel.  p.  184,  185. 

SABELLIANS,  a  sect  in  the  third 
century  that  embraced  the  opinions  of 
Sabelliiis,  a  philosopher  of  Egypt,  who 
openly  taught  that  there  is  but  one  per- 
son in  the  Godhead. 

The  Sabellians  maintained  that  the 
Word  and  the  Holy  Spirit  are  only  vir- 
tues, emanations,  or  functions  of  the 
Deity ;  and  held  that  he  who  is  in  hea- 
ven is  the  Father  of  all  things  ;  that  he 
descended  into  the  Virgin,  became  a 
child,  and  was  born  of  her  as  a  son ; 
and  that,  having  accomplished  the  mys- 
tery of  our  salvation,  he  diffused  him- 
self on  the  apostles  in  tongues  of  fire, 
and  was  then  denominated  the  Holy 
Ghost.  This  they  explained  by  re- 
sembling God  to  the  sun  ;  the  illumina- 
ted virtue  or  quality  of  which  was  the 
Word,  and  its  warming  virtue  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  Word,  they  taught,  was 
darted;  like  a  divine  ray,  to  accomplish 
the  work  of  redemption  ;  and  that,  be- 
ing reascended  to  heav'en,  the  influences 
of  the  Father  were  communicated  after 
a  like  manner  to  the  apostles. 

SACOPHORI,a  denomination  in  the 
fourth  century,  so  called,  because  they 
always  went  clothed  in  sackcloth,  and 
affected  a  great  deal  of  austerity  and 
penance. 

SACRAMENT  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  sacramentum,  which  signi- 
fies an  oath,  particularly  the  oath  taken 
bv  soldiers  to  be  true  to  their  country 
and  general. — The  word  was  adopted 
by  the  writers  of  the  Latin  church,  to 
denote  those  ordinances  of  religion  by 
which  Christians  came  under  an  obli- 
gation of  obedience  to  God,  and  which 
obligation,  they  supposed,  was  equally 
sacred  with  that  of  an  oath.  rSeeVow."] 
Of  sacraments,  in  this  sense  or  the  word, 
Protestant  churches  admit  of  but  two; 
and  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive  how  a 
greater  number  can  be  made  out  from 
Scripture,  if  the  definition  of  a  sacra- 


ment be  just  which  is  given  by  the 
church  of  England.  By  that  church, 
the  meaning  of  the  word  sacrament  is 
declai-ed  to  be  "  an  outward  and  visible 
sign  of  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace 
given  unto  us,  ordained  by  Christ  him- 
self, as  a  means  whereby  we  receive 
the  same,  and  a  pledge  to  assure  us 
thereof." — According  to  this  definition, 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  suppfer  are  cer- 
tainly sacraments,  for  each  consists  of 
an  outward  and  visible  sign  of  what  is 
believed  to  be  an  inward  and  spiritual 
grace,  both  were  ordained  by  Christ 
himself,  and  in  the  reception  of  each 
does  the  Christian  solemnly  devote  him- 
self to  the  service  of  his  divine  Master. 
[See  Baptism,  and  Lord's  Supper.] 
The  Romanists.,  however,  add  to  this 
number  confirmation,  penance,  extreme 
unction,  ordination,  and  marriage,  hold- 
ing in  all  seven  sacraments.  [See 
Popery.]  Numerous,  however,  as  the 
sacraments  of  the  Romish  church  are, 
a  sect  of  Christians  sprung  up  in  Eng- 
land, early  in  the  last  century,  who  in- 
ci'eased  their  number.  The  founder  of 
this  sect  was  a  Dr.  Deacon.  According 
to  these  men,  every  rite  and  eveiy 
phrase,  in  the  book  called  the  Aposto- 
lical Coristitntions,  were  certainly  in 
use  among  the  apostles  themselves. 
Still,  however,  they  make  a  distinction 
between  the  greater  and  the  lesser  sa- 
craments. The  greater  sacraments  are 
only  two,  baptism  and  the  Lord's  sup- 
per. The  lesser  are  no  fewer  than  ten, 
viz.  five  belonging  to  baptism,  exorcism, 
anointing  with. ail,  the  white  gar?nent,  a 
taste  of  milk  and  honey,  and  anoiiiting 
with  chrism,  or  oint)nent.  The  other 
five  are,  the  sign  of  the  cross,  imposi- 
tiofi  of  hands,  unction  of  the  sick,  holy 
orders  and  matrimony.  Tliis  sect,  how- 
ever, if  not  extinguished,  is  supposed  to 
be  in  its  last  wane.  Its  founder  publish- 
ed, in  1748,  his  full,  true,  and  compre- 
hensive view  of  Christianity,  in  two 
catechisms,  octavo. 

SACRAMENTARIANS,  a  general 
name  given  for  all  such  as  have  held 
erroneous  opinions  respecting  the  Lord's 
supper.  The  term  is  cliiefly  applied 
among  Catholics,  by  way  of  reproach 
to  the  Lutherans,  Calvinists,  and  other 
Protestants. 

SACRIFICE,  an  offering  made  to 
God  on  an  altai-,  by  means  oi  a  regular 
minister :  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his 
power,  and  a  jjayment  of  homage.  Sa- 
crifices (though  the  term  is  sometimes 
used  to  comprehend  all  the  offerings 
made  to  God,  or  in  any  way  devoted  to 
his  service  and  honour)  differ  from  mei'e 
oblations  in  this,  that  in  a  sacrifice  there 


SAC 


53,9 


SAC 


is  a  real  destruction  or  change  of  the 
thing  offered ;  whereas  an  oblation  is 
only  a  simple  offering  or  gift,  without 
any  such  change  at  all :  thus,  all  sorts  of 
tithes,  and  first  fruits,  and  whatever  6f 
men's  worldly  substance  is  consecrated 
to  God  for  the  support  of  his  worship 
and  the  maintenance  of  his  ministers, 
are  offerings,  or  oblations ;  and  these, 
under  the  Jewish  law,  were  either  of 
living  creatures,  or  other  things ;  but 
sacrifices,  in  the  more  peculiar  sense  of 
the  term,  were  either  wholly  or  in  part 
consumed  by  fire.  They  have,  by  di- 
vines, been  divided  into  bloody  and  un- 
bloody. Bloody  sacrifices  were  made 
of  living  creatures ;  unbloody,  of  the 
fruits  of  the  earth.  They  have  also  been 
divided  into  expiatory,  impetratory, 
and  eucharistical.  The  first  kind  were 
offered  to  obtain  of  God  the  forgi^  eness 
of  sins  ;  the  second,  to  procure  some  fa- 
vour ;  and  the  thii'd,  to  express  thank- 
fulness for  favours  already  received. 
Under  one  or  other  of  these  heads  may 
all  sacrifices  be  arranged,  though  we 
are  told  that  the  Egyptians  had  six  hun- 
dred and  sixty-six  different  kinds;  a 
number  surpassing  all  credibility.  Va- 
rious have  been  the  opinions  of  the 
learned  concerning  the  origin  of  sacri- 
fices. Some  suppose  that  they  had  their 
origin  in  superstition,  and  were  merely 
the  inventions  of  men  ;  others,  that  the}' 
originated  in  the  natural  sentiments  of 
the  human  heart ;  others  imagine  that 
God  in  order  to  prevent  their  being  of- 
fered to  idols,  introduced  them  into  his 
sei-vice,  though  he  did  not  approve  of 
them  as  good  in  themselves,  or  as  pro- 
per rites  of  worship.  "  But  that  animal 
sacrifices,"  says  a  learned  author,"  were 
not  instituted  by  man,  seems  extremely 
evident  from  the  acknowledged  univer- 
sality of  the  practice  ;  from  the  wonder- 
fiil  sameness  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
whole  world  offered  these  sacrifices ; 
and  from  the  expiation  which  was 
constantly  supposed  to  be  effected  by 
them. 

"Now  human  reason,  even  among 
the  most  strenuous  opponents  of  the  di- 
vine institutions,  is  allowed  to  be  incapa- 
ble of  pointing  out  the  least  natural  fit- 
ness or  congruity  between  blood  and 
atonement ;  between  killing  of  God's 
creatures  and  the  receiving  a  pardon 
for  the  violation  of  God's  laws.  This 
consequence  of  sacrifices,  when  proper- 
ly offered,  was  the  invariable  opinion  of 
the  heathens,  but  not  the  whole  of  their 
opinion  in  this  matter ;  for  they  had  also 
a  traditionary  belief  among  them,  that 
these  animal  sacrifices  were  not  only 
expiations,  but  vicarious  commutations, 


and  substituted  satisfactions ;  and  they 
called  the  animals  so  offered  [their 
avTi-t--xa]  the  ransom  of  their  souls. 

"  But  if  these  notions  are  so  remote 
from,  nay,  so  contrary  to,  any  lesso^i 
that  nature  teaches,  as  they  confessedly 
j  are,  how  came  the  whole  v,'orld  to  prac- 
tise the  rites  founded  upon  them  ?  It  is 
I  certain  that  the  wisest  Heathens,  Py- 
thagoras, Plato,  Porphvr}-,  and  others, 
slighted  the  religion  of  such  sacrifices, 
and  wondered  how  an  institution  so 
dismal  (as  it  appeared  to  them,)  and  so 
big  with  absurdity,  could  diffuse  itself 
through  the  world. — An  advocate  for 
the  sufficiency  of  reason  [Tindall]  sup* 
poses  the  absurdity  prevailed  by  de- 
grees ;  and  the  priests  who  shared  with 
their  gods,  and  reserved  the  best  bits 
for  themselves,  had  the  chief  hand  in 
this  gainful  superstition.  But,  it  may 
well  be  asked,  who  were  the  priests  in 
the  days  of  Cain  and  Abel  .■'  Or,  what 
gain  could  this  superstition  be  to  them, 
when  the  one  gave  away  his  fruits,  and 
the  other  his  animal  sacrifice,  without 
being  at  liberty  to  taste  the  least  part 
of  it  ?  And  it  is  worth  remarking,  that 
what  this  author  wittily  calls  the  dest 
bits  and  appropriates  to  the  priests,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  skin  of  the  burnt- 
offei'ing  among  the  Jews,  and  the  skin 
and  feet  among  the  Heathens." 

Dr.  Spencer  observes  [De  Leg.  Heb. 
lib.  iii.  §  2.]  that  "sacrifices  were  look- 
ed upon  as  gifts,  and  that  the  general 
opinion  was,  that  gifts  would  have  the 
same  effect  with  God  as  with  man ; 
v.'ould  appease  wrath,  conciliate  favour 
with  the  Deity,  and  testi^^  the  gratitude 
and  affection  of  the  sacrincer ;  and  that 
from  this  principle  proceeded  expiatory, 
precatory,  and  eucharistical  onerings. 
This  is  all  that  is  pretended  from  natu- 
ral light  to  countenance  this  practice. 
But,  how  well  soever  the  comparison 
may  be  thought  to  hold  between  sacri- 
fices and  gifts,  yet  the  opinion  that  sa- 
crifices would  prevail  with  God  must 
proceed  from  an  obsen^ation  that  gifts 
had  prevailed  with  men;  an  observation 
this  which  Cain  and  Abel  had  little  op- 
poitunity  of  making.  And  if  the  coats 
of  skin  which  God  directed  Adam  to 
make,  were  the  remains  of  sacrifices, 
sure  Adam  could  not  sacrifice  from  this 
observa'ion,  when  there  were  no  sub- 
jects in  the  world  upon  which  he  could 
make  these  observations,"  [Ivennicott's 
second  Dissert,  on  the  OfFermgs  of  Cain 
and  Abel,  p.  201,  &c.] 

But  the  grand  objection  to  the  divine 
origin  of  sacrifices  is  drawn  from  the 
Scriptures  themsehes,  particularly  the 
following  [Jer.  vii.  22;  23:]  "I  spake  not 


SAC 


510 


SAL 


to  your  fathers,  nor  commanded  them,  || 
at  the  time  that  I  brought  tliem  out  ofjl 
E^ypt,  concerning  the  matters  of  burnt-  || 
onerings  or  sacrifices ;  but  only  this 
very  tiling  commanded  I  them,  saying, 
Obey  my  voice,  and  I  nvill  be  your 
God,  and  ye  shall  be  my  people. "  The 
ingenious  writer  above  referred  to,  ac- 
counts for  this  passage  [p.  153  and  209.] 
by  referring  to  the  transaction  at  Marah, 
[Exod.  XV.  23,  26,]  at  which  time  God 
spake  nothing  concerning  sacrifices  :  it 
certainly  cannot  be  intended  to  contra- 
dict the  whole  book  of  Leviticus,  which 
is  full  of  such  appointments.  Another 
learned  author,  to  account  for  the  above, 
and  other  similar  passages,  observes, 
'  The  Jews  were  diligent  in  perform- 
ing the  external  services  of  religion  ; 
in  offering  prayers,  incense,  sacrifices, 
oblations :  but  these  prayers  were  not 
oifered  with  faith ;  and  their  oblations 
were  made  more  frequently  to  their 
idols  than  to  the  God  of  their  fathers. 
The  Hebi-ew  idiom  excludes  with  a  ge- 
neral negative,  in  a  comparative  sense, 
one  of  two  objects  opposed  to  one  ano- 
ther, thus :  '  I  will  have  mercy,  and  not 
sacrifice.'  [Hosea,  vi.  6.]  For  I  spake 
not  to  your  fathers,  nor  commanded 
them,  concerning  bumt-offerings  or  sa- 
crifices; but  this  thing  I  commanded 
them,  saying.  Obey  7ny  voice.'  "  [Lowth 
on  Isaiah,  xliii.  22,  24.]  The  ingenious 
Dr.  Doddridge  remarks,  that,  accord- 
ing to  the  genius  of  the  Hebi'ew  lan- 
guage, one  thing  seems  to  be  forbidden, 
and  another  commanded,  when  the 
meaning  only  is,  that  the  latter  is  ge- 
nerally to  be  preferred  to  the  former. 
The  text  before  us  is  a  remarkable  in- 
stance of  this ;  as  likewise  Joel,  ii.  13. 
Matt. /\M.  19,  20.  John,  vi.  27.  Luke, 
xii.  4^5.  and  Col.  iii.  2.  And  it  is  evi- 
de^tj^hat  Gen.  xlv.  8.  Exod.  xvi.  8. 
John,  V.  30.  John,  vii.  19.  and  many 
other  passages,  are  to  be  expounded  in 
the  same  comparative  sense.  [Paraph. 
ci\  the  New  Test.  sect.  59.]  So  that 
the  whole  may  be  resolved  into  the 
apophthegm  of  the  wise  man.  [Prov. 
xxi.  3  :]  "  To  do  justice  and  judgment 
is  more  acceptable  to  the  I^ord  than  sa- 
crifice." See  Kennicott,  above  referred 
to;  Rclwards's  History  of  Redemption, 
p.  76,  note;  OiUram  de  Sacrificiis ; 
Warburton's  Divine  Leir.  b.  9,  c.  2  ; 
Bishop  Imw's  Theory  of  Kel.  p.  50  to 
54;  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiq.  vol.  i.  p.  26, 
28  \  Flcury's  Manners  of  the  Israelites, 
part  iv.  ch.  4.;  ISbF.iven  on  the  Tapes. 

SACRILEGE,   the    crime    of"  ])r()- 
faning  sacred  things,  or  things, devoted 
to  God.     The  ancient  church   distin-  i 
giiished  several  sorts  of  sacrilege.   The 


first  was  the  diverting  things  appropri- 
ated to  sacred  purposes  to  other  uses. — 

2.  Robbing  the  graves,  or  defacing  and 
spoiling  the  monuments  of  the  dead. — 

3.  Those  were  considered  as  sacrilegious 
persons  who  delivered  up  their  Bibles 
and  the  sacred  utensils  of  the  church  to 
the  Pagans,  in  the  time  of  the  Diocle- 
sian  persecution. — 4.  Profaning  the  sa- 
craments, churches,  altars,  &c. — 5.  Mo- 
lesting or  hindering  a  clergyman  in  the 
performance  of  his  office. — 6.  Depriving 
men  of  the  use  of  the  Scriptures  or  the 
sacraments,  particularly  the  cup  in  the 
euchai'ist.  The  Romish  casuists  ac- 
knowledge all  these  but  the  last. 

SADDUCEES,  a  famous  sect  among 
the  Jews;  so  called,  it  is  said,  from 
their  founder,  Sadoc.  It  began  in  the 
time  of  Antigonus,  of  Socho,  president 
of  the  Sanhedrim  at  Jerusalem,  and 
teacher  of  the  law  in  the  principal  di- 
vinity school  of  that  city.  Antigonus 
having  often,  in  his  lectures,  inculcated 
to  his  scholars  that  they  ought  not  to 
serve  God  in  a  servile  manner,  but  only 
out  of  filial  love  and  fear,  two  of  his 
scholars,  Sadoc,  and  Baithus,  thence  in- 
ferred that  there  were  no  rewards  at  all 
after  this  life ;  and,  therefore,  sepa- 
rating from  the  school  of  their  master, 
they  thought  there  was  no  resurrection 
nor  future  state,  neither  angel  nor  spi- 
rit. Matt.  xxii.  23.  Acts,  xxiii.  8. 
They  seem  to  agree  greatly  with  the 
Epicureans  ;  differing  however  in  this, 
that,  though  they  denied  a  future  state, 
yet  they  allowed  the  power  of  God  to 
create  the  world  ;  whereas  the  follow- 
ers of  Epicurus  denied  it.  It  is  said 
also,  that  they  rejected  the  Bible,  ex- 
cept the  Pentateuch  ;  denied  predesti- 
nation ;  and  taught,  that  God  had  made 
man  absolute  master  of  all  his  actions, 
without  assistance  to  good,  or  restraint 
from  evil. 

SAINT,  a  person  eminent  for  godli- 
ness. The  word  is  generally  applied  by 
us  to  the  apostles  and  other  holy  per- 
sons mentioned  in  the  Scriptures:  but 
the  Romanists  make  its  application 
much  more  extensive  ;  as,  according  to 
them,  all  who  are  canonized  are  made 
saints  of  a  high  degree.  See  Canoni- 
zation. 

SALVATION  means  the  safety  or 
preservation  of  any  thing  that  has  been 
or  is  in  danger  ;  but  it  is  moi'e  particu- 
larly used  by  us  to  denote  our  deliver- 
ance from  sin  and  hell,  and  the  final 
enjoyment  of  God  in  a  future  state, 
through  the  mediation  of  Jesus  Christ. 
See  articles  Atonement,  Propitia- 
tion, Reconciliation,  Redemption, 
and  Sanctification. 


SAM 


541 


SAN 


SAMARITANS,  an  ancient  sect 
among  the  Jews,  whose  origin  was  in 
the  time  of  king  Rehoboam,inider  whose 
reign  the  people  of  Israel  were  divided 
into  two  distinct  kingdoms,  that  of  Ju- 
dah  and  that  of  Israel.  The  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Israel  was  Samaria, 
whence  the  Israelites  took  the  name  of 
Samaritans.  Shalmaneser,  king  of  As- 
syria, having  besieged  and  taken  Sama- 
ria, carried  away  all  the  people  cap- 
tives into  tlie  remotest  parts  of  his 
dominioi^s,  and  filled  their  place  .with 
Babylonians,  Cutheans,  and  other  idol- 
aters. These,  finding  .that  they  were 
exposed  to  wild  beasts,  desired  that  an 
Israelitish  priest  might  be  sent  among 
them,  to  insti-uct  them  in  the  ancient  re- 
ligion and  customs  of  the  land  they  in- 
habited. This  being  gi-anted  them, 
they  were  delivered  from  the  plague  of 
wild  beasts,  and  embraced  the  law  of 
Moses,  with  which  they  mixed  a  great 
part  of  their  ancient  idolatry.  Upon  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  it  appears  that  they  had  en- 
tirely quitted  the  worship  of  their  idols. 
But  though  they  were  united  in  reli- 
gion, they  were  not  so  in  affection  with 
the  Jews ;  for  they  employed  various 
calumnies  and  stratagems  to  hinder  their 
rebuilding  the  temple  of  Jeiiisalem  ; 
and  when  they  could  not  prevail,  they 
erected  a  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim,  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Jerusalem.  [See 
2  Kings,  xvii.  Ezra,  iv.  v.  vi.]  The  Sa- 
maritans at  present  are  few  in  number, 
but  pretend  to  great  strictness  in  their 
observation  of  the  law  of  Moses.  They 
are  said  to  be  scattered;  some  at  Da- 
mascus, some  at  Gaza,  and  some  at 
Grand  Cairo,  in  Egypt. 

SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH, 
the  collection  of  the  five  books  of  Mo- 
ses, written  in  Samaritan  or  Phcenician 
characters ;  and,  according  to  some,  the 
ancient  Hebrew  characters  which  were 
in  use  before  the  captivity  of  Babylon. 
This  Pentateuch  was  unknown  in  Eu- 
rope till  the  se\enteenthcentuiy, though 
quoted  by  Eusebius,  Jerome,  &c.  Arch- 
bishop Usher  was  the  first,  or  at  least 
among  the  fii*st,  who  procured  it  out  of 
the  East,  to  the  number  of  five  or  six 
copies.  Pietro  della  Valle  purchased  a 
very  neat  copy  at  Damascus,  in  1616, 
for  M.  de  Sansi,  then  ambassador  of 
France  at  Constantinople,  and  after- 
wards bishop  of  St.  Malo.  This  book 
was  presented  to  the  Fathers  of  the 
Oratory  of  St.  Honore,  where  perhaps 
it  is  still  preserved ;  and  from  which 
father  Morinus,  in  1632,  printed  the  first 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  which  stands 
in  Le  Jay's  Polyglot,  but  more  correctly 


in  Walton's,  from  three  Samaritan  ma- 
nuscripts, which  belonged  to  Usher. 
The  generality  of  divines  hold,  that  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  and  that  of  the 
Jews,  are  one  and  the  same  work,  writ- 
ten in  the  same  language,  only  in  differ- 
ent characters  ;  and  that  the  difierence 
between  the  two  texts  is  owing  to  the 
inadvertency  and  inaccuracy  of  trans- 
criliers,  or  to  the  affectation  of  the  Sa- 
maritans, by  interpolating  what  might 
promote  their  interests  and  preten- 
sions ;  that  the  two  copies  were  origi- 
nally the  very  same,  and  that  the  addi- 
tions were  afterwards  inserted.  And 
in  this  respect  the  Pentateuch  of  the 
Jews  must  be  allowed  the  preference  to 
that  of  the  Samaritans ;  whereas  others 
prefer  the  Samantan  as  an  original, 
preserved  in  the  same  character  and 
the  same  condition  in  which  Moses  left 
it.  The  variations,  additions,  and  trans- 
positions which  are  found  in  the  Sama- 
ritixn  Pentateuch,  are  carefully  collected 
l)y  Hottinger,  and  may  be  seen  on  con- 
fronting the  two  texts  in  the  last  volume 
of  the  English  Polj'glot,  or  by  inspect- 
ing Kcnnicott's  edition  of  the'  Hebrew 
Bible,  where  the  various  readings  are 
inserted.  Some  of  these  interpolations 
serve  to  illustrate  the  text ;  others  are 
a  kind  of  paraphrase,  expressing  at 
length  what  was  only  hinted  at  in  the 
original ;  and  others,  again,  such  as  fa- 
vour their  pretensions  against  the  Jews ; 
namely,  the  putting  Gerizim  for  Ebal. 
Besides  the  Pentateuch  in  Phoenician 
character.s,  there  is  another  in  the  lan- 
guage which  was  spoken  at  the  time 
that  Manasseh,  first  high  priest  of  the 
temple  of  Gerizim,  and  son-in-law  of 
Sanballat,  governor  of  Samaria,  under 
the  king  of  Persia,  took  shelter  among 
the  Samaritans.  The  language  of  this 
last  is  a  mixture  of  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and 
Phoenician.  It  is  called  the  Samaritan 
vei-sion,  executed  in  favour  of  those 
who  did  not  understand  pure  Hebrew ; 
and  is  a  literal  translation,  expressing 
the  text  word  for  word. 

SANCTIFICATION,  that  work  of 
God's  grace,  by  which  we  are  renewed 
after  the  image  of  God,  set  apart  for  his 
service,  and  enabled  to  die  unto  sin  and 
live  unto  righteousness.  It  must  be 
carefully  considered  in  a  two-fold  light. 

1.  As  an  inestimable  privilege  granted 
us  from  God,   1   Thess.  v.  23. — And, 

2.  As  an  all-comprehensive  duty  requir- 
ed of  us  by  his  holy  word,  1  I'hess.  iv. 

3.  It  is  distinguished  from  justification 
thus :  Justification  changeth  our  state  in 
law  before  God  as  a  Judge  ;  sanctifica- 
tion  changeth  our  heart  and  life  before 
him  as  our  Father.    Justification  pre- 


SAN 


542 


SAN 


cedes,  and  sanctification  follows,  as  the 
fruit  and  e\-idence  of  it.  The  surety - 
righteousness  of  Christ  imputed  is  our 
justifying  righteousness  ;  but  the  grace 
of  God  implanted  is  the  matter  of  our 
sanctification.  Justification  is  an  act 
done  at  once ;  sanctification  is  a  work 
which  is  gi-adual.  Justification  removes 
the  guilt  of  sin ;  sanctification  the  power 
of  it.  Justification  delivers  us  fi-om  the 
avenging  wrath  of  God ;  sanctification 
conforms  us  to  his  image.  Yet  justifica- 
tion and  sanctification  are  inseparably 
connected  in  the  promise  of  God,  Rom. 
viii.  28  to  30 ;  in  the  covenant  of  grace, 
Heb.  viii.  10  ;  in  the  doctrines  and  pro- 
mises of  the  Gospel,  Acts,  v.  31;  and 
in  the  experience  of  all  true  believers, 
1  Cor.  vi.  11.  Sanctification  is,  1.  A  di- 
vine work,  and  not  to  be  begim  or  car- 
ried on  by  the  power  of  man,  Tit.  iii.  5. 
— 2.  A  progressive  work,  and  not  per- 
fected at  once,  Prov.  iv.  18. — 3.  An  m- 
ternal  work,  not  consisting  in  external 
profession  or  bare  morality,  Psalms,  li. 
6. — 4.  A  necessary  work,  necessary  as 
to  the  eAidence  of  our  state,  the  honour 
of  our  characters,  the  usefulness  of  our 
lives,  the  happiness  of  our  minds,  and 
the  internal  enjoyment  of  God's  pre- 
sence in  a  future  world,  John,  iii.  3. 
Heb.  xii.  14.  Sanctification  evidences 
itself  by,  1.  X  holy  reverence,  Nehem. 
V.  15. — 2.  Earnest  regard.  Lam.  iii.  24. 
— 3.  Patient  submission,  Psal.  xxxix. 
9.  Hence  Archbishop  Usher  said  of  it, 
"  Sanctification  is  nothing  less  than  for 
a  man  to  be  brought  to  an  entire  resig- 
nation of  his  will  to  the  will  of  God,  and 
to  live  in  the  offering  up  of  his  soul  con- 
tinually in  the  flames  of  love,  and  as  a 
whole  burnt-offering  to  Christ." — 4.  In- 
creasing hatred  to  sin,  Psal.cxix.  133. — 
5.  Communion  with  God,  Isaiah,  xxvi. 
8. — 6.  Delight  in  his  word  and  ordinan- 
ces, Psal.  xxvii.  4. — 7.  Humility,  Job, 
xlii.  5,  6. — 8.  Prayer,  Psal.  cix.  4. — 9. 
Holy  confidence,  Psal.  xxvii.  1. — 10. 
Praise,  Psal.  ciii.  1. — 11.  Uniform  obe- 
dience, John,  XV.  8.  See  Marshall  on 
Sancli/ication ;  Dr.  Owen  on  the  Holy 
S/iirit ;  Witsii  (Economia,  lib.  iii.  c.  12; 
Browji's  .Yat.  and  Rev.  Theology,  p. 
447;  Haweis's  Sermons,  ser.  11,  i2, 13; 
Scougal's  Wo7'ks.  See  articles  Holi- 
ness^ Works. 

SANCTIONS,  Divine,  are  those 
acts  or  laws  of  the  Supreme  Being  which 
render  anv  thins;  obligatory.    See  Law. 

SANDEMANIANS,  a  sect  that  ori- 
ginated in  Scotland  about  the  year  1728 ; 
where  it  is,  at  this  time,  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  Glassites,  after  its  foun- 
der, Mr.  John  Glass,  who  was  a  minis- 
ter of  the  established  church  in  that 


kingdom ;  but  being  charged  with  a  de- 
sign of  subverting  the  national  cove- 
nant, and  sapping  the  foundation  of  all 
national  establishments,  by  maintaining 
that  the  kingdom  of  Christ  is  not  of  this 
world,  was  expelled  from  the  synod  by 
the  church  of  Scotland.  His  sentiments 
are  fully  explained  in  a  tract,  published 
at  that  time,  entitled,  "  The  Testimony 
of  the  King  of  Martyrs,"  ancj  preserved 
in  the  first  volume  of  his  works.  In 
consequence  of  Mr.  Glass's  expulsion, 
his  adherents  formed  themselves  into 
churches,  conformable,  in  their  institu- 
tion and  discipline,  to  what  they  ap- 
prehended to  be  the  plan  of  the  first 
churches  recorded  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Soon  after  the  year  1755,  Mr. 
Robeit  Sandeman,  an  elder  in  one  of 
these  churches  in  Scotland,  published  a 
series  of  letters  addressed  to  Mr.  Hei-- 
vey,  occasioned  by  his  Theron  and  As- 
pasio,  in  which  he  endeavours  to  show 
that  his  notion  of  faith  is  contradictory 
to  the  Scripture  account  of  it,  and  could 
only  serve  to  lead  men,  professedly 
holding  the  doctrines  called  talvinistic, 
to  establish  their  own  righteousness  upon 
their  frames,  feelings,  and  acts  of  faith. 
In  these  letters  Mr  Sandeman  attempts 
to  prove  that  Justifying  faith  is  no  more 
than  a  simple  belief  of  the  ti-uth,  or  the 
divine  testimony  passively  received  by 
the  understanding;  and  that  this  divine 
testimony  carries  in  itself  sufficient 
ground  of  hope  to  every  one  who  be- 
lieves it,  without  any  thing  wrought  in 
us,  or  done  by  us,  to  give  it  a  particular 
direction  to  ourseh'es. 

Some  of >,  the  popular  preachers,  as 
they  were  called,  had  taught  that  it  was 
of  the  essence  of  faith  to  believe  that 
Christ  is  ours  ;  but  Mr.  Sandeman  con- 
tended, that  that  which  is  believed  in 
true  faith  is  the  truth,  and  what  would 
have  been  the  tnith  though  we  had  ne- 
ver believed  it.  They  dealt  largely  in 
calls  and  invitations  to  repent  and  be- 
lieve in  Christ,  in  order  to  forgiveness ; 
but  he  rejects  the  whole  of  them,  main- 
taining that  the  Gospel  contained  no  of- 
fer but  that  of  evidence,  and  that  it  was 
merely  a  record  or  testimony  to  be  cre- 
dited. They  had  tauglit  that  though  ac- 
ceptance with  God,  which  included  the 
forgiveness  of  sins,  was  merely  on  ac- 
count of  the  imputed  righteousness  of 
Christ,  yet  that  none  was  accepted  of 
God,  nor  forgiven,  till  he  repented  of 
his  sin,  and  received  Christ  as  the  only 
Saviour;  but  he  insists  that  there  is  ac- 
ceptance with  God  through  Christ  for 
sinners,  while  such,  or  before  "  any 
act,  exercise,  or  exertion  of  their  minds 
whatsoever:"  consequently  before  re- 


SAN 


543 


SAN 


pentance ;  and  that  "  a  passive  belief 
of  this  quiets  the  guilty  conscience,  be- 
gets hope,  and  so  lays  the  foundation  for 
love."  It  is  by  this  passive  belief  of  the 
truth  that  we,  according  to  Mr.  Sande- 
man  are  justified,  and  that  boasting  is 
excluded.  If  any  act,  exercise,  or  ex- 
ertion of  the  mind,  were  necessary  to 
our  being  accepted  of  God,  he  conceives 
there  would  be  whereof  to  glory  ;  and 
justification  by  faith  could  not  be  op- 
posed, as  it  is  in  Rom.  iv.  4,  6,  to  justifi- 
cation by  works. 

The  authors  to  whom  Mr.  Sandeman 
refers,  under  the  title  of  "popular 
preachers,"  are  Flavel,  Boston,  Guthrie, 
the  Erskines,  &c.  whom  he  has  treated 
with  acrimony  and  contempt.  "  I  would 
be  far,"  says  he,  "  from  refusing  even 
to  the  popular  preachers  themselves 
what  they  so  much  grudge  to  others, — 
the  benefit  of  the  one  instance  of  a 
hai'dened  sinner  finding  mercy  at  last ; 
for  I  know  of  no  sinners  more  hardened, 
none  greater  destroyers  of  mankind, 
than  they."  Thei-e  have  not  been  want- 
ing writers,  however,  who  have  vindi- 
cated these  ministers  from  his  invec- 
tives, and  have  endeavoured  to  show 
that  Mr.  Sandeman's  notion  of  faith,  by 
excluding  all  exercise  or  concurrence 
of  the  will  with  the  Gospel  way  of  sal- 
vation, confounds  the  faith  of  devils 
with  that  of  Christians,  and  so  is  calcu- 
lated to  deceive  the  souls  of  men.  It 
has  also  been  observed,  that  though  Mr. 
Sandeman  admits  of  the  acts  of  faith 
and  love  as  fruits  of  believing  the  truth, 
yet,  "  all  his  godliness  consisting  (as  he 
acknowledgestoMr.Pike)zn/oi;eZo  that 
ivhich  Jirst  relieved  him"  it  amounts 
to  nothing  but  self-love.  And  as  self- 
love  is  a  stranger  to  all  those  strong  af- 
fections expressed  in  the  cxixth  Psalm 
towards  the  law  of  God,  he  cannot  ad- 
mit of  them  as  the  language  of  a  good 
man,  but  applies  the  whole  psalm  to 
Christ,  though  the  person  speaking  ac- 
knowledges, that  "before  he  was  af- 
flicted, he  went  astray."  Others  have 
thought,  that  from  the  same  principle 
it  were  easy  to  account  for  the  bitter- 
ness, pride,  and  contempt,  which  dis- 
tinguish the  system  ;  for  self-love,  say 
they,  is  consistent  w^th  the  greatest 
aversion  to  all  beings,  divine  or  human, 
excepting  so  far  as  they  become  subser- 
vient to  us. 

The  chief  opinion  and  practices  in 
which  this  sect  differs  from  other  Chris- 
tians, are,  their  weekly  administration 
of  the  Lord's  supper ;  their  love-feasts, 
of  which  every  member  is  not  only  al- 
lowed but  required  to  partake,  and 
which  consist  of  their  dining  together  at 


each  other's  houses  in  the  interval  be- 
tween the  morning  and  afternoon  ser- 
vice. Their  kiss  of  charity  used  on  this 
occasion  at  the  admission  of  a  new  mem- 
ber, and  at  other  times  when  they  deem 
it  necessaiy  and  proper  ;  their  weekly 
collection  before  the  Lord's  supper,  for 
the  support  of  the  poor,  and  defraying 
other  expenses  ;  mutual  exhortation  ; 
abstinence  from  blood  and  things  stran- 
gled ;  washing  each  other's  feet,  when, 
as  a  deed  of  mercy,  it  might  be  an  ex- 
pression of  love,  the  precept  concem- 
nig  which,  as  well  as  other  precepts, 
they  understand  litei-ally :  community  of 
goods,  so  far  as  that  evei-y  one  is  to  con- 
sider all  that  he  has  in  his  possession 
and  power,  liable  to  the  calls  of  the 
poor  and  the  church  ;  and  the  unlawful- 
ness of  laying  up  treasures  upon  earth, 
by  setting  them  apart  for  any  distant, 
future,  and  uncertain  use.  They  allow 
of  public  and  private  diversions,  so  far 
as  they  are  unconnected  with  circum- 
stances really  sinful ;  but  apprehending 
a  lot  to  be  sacre(f,  disapprove  of  lot- 
teries, playing  at  cards,  dice,  &c. 

They  maintain  a  plurality  of  elders, 
pastors,  or  bishops,  in  each  church  j 
and  the  necessity  of  the  presence  of  two 
elders  in  every  act  of  discipline,  and  at 
the  administration  of  the  Lord's  sup- 
per. 

In  the  choice  of  these  elders,  want  of 
learning  and  engagement  in  trade  are 
no  sufficient  objection,  if  qualified  ac- 
cording to  the  instructions  given  to  Ti- 
mothy and  Titus ;  but  second  marriages 
disqualify  for  the  office ;  and  they  are 
ordained  by  prayer  and  fasting,  imposi- 
tion of  hands,  and  gi\  ing  the  right  hand 
of  fellowship. 

In  their  discipline  they  are  strict  and 
severe,  and  think  themselves  obliged  to 
sepai'ate  from  the  communion  and  wor- 
ship of  all  such  religious  societies  as  ap- 
pear to  them  not  to  profess  the  simple 
truth  for  their  only  ground  of  hope,  and 
who  do  not  walk  in  obedience  to  it.  \\*e 
shall  only  add,  that  in  every  transac- 
tion they  esteem  unanimity  to  be  abso- 
lutely necessary.  See  Glass's  Testiw.onij 
of  the  King  of  yiartijrs ;  Sandeman's 
Letters  on  Theron  and  Aspasio,  letter 
11 ;  Backiis's  Discourses  on  Faith  and 
its  Influence,  p.  7 — 30 ;  Adams's  Vie-iL' 
of  Religions ;  Bellamy's  .Yature  and 
Glory  of  the  Gospel,  Lon.  ed.  notes,  p. 
65 — 125  ;  History  of  Dis.  Church,  p. 
265,  V.  i. ;  Fuller's  Letters  on  Sandema- 
nianism. 

SANHEDRIM,  a  council  or  assem- 
bly of  persons  sitting  together ;  the 
name  whereby  the  Jews  called  the  great 
courxil  of  the  nation,  assembled  in  an 


SAT 


544 


SAT 


apai'tment  of  the  temple  of  Jenisalem, 
to  detcrmiiie  the  most  important  affairs 
both  of  church  and  state. 

SARABAITES,  wandering  fanatics, 
or  rather  impostors,  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, who,  instead  of  procuring  a  sub- 
sistence by  honest  industry,  travelled 
through  various  cities  and  provinces, 
and  gained  a  maintenance  by  fictitious 
miracles,  by  selling  relics  to  the  multi- 
tude, and  other  frauds  of  a  like  nature. 

SATAN  is  a  Hebrew  word,  and  sig- 
nifies an  adversary,  or  enemy,  and  is 
commonly  applied  in  Scripture  to  the 
devil,  or  the  chief  of  the  fallen  angels. 
"  By  collecting  the  passages,"  says  Cru- 
flen,  "  where  Satan,  or  the  devil,  is 
mentioned,  it  may  be  obscr\ed,  that  he 
fell  from  heaven  with  all  his  company; 
that  God  cast  him  down  fi-oni  thence 
for  the  punishment  of  his  pride ;  that, 
by  his  envy  and  malice,  sin,  death,  and 
all  other  evils,  came  into  the  world ; 
that,  by  the  permission  of  God,  he  ex- 
ercises a  sort  of  government  in  the  world 
over  his  subordinate*,  over  apostate  an- 
gels like  himself;  that  God  makes  use 
of  him  to  prove  good  men  and  chastise 
bad  ones;  that  he  is  a  lying  spii-it  in  the 
mouth  of  false  prophets,  seducers,  and 
heretics ;  that  it  is  he,  or  some  of  his, 
that  torment  or  possess  men  ;  that  in- 
spire them  with  evil  designs,  as  he  did 
David,  when  he  suggested  to  him  to 
Humber  his  people  ;  to  Judas,  to  betray 
his  Lord  and  Master ;  and  to  Ananias 
and  Sapphira,  to  conceal  the  price  of 
their  field.  That  he  roves  full  of  rage 
like  a  i-oaring  lion,  to  tempt,  to  betray, 
to  destroy,  and  to  ijivolve  us  in  guilt  and 
wickedness  ;  that  his  power  and  malice 
are  restrained  within  certain  limits,  and 
controlled  by  the  will  of  God.  In  a  word, 
that  he  is  an  enemy  to  God  and  man, 
and  uses  his  utmost  endeavours  to  rob 
God  of  his  glory,  and  men  of  their  souls." 
Sec  articles  Anop:l,  Devil,  Tempta- 
tion. More  particularly  as  to  the 
temptations  of  Satan.  1.  "  He  adapts 
them  to  our  temper  and  circumstances. 
— 2.  He  chooses  the  fittest  season  to 
tempt :  as  youth,  age,  poverty,  pros- 
perity, public  devotion,  afcer  happy  ma- 
nifestations ;  or  when  in  a  bad  frame  ; 
after  some  signal  source  ;  when  alone, 
or  in  the  presence  of  the  object ;  Avhcn 
vmemployed  and  off  our  guard ;  in 
death. — 3.  He  puts  on  the  mask  of  reli- 
gious friendship,  2  Cor.  xi.  14.  Matt, 
iv.  6.  Luke,  ix.  50.  Gen.  iii. — 4.  He  nui- 
iiages  temptation  with  the  greatest  sub- 
tlety. He  asks  but  little  at  first ;  leaves 
for  H  season  in  order  to  renew  his  at- 
tack.— .).  He  leads  men  to  sin  with  a 
hope  of  speedy  repentance. — 6.  He  raises 


suitable  instruments,  bad  habits,  rela- 
tions. Gen.  iii.  Job,  ii.  9,  10.  See  Gilpin 
on  Temptation;  Brooks  on  Satmi'a  De- 
vices ;  Bishofi  Porteus's  Sermons,  vol. 
ii.  p.  63 ;  Burgh''s  Crito,  vol.  i.  ess.  3  ; 
vol.  ii.  ess.  4 ;  Hovje^s  JVorks,  vol.  ii.  p. 
360;  Gurnairs  Christian  Ar?nour. 

SATANIANS,  a  branch  of  the  Mes- 
salians,  who  appeared  about  the  year 
390.  It  is  said,  among  other  things  that 
they  believed  the  devil  to  be  exti  emely 
powerful,  and  that  it  was  much  wiser  to 
respect  and  adore  than  to  curse  him. 

SATISFACTION,  in  general,  signi- 
fies  the  act  of  giving  complete  or  penect 
pleasure.  In  the  Christian  system  it  de- 
notes that  which  Christ  did  and  suffer- 
ed in  order  to  satisfy  divine  justice,  to 
secure  the  honours  ot  the  divine  govern- 
ment, and  thei'eby  make  an  atonement 
for  the  sins  of  his  people.  Satisfaction 
is  distinguished  from  merit  thus  :  The 
satisfaction  of  Christ  consists  in  his  an- 
swering the  demands  of  the  law  on  maa 
which  were  consequent  on  the  breach  of 
it.  These  were  answered  by  suffering 
its  penalty.  The  merit  of  Christ  con- 
sists in  what  he  did  to  fulfil  what  the 
law  demanded,  before  man  sinned, 
which  was  obedience.  The  satisfaction 
of  Christ  is  to  free  us  from  misery,  and 
the  merit  of  Christ  is  to  purchase  hap- 

giness  for  us.  See  Atonement  and 
ROPiTiATiON.  Also  Dr.  Onven  on  the 
Satisfaction  of  Christ ;  Gill's  Body  of 
Div.  article  Satisfactio7i;  Stillinsc fleet 
on  Satisfactio?i ;  tVatts's  Redeemer  and 
Sanctijier,  p.  28,  32  ;  Hei'vey's  Theron 
and  As-fiasio. 

SATURNIANS,  a  denomination 
which  arose  about  the  year  115.  They 
derived  their  name  from  Saturnius  o'f 
x\ntioch,  one  of  the  principal  Gnostic 
chiefs.  He  held  the  doctrine  of  two 
pi-inciples,  whence  proceeded  all  things; 
the  one,  a  wise  and  benevolent  Deity, 
and  the  other,  matter,  a  principle  es- 
sentially evil,  and  which  he  supposed 
acted  under  the  superintendence  of  a 
certain  intelligence  of  a  malignant  na- 
ture. 

The  world  and  its  inhabitants  Avere, 
according  to  the  system  of  Saturnius, 
created  by  seven  angels,  which  presided 
over  the  seven  planets.  This  work  was 
carried  on  without  the  knowledge  of 
the  benevolent  Deity,  and  in  opposition 
to  the  will  of  the  material  principle. 
The  former,  however,  beheld  it  with 
approbation,  and  honoured  it  with  se- 
veral mai-ks  of  his  bt.eficence.  He 
endowed  with  rational  sc  ils  the  beings 
who  inhabited  this  new  system,  to 
whom  their  creators  had  imparted  no- 
thing more  t^ian  the  animal  life ;  and, 


SAV 


545 


SCH 


having  divided  the  world  into  seven 
parts,  he  distributed  them  among  the 
seven  angelic  architects,  one  of  whom 
was  the  (iod  of  the  Jews,  and  reserved 
to  himself  the  supreme  empire  over  all. 
To  these  creatures,  whom  the  benevo- 
lent principle  had  endowed  with  rea- 
sonable souls,  and  with  dispositions  that 
led  to  goodness  and  virtue,  the  evil  be- 
ing, to  maintain  his  empire,  added  ano- 
ther kind,  whom  he  formed  of  a  wicked 
and  malignant  character:  and  hence 
the  differences  we  see  among  men. 
When  the  creatvires  of  the  Avorld  fell 
fi'om  their  allegiance  to  the  supreme 
Deity,  God  sent  from  heaven  into  our 
globe  a  restorer  of  order,  whose  name 
was  Christ.  This  divine  Conqueror 
came  clothed  with  a  corporeal  appear- 
ance, but  not  with  a  real  body.  He 
came  to  destroy  the  empire  of  the  ma- 
terial principle,  and  to  point  out  to  vir- 
tuous souls  the  way  by  which  they  must 
return  to  God.  This  way  is  beset  with 
difficulties  and  sufferings,  since  those 
souls  who  propose  returning  to  the  Su- 
preme Being  must  abstain  from  wine, 
nesh,  wedlock,  and  in  short  from  every 
thing  that  tends  to  sensual  gratification 
or  even  bodily  refreshment.  SeeGKOS- 

TICS. 

SAVIOUR,  a  person  who  delivers 
from  danger  and  misery.  Thus  Jesus 
Christ  is  called  the  Saviour,  as  he  de- 
livers us  from  the  greatest  evils,  and 
brings  us  into  the  possession  of  the 
greatest  good.  See  Jesus  Christ, 
Liberty,  Propitiation,  Redemp- 
tion. 

Order  of  St.  Saviour,  a  religious  or- 
der of  the  Romish  church,  founded  by 
St.  Bridget,  about  the  year  1345;  and  so 
called  from  its  being  pretended  that  our 
Saviour  himself  declared  its  constitu- 
tion and  niles  to  the  foundress. 

SAVOY  CONFERENCE,  a  confer- 
ence held  at  the  Savoy,  1661,  between 
the  episcopal  divines  and  the  Presbyte- 
rians, in  order  to  review  the  book  of 
Common  Praver ;  but  which  was  car- 
ried on  the  side  of  the  Episcopalians. 
See  A^eale's  Hist,  of  the  Puritans,  vol. 
ii.  p.  601,  quarto  edit,  or  Introduction  to 
Pabner's  JVonconformists'  Me?norial. 

SAVOY  CONFESSION  of  FAITH, 
a  declaration  of  the  faith  and  order  of 
the  Independents,  agreed  upon  by  their 
elders  and  messengers  in  their  meeting 
at  the  Savoy  in  the  year  1658.  This  was 
re-pi-inted  iii  the  year  1729.  See  JVea/e's 
Hist,  of  the  Puritans,  vol.  ii.  p.  507, 
quarto  edit. 

SCEPTIC,     (TXEffTixos,    from     o-xwroiiai, 

"  I  consider,  look  about,  or  deliberate," 
properly  signifies  considerative  and  in- 


quisitive ;  or  one  who  is  always  weigh- 
h^  reasons  on  one  side  or  the  other, 
without  «ver  deciding  between  them. — 
The  word  is  applied  to  an  ancient  sect 
of  philosophers  founded  by  Pyrrho, 
who  denied  the  real  existence  of  all 
qualities  in  bodies,  except  those  which 
are  essential  to  primary  atoms;  and  re- 
ferred every  thing  else  to  the  percep- 
tions of  the  mind  produced  by  external 
objects;  in  other  words,  to  appearance 
and  o])inion.  In  modern  times  the  word 
lias  been  applied  to  Deists,  or  those 
who  doubt  of  the  ti'uth  and  authenticity 
of  the  sacred  Scriptures.  One  of  the 
greatest  sceptics  m  later  times  was 
Hume ;  he  endeavoured  to  introduce 
doubts  into  eveiy  branch  of  physics, 
metaphysics,  history,  ethics,  and  theo- 
logy. He  has  been  confuted,  however, 
by  the  doctors,  Reid,  Campbell,  Grego- 
ry, and  Beattie.    See  Infidelity. 

SCHEWENKFELDIANS,  a  deno- 
mination in  the  sixteenth  century ;  so 
called  from  one  Gasper  Schewenkfeldt, 
a  Silesian  knight.  He  differed  from 
Luther  in  the  three  following  points. 
The  first  of  these  points  related  to 
the  doctrine  concerning  the  eucharist. 
Scliewenkfeldt  inverted  the  following 
words  of  Christ,  This  is  7ny  body: 
and  insisted  in  their  being  thus  under- 
stood. My  body  is  this,  i.  e.  such  as  this 
bread  which  is  broken  and  consumed  ; 
a  true  and  real  food,  which  nourisheth, 
satisfieth,  and  delighteth  the  soul.  My 
blood  is  this,  that  is,  such  its  effects,  as 
the  wine  which  strengthens  and  refresh- 
eth  the  heart.  Secondly,  He  denied 
that  the  eternal  word  which  is  commit- 
ted to  writing  in  the  holy  Scriptures 
was  endowed  with  the  poM'er  of^heal- 
ing,  illuminating,  and  renewing  the 
mind ;  and  he  ascribed  this  power  to 
the  internal  word,  which,  according  to 
his  notion,  was  Christ  himself.  Thirdly, 
He  would  not  allow  Christ's  human  na- 
ture, in  its  exalted  state,  to  be  called  a 
creature,  or  a  created  substance,  as 
such  a  denomination  appeai-ed  to  him 
infinitely  below  its  majestic  dignity ; 
united  as  it  is  in  that  glorious  state  with 
the  divine  essence. 

SCHISM,  from  rxu^a,  a  rent,  clift, 
fissure;  in  its  general  acceptation  it 
signifies  division  or  sejiaration  ,  but  is 
chiefly  used  in  speaking  of  separations 
happening  from  diversity  of  opinions 
among  people  of  the  same  religion  and 
faith.  All  separations,  howe\'er,  must 
not,  properly  speaking,  be  considered  as 
schisms. 

Schism,  says  Mr.  Arch.  Hall,  is,  pro- 
perly, a  division  among  those  who  stand 
in  one  connection  of  fellowship :  but 
3Z 


SCH 


546 


SCH 


where  the  difference  is  carried  so  far, 
that  the  pai'ties  concerned  entii'ely" 
break  up  all  communion  one  with  ano- 
ther, and  go  into  distinct  connections 
for  obtaining  the  general  ends  of  that 
i-eligious  fellowship  which  they  once 
did,  l3ut  now  do  not  carry  on  and  pursue 
with  united  endeavours,  as  one  church 
joined  in  the  bonds  of  individual  society ; 
Avhere  this  is  the  case,  it  is  undeniable 
there  is  something  very  diffei-ent  from 
schism  :  it  is  no  longer  a  schism  in,  but 
a  separation  from,  the  body.  Dr.  Camp- 
bell supposes  that  the  word  schism  in 
Scripture  dees  not  always  signify  open 
separation,  but  that  men  may  be  guilty 
of  schism  by  such  an  alienation  of  affec- 
tion from  their  brethren  as  violates  the 
internal  union  subsisting  in  the  hearts  of 
Christians,  though  there  be  no  error  in 
doctrine,  nor  separation  from  commu- 
nion. See  1  Cor.  iii.  3,  4.  1  Cor.  xii.  24 
—26. 

The  great  schism  of  the  West  is  that 
which  happened  ift  the  times  of  Clement 
VII.  and  Urban  VI,  which  divided  the 
church  for  forty  or  fifty  years,  and  was 
at  length  ended  by  the  election  of  Mar- 
tin V.  at  the  council  of  Constance. 

The  Romanists  number  thirty-four 
schisms  in  their  church :  they  bestow  the 
name  English  .ic/iism  on  the  reforma- 
tion of  religion  in  this  kingdom.  Those 
oi  the  church  of  England  apply  the 
term  schism  to  the  separation  of  the 
Pvci-byterians,  Independents,  Anabap- 
tists, and  jVIethodists. 

"  The  sin  of  sc/iism,"  says  the  learn- 
ed Blackstone,  "  as  such,  is  by  no 
means  the  object  of  temporal  coercion 
and  punishment. — If,  through  weakness 
of  intellect,  through  misdirected  piety, 
through  pei'verseness  and  acerbity  of 
temper,  or  through  a  prospect  of  secu- 
lar advantage  in  herdnig  with  a  party, 
men  quarrel  with  the  ecclesiastical  es- 
tablislnnent,  the  civil  magistrate  has  no- 
tliing  to  do  with  it ;  vuiless  their  tenets 
and  practice  are  such  as  threaten  i-uin 
or  disturbance  to  tlie  state.  All  perse- 
cution for  diversity  of  opinions,  however 
ridiculous  and  absurd  they  may  be,  is 
contrary  to  every  principle  of  sound  po- 
licy and  civil  freedom.  The  names  and 
subordination  of  the  clergy,  the  posture 
of  devotion,  the  materials  and  colour  of 
a  minister's  garment,  the  joining  in  a 
known  or  unknown  form  of  pra\er,  and 
otlicr  matters  of  the  same  kind,  must 
be  left  to  the  option  of  every  man's  pri- 
vate judgment."  The  following  hav; 
been  proposed  as  remedies  for  schism. 
"  1.  Be  disposed  to  support  your  breth- 
ren by  all  the  friendly  attentions  in  )'our 
power,  speaking  justly  of  their  prcarh- 


ing  and  character.  Never  withhold 
these  proofs  of  your  brotherly  love,  un- 
less they  depart  from  the  doctrines  or 
spirit  of  the  Gospel. — 2.  Discountenance 
the  silly  reports  you  may  hear,  to  the  in- 
juiy  of  any  of  your  brethren.  Oppose 
backbiting  and  slander  to  the  utmost. — 
3.  Whenever  any  brother  is  sinking  in 
the  esteem  of  his  flock  through  their  ca- 
price, perverseness,  or  antinomianism, 
endeavour  to  hold  up  his  hands  and  his 
heart  in  his  work. — 4.  Never  espouse 
the  part  of  the  factious  schismatics,  till 
you  have  heard  your  brother's  account 
of  their  conduct. — 5.  In  cases  of  an  open 
separation,  do  not  preach  for  separatists 
till  it  be  evident  that  God  is  with  them. 
Detest  the  thought  of  wounding  a  bro- 
ther's feelings  through  the  contemptible 
influence  of  a  party  spirit ;  for  through 
this  abominable  principle,  schisms  are 
sure  to  be  multiplied. — 6.  Let  the  symp- 
toms of  disease  in  the  patients,  arouse 
the  benevolent  attention  of  the  physi- 
cians. Let  them  check  the  froward, 
humble  the  proud,  and  warn  the  un- 
ruly ;  and  many  a  schismatic  distemper 
will  receive  timely  cure. — 7.  Let  elderly 
ministers  and  tutors  of  academies  pay- 
more  attention  to  these  things,  in  pro- 
portion as  the  disease  may  prevail ;  for 
much  good  may  be  accomplished  by 
their  influence."  See  ICi/ig  on  the  Pri- 
mitive Church,  p.  152 ;  Hales  and IIe?iri/ 
on  Schism  ;  Dr.  Campbell's  Prel.  Disc, 
to  the  Gosfiels,  part  3 ;  Haweis's  Afi- 
pendix  to  the  Jirst  vol.  of  his  Church 
History  ;  Archibald  Hall's  View  of  a 
Gos/iel  Church ;  Dr.  Owen's  View  of 
the  jYature  of  Schis?n  ;  Buck's  Ser- 
mons, ser.  6.  on  Divisions. 

SCHISM  BILL.  See  conclusion  of 
the  article  Nonconformist. 

SCHOLASTIC  DIVINITY,  is  that 
part  or  species  of  divinity  which  clears 
and  discusses  questions  by  reason  and 
argument ;  in  which  sense  it  stands,  in 
some  measure,  opposed  to  positive  di- 
vinity, which  is  founded  on  the  authority 
of  fathers,  councils,  &c.  The  school 
divinity  is  now  fallen  into  contempt,  and 
is  scarcely  regarded  any  where  but  in 
some  of  the  universities,  where  they 
arc  still  by  their  charters  obliged  to 
teach  it. 

SCHOOLMEN,  a  sect  of  men,  in 
the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  fourteenth 
centuries,  who  fiamed  a  new  sort  of  di- 
vinity, called  Scholastic  Theology.  [See 
last  article.]  Their  divinity  was  found- 
ed upon,  and  confirmed  by,  the  philoso- 
phy of  Aristotle,  and  lay,  says  Dr.  Gill, 
in  contentions  and  litigious  disputations, 
in  thorny  questions  and  sul^tle  distinc- 
tions.   Their  whole  scheme  was  chiefly 


SCO 


547 


SCR 


directed  to  support  Aiitichristianism ; 
so  that  by  their  means  Popish  darkness 
was  the  more  increased,  and  Chi'istian 
divinity  almost  banished  out  of  the 
world. 

"  Considering  them  as  to  their  meta- 
physical researches,"  sa\'s  an  anony- 
mous but  excellent  writer,  "  they  fa- 
tigued their  readers  in  the  pursuit  of 
endless  abstractions  and  distinctions ; 
and  theii^ design  seems  rather  to  have 
been  accurately  to  arrange  and  define 
the  objects  of  thought  than  to  explore 
the  mental  faculties  themselves.  The 
nature  of  particular  and  univei'sal  ideas, 
time,  space,  hifinity,  together  with  the 
mode  of  existence  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
Supreme  Being,  chiefly  engaged  the  at- 
tention of  the  mightiest  minds  in  the 
middle  ages.  Acute  in  the  highest  de- 
gree, and  endued  with  a  wonderful  pa- 
tience of  thinking,  they  yet,  by  a  mis- 
taken direction  of  their  powers,  wasted 
themselves  in  endless  logomachies,  and 
displayed  more  of  a  teazing  subtlety 
than  of  philosophical  depth.  They 
ohose  rather  to  strike  into  the  dark  and 
intricate  by-paths  of  metaphysical  sci- 
ence, than  to  pursue  a  career  of  useful 
discovery ;  and  as  their  disquisitions 
were  neither  adorned  by  taste,  nor  rear- 
ed on  a  basis  of  extensi\-e  knowledge, 
they  gradually  fell  into  neglect,  when 
juster  views  in  philosophy  made  their 
appearance.  Still  they  will  remain  a 
mighty  monument  of  the  utmost  which 
the  mind  of  man  can  accomplish  in  the 
field  of  abstraction.  If  the  metaphysi- 
cian does  not  find  in  the  schoolmen  the 
materials  of  his  work,  he  will  perceive 
the  study  of  their  writings  to  be  of  excel- 
lent benefit  in  shai-peninghis  tools.  They 
will  aid  his  acuteness,  though  they  may 
fail  to  enlarge  his  knowledge." 

Some  of  the  most  famous  were.  Da- 
mascene, Lanfranc,  P.  Lombard,  Alex. 
Hales,  Bonaventure,  Thomas  Aquinas, 
Duns  Scotus,  and  Durandus.  Giirs  Bo- 
dy of  Divinity,  Preface;  Elective  Rev. 
for  Dec.  1805 ;  H.  Move's  Hints  to  a 
Young  Princess,  vol.  ii.  p.  267,  268. 

SCORNER,  one  Avho  treats  any 
person  or  thine  with  contempt.  "  He 
deems,"  says  Mr.  Scott,  "  his  own  un- 
derstanding equal  to  the  discovery,  in- 
vestigation, and  even  comprehension,  of 
every  subject:  he  therefore  rejects  as 
false  whatever  he  cannot  account  for, 
what  he  finds  contrary  to  his  precon- 
ceived sentiments,  and  what  is  out  of 
the  reach  of  his  reason  ;  and,  indeed,  all 
that  tends  to  condemn  his  conduct,  or 
expose  his  folly." 
'\V  bCOTISTS,  a  sect  of  school  divines 
and  philosophers  J  thus  called  from  their 


founder,  J.  Duns  Scotus,  a  Scottish  cor- 
delier, who  maintained  the  immaculate 
conception  of  the  Virgin,  or  that  she 
was  born  without  original  sin,  in  oijpo- 
sition  to  Thomas  Aquinas  and  the  Tho- 
mists. 

SCRIBE.  This  word  has  different 
significations  in  Scriptui-e.  1.  A  clerk, 
or  writer,  or  secretary,  2  Sam.  viii.  17 
— 2.  A  commissary,  or  muster-master 
of  the  army,  2  Chron.  xxvi.  11.2  Kings, 
XXV.  19. — 3.  A  man  of  learning,  a  doc-^ 
tor  of  the  law,  1  Chron.  xxvii.  32. 

SCRIPTURE  is  a  word  derived  from 
the  Latin  scri/itura,  and  in  its  original 
sense  is  of  the  same  import  with  writing, 
signifying  "any  thing  written."  It  is, 
however,  commonly  used  to  denote  the 
writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, which  are  called  sometimes  the 
Scri/itu7-es,  sometimes  the  sacred  or  ho- 
ly Scrifitures,  and  sometimes  cano?iical 
Scrijitures.  These  books  are  called  the 
Scriptures  by  way  of  eminence,  as  they 
are  the  most  important  of  all  writings. — 
They  are  said  to  be  holy  or  sacred  on 
account  of  the  sacred  doctrines  which 
they  teach ;  and  they  are  termed  ca- 
nonical, because,  when  their  number  and 
authenticity  were  ascertained,  their 
names  were  inserted  in  ecclesiastical 
canouf,  to  distinguish  them  from  other 
books,  which,  being  of  no  authority,  were 
kept  out  of  sight,  and  therefore  styled 
ajiocryjihal.    See  Apocrypha.  . 

Among  other  arguments  for  the  di- 
vine authority  of  the  Scriptures,  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  considered  as  worthy  of 
our  attention  : 

"  1.  The  sacred  penmen,  the  pro- 
phets and  apostles,  were  holy,  excellent 
men,  and  ivoiUd  not — artless,  illiterate 
men,  and  therefore  could  not,  lay  the 
horrible  scheme  of  deluding  mankind. 
The  hope  of  gain  did  not  influence  tliem, 
for  they  wei'e  self-denying  men,  that 
left  all  to  follow  a  Master  who  had  not 
where  to  lay  his  head;  and  whose 
grand  initiating  maxim  was.  Except  a 
man  forsake  all  that  he  hath,  he  cannot 
be  my  disciple. — They  wei-e  so  disinter- 
ested, that  they  secured  nothing  on 
earth  but  hunger  and  nakedness,  stocks 
and  prisons,  racks  and  tortures ;  which, 
indeed,  was  all  tliat  the}^  could  or  did 
expect,  in  consequence  of  Christ's  ex- 
press declarations.  Neither  was  a  de- 
sire of  honour  the  motive  of  their  ac- 
tions ;  for  their  Lord  himself  was  treat- 
ed with  the  utmost  contempt,  and  had 
more  than  once  assured  them  that  th.ey 
should  certainly  share  the  same  fate  : 
besides,  they  were  humble  men,  not 
above  working  as  mechanics,  for  a 
coarse  maintenance ;  and  so  littlfe  desi- 


SCR 


548 


SCR 


yrius  of  h\iman  regard,  that  they  ex- 
posed to  tlie  world  the  meanness  oi  their 
birth  and  occupations,  their  great  igno- 
rance and  scandalous  falls.  Add  to  this 
that  they  were  so  many,  and  lived  at 
such  dist;\nce  of  time  and  place  fi-om 
each  othei',  that,  had  they  been  impos- 
tors, it  would  have  been  impracticable 
for  them  to  contrive  and  carry  on  a  for- 
geiy  without  being  detected.  And,  as 
they  neither  would  nor  could  deceive 
the  world,  so  they  neither  could  nor 
would  be  deceived  themselves ;  for  they 
were  davs,  months,  and  years,  eye  and 
ear-witnesses  of  the  things  which  they  ] 
relate ;  and,  when  they  had  not  the 
fiillest  evidence  of  important  facts,  they 
insisted  upon  new  proofs,  and  even  upon 
sensible  demonstrations ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, Thomas,  in  the  matter  of  our 
Lord's  resuiTection,  John  xx.  25 ;  and 
to  leave  us  no  room  to  question  their 
sincerity,  most  of  them  joyfully  sealed 
the  truth  of  their  doctrines  with  their 
own  blood.  Did  so  many  and  such 
marks  of  veracity  ever  meet  in  any 
other  authors  ? 

"  ?.  But  even  while  they  lived,  they 
confirmed  their  testimony  by  a  variety 
of  miracles  wrought  in  divers  places, 
and  for  a  number  of  years,  sometimes 
before  thousands  of  their  enemies,  as 
the  miracles  of  Christ  and  his  disciples  ; 
sometimes  before  hundreds  of  thousands, 
as  those  of  Moses.    (See  Miracle.) 

"  3.  Reason  itself  dictates,  that  nothing 
but  the  plainest  matter  of  fact  could  in- 
duce so  many  thousands  of  prejudiced 
and  persecuting  Jews  to  embrace  the 
humbling  self-denying  doctrine  of  the 
cross,  which  they  so  much  despised  and 
abhoiTed.  Nothing  but  the  clearest 
evidence  arising  from  undoubted  truth 
could  make  multitudes  of  lawless,  luxu- 
rious heathens  receive,  follow,  and 
transmit  to  posterity,  the  doctrine  and 
writings  of  the  apostles ;  especially  at 
a  time  when  the  vanity  of  their  preten- 
sions to  miracles  and  the  gift  of  tongues, 
could  be  so  easily  discovered,  had  they 
been  impostors ;  and  when  the  profession 
of  Christianity  exposed  persons  of  all 
ranks  to  the  greatest  contempt  and 
most  imminent  danger. 

"  4.  When  the  authenticity  of  the  mii-a- 
cles  Avas  attested  by  thousands  of  living 
witnesses,  religious  rites  were  instituted 
and  performed  by  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands agreeable  to  Scripture  injunctions, 
in  order  to  perpetuate  that  authenticity  .- 
and  these  solemn  ceremonies  have  ever 
since  been  kept  up  in  all  parts  of  the 
world;  the  Passover  by  the  Jews,  in 
remembrance  of  Moses's  miracles  in 
Egypt;   and  the  Eucharist  by  Chris- 


tians, as  a  memorial  of  Christ's  death, 
and  the  miracles  that  accompanied  it, 
some  of  which  are  recorded  by  Phlegon 
the  Trallian,  an  heathen  historian. 

"5.  The  Scriptures  have  not  only  the 
external  sanction  of  miracles,  but  the 
eternal  stamp  of  the  omniscient  God  by 
a  variety  of  pi'ophecies,  some  of  which 
have  already  been  most  exactly  con- 
firmed by  the  event  predicted.  (See 
Prophecy.) 

"  6.  The  scattered,  despised  people, 
the  Jews,  the  irreconcileable  enemies 
of  the  Christians,  keep  with  amazing 
care  the  Old  Testament,  full  of  the  pro- 
phetic history  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  by 
that  means  afford  the  world  a  striking 
proof  that  the  New  Testament  is  true  ; 
and  Christians,  in  their  turn,  show  that 
the  Old  Testament  is  abundantly  con- 
firmed and  explained  by  the  New.  (See 
Jews,  §  4.) 

"  7.  To  say  nothing  of  the  harmony, 
venerable  antiquity,  and  wonderful  pre- 
servation of  those  books,  some  of  which 
are  by  far  the  most  ancient  in  the  world ; 
to  pass  over  the  inimitable  simplicity 
and  true  sublimity  of  their  style ;  the 
testimony  of  the  fathers  and  the  pri- 
mitive Chi-istians;  they  cai'ry  with 
them  such  characters  of  truth,  as  com- 
mand the  respect  of  every  unprejudiced 
reader. 

"  They  open  to  us  the  mystery  of  the 
creation ;  the  nature  of  God,  angels, 
and  man  ;  the  immortality  of  the  soul ; 
the  end  for  which  we  were  made ;  the 
origin  and  connexion  of  moral  and  na- 
tural evil ;  the  vanity  of  this  world,  and 
the  glory  of  the  next.  There  we  see 
inspired  shepherds,  tradesmen,  and  fish- 
ermen, surpassing  as  much  the  greatest 
philosophers,  as  these  did  the  herd  of 
mankind,  both  in  meekness  of  wisdom 
and  sublimity  of  doctrine. — There  we 
admire  the  purest  morality  in  the  world, 
agreeable  to  the  dictates  of  sound  rea- 
son, confirmed  by  the  witness  which 
God  has  placed  for  himself  in  our  breast, 
and  exemplified  in  the  lives  of  men  of 
like  passions  with  oui'selves. — There 
we  discover  a  vein  of  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory and  theological  tnith  consistently 
running  through  a  collection  of  sixty-six 
diflei-ent  books,  written  by  various  au- 
thors, in  different  languages,  during  the 
space  of  above  1500  years. — There  we 
find,  as  in  a  deep  and  pure  spring,  all  the 
genuine  drops  and  streams  of  spiritual 
j  knowledge  which  can  possibly  be  met 
with  in  the  largest  libraries. — There  the 
workings  of  the  human  heart  are  de- 
scribed in  a  manner  that  demonstrate  the 
inspiration  of  the  Searcher  of  hearts. 
I  — Tliere  we  have  a  particidar  account 


SCR 


549 


SCR 


of  all  our  spii'itvial  maladies,  with  their 
various  symptoms,  and  the  method  of  a 
certain  cuve ;  a  cure  that  has  been 
witnessed  by  multitudes  of  martyrs  and 
departed  saints,  and  is  now  enjoyed  by 
thousands  of  good  men,  who  would  ac- 
count it  an  honour  to  seal  the  tnitli  of 
the  Scriptures  with  their  own  blood. — 
There  you  meet  with  the  noblest  strains 
of  penitential  and  joyous  devotion,  adapt- 
ed to  the  dispositions  and  states  of  all 
travellers  to  Sion. — And  there  you  read 
those  awful  threatenings  and  cheering 
promises  which  are  daily  fulfilled  in  the 
consciences  of  men,  to  the  admiration  of 
believers,  and  the  astonishment  of  at- 
tentive infidels. 

"  8.  The  wonderful  efiicacy  of  the 
Scriptures  is  another  proof  that  they  are 
of  God.  When  they  are  faithfully  open- 
ed by  his  ministers,  and  powerfully  ap- 
plied by  his  Spirit,  they  wound  and 
heal,  they  kill  and  7nake  alive ;  they 
alarm  the  careless,  direct  the  lost,  sup- 
port the  tempted,  strengthen  the  weak, 
comfort  mourners,  and  nourish  pious 
souls. 

"  9.  To  conclude  :  It  is  exceedingly 
remarkable,  tliat  the  more  humble  and 
holy  people  are,  the  more  they  read, 
admire,  and  value  the  Scriptui'es  :  and, 
on  the  contrary,  the  more  self-conceit- 
ed, worldly-minded,  and  wicked,  the 
more  they  neglect,  despise,  and  a.sperse 
them. 

"  As  for  the  objections  which  are 
raised  against  their  perspicuity  and  con- 
sistency, those  who  are  both  pious  and 
learned,  know  that  they  ai'e  generally 
founded  on  prepossession,  and  the  want 
of  understanding  in  spiritual  things  ;  or 
on  our  ignorance  of  several  customs, 
idioms,  and  circumstances,  which  were 
perfectly  known  when  those  books  were 
Avritten.  Frecjuently,  also,  the  imma- 
terial error  arises  merely  from  a  wrong- 
punctuation,  or  a  mistake  of  copiers, 
printers,  or  translators ;  as  the  daily 
discoveries  of  pious  critics,  and  inge- 
nious confessions  of  unprejudiced  enqui- 
rers, abundantly  prove." 

To  understand  the  Scriptures,  says 
Dr.  Campbell,  we  should,  1.  Get  ac- 
quainted with  each  writer's  style. — 
2.  Inquire  carefully  into  the  character, 
the  situation,  and  the  office  of  the  wri- 
ter; the  time,  the  place,  the  occasion 
of  his  writing ;  and  the  people  for  whose 
immediate  use  he  originally  intended 
his  work. — 3.  Consider  the  principal 
scope  of  the  book,  and  the  particulars 
chiefly  observable  in  the  method  by 
which  the  writer  has  purposed  to  exe- 
cute his  design. — 4.  Where  the  phrase 
is  obscure,  the  context  must  be  con- 


sulted. This,  however,  will  not  always 
answer. — 5.  If  it  do  not,  consider  whe- 
ther the  phrase  be  any  of  the  writer's 
peculiarities :  if  so,  it  must  be  inquired 
what  is  the  acceptation  in  which  he  em- 
ploys it  in  other  places. — 6.  If  this  be  not 
sufficient,  recourse  should  be  had  to  the 
parallel  passages,  if  there  be  any  such, 
in  the  other  sacred  writers.*— 7.  If  this 
throws  no  light,  consult  the  New  Tes- 
tament and  the  Septuagint,  where  the 
word  may  be  used. — 8.  If  the  term  be 
only  once  used  in  Scripture,  then  recur 
to  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term 
in  classical  authors. — 9.  Sometimes  re- 
ference may  be  had  to  the  fathers. — 
10.  The  ancient  versions,  as  well  as  mo- 
dern scholiasts,  annotators,  and  transla- 
tors, may  be  consulted. — 11.  The  analo- 
gy of  faith,  and  the  etymology  of  the 
word,  must  be  used  with  caution. 

A-bove  all,  let  the  reader  unite  prayqr 
with  his  endeavours,  that  his  under- 
standing may  be  illuminated,  and  his 
heart  impressed  with  the  great  ti-uths 
which  the  sacred  Scriptures  contain. 

As  to  the  Jiublic  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, it  may  be  remarked,  that  this  is  a 
very  laudable  and  necessary  practice. 
"  One  circumstance,"  as  a  writer  ob- 
serves, "  why  this  should  be  attended  to 
in  congi-egations  is,  that  numbers  of  the 
hearers,  in  mftny  places,  cannot  read 
them  themselves,  and  not  a  few  of  them 
never  hear  them  read  in  the  families 
whei'e  they  reside.  It  is  sti'ange  that 
this  has  not  long  ago  struck  every  per- 
son of  the  least  reflection  in  all  our 
churches,  and  especially  the  ministers, 
as  a  most  conclusive  and  irresistible  ar- 
gument for  the  adoption  of  this  prac- 
tice. 

"  It  surely  would  be  better  to  abridge 
the  preaching  and  singing,  and  even  the 
prayers,  to  one  half  of  their  length  or 
more,  than  to  neglect  the  public  read- 
ing of  the  Scriptures.  Let  these  things, 
therefore,  be  duly  considered,  together 
with  the  following  reasons  and  obsei-va- 
tions,  and  let  the  reader  judge  and  de- 
termine the  case,  or  the  matter,  for 
himself. 

"Remember  that  God  no  sooner 
caused  any  part  of  his  will,  or  woi'd,  to 
be  written,  than  he  also  commanded  the 
same  to  be  read,  not  only  in  the  family, 
but  also  in  the  congregation,  and  that 
even  when  all  Israel  were  assembled  to- 
gether (the  men,  women,  and  children, 
and  even  the  strangers  that  were  within 
their  gates ;)  and  the  end  was,  that  they 
might  hear,  and  that  they  might  learn, 
and  fear  the  Lord  their  God,  and  ob- 
serve to  do  all  the  words  of  hit.  inv, 
Deut.  xxxi.  12. 


SCR 


550 


SEC 


"  Afterward,  when  sijnag-ogiies  were 
erected  in  the  land  of  Israel,  that  the 
people  might  every  Sabbath  meet  to 
worship  God,  it  is  well  known  that  the 
public  reading  of  the  Scripture  was  a 
main  part  of  the  service  there  per- 
formed :  so  much  so,  that  no  less  than 
three-fourths  of  the  time  was  generally 
employed,  ft  seems,  in  reading  and  ex- 
pounding the  Scriptures.  Even  the 
prayers  and  songs  used  on  those  occa- 
sions appear  to  have  been  all  subser- 
vient to  that  particular  and  principal 
employment  or  service,  the  reading  of 
the  law. 

"  This  work,  or  practice,  of  reading 
the  Scripture  in  the  congregation,  is 
warranted,  and  recommended  in  the 
New  Testament,  as  well  as  in  the  Old. 
As  Christians,  it  is  fit  and  necessary 
that  we  should  first  of  all  look  unto 
Jesus,  who  is  the  author  and  finisher  of 
cur  faith.  His  example,  as  well  as  his 
precepts,  is  full  of  precious  and  most 
important  instruction ;  and  it  is  a  re- 
markable circumstance,  which  ought 
never  to  be  forgotten,  that  he  begaii  his 
public  ministry,  in  the  synagogue  of  Na- 
zai'eth,  by  reading  a  portion  of  Scriji- 
ture  out  of  the  "book  of  the  prophet 
Isaiah  ;  Luke,  iv.  15. — 19.  This  alone, 
one  would  think,  might  be  deemed  quite 
sufficient  to  justify  the  practice  among 
his  disciples  through  all  succeeding 
ages,  and  even  inspire  them  with  zeal 
for  its  constant  observance. 

"  The  apostle  Paul,  in  pointing  out  to 
Timothy  his  ministerial  duties,  particu- 
larly mentions  reading,  1  Tim.  iv.  13. 
Give  attendance  (says  he)  to  reading, 
to  exhortation,  to  doctrine,  evidently 
distinguishing  reading  as  one  of  the 
public  duties  incumbent  upon  Timothy. 
There  can  be  no  reason  for  sej^arating 
these  three,  as  if  the  former  was  only  a 
private  duty,  and  the  others  public  ones ; 
the  most  natural  and  consistent  idea  is, 
that  they  were  all  three  public  duties  ; 
and  that  the  reading  here  spoken  of, 
was  no  other  than  the  reading  of  the 
Scriptures  in  those  Christian  assemblies 
where  Timothy  was  concerned,  and 
which  the  apostle  would  have  him  by 
no  means  to  neglect.  If  the  public 
reading  of  the  Scriptures  was  so  neces- 
sary and  important  in  those  religious 
assemblies  which  had  Timothy  for  tlieir 
minister,  how  nuich  more  must  it  be  in 
our  asseni!)lies,  and  even  in  those  which 
enjoy  the  labours  of  our  most  able  and 
eminent  ministers  I" 

On  the  subject  of  the  Scriptures,  we 
must  refer  the  reader  to  the  articles 
BiBtE,  Canon,  Inspiration,  Pro- 
phecy, and  Revelation.     See  also 


Bronm''s  Introduction  to  his  Bible ; 
Dr.  Campbell's  Preliminary  Disserta- 
tions to  his  Transl.  of  the  Gospels ; 
Fletcher's  Appeal;  Siinon's  Critical 
History  of  the  Old  and  A''e'iv  Test.;  Os- 
ten>ald's  Arguinents  of  the  Books  and 
Characters  of  the  Old  and  Kevj  Test.  ; 
Cosins's  Scholastic  Hist,  of  the  Canon  of 
Scrip.;  Warden's  System  of  Revealed 
Religion ;  Wells's  Geography  of  the 
Old  and  Mw  Test.;  the  Use  of  Sa- 
cred History,  especially  as  illustrating 
and  confirming  the  Doctrine  of  Revela- 
tion, by  Dr.  Jamieson  ;  Dick  on  Inspi- 
ration ;  Blackivell's  Sacred  Classics ; 
Michael's  Introduction  to  the  JVew  Test.; 
Melmoth's  Sublime  and  Beautiful  of  the 
Scrijitures  ;  Dwight's  Dissertation  on 
the  Poetry,  History,  and  Eloquence  of 
the  Bible  ;  Edwards  on  the  Authority, 
Style,  and  Perfectioji  of  Scripture ; 
Stackhouse's  History  of  the  Bible;  Ken- 
nicott's  State  of  the  Hebrew  Text ; 
Jones  on  the  Figurative  Language  of 
Scripture;  and  books  under  articles 
Bible,  Commentary,  Christianity, 
and  Revelation. 

SECEDERS,  a  numerous  body  of 
Presbyterians  in  Scotland,  who  have 
withdrawn  from  the  communion  of  the 
established  church. 

In  1732,  more  than  forty  ministers 
pi'escnted  an  address  to  the  general 
assembly,  specifying,  in  a  variety  of 
instances,  what  they  considered  to  be 
great  defections  from  the  established 
constitution  of  the  church,  and  craving 
a  redress  of  these  grievances.  A  peti- 
tion to  the  same  effect,  subscribed  by 
several  hundreds  of  elders  and  private 
Christians,  was  offered  at  the  same 
time  ;  but  the  assembly  refused  a  hear- 
ing to  both,  and  enacted,  that  the  elec- 
tion of  ministers  to  vacant  charges, 
where  an  accepted  presentation  did  not 
take  place,  should  be  comjietent  only  to 
a  conjunct  meeting  of  elders  and  heri- 
tors, being  Protestants.  To  this  act 
many  objections  were  made  by  num- 
bers of  ministers  and  private  Christians. 
They  asserted  that  more  than  thirty  to 
one  in  every  parish  were  not  possessed 
of  landed  property,  and  were,  on  that 
account,  dcpri\ed  of  what  they  deemed 
their  natural  right  to  choose  their  own 
pastors.  It  was  also  said  that  this  act 
was  extremely  pi-ejudicial  to  the  honour 
and  interest  of  the  church,  as  well  as  to 
the  edification  of  the  people ;  and,  in 
fine,  that  it  was  directly  contrary  to  the 
appointment  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the 
])ract!ce  of  the  apostles,  when  they 
filled  up  the  first  vacancy  in  the  aposto- 
lic college,  and  appointed  the  election  of 
deacons   and    eldei's  in  the  primitive 


SEC 


551 


SEC 


church.  Many  of  those  also  who  were 
thought  to  be  the  best  friends  of  the 
church  expressed  their  fears,  that  this 
act  would  have  a  tendency  to  overturn 
the  ecclesiastical  constitution  which  was 
established  at  the  revolution. 

Mr.  Ebenezer  Erskine,  minister  at! 
Stirling,  distinguished  himself  by  a  bold  j 
and  determined  opposition  to  the  mea- 
sures of  the  assembly  in  1732.  Being  at 
that  time  moderator  of  the  synod  of 
Perth  and  Stirling,  he  opened  the  meet- 
ing at  Perth  with  a  sermon  from  Psalm 
cxviii.  22.  "  The  stone  which  the 
builders  rejected,  is  become  the  head 
stone  of  the  corner."  In  the  course  of 
his  sei-mon,  he  remonstrated  with  no  i 
small  degree  of  freedom  against  the  act 
of  the  preceding  assembly,  with  regard 
to  the  settlement  of  ministers  ;  and  al- 
leged that  it  was  contrary  to  the  word 
of  God  and  the  established  constitution 
of  the  church.  A  formal  complaint  was 
lodged  against  him  for  uttering  several 
offensive  expressions  in  his  sermon  be- 
fore the  synod.  Many  of  the  members 
declared  that  they  heard  him  utter 
nothing  but  sound  and  seasonable  doc- 
trine ;  but  his  accusers,  insisting  on  their 
complaint,  obtained  an  appointment  of 
committee  of  synod  to  collect  what  were 
called  the  offensive  expressions,  and  to 
lay  them  before  the  next  chet  in  writing. 
This  was  done  accordingly;  and  Mr. 
Ei-skine  gave  in  his  answers  to  every 
article  of  the  complaint.  After  three 
day's  warm  reasonmg  on  this  affair,  the 
synod,  by  a  majority  of  six,  found  him 
censurable ;  against  which  sentence  he 
protested,  and  appealed  to  the  next  ge- 
neral assembly.  When  the  assembly 
met  in  May  1733,  it  confirmed  the  sen- 
tence of  the  synod,  and  appointed  Mr. 
Erskine  to  be  rebuked  and  admonished 
from  the  chair.  Upon  which  he  pro- 
tested, that  as  the  assembly  had  found 
him  censurable,  and  had  rebuked  him 
for  doing  what  he  conceived  to  be  agreea- 
ble to  the  word  of  God  and  the  standards 
of  the  church,  he  should  be  at  liberty  to 
preach  the  same  truths,  and  to  testify 
against  the  same  or  similar  evils,  on 
every  proper  occasion.  To  this  pro- 
test Messrs.  William  Wilson,  minister 
at  Perth,  Alexander  Moncrief,  minister 
at  Abemethy,  and  James  Fisher,  minis-  j 
ter  at  Kinclaven,  gave  in  a  written  ad-  | 
herence,  under  the  form  of  instrument ;  I 
and  these  four  withdrew,  intending  to  i 
return  to  their  respective  charges,  and  { 
act  agreeably  to  their  protest  whenever  • 
they  should  have  an  opportunity.  Had  ! 
the  affair  rested  here,  there  never  would  1 
have  been  a  secession ;  but  the  assembly  } 
resolving  to  carry  the  process,  cited ! 


them  by  their  officer,  to  compear  next 
day.  They  obeyed  the  citation ;  and  a 
committee  was  appointed  to  retire  with 
them,  in  order  to  persuade  them  to  with- 
draw their  protest.  The  committee 
having  reported  that  they  still  adhered 
to  their  protest,  the  asscmljly  ordered 
them  to  appear  before  the^ommission 
in  August  following,  and  i^ract  their 
protest ;  and,  if  they  should  not  com- 
ply and  testify  their  sorrow  for  their 
conduct,  the  commission  was  empower- 
ed to  suspend  them  from  the  exci'cise 
of  their  ministry,  with  certification  that, 
if  they  should  act  contrary  to  the  said 
sentence,  the  commission  should  pro- 
ceed to  an  higher  censure. 

The  commission  met  in  August  ac- 
cordingly ;  and  the  four  ministers,  still 
adhering  to  their  protest,  were  suspend- 
ed from  the  exercise  of  their  office,  and 
cited  to  the  next  meeting  of  the  com- 
mission in  November  following.  From 
this  sentence  several  ministers  and  el- 
ders, members  of  the  commission,  dis- 
sented. The  commission  met  in  No- 
vember, and  the  suspended  ministers 
compeared.  Addresses,  representa- 
tions, and  letters  from  several  s\'nods 
and  presbyteries,  relative  to  the  business 
now  befoi'e  the  commission,  were  re- 
ceived and  read.  The  synods  of  Dum- 
fries, Murray,  Ross,  Angus  and  Mc;;i-iis, 
Perth  and  Stirling,  craved  that  the  com- 
mission would  delay  proceeding  to  a 
higher  censure.  The  synods  of  Gallo- 
way and  Fife,  as  also  the  presbytei'v  of 
Dornoch,  addressed  the  commission  for 
lenity,  tenderness,  and  forbeai'ance  to- 
wards the  suspended  ministers ;  and 
the  presbytery  of  Aberdeen  represent- 
ed, that,  in  their  judgment,  the  sentence 
of  suspension  inflicted  on  the  aforesaid 
ministers  was  too  high,  and  that  it  was 
a  stretch  of  ecclesiastical  authority. 
Many  members  of  the  commission  rea- 
soned in  the  same  manner,  and  alleged, 
that  the  act  and  sentence  of  last  assem- 
bly did  not  oblige  them  to  proceed  to  a 
higher  censure  at  this  meeting  of  the 
commission.  The  question,  however, 
was  put, — Proceed  to  a  higher  censure 
or  not  ?  and  the  votes  being  numbered, 
Avere  found  equal  on  both  sides :  upon 
which  Mr.  John  Goldie,  the  moderator, 
gave  his  casting  vote  to  proceed  to  a 
higher  censure ;  which  stands  in  their 
minutes  in  these  words  : — "  The  com- 
mission did  and  hereby  do  loose  the  re- 
lation of  IMr.  Ebenezer  Erskine,  minis- 
ter at  Stirling,  Mr.  William  Wilson, 
minister  at  Perth,  Mr.  Alexander  Mon- 
crief, minister  at  Abernethy,  and  Mr. 
James  Fisher,  minister  at  Kinclaven,  to 
their  respective  charge,  and    declare 


SEC 


552 


SEC 


them  no  longer  ministers  of  this  church  ; 
and  do  hereby  prohibit  all  ministers  of 
this  church  to  employ  them,  or  anv  of 
them,  in  any  ministerial  function.  And 
the  commi -^  ion  do  declare  the  churches 
of  the  said  ministers  vacant  from  and 
after  the  date  of  this  sentence." 

This  s^tence  being  intimated  to 
them,  theTprotested  that  their  minis- 
terial office  and  relation  to  their  respec- 
tive charges  should  be  held  as  valid  as 
if  no  such  sentence  had  passed;  and 
that  they  were  now  obliged  to  make  a 
secessio?!  from  the  prevailing  party  in 
the  ecclesiastical  courts ;  and  that  it 
shall  be  lawful  and  warrantable  for  them 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  and  discharge 
every  branch  of  the  pastoral  office,  ac- 
cording to  the  word  of  God,  and  the 
established  princij)les  of  the  church  of 
Scotland.  Mr.  Ralph  Erskine,  minister 
at  Dunfermline,  Mr.  Thomas  Mair, 
minister  at  Orwel,  Mr.  John  M'Larcn, 
minister  at  Edinburgh,  Mr.  John  Cur- 
rie,  minister  at  Kinglassie,  Mr.  James 
Wardlaw,  minister  at  Dunfermline,  and 
Mr.  Thomas  Narin,  minister  at  Abbot- 
shall,  protested  against  the  sentence  of 
the  commission,  and  that  it  should  be 
lawful  for  them  to  complain  of  it  to  any 
subsequent  general  assembly  of  the 
church. 

The  secession  properly  commenced 
at  this  date.  And  accordingly  the  eject- 
ed ministers  declared  in  their  protest, 
that  they  were  laid  under  the  disagreea- 
ble necessity  of  seceding,  not  from  the 
principles  and  constitution  of  the  church 
of  Scotland,  to  which,  they  said,  they 
steadfastly  adhered,  but  from  the  pre- 
sent church-courts,  which  had  thi'own 
them  out  from  ministerial  communion. 
The  assembly,  however,  which  met  in 
May  1734,  did  so  far  modify  the  above 
sentence,  that  they  empowered  the  sy- 
nod of  Perth  and  Stirling  to  receive  the 
ejected  ministers  into  the  communion  of 
the  church,  and  restore  them  to  tlieir 
respective  charges;  but  with  this  ex- 
press direction,  "  that  the  said  synod 
should  not  take  upon  them  to  judge  of 
the  legality  or  forntality  of  the  former 
procedure  of  the  church  judicatories  in 
relation  to  this  affair,  or  either  approve 
or  censure  the  same."  As  this  appoint- 
ment neither  condemned  the  act  of  the 


communion  of  the  established  church. 
They  now  erected  themselves  into  an 
ecclesiastical  court,  which  they  called 
the  Associated  Presbytery,  and  preach- 
ed occasionally  to  numbers  of  the  peo- 
ple who  joined  them  in  different  parts  of 
the  country.  They  also  published  what 
they  called  an  Act,  Declaration,  and 
Testimony,  to  the  doctrine,  worship, 
government,  and  discipline  of  the  church 
of  Scotland ;  and  against  several  in- 
stances, as  they  said,  of  defection  from 
these,  both  in  former  and  in  the  present 
times.  Some  time  after  this,  several 
ministers  of  the  established  church  join- 
ed them,  and  the  Associated  Presbyteiy 
now  consisted  of  eight  ministers.'  But 
the  general  assembly  which  met  in 
1738,  finding  that  the  number  of  Se- 
ceders  was  much  increased,  ordered  the 
eight  ministers  to  be  seived  with  a  libel, 
and  to  be  cited  to  the  next  meeting  of 
the  assembly,  in  1739.  They  now  ap- 
peared at  the  bar  as  a  constituted  pres- 
bytery, and,  ha^•ing  formerly  declined 
the  assembl)'s  authority,  they  imme- 
diately withdrev/.  The  assembly  which 
met  next  year,  deposed  them  from  the 
office  of  the  ministry  ;  which,  however, 
they  contuiued  to  exercise  in  their  re- 
spective congregations,  who  still  ad- 
hered to  them,  and  erected  meeting- 
j  liouses,  where  they  preached  till  theu' 
I  death.  Mr.  James  Fisher,  the  last  sur- 
j  vivor  of  them,  was  bv  a  unanimous 
i  call  in  1741,  translated  from  Kinclaven 
I  to  Glasgow,  where  he  continued  in  the 
j  exercise  of  his  ministry  among  a  nu- 
j  merous  congregation,  respected  by  all 
!  ranks  in  that  large  city,  and  died  in 
j  177.5,  much  regretted  by  his  people  and 
i  friends.  In  1745,  the  seceding  minis- 
;  ters  were  become  so  numerous,  that  they 
were  erected  into  three  different  pres- 
I  byteries  under  one  synod,  when  a  very 
j  unprofitable  dispute  divided  them  uito 
i  two  parties. 

I  The  burgess  oath,  in  some  of  the  royal 
j  boroughs  of  Scotland,  contains  the  f'ol- 
I  lowing  clause :  "  I  profess  and  allow  with 
my  heart  the  true  religion  presentlypi"0- 
I  fessed  within  this  realm,  and  authorised 
I  by  the  laws  thereof.  I  will  abide  at  and 
1  defend  the  same  to  my  life's  end,  re- 
nouncing the  Romish  religion  called 
Papistry y  Messrs.  Ebenczer  and  Ralph 


preceding  assembly,  nor  the  conduct  of  !l  F.rskine,  James  Fisher,  and  others,  af- 
the  commission,  the  seceding  ministers  i|  firmed  that  this  clause  was  no  way  con- 
considered  it  to  be  rather  an  art  of  jj  trary  to  the  principles  upon  which  the 
grace   than  of  justice ;    and  therefore,  i  secession  was  formed,  and  that  there- 


they  said,  they  could  not  return  to  the 
church-courts  upon  this  ground  ;  and 
they  published  to  the  world  the  reasons 
of  their  refusal,  and  the  terms  upon 
which  they  were  willing  to  return  to  the 


fore  every  seceder  might  lawiully  swear 
it.  Messrs.  Alexander  Moncrief,  Tho- 
mas Mair,  Adam  Gib,  and  others,  con- 
tended, on  the  other  hand,  that  the 
swearing  of  the  above  clause  was  a  vii 


SEC 


55^ 


SEC 


tual  renunciation  of  thcii-  testimony; 
and  this  controversy  was  so  keenly  agi- 
tated, that  they  spht  into  two  diflerent 
parties,  and  noAv  meet  in  different  sy- 
nods. Those  of  them  who  assert  the 
Jawfuhiess  of  swearing  the  burgess  oath 
are  called  Burghers;  and  the  other 
party,  who  condemn  it,  are  called  Anti- 
burgher  Seceders.  Each  jDarty  claiming 
to  itself  the  lawful  constitution  of  the 
Associate  Synod,  the  Antiburghers,  af- 
ter several  previous  steps,  excommuni- 
cated the  Burghers,  on  the  ground  of 
their  sin,  and  of  their  contumacy  in  it. 
I'his  inipture  took  place  in  1747,  since 
which  pei'iod  no  attempts  to  effect  a  I'e- 
union  have  been  successful.  They  re- 
main under  the  jurisdiction  of  different 
synods,  and  hold  separate  communion, 
although  much  of  their  former  hostility 
has  been  laid  aside.  The  Antiburghers 
consider  the  Burghers  as  too  lax,  and 
not  sufficiently  steadfast  to  their  testi- 
mony. The  Burgtiers,  on  the  other 
hand,  contend  that  the  Antiburghers  are 
too  rigid,  in  that  they  have  introduced 
new  teiins  of  communion  into  the  society. 

What  follows  in  this  article  is  a  far- 
ther account  of  those  who  are  common- 
ly called  the  Burgher  Seceders.  As 
there  were  among  them,  from  the  com- 
mencement of  their  secessions,  several 
students  who  had  been  educated  at  one 
or  other  of  the  universities,  they  ap- 
pointed one  of  their  ministers  to  give 
lectures  in  theology,  and  train  up  can- 
didates for  the  ministry. 

Where  a  congregation  is  very  nu- 
merous, as  in  Stirling,  Dunfermline,  and 
Perth,  it  is  formed  into  a  collegiate 
charge,  and  provided  with  two  minis- 
ters. They  are  erected  into  six  differ- 
ent presbyteries,  united  in  one  general 
synod,  which  commonly  meets  at  Edin- 
burgh in  May  and  Septembei-.  They 
have  also  a  synod  in  Ireland,  composed 
of  three  or  four  different  presbyteries. 
They  are  legally  tolei'ated  in  Ireland ; 
and  government,  some  years  ago,  grant- 
ed 500/.  fier  annum,  and  of  late  an  addi- 
tional 500/.  which,  when  divided  among 
them,  affords  to  each  muiister  about 
20/.  over  and  above  the  stipend  which  he 
receives  from  his  hearers.  These  have, 
besides,  a  presbytery  in  Nova  Scotia ; 
and,  some  years  ago,  it  is  said,  that  the 
Burgher  and  the  Antiburgher  ministers 
residmg  in  the  United  States  formed  a 
coalition,  and  joined  in  a  general  synod, 
which  they  call  the  Synod  of  JVew-'York 
and  Pennsylvania.  They  all  preach  the 
doctrines  contained  hi  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith,  and  Catechisms,  as 
they  believe  these  to  be  founded  on  the 
sacred  Scriptures.  They  catechise  their 


hearers  publicly,  and  visit  them  from 
house  to  house  once  every  year.  They 
will  not  give  the  Lord's  supper  to  those 
who  are  ignorant  of  the  principles  of 
the  Ckispel,  nor  to  such  as  are  scanda- 
lous and  immoral  in  their  lives.  They 
condemn  private  baptism ;  nor  will  they 
admit  those  who  are  grossly  ignorant 
and  profane  to  be  sponsol's  for  their 
children.  Believing  that  the  people  have 
a  natural  right  to  choose  their  own  pas- 
tors, the  settlement  of  their  ministei's 
always  proceeds  upon  a  popular  elec- 
tion ;  and  the  candidate,  who  is  elected 
by  the  majority,  is  ordained  amon^ 
them.  Convinced  that  the  charge  ot 
souls  is  a  trust  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance, they  carefully  watch  over  the  mo- 
rals of  their  students,  and  direct  them 
to  such  a  course  of  reading  and  study 
as  they  judge  most  proper  to  qualify 
them  for  the  profitable  discharge  of  the 
pastoral  duties.  At  the  ordination  of 
their  ministers,  they  use  a  formula  of 
the  same  kind  with  that  of  the  esta- 
blished church,  which  their  ministers 
are  bound  to  subscribe  Avhen  called  to 
it ;  and  if  any  of  them  teach  doctrines 
contrary  to  the  Scriptures,  or  the  West- 
minster Confession  of  Faith,  they  are 
sure  of  being  thrown  out  of  their  com- 
munion. By  this  means,  uniformity  of 
sentiment  is  preserved  among  them ; 
nor  has  any  of  their  ministers,  except- 
ing one,  been  prosecuted  for  error  in 
doctrine  since  the  commencement  of 
their  secession. 

They  believe  that  the  holy  Scrip- 
tures are  the  sole  criterion  of  truth,  and 
the  only  inile  to  direct  mankind  to  glori- 
fy and  enjoy  God,  the  chief  and  etemal 
good ;  and  that  "  the  supreme  Judge, 
by  which  all  controversies  of  religion 
are  to  be  determined,  and  all  the  de- 
crees of  councils,  opinions  of  ancient 
writers,  doctrines  of  men  and  private 
spirits,  are  to  be  examined,  and  in 
whose  sentence  we  are  to  rest,  can  be 
no  other  but  the  Holy  Spirit  speaking 
in  the  Scriptures."  They  are  fully 
persuaded,  however,  that  the  standards 
of  public  authoi'ity  in  the  church  of 
Scotland  exhibit  a  just  and  consistent 
view  of  the  meaning  and  design  of  the 
holy  Scriptures  with  regard  to  doctrine, 
worship,  government,  and  discipline; 
and  they  so  far  differ  from  the  dissen- 
ters in  England,  in  that  they  hold  these 
standards  to  be  not  only  articles  of 
peace  and  a  test  of  oi-thodoxy,  but  as  a 
bond  of  union  and  fellowship.  They 
consider  a  simple  declaration  of  ad- 
herence to  the  Scriptures  as  too  equi- 
vocal a  proof  of  unity  in  sentiment, 
because  Arians,  Socinians,  and  Armi- 
4  A 


SF.C 


554 


SEE 


nians,  make  such  a  confession  of  theii' 
faith,  while  they  retain  sentiments  which 
they  (the  Seceders)  apprehend  are  sub- 
versive of  the  great  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel.  They  believe  that  Jesus  Christ 
is  the  only  King  and  Head  of  the  church, 
which  is  his  body;  that  it  is  his  sole  pre- 
rogative to  enact  laws  for  the  govern- 
ment of  hfs  kingdom,  which  is  not  of 
this  world  ;  and  that  the  chui'ch  is  not 
possessed  of  a  legislative,  but  only  of  an 
executive  power,  to  be  exercised  in  ex- 
plaining and  applying  to  their  proper 
objects  and  end  those  laws  which  Christ 
hath  published  in  the  Scriptures.  Those 
doctrines  which  they  teach  relative  to 
faith  and  practice  are  exhibited  at  great 
length  in  an  Explanation  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly's  Shorter  Catechism, 
by  way  of  question  and  answer,  in  two 
volumes,  composed  chiefly  by  Mr.  James 
Fisher,  late  of  Glasgow,  and  published 
by  desire  of  their  synod. 

For  these  fifty  yeai-s  past,  the  grounds 
of  their  secession,  they  allege,  have  been 
greatly  enlarged  by  the  public  admhiis- 
trations  of  the  established  church,  and 
particularly  by  the  uniform  execution 
of  the  law  respecting  patronage,  which, 
they  say,  has  obliged  many  thousands 
of  piivate  Christians  to  withdraw  from 
the  parish  churches,  and  join  their  so- 
ciety. 

In  most  of  their  congregations,  they 
celebrate  the  Loi-d's  supper  twice  in 
the  year ;  and  they  catechise  their 
young  people  concerning  their  know- 
ledge of  the  principles  of  religion  pre- 
viously to  their  admission  to  that  sacra- 
ment.— When  any  of  them  fall  into  the 
sin  of  fornication  or  adulter}^,  the  scan- 
dal is  'I'egularly  purged  according  to 
the  form  of  process  in  the  established 
church ;  and  those  of  the  delinquents 
•who  do  not  submit  to  adequate  censure 
are  publicly  declared  to  be  fugitives 
from  discipline,  and  are  expelled  the 
sdciety.  They  never  accept  a  sum  of 
money  as  a  commutation  for  the  offence. 
They  condemn  all  clandestine  and  ii're- 
gular  marriages;  nor  will  they  marry 
any  persons  unless  they  have  been  pro- 
claimed in  the  parish  chuich  on  two 
different  Lord's  days  at  least. 

The  constitution  of  the  Antiburgher 
church  difters  very  little  from  that  of 
the  Buvghers.  I'he  supreme  court 
among  them  is  designated  T/ie  General 
Associate  Sijnod,  having  under  its  juris- 
diction three  provincial  synods  in  Scot- 
land and  one  in  Ireland.  They,  as  well 
as  the  Burgher  Seceders,  have  a  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  whose  lectui-es  every 
candidate  for  the  office  of  a  preacher  is 
obligcxi  to  attend. 


SECT,  a  collective  term,  compre- 
hending all  such  as  follow  the  doctrines 
and  opinions  of  some  divine,  philosopher, 
&c.  The  word  sect,  says  Dr.  Camp- 
bell, (Prelim.  Diss.)  among  the  Jews, 
was  not  in  its  application  entirely  com- 
cident  with  the  same  term  as  applied 
by  Christians  to  the  subdivisions  sub- 
sisting among  themselves.  We,  if  I 
mistake  not,  invariably  use  it  of  those 
who  form  separate  communions,  and  do 
not  associate  with  one  another  in  reli- 
gious worship  and  ceremonies.  Thus, 
we  call  Papists,  Lutherans,  Calvinists^ 
different  sects,  not  so  much  on  account 
of  their  differences  in  opinion,  as  be- 
cause they  have  established  to  them- 
selves different  fraternities,  to  which,  in 
what  regards  public  worship,  they  con- 
fine themselves  ;  the  several  denomina- 
tions above-mentioned  having  no  inter- 
community with  one  another  in  sacred 
matters.  High  church  and  low  church 
we  call  only  parties,  because  they  have 
not  formed  separate  communions.  Great 
and  known  differences  in  opinion,  when 
followed  b)'  no  external  breach  in  the 
society,  are  not  considered  with  us  as 
constituting  distinct  sects,  though  their 
differences  in  opinion  may  give  rise  to 
mutual  aversion.  Now,  in  the  Jewish 
sects  (if  we  except  the  Samaritans,) 
there  Avere  no  separate  communities 
erected.  The  same  temple,  and  the 
same  synagogues,  were  attended  alike 
bjr  Pharisees  and  by  Sadducees:  nay, 
there  were  often  of  both  denominations 
in  the  Sanhedrim,  and  even  in  the  priest- 
hood.— Another  diffei-ence  was  also, 
that  the  name  of  the  sect  was  not  ap- 
plied to  all  the  people  who  adopted  the 
same  opinions,  but  solely  to  the  men  of 
eminence  among  them  who  were  con- 
sidered as  the  leaders  of  the  party. 

SECULAR  CLERGY.  See  Cler- 
gy. 

SECUNDIANS,  a  denomination  in 
the  second  century  which  derived  their 
name  from  Secundus,  a  disciple  of  Va- 
lentine. He  maintained  the  doctrine  of 
tAvo  eternal  principles,  viz.  light  and 
dai'kncss,  whence  arose  the  good  and 
evil  that  arc  observable  in  the  universe. 
See  Valentinians. 

SEDUCER,  one  who  decoys  or  draAvs 
aAvay  another  from  that  Avhi'ch  is  right. 

SEEKERS,  a  denomination  which 
arose  in  the  year  1645.  They  deri\^ed 
their  name  from  their  maintaining  that 
the  true  church  ministiy.  Scripture, 
and  ordinances,  were  lost,  for  Avhicn  they 
Avere  seeking.  They  taught  that  the 
Sc.riptui*&s  were  uncertain ;'  that  present 
miracles  Avere  necessary  to  faith  ;  that 
our  ministry  is  Avithout  authority ;  and 


SEL 


'>55 


SEL 


that  our  worship  and  ordinances  are 
unnecessaiy  or  vain. 

SELEUCIANS,  disciples  of  Selcu- 
cus,  a  philosopher  of  Galatia,  wlio,  about 
the  year  380,  adopted  the  sentiments  of 
Hermogenes  and  those  of  Audaius.  He 
taught,  with  the  Valentinians,  that  Je- 
sus Christ  assumed  a  body  only  in  ap- 
pearance. He  also  maintained  that  the 
world  was  not  made  by  God,  but  was 
co-etenial  with  him  ;  and  that  the  soul 
was  only  an  anhnated  fii'e  created  by 
the  angels ;  that  Christ  does  not  sit  at 
the  right  hand  of  the  Father  in  a  hu- 
man body,  but  that  he  lodged  his  bofly 
in  the  sun,  according  to  Ps.  xix.  4  ;  and 
that  tlie  pleasures  of  beatitude  consisted 
in  corporeal  delight. 

SELF-DECEPTION,  includes  all 
those  various  frauds  which  we  practise 
on  ourselves  in  forming  a  judgment,  or 
receiving  an  impression  of  our  st^ite, 
character,  and  conduct;  or  those  de- 
ceits which  make  our  hearts  impose  on 
us  in  making  us  promises,  if  they  may 
be  so  termed,  which  are  not  kept,  and 
contracting  engagements  which  are  ne- 
ver performed.  Self-deception,  as  one 
«bser\-es,  appears  in  the  following  cases : 
"  1.  In  judging  of  our  own  character,  on 
which  we  too  easily  confer  the  name  of 
self-examination,  how  often  may  we  de- 
tect ourselves  in  enhancing  the  merit  of 
the  good  qualities  we  possess,  and  in 
giving  ourselves  credit  for  others,  which 
we  really  have  not. — 2.  When  several 
motives  or  passions  concur  in  prompting 
us  to  aijy  action,  we  too  easily  assign  the 
chief  place  and  effect  to  the  best. — 3. 
We  are  too  prone  to  flatter  ourselves 
bv  indulging  the  notion  that  our  habits 
of  \'ice  are  but  individual  acts,  into 
which  we  have  been  seduced  by  occa- 
sional temptations,  while  wc  are  easily 
led  to  assign  the  name  of  haliits  to  our 
occasional  acts  and  uidividual  instances 
of  virtue.— 4.  We  confound  the  mere 
assent  of  the  understanding  naturally, 
attended  by  some  correspondent  but 
transient  sensibilities,  with  the  impulses 
of  the  affections  and  determination  of  the 
will. — 5.  We  are  apt  to  ascribe  to  set- 
tled principles  the  good  actions,  which 
are  the  mere  effect  of  natural  temper. — 
6.  As  sometimes,  in  estimating  the  cha- 
racter of  others,  we  too  hastily  infer  the 
right  motive  from  the  outward  act ;  so 
in  judging  of  ourselves  we  over-rate  the 
worth,  by  over-valuing  the  motives  of 
our  actions. — 7.  We  often  confound  the 
non-appeai'ance  of  a  vicious  affection 
with  its  actual  extinction. — 8.  We  often 
decei^■e  ourselves  by  comparing  our  ac- 
tual with  our  former  character  and  con- 
duct, and  perhaps  too  easijy  ascribing 


to  the  extirpation  of  vicious,  or  the  im- 
plantation of  virtuous  habits,  that  im- 
provement which  is  owing  merely  to  the 
lapse  of  time,  advancing  age,  altered 
circumstances,  8cc. — 9.  Another  gene- 
ral and  fertile  source  of  self-deception 
is  our  readiness  to  excuse,  or  at  least  to 
extenuate,  the  vices  of  our  particular 
station:  while  we  congratulate  ourselves 
on  the  absence  of  other  vices  which  we 
are  under  no  temptation  to  commit. — 

10.  We  deceive  ourselves  by  supposing 
our  remorse  for  sin  is  genuine,  when, 
alas,  it  does  not  lead  to  repentance. — 

11.  By  forming  improper  judgments  of 
others,  and  forming  our  own  conduct 
upon  theirs."  From  this  view  we  may 
learn,  1.  That  the  objects  as  to  which 
meti  deceive  themselves  are  very  nu- 
merous ;  God,  Jesus  Christ,  the  holy- 
Spirit,  the  Bible  and  Gospel  doctrines, 
religious  experience,  sin,  heaven,  hell, 
8cc. — 2.  The  causes  are  great  and  pow- 
erful ;  sin,  Satan,  the  heart,  the  world, 
interest,  prejudice. — 3.  The  numbers 
who  deceive  themselves  are  great;  the 
young,  the  aged,  the  lich,  the  poor,  self- 
rigliteous,  hs  pocritcs,  apostates,  the  un- 
godly.— 4.  The  ci<ils  are  many  and  aw- 
ful. It  renders  us  tlie  slaves  of  procras- 
tination, leads  us  to  over-rate  ourselves, 
flatters  us  with  an  idea  of  easy  victoiy, 
confirms  our  evil  habits,  and  exposes  us 
to  the  gi-catcst  danger. — 5.  'W'c  should 
endeavour  to  understand  and  practise 
the  means  not  to  be  deceived ;  such  as 
strict  self-inquiry,  prayer,  watchful- 
ness, and  ever  taking  the  Sicriptures  for 
our  guide. — 6.  And  lastly,  we  should 
learn  to  ascei-tain  the  evidence  of  not 
being  deceived,  which  are  such  as  these : 
when  sin  is  the  object  of  our  increasing 
fear,  a  tenderness  of  conscience,  when 
we  can  appeal  to  God  as  to  the  sincerity 
of  our  motives  and  aims,  when  depen- 
dent on  God's  promise,  providence,  and 
grace,  and  when  conformed  to  him  in  all 
righteousness  and  time  holiness.  Chriat. 
dbs.  1802,  p.  632,  633. 

SELF-DEDICATION,  the  giving 
up  of  ourselves  unreservedly  to  God ; 
that  we  may  serve  him  in  righteousness 
and  true  holiness.  See  Howe's  Works, 
vol.  i.  oct.  edit. 

SELF-DEFENCE  implies  not  only 
the  pi-esei  ition  of  one's  life,  but  also 
the  protec'  on  of  our  property,  because 
without  pioperty  I'fe  cannot  be  pre- 
sei'ved  in  x  civilized  nation. 

Some  c  ondemn  all  resistance,  whatso- 
ever he  the  evil  offered,  or  whosoever 
be  the  person  that  offers  it ;  others  will 
not  admit  that  it  should  pass  any  far- 
ther than  bare  resistance ;  others  say, 
that  it  must  never  be  carried  so  far  as 


SEL 


55b 


SEL 


hazarding  (he  life  of  the  assailant ;  and  I 
others  again,  who  deny  it  not  to  be  laiv- 
ful  in  some  cases  to  kill  the  aggressor, 
at  the  same  •  time  affirm  it  to  be  a 
thing  inoTc  laudable  and  consonant  to 
the  Gospel,  to  choose  rather  to  lose 
one's  life,  in  imitation  of  Christ,  than 
to  secure  it  at  the  expense  of  another's, 
in  pursuance  of  the  perinission  of  na- 
ture.   But, 

"Notwithstanding,"  says  Grove,  "the 
great  names  which  may  appear  on  the 
side  of  any  of  these  opinions,  I  cannot 
but  think  self-defence,  though  it  pro- 
ceeds to  the  killing  of  another  to  save 
one's  self,  is  in  common  cases  not  barely 
permitted,  but  enjoined  by  nature;  and 
that  a  man  would  be  wanting  to  the  Au- 
thor of  his  being,  to  societ)^,  and  to  him- 
self, to  abandon  that  life  with  which  he 
is  put  in  trust.  That  a  person  forfeits 
his  own  life  to  the  sword  of  justice,  by 
taking  aw^ay  another's  unprovoked,  is  a 
principle  not  to  be  disputed.  This  be- 
ing so,  I  ask,  whence  shovild  arise  the 
obligation  to  let  another  kill  me,  I'ather 
than  venture  to  save  myself  by  destroy- 
ing my  enemy  ?  It  cannot  arise  from  a 
regard  to  society,  which,  by  my  suffering 
another  to  kill  me,  loses  two  lives ;  that 
of  an  honest  man  by  unjust  violence,  and 
that  of  his  mui'derer,  if  it  can  be  called 
a  loss,  by  the  hand  of  justice.  Whei-eas, 
bj^  killing  the  invader  of  my  life,  I  only 
take  a  life,  which  must  otherwise  have 
been  forfeited,  and  preserve  the  life  of 
an  innocent  person.  Nor,  for  the  same 
reason,  can  there  be  any  such  obligation 
prising  from  the  love  of  our  neighbour; 
since  I  do  not  really  save  his  life  by 

Earting  with  my  own,  but  only  leave 
im  to  be  put  to  death  after  a  more  ig- 
nominious manner  by  the  public  execu- 
tioner. And  if  it  be  said  that  I  dispatch 
him  with  his  sins  upon  him  into  the 
other  world,  which  he  mi^ht  have  lived 
long  enough  to  repent  of,  if  legally  con- 
demned ;  as  he  must  answer  for  that, 
who  brought  me  under  a  necessity  of 
using  this  method  for  my  own  preserva- 
tion ;  so  I  myself  may  not  be  prepared, 
or  may  not  think  myself  so,  or  so  well 
assured  of  it  as  to  venture  into  the  pre- 
sence of  my  great  Judge ;  and  no  cha- 
rity obliges  me  to  prefer  the  safety  of 
another's  soul  to  my  own.  Self-defence, 
therefore,  may  be  with  justice  practised, 
1.  In  case  of  an  attempt  made  upon  the 
life  of  a  person,  against  which  he  has  no 
other  way  of  securing  himself  but  repel- 
ling force  by  force. — 2.  It  is  generally 
esteemed  lawful  to  kill  in  the  defence 
of  chastity,  supposing  thei'C  be  no  other 
way  of  preserving  it."  See  Grove's 
Moral  rhilosophy.    Also  Hints  on  the 


Lawfulness  of  Self-defence,  by  a  Scotch 
Dissenter. 

SELF-DENIAL,  a  term  that  de- 
notes our  relinquishing  every  thing  that 
stands  in  opposition  to  the  divine  com- 
mand, and  our  own  spiritual  welfare, 
Matthew,  xvi.  24.  It  does  not  consist  in 
denying  what  a  man  is,  or  what  he  has : 
in  refusing  favours  conferred  on  us  in 
the  course  of  providence ;  in  rejecting 
the  use  of  God's  creatures;  in  being 
careless  of  life,  health,  and  family;  in 
macerating  the  body,  or  abusing  it  in 
any  respect ;  but  in  renouncing  all  those 
pleasures,  profits,  views,  connections,  or 
practices,  that  are  prejudicial  to  the 
ti-ue  interests  of  the  soul.  The  under- 
standing must  be  so  far  denied  as  not  to 
lean  upon  it,  independent  of  divine  in- 
struction, Prov.  iii.  5,  6.  The  will  must 
be  denied,  so  far  as  it  opposes  the  will 
of  God,  Eph.  v.  17.  The  affections, 
when  they  become  inordinate.  Col.  iii. 
5.  The  gratification  of  the  members  of 
the  body  must  be  denied  when  out  of 
their  due  course,  Rom.  vi.  12,  13.  The 
honours  of  the  world,  and  praise  of  men, 
when  they  become  a  snare,  Heb.  xi.  24. 
— 26.  Worldly  emoluments,  when  to  be 
obtained  in  an  unlawful  way,  or  when 
standing  in  opposition  to  religion  and 
usefulness.  Matt.  iv.  20 — 22.  Friends 
and  relatives,  so  far  as  they  oppose  the 
truth,  and  would  influence  us  to  oppose 
it  too.  Gen.  xii.  1.  Our  own  righteous- 
ness, so  as  to  depend  upon  it,  Phil.  iii.  8, 
9.  Life  itself  must  be  laid  down,  if  call- 
ed for,  in  the  cause  of  Christ,  Matt.  xvi. 
24,  25.  In  fine,  every  thing  that  is  sin- 
ful must  be  denied,  however  pleasant, 
and  apparently  advantageous,  since, 
without  holiness,  no  man  shall  see  the 
Lord,  Heb.  xii.  14.  To  enable  us  to 
practise  this  duty,  let  us  consider  the 
injunction  of  Christ,  Matt.  xvi.  24 ;  his 
eminent  example,  Phil.  ii.  5,  8 ;  the  en- 
couragement he  gives.  Matt.  xvi.  25 ; 
the  example  of  his  saints  in  all  ages ; 
Heb.  xi. ;  the  advantages  that  attend  it, 
and,  above  all,  learn  to  implore  the  agen- 
cy of  that  Divine  Spirit,  without  whom 
we  can  do  nothing. 

SELF-EXAMINATION,  is  the  call- 
ing ourselves  to  a  strict  account  for  all 
the  actions  of  our  lives,  comparing  them 
with  the  woi'd  of  God,  the  rule  of  duty ; 
considering  how  much  evil  we  have 
committed,  and  good  we  have  omitted, 
j  It  is  a  duty  founded  on  a  divine  com- 
I  mand,  2  Cor.  xiii.  5.  and  ought  to  be,  1. 
j  Deliberately. — 2.  Frequently. — 3.  Im- 
j  partially. — 4.  Diligently. — 5.' Wisely. — 
j  And,  6.  With  a  desire  of  amendment. 
j  This,  though  a  legal  duty,  as  some  mo- 
1  deru  Christians  would  call  it,  is  essential 


SEL 


557 


SEL 


to  our  improvement,  our  felicity,  and 
interest.  "They,"  says  Mr.  Wilber- 
force,  {Pract.  Vkiv.)  "  who,  in  a  crazy 
vessel,  navigate  a  sea  wherein  are 
shoals  and  cun-ents  innumerable,  if  they 
would  keep  their  course,  or  reach  their 
port  in  safety,  must  carefully  repair  the 
smallest  injuries,  and  often  throw  out 
their  line,  and  take  their  observations. 
In  the  voyage  of  life,  also,  the  Christian 
who  would  not  make  shipwreck  of  his 
faith,  while  he  is  habitually  watchful 
and  provident,  must  make  it  his  express 
business  to  look  into  his  state,  and  as- 
certain his  progi-ess." 

SELF-EXISTENCE  OF  GOD  is 
his  entire  existence  of  himself,  not  owing 
it  to  any  other  being  whatsoever :  and 
thus  God  would  exist,  if  there  were  no 
other  being  in  the  whole  compass  of  na- 
ture but  himself.  See  Existence  and 
Eternity  of  God. 

SELF-GOVERNMENT.  See 
Heart. 

SELFISHNESS.  See  Self-seek- 
ing. 

SELF-KNOWLEDGE,  the  know- 
ledge of  one's  own  character,  abilities, 
duties,  principles,  prejudices,  tempei-s, 
secret  springs  of  action,  thoughts,  me- 
mory, taste,  views  in  life,  virtues,  and 
vices.  This  knowledge  is  commanded 
HI  the  Scriptures,  Psalm  iv.  4.  2  Cor. 
xiii.  5.  and  is  of  the  greatest  utility,  as 
it  is  the  spring  of  self-possession,  leads 
to  humility,  steadfastness,  charity,  mo- 
deration, self-denial,  and  promotes  our 
usefulness  in  the  world.  To  obtain  it, 
thei'e  should  be  watchfulness,  frequent 
and  close  attention  to  the  operations  of 
our  own  minds,  regard  had  to  the  opi- 
nions of  others,  conversation,  readmg 
the  Scriptures,  and  dependence  on  di- 
vine grace.  See  Mason  on  Self-know- 
ledge ;  Baxter's  Self-Acquaintance; 
Locke  on  the  Underst.;  Watts's  Im- 
firovement  of  the  Mind. 

SELF-LOVE  is  that  instinctive  piTn- 
ciple  which  impels  every  animaf  ra- 
tional and  irrational,  to  preserve  its  life 
and  promote  its  own  happiness.  "  It  is 
very  generally  confounded  with  selfish- 
•  ness ;  but,  perhaps,  the  one  propensity 
is  distinct  from  the  other.  Eveiy  man 
loves  himself,  but  ever}'  man  is  not 
selfish.  The  selfish  man  grasps  at  all 
immediate  advantages,  regardless  of 
the  consequences  which  his  conduct 
may  have  upon  his  neighbour.  Self- 
love  only  prompts  him  who  is  actuated 
by  it  to  pi-ocure  to  himself  the  greatest 
possible  sum  of  happiness  during  the 
whole  of  his  existence.  In  this  pursuit, 
the  rational  self-lover  will  often  forego 
a  present  enjoyment  to  obtain  a  greater 


\  and  more  permanent  one  in  reversion ; 
,  and  he  will  as  often  submit  to  a  present 
pain  to  avoid  a  greater  hereafter.    Self- 
|,  love,  as  distinguished  from  selfishness, 
[l  always   comprehends  the  whole  of  a 
i\  man's  existence ;  and,  in  that  extended 
;  sense  of  the  phrase,  even'  man  is  a  self- 
jl  lover ;  for,  with  eternity  in  his  view,  it 
j  is  surely  not  possible  for  the  most  disin- 
tei-ested  of  the  human  race  not  to  pre- 
ji  fer  himself  to  all  other  men,  if  their  fu- 
i  ture    and    everlasting   interests    could 
i  come  into  competition.     This,  indeed, 
j  they  never  can  do ;  for  though  the  in- 
I  troduction  of  evil  into  the  world,  and  the 
Ij  different  ranks  which  it  makes  neces- 
I,  saiy  in  society,  put  it  in  the  power  of 
Jl  a  man  to  raise  himself  in  the  present 
I  state  by  the  depression  of  his  neigh- 
bour, or  by  the  pi-actice  of  injustice ; 
!  yet,  in  the  pursuit  of  the  glorious  prize 
which  is  set  before  us,  there  can  be  no 
1  rivalship  among  the  competitors.    The 
j  success  of  one  is  no  injury  to  another  ; 
I  and    therefore,  in  this    sense    of    the 
I  phrase,  self-love  is  not  only  lawful,  but 
i  absolutely  unavoidable."  Self-love,  how- 
1  ever,  says  Jortin  (ser.  13,  vol.  iv.)  is  vi- 
i  cious,  1.  When  it  leads  us  to  judge  too 
j  favourably  of  our  faults. — 2.  When  we 
I  think  too  well  of  our  righteousness,  and 
1  over-value  our  good  actions,  and  arc 
1  pure  in  our  own  eyes. — 3.  When  we 
over-value  our  abilities,  and  entertain 
I  too  good  an  opinion  of  our  knowledge  and 
capacity. — 4.  When  we  are  proud  and 
I  vam  of^  inferior  things,  and  value  our- 
selves upon  the  station  and    circum- 
stances in  which,  not  our  own  deserts, 
I  but  some  other  cause,  has  placed  us. — 
I  5.  When  we  make  our  worldly  interest, 
;  convenience,  ease  or  pleasure,  the  great 
'  end  of  our  actions. 

I  Much  has  been  said  about  the  doctrine 
i  of  disinterested  love  to  God.  It  must 
I  be  confessed,  that  we  ought  to  love  him 
for  his  own  excellences ;  yet  it  is  difR- 
I  cult  to  form  an  idea  how  we  can  love 
j  God  unconnected  with  any  interest  to 
I  ourselves.  What,  indeed,  vfQ  ought  to 
j  do,  and  what  we  really  do,  or  can  do,  is 
!  veiy  diiFerent.  There  is  an  everlasting 
I  obligation  on  men  to  love  God  for  what 
\he  is,  however  incapable  of  doing  it;  but, 
i  at  the  same  time,  our  love  to  him  is  our 
interest ;  nor  can  we,  in  the  present 
state,  I  think,  while  possessed  of  such 
!  bodies  and  such  minds,  love  God  with  ■ 
j  out  including  a  sense  of  his  relative 
goodness.  "We  love  him,"  says  John, 
j  "  because  he  first  loved  us."  See  Love. 
j;  SELF-SEEKING,  the  aiming  at  our 
j'  own  interest  only  in  eveiy  thing  we  do. 
I  It  must  be  distinguished  from  that  re- 
!'  gard  which  we  ought  to  pay  to  the  pre- 


SEM 


558 


SEN 


scrvation  of  our  health,  the  cultivation 
of  our  minds,  the  lawful  concerns  of  bu- 
siness, and  the  salvation  of  our  souls. 
Self-seekmg  evidences  itself  by  parsimo- 
niousness,  oppression,  neglect,  and  con- 
tempt of  others,  rebellion,  sedition, 
egotism,  immoderate  attempts  to  gain 
fame,  power,  pleasure,  money,  and  fre- 
quently by  gross  acts  of  lying  and  injus- 
tice. Its  evils  are  iiumerous.  It  is  high- 
ly dishonourable  and  abasing;  trans- 
forming a  man  into  any  thing  or  every 
thbig  for  his  own  interest.  It  is  sinful, 
and  the  source  of  innumerable  suis  ;  as 
perjury,  hypocrisy,  falsehood,  idolatry, 
persecution,  and  murder  itself.  It  is 
dangerous.  It  excites  contempt,  is  the 
source  of  tyranny,  discord,  war,  and 
makes  a  man  a  slave,  and  exposes  him 
to  the  just  indignation  of  God.  The  re- 
Viedics  to  prevent  or  suppress  this  evil 
are  these.  Consider  that  it  is  absolute- 
ly prohibited.  Jerem.  xlv.  5.  Luke  ix. 
23.  Heb.  xiii.  5.  Col.  iii.  5.  A  mark  of 
a  wicked,  degenerate  mind ;  that  the 
most  awful  curses  are  pronounced 
against  it.  Isa.  v.  IS.  Hab.  iii.  9,  12. 
Isa.  XV.  1,  2.  Amos  vi.  1.  Mic.  ii.  1,2  : 
that  it  is  contrary  to  the  example  of  all 
wise  and  good  men  :  that  the  most  aw- 
ful examples  of  the  punishment  of  this 
sin  are  recorded  in  Scripture  ;  as  Pha- 
raoh, Achan,  Haman,  Gehazi,  Absalom, 
Ananias  and  Sapphira,  Judas,  and  many 
others. 

SEiMBIANI,  so  called  from  Sembia- 
nus  then-  leader,  who  condemned  all 
use  of  wine  as  evil  of  itself.  He  per- 
suaded his  followers  that  wine  was  a 
production  of  Satan  and  the  earth,  de- 
nied the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and 
rejected  most  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

SEMI-ARIANS,  were  thus  denomi- 
nated, because,  in  profession,  they  con- 
demned the  errors  of  the  Arians,  but  in 
reality  maintained  their  principles,  only 
palliating  and  concealing  them  under 
softer  and  more  moderate  terms.  They 
would  not  allow,  with  the  orthodox,  that 
the  Son  was  cixoaaics,  of  the  sayne  sub- 
stance, but  only  ojxoisTot,  of  a  like  sub- 
stance with  the  Father;  and  thus, 
though  in  expression  they  differed  from 
the  orthodox  in  a  single  letter  only,  yet 
in  effect  they  denied  the  divinity  of 
Jesus  Christ.  The  Senii-arianism  of  the 
moderns  consists  in  their  maintaining 
that  the  Son  was,  from  all  eternity,  be- 
gotten by  the  wi/l  of  the  Father ;  con- 
tra-y  to  the  doctrine  of  those  who  teach 
that  the  eternal  generation  is  neces- 
sary. Such,  at  least,  are  the  respec- 
ixve  opinions  of  Dr.  Clarke  and  Bishop 
flulL 


SEkl-PELAGIANS,  a  name  an- 
ciently, and  even  at  this  day,  given  to 
such  as  retain  some  tincture  of  Pela- 
gianism. 

Cassian,  who  had  been  a  deacon  of 
Constantinople,  who  was  afterwards  a 
priest  at  Marseilles,  was  the  chief  of 
these  Semi-Pelagians,  whose  leading 
principles  were,  1.  That  God  did  not  dis- 
pense his  grace  to  one  more  than  ano- 
ther, in  consequence  of  predestination, 
i.  e.  an  eternal  and  absolute  decree,  but 
was  willing  to  save  all  men,  if  they  com- 
plied with  the  terms  of  his  Gospel. — 2. 
That  Christ  died  for  all  men. — 3.  That 
the  grace  purchased  by  Christ,  and  ne- 
cessary to  salvation,  was  offered  to  ail 
men.— -4.  That  man,  before  he  received 
grace,  was  capable  of  faith  and  holy  de- 
su'es. — 5.  That  man  was  born  free,  and 
was,  consequentl)^  capable  of  i-esisting 
the  influences  of  grace,  or  of  complying 
with  its  suggestion. — 6.  The  Semi-Pela- 
gians were  very  numerous ;  and  the 
doctrine  of  Cassian,  though  variously  ex- 
plained, was  received  in  the  greatest 
part  of  the  monastic  schools  in  Gaul, 
from  whence  it  spread  itself  far  and 
wide  through  the  European  provinces. 
As  to  the  Greeks,  and  other  Eastern 
Christians,  they  had  embraced  the  Se- 
mi-Pelagian doctrines  before  Cassian. 
In  the  sixth  century  the  controversy  be- 
tween the  Semi-Pelagians  and  the  dis- 
ciples of  Augustin  prevailed  much, 
and  continned  to  divide  the  Western 
churches. 

SENSATION  properly  signifies  that 
internal  act  by  which  we  are  made 
conscious  of  pleasure  or  pain  felt  at  the 
organ  of  sense.  As  to  sensations  and 
feelings,  says  Dr.  Reid,  some  belong  to 
the  animal  part  of  our  nature,  and  are 
common  to  us  with  the  biiites ;  others 
belong  to  the  rational  and  moral  part. 
The  first  are  more  properlv  called  se>i- 
satio?is;  the  \a.st,  feelings.  The  French 
word  sentiment  is  common  to  both.  The 
design  of  the  Almighty  in  giving  us  both 
the  painful  and  agreeable  feelings  is, 
for  the  most  part,  obvious,  and  well  de- 
serving our  notice.  1.  The  painful  sen- 
sations are  admonitions  to  avoid  what  * 
would  hurt  us ;  and  the  agreeable  sen- 
sations to  invite  us  to  those  actions  that 
are  necessary  to  the  preservation  of  the 
individual  or  the  kind. — 2.  By  the  same 
means,  nature  invites  us  to  moderate 
bodily  exercise,  and  admonishes  us  to 
avoid  idleness  and  inactivity  on  the  one 
hand,  and  excessive  labour  on  the  other. 
— o.  The  moderate  exercise  of  all  our 
rational  powers  gives  pleasui'c.-— 4. 
Every  species  of  beauty  is  beheld  with 
pleasure,  and  every  species  of  defonnity 


SEP 


559 


SEP 


with  disgust. — 5.  The  benevolent  af- 
fections are  all  accompanied  with  an 
agreeable  feeling;  the  malevolent  on 
the  coritra.ry;  and, — 6.  The  highest, 
the  noblest,  and  the  most  durable  plea- 
sure is  that  of  doing  well ;  and  the  most 
bitter  and  painful  sentiment,  the  anguish 
and  remorse  of  a  guilty  conscience.  See 
Theorie  des  Sentimens  ylgreables;  Reid 
on  the  Intellectual  Powers,  p.  332 ; 
Kaims's  Elements  of  Criticism,  vol.  ii. 
p.  501. 

SENSE,  a  faculty  of  the  soul,  where- 
by it  perceives  external  objects  by 
means  of  impressions  made  on  the  or- 
gans of  the  body. 

Moral  Sense  is  said  to  be  an  appre- 
liension  of  that  beauty  or  deformity 
which  arises  in  the  mind  by  a  kind  of 
natural  instinct,  previously  to  any  rea- 
soning upon  the  remoter  consequences 
of  actions.  Whether  this  really  exists 
or  not,  is  disputed.  On  the  affirmative 
side  it  is  said,  that,  1.  We  approve  or 
disapprove  certain  actions  without  de- 
liberation.— 2.  This  approbation  or  dis- 
approbation is  uniform  and  universal. 
But  against  this  opinion  it  is  answered, 
that,  1.  This  uniformity  of  sentiment 
does  not  pervade  all  nations. — 2.  Appro- 
bation of  particular  conduct  arises  from 
a  sense  of  its  advantages.  The  idea 
continues  when  the  motive  no  longer 
exists ;  receives  strength  from  au- 
thority, imitation,  &c.  The  efficacy  of 
imitation  is  most  observable  in  children. 
— 3.  There  are  no  maxims  universally 
tiiie,  but  bend  to  circumstances. — 4. 
There  can  be  no  idea  without  an  object, 
and  instinct  is  inseparable  from  the  idea 
of  the  object.  See  Paley^s  Moral  Phi- 
losophy,  vol.  1.  chap.  v. ;  Hutcheson  on 
the  Passions,  p.  245,  &c. ;  Alason's  Ser- 
mons, vol.  i.  p.  253. 

SEPTUAGINT,  the  name  given  to 
a  Greek  version  of  the  books  of  the 
Old   Testament,   from   its   being  sup- 

Siosed  to  be  the  woi-k  of  seventy-two 
ews,  who  are  usually  called  the  seventy 
interpreters,  because  seventy  is  a  round 
number. 

Aristobulus,  who  was  a  tutor  to  Ptole- 
my Physcon ;  Philo,  who  lived  in  our 
Saviour's  time,  and  was  contemporary 
with  the  apostles;  and  Josephus,  speak 
of  this  translation  as  made  by  seventy- 
two  interpreters,  by  the  care  of  Deme- 
trius Phalereus,  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus.  All  the  Chi-istian  writers, 
during  the  first  fifteen  centuries  of  the 
Christian  aera,  have  admitted  this  ac- 
count of  the  Septuagint  as  an  undoubted 
fact ;  but,  since  the  reformation,  critics 
have  boldly  called  it  in  question.  But 
whatever  diiferences  of  opinions  there 


have  been  as  to  the  mode  of  translatit)fj, 
it  is  universally  acknowledged  that  such 
a  version,  whole  or  in  part,  existed ; 
and  it  is  pretty  evident  that  most  of  the 
books  must  have  been  translated  before 
our  Saviour's  time,  as  they  are  quoted 
by  him.  It  must  also  be  considered  as 
a  wonderful  providence  in  favour  of  the 
religion  of  Jesus.  It  prepared  the  way 
for  his  coming,  and  afterwards  gieatly 
promoted  the  setting  up  of  his  kingdom 
in  the  world;  for  hitherto  the  Scrip- 
tures had  remained  locked  up  from  all 
other  nations  but  the  Jews,  in  the  He- 
brew tongue,  which  was  understood  by 
no  other  nation  ;  but  now  it  was  trans- 
lated into  the  Greek  language,  which 
was  a  language  commonly  understood 
by  the  nations  of  the  world.  It  has  also 
been  with  great  propriety  observed, 
"that  there  are  many  words  and  forms 
of  speech  in  the  New  Testament,  the 
true  import  of  v/hich  cannot  be  known 
but  by  their  use  in  the  Septuagint.  This 
version  also  preserves  many  important 
words,  some  sentences,  and  several 
whole  verses  which  originally  made  a 
part  of  the  Hebi'ew  text,  but  have  long 
ago  entirely  disappeared.  This  is  the 
version,  and  this  only,  which  is  con- 
stantly used  and  quoted  in  the  Gospels 
and  by  the  apostles,  and  which  has 
tiierehy  received  the  highest  sanction 
which '  any  writings  can  possibly  re- 
ceive." 

There  have  been  various  editions  of 
the  Septuagint ;  such  as  Brcitenger's 
edition,  1730 ;  Boss's  edition,  1709 ; 
Daniel's  edition,  1653 ;  Mill's  edition, 
12mo.  1725 ;  bishop  Pearson's,  printed 
by  Field,  12mo.  1665  ;  but  Grabe's  edi- 
tion, published  in  1707,  is  in  great  re- 
pute. 

Dr.  Holmes,  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
was  employed  for  some  years  on  a  cor- 
rect edition  of  the  Septuagint.  He  had 
been  collating  from  more  than  three 
hundred  Greek  manuscripts ;  from 
twenty  or  more  Coptic,  Syriac,  Arabic, 
Sclavonian,  and  Armenian  manuscripts; 
from  eleven  editions  of  tlie  Greek  text 
and  versions;  and  from  near  thirty 
Greek  fathers,  when  death  prevented 
him  from  finishing  this  valuable  work. 
He  printed  the  whole  of  the  Pentateuch 
in  five  parts  folio  ;  and  lately  edited  the 
prophecy  of  Daniel  according  to  Thco- 
dotian  and  the  LXX.,  dc]iarting  from 
his  proposed  order,  as  if  by  a  presenti- 
ment 01  his  end.  This  valuable  work  is 
now  continued  by  Mr.  Parsons,  of  Cam- 
bridge. 

Those  v/ho  desire  a  larger  account  of 
this  translation,  may  consult  Hody  de 
Bib.    Textibus ;    Prideaux's    Comieo- 


SEP 


560 


SER 


tloyis;  Omen'' s  Imjuirij  into  the  Sefitua- 
i.nnt  Version;  Blah-^s  Lectures  on  the 
Canon;  and  Michaelis's  Introduction 
to  the  JVeiv  Testament ;  darkens  Bibli- 
otheca. 

SEPTUAGESIMA,  the  third  Sun- 
day before  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent ;  so 
called  because  it  was  about  70  days  be- 
fore Eastei*. 

SEPTUAGINT  CHRONOLOGY, 
the  chronology  which  is  formed  from 
the  dates  and  periods  of  time  mentioned 
in  the  Septuagint  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament.  It  reckons  1500  years  more 
from  the  creation  to  Abraham  than  the 
Hebrew  Bible.  Dr.  Kennicott,  in  the 
dissertation  prefixed  to  his  Hebrew  Bi- 
ble, has  shown  it  to  be  very  probable 
that  the  chronology  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  since  the  period  just  men- 
tioned, was  connjpted  by  the  Jews  be- 
tween the  years  175  and  200 ;  and  that 
the  chronology  of  the  Septuagint  is  more 
agi'eeable  to  truth.  It  is  a  fa,ct,  that 
during  the  second  and  third  centuries, 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  almost  en- 
tirely in  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  while 
the  Septuagint  was  confined  to  the  Chris- 
tians. The  Jews  had,  therefore,  a  very 
favourable  opportunity  for  this  corrup- 
tion. The  following  is  the  I'eason 
which  is  given  by  Oriental  writers ;  It 
being  a  very  ancient  tradition  that  Mes- 
siah was  to  coir.e  in  the  sixth  chiliad, 
because  he  was  to  come  in  the  last  days, 
(founded  on  a  mystical  application  of 
the  six  days  creation,)  the  contrivance 
was  to  shorten  the  age  of  the  world 
from  about  5500  to  3760 ;  and  thence  to 
prove  that  Jesus  could  not  be  the  Mes- 
siah. Dr.  Kennicott  adds,  that  some 
Hebrew  copies,  having  the  larger  chro- 
nology, were  extant  till  the  time  of  Eu- 
sebius,  and  some  till  the  year  700. 

SERIOUSNESS,  a  term  often  used 
as  s^nionymous  with  religion. 

SERMON,  a  discourse  delivered  in 
public  for  the  puipose  of  religious  in- 
struction and  improvement. 

In  order  to  make  a  good  sermon,  the 
following  thingb  may  be  attended  to. 
The  exordium  should  correspond  with 
the  subject  on  which  we  are  about  to 
treat.  For  this  purpose  the  context  of- 
ten forms  a  source  of  appropriate  re- 
mark ;  and  this,  though  called  a  hack- 
neyed way,  is  one  of  the  best  for  o])en- 
ing  gradually  to  the  subject ;  though,  I 
confess,  always  to  use  it  is  not  so  well, 
as  it  looks  formal.  There  are  some 
subjects  in  which  the  context  cannot  be 
consulted:  then,  perhajjs,  it  is  best  to 
begJH  v.'ith  eon>e  passage  of  Scripture 
apposite  to  the  sulDJect,  or  some  striking 
observation.    It  has  been  debated,  in- 


deed, whether  we  should  begin  with 
any  thing  particulai'ly  calculated  to  gain 
the  attention,  or  whether  we  should 
rise  gradually  in  the  strength  of  remark 
and  aptness  of  sentiment.  As  to  this, 
we  may  observe,  that,  although  it  is  ac- 
knowledged that  a  minister  should  flame 
most  towards  the  end,  perhaps  it  would 
be  well  to  guard  against  a  too  low  and 
feeble  manner  in  the  exordium.  It  has 
been  frequently  the  practice  of  making 
apologies,  by  way  of  introduction  : 
though  this  may  be  admitted  in  some 
singular  cases,  as  on  the  sudden  death 
of  a  minister,  or  disappointment  of  the 
preacher  through  unfoi-eseen  circum- 
stances ;  yet  I  think  it  is  often  made 
use  of  where  it  is  entirely  unnecessary, 
and  carries  with  it  an  air  of  affectation 
and  pride.  An  apology  for  a  man's  self 
is  often  more  a  reflection  than  any  thing 
else.  If  he  be  not  qualified,  why  have 
the  effrontery  to  engage  ?  and,  if  quali- 
fied, why  tell  the  people  an  untruth  ? 

Exordiums  should  be  short :  some 
give  us  an  abridgment  of  their  semnon  in 
their  inti'oduction,  which  takes  off  the 
people's  attention  afterwai'ds ;  others 
promise  so  much,  that  the  expectation 
thereby  I'aised  is  often  disappointed. 
Both  these  should  be  avoided;  and  a 
simple,  correct,  modest,  deliberate,  easy 
gi'adation  to  the  text  attended  to. 

As  to  the  filan.  Sometimes  a  text 
may  be  discussed  by  exposition  and  in- 
ference ;  sometimes  by  raising  a  propo- 
sition, as  the  general  sentiment  of  the 
text,  from  which  several  truths  may  be 
deduced  and  insisted  on  ;  sometimes  by 
general  observations ;  and  sometimes 
by  division.  If  we  discuss  by  exposition, 
then  we  should  examine  the  authenti- 
city of  the  reading,  the  accuracy  of  the 
translation,  and  the  scope  of  the  writer. 
If  a  proposition  be  raised,  care  should 
be  taken  that  it  is  founded  on  the  mean- 
ing of  the  text.  If  observations  be  made, 
they  should  not  be  too  numerous,  fo- 
reign, nor  upon  every  particle  in  the 
text.  If  by  division,  the  heads  should 
be  distinct  and  few,  yet  have  a  just  de- 
pendence on  and  connection  one  with 
the  other.  It  was  common  in  the  last 
two  centuries  to  have-such  a  multitude 
of  heads,  subdivisions,  observations,  and 
hiferences,  that  hardly  any  one  could 
remember  them :  it  is  tiie  custom  of  the 
present  day,  among  many,  to  run  into 
the  otlier  extreme,  and  to  have  no  di- 
vision at  all.  Tlii.s  is  equally  as  inju- 
i-ious.  "I  have  no  notion,"  says  one, 
"  of  the  great  usefulness  of  a  sermon 
without  heads  and  divisions.  They 
should  be  few  and  distinct,  and  not  co- 
incide.   But  a  general  harangue,  or  a 


SER 


561 


SER 


seitnon  with  a  concealed  division,  is 
very  improper  for  the  generality  of 
hearers,  especially  the  common  people, 
as  they  can  neither  remember  it,  nor  so 
well  understand  it."  Another  observes  : 
"  We  should  ever  remember  that  we 
are  speaking  to  the  plainest  capacities  ; 
and  as  the  arranging  oiir  ideas  properly 
is  necessary  to  our  being  understood,  so 
the  giving  each  division  of  our  discourse 
its  denomination  of  number,  has  a  happy 
effect  to  assist  the  attentwn  and  memory 
of  our  hearers." 

As  to  the  amfilification.  After  having 
laid  a  good  foundation  on  which  to  build, 
the  superstructure  should  be  raised  with 
care.  "Let  every  text  have  its  ti-ue 
meaning,  eveiy  truth  its  due  weight, 
every  hearer  his  proper  portion."  The 
reasoning  should  be  clear,  deliberate, 
and  strong.  No  flights  of  wit  should  be 
indulged ;  but  a  close  attention  to  the 
subject,  vv'ith  every  exertion  to  inform 
the  judgment  and  impress  the  heart.  It 
is  in  this  part  of  a  sermon  that  it  will  be 
seen  whether  a  man  understands  his 
subject,  enters  into  the  spirit  of  it,  or 
whether,  after  all  his  parade,  he  be  a 
mere  trifler.  I  have  known  some,  who, 
after  having  giving  a  pleasing  exordium 
and  ingenious  plan,  have  been  very  de- 
ficient in  the  amplification  of  the  sub- 
ject ;  which  shows  that  a  man  may  be 
capable  of  making  a  good  plan,  and  not 
a  good  sermon,  which,  of  the  two,  per- 
naps,  is  worse  than  making  a  good  ser- 
mon without  a  good  plan.  The  best  of 
men,  however,  cannot  always  enter  in- 
to the  subject  with  that  ability  which  at 
ceilain  times  they  are  capable  of.  If  in 
our  attempts,  therefore,  to  enlarge  on 
particulars,  we  find  our  thoughts  do  not 
iTin  freely  on  any  point,  we  should  not 
urge  them  too  much — this  will  tire  and 
jade  the  faculties  too  soon ;  but  pursue 
our  plan.  Better  thoughts  may  occur 
afterwards,  which  we  may  occasionally 
insert. 

As  to  the  application.  It  is  much  to 
be  lamented  that  this  is  a  part  which 
does  not  belong  to  the  sermons  of  some 
divines.  They  can  discuss  a  topic  in  a 
general  way,  show  their  abilities,  and 
give  pleasing  descriptions  of  \'irtue  and 
religion ;  but  to  apply,  they  think  will 
hurt  the  feelings  ot  their  auditors.  But 
I  believe  it  has  been  found  that,  among 
such,  little  good  has  been  done ;  nor  is 
it  likely,  when  the  people  are  never 
led  to  suppose  that  they  are  the  parties 
interested.  There  are  also  some  doc- 
trinal preachers  who  reject  application 
altogether,  and  who  affect  to  discharge 
their  office  by  narrating  and  reasoning 
only :  but  such  should  remember  that 


j  reasoning  is  persuasion  ;  and  that  them- 
selves, as  often  as  any  men,  slide  into 
personal  ajiplication,  especially  in  dis- 
cussing certain  favourite  points  in  divini- 
ty. Application  is  certamly  one  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  a  sermon.  Here 
both  the  judgment  and  the  passions 
should  be  powerfully  addressed.  Here 
the  minister  must  reason,  expostulate, 
invite,  warn,  and  exhort ;  and  all  with- 
out harshness  and  an  insulting  air.  Here 
pity,  love,  faithfulness,  concern,  must 
be  all  displayed.  The  application,  how- 
ever, must  not  be  too  long,  unnatural, 
nor,  I  think,  concluded  abruptly. — We 
shall  now  subjoin  a  few  remarks  as  to 
the  st)le  and  delivery. 

As  to  style:  it  sh(juld  be  perspicuous. 
Singular  terms,  hard  words,  bombastic 
expressions,  are  not  at  all  consistent. 
Quoting  Latin  and  Greek  sentences 
will  be  of  little  utility.  Long  argumen- 
tations, and  dry  meta.physical  reasoning, 
should  be  avoided.  A  plain  manly 
style,  so  clear  that  it  cannot  be  misun- 
derstood, should  be  pursued.  The 
Scriptures  are  the  best  model.  Mr. 
Flavel  says,  "  The  devil  is  very  busy 
with  ministers  in  their  studies,  tempt- 
ing them  to  lofty  language,  and  terms  of 
ai't,  above  their  hearers'  ca.pacities." 

The  style  should  be  correct.  That  a 
man  may  preach,  and  do  good,  without 
knowing  much  of  grammar,  is  not  to  be 
doubted;  but  certainly  it  cannot  be 
pleasing  to  hear  a  man,  who  sets  him- 
self up  as  a  teacher  of  others,  continually 
violatmg  all  the  mles  of  grammar,  and 
rendei-ing  himself  a  laughing-stock  to 
the  more  intelligent  part  of  the  congre- 
gation ;  "and  yet,"  says  one,  "I  have 
heard  persons,  who  could  scarce  utter 
three  sentences  without  a  false  con- 
struction, make  grammatical  criticisms 
not  only  on  the  English  language,  but 
on  Latin,  Greek,  and" Hebrew." 

Care  should  alwa)-s  be  taken  not  to 
use  a  redundancy  of  words,  and  a  jingle 
of  sentences  and  syllables,  as  they  carry 
more  an  air  of  pedantry  than  of  pru- 
dence. 

As  to  the  use  of  figures.  "  A  noble  me- 
taphor, when  it  is  placed  to  advantage, 
casts  a  kind  of  glory  round  it,  and  darts 
a  lustre  through  a  whole  sentence." 
But  the  present  and  the  past  age  have 
abounded  with  preachers,  who  have 
murdered  and  distorted  figures  in  a 
shameful  manner.  Reach's  metaphors 
are  run  beyond  all  due  bounds.  Yet  I 
know  of  no  method  so  useful  in  preach- 
ing as  by  figures,  when  well  chosen, 
when  they  are  not  too  mean,  nor  drawn 
out  into  too  many  parallels.  The  Scrip- 
tures abound  with  figure^.  Our  Lord 
4  B 


SER 


jb2 


SHA 


ami  his  disciples  constantly  used  them  ; 
and  people  understand  a  subject  better 
when  represented  by  a  figure,  than  by 
learned  disquisitions. 

uis  to  the  delwerif  of  sermons,  we 
refer  to  the  articles  Declamation  and 
ELoquEXCE.  See  also  Minister  and 
Pre  veHixG. 

SERPENTINIANS,  or  Ophites, 
heretics  in  the  second  century,  so  called 
from  the  veneration  they  had  for  the 
serpent  that  tempted  Eve,  and  the  wor- 
ship paid  to  a  real  serpent :  they  pre- 
tended that  the  sei'pent  was  Jesus 
Christ,  and  that  he  taught  men  the 
knowledge  of  good  and  evil.  They  dis- 
tinguished between  Jesus  and  Christ. 
Jeans,  they  said,  was  born  of  the  Vir- 
gin, but  Christ  came  down  from  heaven 
to  be  united  with  him  :  Jesus  was  cruci- 
fied, but  Christ  had  left  him  to  return 
to  heaven.  They  distinguished  the  God 
of  the  Jews,  v/liom  they  termed  Jalcla- 
baoth,  from  the  supreme  God :  to  the 
former  they  ascribed  the  body,  to  the 
latter  the  soul  of  men.  It  is  said  they 
liad  a  live  serpent,  which  they  kept  in  a 
kind  of  cage :  at  certain  times  they 
opened  the  cage-door,  and  called  the 
seipent :  the  animal  came  out,  and, 
mounting  upon  the  table,  twined  itself 
about  some  loaves  of  bread.  This  bread 
they  broke,  and  distributed  it  to  the 
company;  and  this  they  called  their 
Hiicharisf. 

SERVANTS.    The  business  of  ser- 
vants is  to  wait  upon,  mmister  to,  sup- 
port and  defend  their  masters ;  but  there 
are  three  cases,  as  Dr.  Stennett  observes, 
wherein  a  servant  may  be  justified  in  re- 
fusing obedience .-  1.  NVhen  the  master's 
commands  are  contrary  to  the  will  of 
God. — 2.  When  they  are  required  to  do 
what  is  not  in  their  power. — 3.  When 
such  sei'vice  is  demanded  as  falls  not 
within   the   compass  of  the   servant's 
agreement.    The   obligations    servants 
are  under  to  universal  obedience,  are 
from  these  considerations  :  1.  That  it  is 
fit  and  right. — 2.  That  it  is  the  exprcssed 
command  of  God. — 3.  That  it  is  for  the 
interest  both  of  body  and  soul. — 4.  Tliat 
it  is  a  credit  to  our  holy  religion.    The 
manner  in  which  this  service  is  to  be 
performed  is,  1.  With  humilitv,  Prov. 
XXX.  21,  22 ;  Eccl.  x.  7.-2.   Fidehtv, 
Titus  ii.  10;  Matt.  xxiv.  45. — 3.  Dili- 
gence, Prov.  X.  4.  xxi.  5 ;  1  Thess.  iv. 
11. — 4.    Cheerfulness.     Stenuett's  Do- 
mestic Dudes,  ser.  7;  Fleetwood's  Re- 
lative Duties,  ser.  14,  15 ;  Palcy's  Mo- 
ral Philnsnfihtf,  vol.  i.  chap.  11. 

SERVITES,  a  religious  order  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  founded  about  the 
year  1233  by  seven  Plorentine  mer- 


chants, who,  with  the  approbation  of 
the  bishop  of  Florence,  renounced  the 
v.orld,  and  lived  together  in  a  religious 
community  on  INIount  Senar,t\vo  leagues 
from  that  city. 

SETHIANS,  heretics  who  paid  di- 
vine worship  to  Seth,  whom  they  looked 
upon  to  be  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 
but  who  was  made  by  a  third  divinity, 
and  substituted  in  the  room  of  the  two 
families  of  Abel  and  Cain,  which  had 
been  destroyed  by  the  deluge.  They  ap- 
peared in  Egypt  in  the  second  century  ; 
and,  as  they  were  addicted  to  all  sorts  of 
dcbaucheiy,  they  did  not  want  followers. 
They  continued  in  Egjpt  abo\e  two 
hundred  Acars. 

SEVENTY.  About  the  year  B.  C 
277,  the  Old  Testament  was  translated 
into  Greek,  by  the  united  labours  of 
about  seventy  learned  Jews,  and  that 
translation  has  been  since  known  by  the 
version  of  the  LXX.  See  Septuagint. 
SEVERITIES.  See  Angelites. 
SEXAGESIMA,  the  second  Sunday 
before  Lent ;  so  called  because  about 
the  60th  day  before  Easter. 

SHAKERS,  a  sect  which  was  insti- 
tuted about  the  year  1774,  in  America. 
Anna  Leese,  whom  they  style  the  Elect 
Lady,  is  the  head  of  this  party.  They 
assert  that  she  is  the  woman  spoken  6i 
in  the  12th  chap,  of  Revelations,  and 
that  she  speaks  seventy-two  tongues ; 
and  though  those  tongues  are  unintelli- 
gible to  the  living,  she  converses  with 
the  dead,  who  understand  her  language. 
They  add  farther,  that  she  is  the  mo- 
ther of  all  the  elect,  and  that  she  tra- 
vails for  the  whole  world  ;  that,  in  fine, 
no  blessing  can  descend  to  any  person 
but  only  by  and  through  her,  and  that 
in  the  way  of  her  being  possessed  of 
their  sins  by  their  confessing  and  re- 
penting of  them,  one  by  one,  according 
to  her  direction.  They  vary  in  their 
exercises :  their  heavy  dancing,  a.s  it  is 
called,  is  performed  by  a  perpetual 
s])ringing  from  the  house  floor,  about 
four  mches  up  and  down,  both  in  the 
men's  and  women's  apartment,  moving 
about  with  exti'aordinary  transport,  sing- 
ing sometimes  one  at  a  time,  and  some- 
times more.  This  elevation  affects  the 
nerves,  so  that  they  have  intervals  of 
shuddering,  as  if  they  were  in  a  violent 
fit  of  the  ague.  They  sometimes  clap 
their  hands,  and  leap  so  high  as  to  strike 
the  joists  above  their  heads.  They  throw 
off  their  outside  garment  in  these  exer- 
cises, and  spend  their  strengtli  veiy 
cheerfidly  this  way  :  their  chief  speak- 
er often  calls  for  their  attention,  when 
they  all  stop  and  hear  some  harangue, 
and  then  begin  dancing  again.  They  as- 


SIM 


563 


SIN 


sert  that  their  dancing  is  the  token  of 
the  great  joy  and  happiness  oi"  the  Jeru- 
salem state,  and  denotes  the  victoiy 
over  sin.  One  of  their  most  favourite 
exertions  is  turning  round  very  swiftly 
for  an  hour  or  two.  This,  they  say,  is 
to  show  the  great  power  of  God.  Such 
is  the  account  which  different  writers 
have  given  us  of  this  sect ;  but  others 
observe,  that  though,  at  first,  they  used 
these  violent  gesticulations,  now  they 
have  "  a  regular,  solemn,  uniform  dance, 
or  genuflection,  to  a  regular,  solemn 
hymn  which  is  sung  by  the  elders,  and 
as  regularly  conducted  as  a  proper  band 
of  music."  See  JVeto  York  Theol.  Ma^- 
for  Nov.  and  Dec.  1795. 

SHAME,  a  painful  sensation,  occa- 
sioned by  the  quick  apprehension  that 
reputation  and  character  are  in  danger, 
or  by  the  perception  that  they  are  lost. 
It  may  arise,  says  Dr.  Cogan,  from  the 
immediate  detection,  or  the  fear  of  de- 
tection, in  something  ignominious.  It 
may  also  arise  from  native  diffidence  in 
}'oung  and  ingenuous  minds,  when  sur- 
prised into  situations  where  they  attract 
the  peculiar  attention  of  their  superiors. 
The  glow  of  shame  indicates,  in  the  first 
instance,  tliat  the  mind  is  not  totally 
abandoned;  in  the  last,  it  manifests  a 
nice  sense  of  honour  and  delicate  feel- 
ings, united  with  inexperience  and  igno- 
rance of  the  world. 

SHASl'ER,  the  name  of  a  book  in 
liigh  estimation  among  the  idolaters  of 
Hindostan,  contauiing  all  the  dogmas  of 
tlie  religion  of  the  Bramins,  and  all  the 
ceremonies  of  their  worship. 

SHROVE  TUESDAY.  The  day 
before  Ash  Wednesday  or  Lent,  on 
which,  in  former  times,  persons  went  to 
their  parish  churches  to  confess  their 
sins. 

SIBYLLINE  ORACLES,  prophe- 
cies delivered,  it  is  said,  by  certain  wo- 
men of  antiquity,  showing  the  fates  and 
revolutions  of  kingdoms.  We  have  a 
collection  of  them  in  eight  books.  Dr. 
Jorton  observes,  that  they  were  com- 
posed at  different  times  by  different 
persons ;  first  by  Pagans,  and  then,  per- 
haps, by  Jews,  and  certainly  by  Chris- 
tians. They .  abound  with  phrases, 
words,  facts,  and  passages,  taken  from 
the  LXX,  and  the  New  Testament. 
They  are,  says  the  Doctor,  a  remarka- 
ble specimen  of  astonishing  impudence 
and  miserable  poetry,  and  seem"  to  have 
been,  from  first  to  last,  and  without  any 
one  exception,  mere  impostures. 


said  to  bear  to  the  sin  of  Simon  Miigus, 
though  the  purchasing  of  hoi}'  orders 
seems  to  approach  nearer  to"  this  of- 
fence. It  was  by  the  canon  law  a  very 
grievous  crime;  and  is  so  much  the 
more  odious,  because,  as  Sir  Edward 
Coke  observes,  it  is  ever  accompanied 
with  perjuiy;  for  the  presentee  is 
sworn  to  have  committed  no  simony. 
However,  it  was  not  an  offence  punish- 
able in  a  criminal  way  at  the  common 
law,  it  being  thought  sufficient  to  leave 
the  clergy  to  ecclesiastical  censures.  But 
as  these  did  not  affect  the  simoniacal 
patixin,  nor  were  efficacious  enough  to 
repel  the  notorious  practice  of  the  thing, 
divers  acts  of  parliament  have  been 
made  to  restrain  it,  by  means  of  civil 
forfeitures,  which  the  modern  prevail- 
ing usage  with  regard  to  spiritual  pre- 
ferments calls  aloud  to  be  put  in  exe- 
cution. 

SIN,  the  transgression  of  the  law,  or 
want  of  conformity  to  the  will  of  God, 
1  John  iii.  4.   1.    Oiiginal  sin  is   that 
whereby  our  whole  nature  is  corrupted, 
I  and  rendered  contrary  to  the  law  of 
j  God ;  or,  according  to  the  9th  article  of 
j  the    chui'ch  of   England,   "  It    is  tliat 
[  whereby  man  is  very  far  gone  from  ori- 
ginal righteousness,  and  is,  of  his  ov/u 
nature,  inclined  to  evil."   This  is  some- 
times called  ijukuel/mg-  sin,  Rom.  vii. 
The  imputation  of  the  sin  of  Adam  to 
his  posterity  is  also  what  divines  ge- 
nei-ally  call,  with  some  latitude  of  ex- 
pression, original  sin. — 2.  Actual  sin  is 
a  direct  violation  of  God's  law,  and  ge- 
nerally applied  to  those  who  are  capa- 
ble of  committing  moral  evil;   as  op- 
posed to  idiots,  or  children,  who  ha^'e 
not  the  right  use  of  their  powers.  3.  Siris 
of  omission  consist  in  the  leaving  those 
things  undone  which  ought  to  he  done. 
— 4.  Sins  of  co)n7nission  are  these  which 
are  committed  against  affirnative  pre- 
cepts, or  doing  wliat  should'  not  be  done. 
— 5.  Sins  of  infirmity  a^e  those  which 
arise  from  the  infirmity  of  the  flesh,  ig- 
norance, suiprise,  snares  of  the  world, 
8cc.   See    Infirmt^'y. — 6.    Secret   sins 
are  those  commit-ed  in  secret,  or  those 
which  we,  thrragh  blindness  or  preju- 
dice, do  not  «ie  the  evil  of.  Psalm  xix. 
12. — 7.    Prjsumfitiious  sins  are  those 
which  aitf   done    boldly,   and    against 
light    a--id  conviction.    See  Presubip- 
TiON-.— 8.  Unpardojiable  sin  is  the  de- 
nial of  the  truths  of  the  Gospel;  with  an 
open  and  mahcious  rejection  of  it.    The 
reason  why  this  sin  is  never  forgiven,  is 


SIMONY,  is  the  cornipt   presenta-  (I  not  because  of  any  want  of  sufficiency  in 
lion  of  any  one  to  an  ecclesiastical  be-  ||  the  blood  of  Chjist,  nor  in  the  pardon- 


■efice,  for  money,  gift,  or  rewai-d.    It 
is  so  called  from  the  resemblance  it  is 


ing 


mercy  of  God,  but  because  such 


as  commit  it  never  repent  of  it,  but 


SIN 


564 


SIN 


eoutinue  obstinate  and  malignant  until 
death. 

The  corruption  of  human  nature  is, 
1.  Universal  as  to  the  subjects  of  it. 
Rom.  iii.  23.  Isa.  liii.  6. — 2.  General,  as 
to  all  the  powers  of  man,  Isa.  i.  6. — 
".  Awful,  filling  the  mhid  with  con- 
stant rebellion  against  God  and  his  law. 
— 4.  Hateful  to  God,  Job  xv.  16 ;  and, 
— 5.  Pu7iishable  by  him,  1  Sam.  ii.  9, 
10.  Rom.  ii.  9.  Why  the  Almighty  per- 
mitted it,  when  his  power  could  have 
f>revented  it,  and  how  it  is  conveyed 
rom  parents  to  their  children,  form 
some  of  those  deep  things  of  God,  of 
which  we  can  know  but  little  in  the 
present  state  ;  only  this  we  are  assured 
of,  that  he  is  a  God  of  truth,  and  that 
whatever  he  does,  or  permits,  vv-ill  ulti- 
mately tend  to  promote  his  glory. 
While  we  contemplate,  therefore,  the 
nature,  the  evil,  the  guilt,  the  conse- 
quence of  sin,  it  is  our  happiness  to  re- 
flect, that  he  who  permitted  it  hath  pro- 
vided a  remedy  for  it ;  and  that  he  "  so 
loved  the  world,  that  he  gave  his  only 
begotten  Son,  that  v/hosoever  believeth 
on  him  should  not  perish,  but  have  ever- 
lasting life."  See  Atonement,  Re- 
demption ;  and  Edwards,  Wesley,  and 
Taylor,  on  Original  Sin  ,•  Gill's  Body 
ofDiv.  article  Sin  ;  Ki7ig-'s  andJenyns's 
Origin  of  Evil ;  Burroufrks'  Exceed- 
ing Sinfulness  of  Siji ;  Dr.  Oiven  on 
Indnvelling  Si7i ;  Dr.  Wright's  Deceit- 
fulness  of  Sin  ;  Fletchers  A/ifieal  to 
Matter  of  Fact ;  Williams's  Answer  to 
Belsham  ;  Watts's  Ruin  and  Recovery  ; 
Howe's  Living  Temple,  p.  2,  c.  4  ;  Dr. 
Smith's  Ser/non  on  the  Permission  of 
Evil. 

SII^CERITY,  freedom  from  hypo- 
crisy or  dissimulation.    The  Latin  vvord 
sincerus,   from     whence    our    English 
word  sincei«j  is  derived,  is  composed  of 
sine  and  ce7-a,and  signifies  without  wax, 
as  pure  honey, yhich  is  not  mixed  with 
any  wax;  thus  denoting  that  sincerity 
is  a  pure  and  upi^^jht  principle.    The 
Greek    woi'd    £iXcx?i\a,  translated   sin- 
cerity, (2  Cor.  1. 12.)  si^ifies  properlv  a 
judgment  made  of  thii^s  by  the  light 
and  splendour  of  the  sun .  as,  in  traffic, 
men  hold  up  goods  they  art  buying,  to 
the  light  oi  the  sun,  to  see  i!  they  can 
discover  any  defect    in  them.    Thus, 
those  who  are  truly  sincere  cai>  bear 
the  test  of  light,  and  are  not  afra'i-l  of 
having  their  principles  and  practic^is 
examined  by  it.    This  word,  however 
like  many  others,  is  abused,  and  often 
becomes  a  subterfuge  for  the  ungodly 
and  the  indolent,  who  think  that  their 
practice  is  nothing ;  but  that  sincerity, 
or  a  good  heart,  as  they  call  it,  is  all  in 


all.  But  such  deceive  themselves,  for  a 
xree  is  known  by  its  fruits ;  and  true 
godly  sincerity  will  evidence  itself  by 
serious  inquiry,  impartial  examination, 
desire  of  mstruction,  unprejudiced  judg- 
uient,  devotedness  of  spirit,  and  uni- 
formity of  conduct.  The  reader  will 
find  this  subject  ably  handled  in  Gur- 
nall's  Christiayi  Armour,  vol.  ii.  p.  121, 
to  148.    See  Hypocrisy. 

SINGING,    an   ordinance  of  divine 
worship,  in  which  we  express  our  joy 
in  God,  and  gratitude  for  his  mercies. 
It  has  always  been  a  branch  both  of  na- 
tural and  revealed  religion,  in  all  ages 
and  periods  of  time.     It  was  a  part  of 
the  worship  of  the  Heathens.    It  was 
practised  by  the  people  of  God  before 
the  giving  of  the  law  of  Moses,  Exod. 
xv.  also  under  the  ceremonial  law.  Un- 
der the  Gospel  dispensation  it  is  parti- 
cularly  enjoined.  Col.  iii.   16.  Eph.  v. 
19.     It  was  practised  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles.  Matt.   xxvi.  '30.    and  in  the 
earliest    times    of    Christianity.     The 
praises  of  God  may  be  sung  pri\'ately  in 
the  famil}',  but  chiefly  in  the  house  of 
God;  and  should  be  attended  to  with 
reverence,  sincerity,  joy,  gratitude,  and 
with  the  understanding,  i  Cor.  xiv.  15. 
Among  the  Baptists,  durmg  the  early- 
part  of  their  existence,  psalmody  was 
generally  excluded  as  a  human   ordi- 
nance ;  but  some  congregations  having 
adopted  it  about  the  beginnmg  of  the  18th 
century,  a  violent  controversy  was  ex- 
cited.    About  the  middle  of  the  centu- 
ry, however,  the  praises  of  God  were 
sung  in  every  Baptist  church.    It  is  to 
be  lamented,  however,  that  this  ordi- 
nance has  not  that  attention  paid  to  it 
which  it  deserves.    That  great  divine, 
Dr.  Jonathan  Edwards,  observes,  that 
"  as  it  is  the  command  of  God  that  all 
should  sing,  so  all  should  make  con- 
science of  learning  to  sing,  as  it  is  a 
thing  tliat  cannot  be  dec6ntly  perform- 
ed at  all  without  learning.  Those,  there- 
fore, (where  there  is  no  natural  inability) 
who  neglect  to  learn  to  sing,  live  in  sin, 
as  they  neglect  Avhat  is  necessary  in  oi'- 
der  to  their  attending  one  of  the  ordi- 
nances of  God's  worship."    We  leave 
those  who  are  wilfully  dumb  in  God's 
house  to  consider  tliis  pointed  remark! 
Much  has  been  said  as  to  the  use  of 
instrumental  music  in  the  house  of  God. 
On  the  one  side  it  is  observed,  that  we 
ought  not  to  object  to  it,  because  it  as- 
sists devotion ;  that  it  was  used  in  the 
worship  of  God  under  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  and  that  the  worship  of  heaven 
Is  represented  by  a  delightful  union  of 
N'ocal  and  instnimental  'music.    But  on 
the  other  side,  it  is   remarked,  that 


SLA 


565 


SLA 


nothing  should  be  done  in  or  about  God's 
worship  without  example  or  precept 
from  the  New  Testament;  that,  in- 
stead of  aiding  devotion,  it  often  tends  to 
draw  off  the  mind  from  the  right  ob- 
ject ;  tliat  it  does  not  accord  witli  the 
simplicity  of  Christian  worship  ;  thai 
the  practice  of  those  who  lived  under 
the  ceremonial  dispensation  can  be  no 
rule  for  us;  that  not  one  text  in  the 
New  Testament  requires  or  authorises 
it  by  precept  or  example,  by  expi-ess 
v/ords  or  fair  infei'ence ;  and  that  the 
representation  of  the  musical  harmoi\y 
in  heaven  is  merely  figurative  language, 
denoting  the  happiness  of  the  saints. 
We  have  not  room  hei'e  to  prosecute 
the  arguments  on  either  side ;  but  the 
reader  may  refer  top.  211  of  the  fourth 
volume  of  Bishop  Beveridge's  Thesau- 
rus; SHfli?!gJleet's  and  B/i.  Home's 
Sermons  on  Church  Music;  No.  630  of 
the  eighth  vol.  of  the  Spectator;  Bishop 
Hume  on  the  ISQth  Psalm;  Thcol. 
Mag.  vol.  ii.  p.  427,  and  vol.  iv.  p.  333, 
458 ;  Biblical  Mug.  vol.  ii.  p.  35 ; 
Ridgley^s  Body  ojf  Div.  ques.  155 ; 
Ilaweis's  Church  History,  vol.  i.  p.  403 ; 
M'illiums's  Historical  Essay  on  Church 
Music,  prejixed  to  Psalmodia  Evange- 
iica,  vol.  ii.  p.  5&;  Bedford's  Temple 
Music;  Lyra  Evangel ica;  Practical 
Discow'ses  on  Singing  in  the  M^or- 
ship  of  God,  preached  at  the  Fridaij 
Evening  Lectures  in  Eastcheap,  1708  ; 
Dodivell's  Treatise  on  the  Laivfuiness 
of  Instrumental  Music  in  Holy  Du- 
ties. 

SIX  ARTICLES,  law  of.  See  Sta- 
tutes. 

SLANDER,  according  to  Dr.  Bar- 
vow,  is  uttering  false  speeches  against 
our  neighbour,  to  the  prejudice  of  his 
fame,  safety,  welfare;  and  that  out  of 
malignity,  vanity,  rashness,  ill  nature, 
or  bad  design.  The  principal  kmds  of 
slander  are  these :  1.  Charging  others 
with  facts  they  are  not  guilty  oif. — 2.  Af- 
fixing scandalous  names  and  odious  cha- 
racters which  they  deserve  not. — 3.  As- 
persing a  man's  actions  with  foul  names, 
importing  that  they  proceed  from  evil 
principles,  or  tend  to  bad  ends,  when  it 
doth  not  or  cannot  appear. — 4.  Per- 
verting a  man's  words  or  acts  disadvan- 
tageously  by  affected  misconstruction. — 
5.  Partial  or  lame  representation  of 
men's  discourse  or  practice,  suppressing 
some  part  of  the  truth,  or  concealing 
some  circumstances  which  ought  to  be 
explained. — 6.  Instilling  sly  suggestions 

which  create  prejudice  in  the  hearers. 

7.  Magnifying  and  aggravating  the  faults 
of  others. — 8.  Imputing  to  our  neigh- 
bour's practice,  judgment,  or  profession, 


evil  consequences  which  have  no  foun- 
dation in  truth. 

Of  all  the  characters  in  society,  a 
slanderer  is  the  most  odious,  and"  the 
most  likely  to  produce  mischief.  "  His 
tongue,"  says  Jie  great  Massilon,  "  is  a 
devouring  fire,  which  tarnishes  what- 
ever it  touches;  which  exercises  its 
fury  on  the  good  grain  equally  as  on  the 
chaff;  on  the  profane  as  on  the  sacred; 
which,  wherever  it  passes,  leaves  only 
desolation  and  ruin ;  digs  even  into  the 
bowels  of  the  earth ;  turns  into  vile 
ashes  what  only  a  moment  before  had 
appeared  to  us  so  precious  and  brilliant ; 
acts  with  more  violence  and  danger  than 
ever,  in  the  time  when  it  was  apparent- 
ly smotliered  up  and  almost  extinct; 
which  blackens  what  it  cannot  con- 
sume, and  sometimes  sparkles  and  de- 
lights before  it  destroys.  It  is  an  as- 
semblage of  an  iniquity,  a  secret  pride, 
which  discovers  to  us  the  mote  in  our 
brother's  eye,  but  hides  the  beam  which 
is  in  our  own;  a  mean  envy,  which, 
hurt  at  the  talents  or  prosperity  of 
others,  makes  them  the  subjects  of  its 
censures,  and  studies  to  dim  the  splen- 
dour of  whatever  outshines  itself;  a 
disguised  hatred,  which  sheds  in  its 
speeches  the  hidden  venom  of  the  heart; 
an  unworthy  duplicity  which  praises  to 
the  face,  and  tears  in  pieces  behind  the 
back  ;  a  shameful  levity,  which  has  no 
command  over  itself  or  words,  and  often 
sacrifices  both  fortune  and  comfort  to 
the  impiiidence  of  an  amusing  conver- 
sation ;  a  deliberate  barbarity,  which 
goes  to  pierce  an  absent  brother;  a  scan- 
dal, where  we  become  a  subject  of  shame 
and  sin  to  those  who  listen  to  us ;  an  in- 
justice, where  we  ravish  from  our  bro- 
ther what  is  dearest  to  him.  It  is  a  rest- 
less evil,  which  disturbs  society ;  spreads 
dissention  through  cities  and  countries  ; 
disunites  the  strictest  friendship  ;  is  the 
sourco  of  hatred  and  revenge;  fills 
wherever  it  enters  with  disturbances  and 
confusion ;  and  eveiy  where  is  an  ene- 
my to  peace,  comfort,  and  Christian 
good  breeding.  Lastly,  it  is  an  evil  full 
of  deadly  poison  :  whatever  flows  from 
it  is  infected,  and  poisons  whatever  it 
approaches;  even  its  praises  are  em- 
poisoned ;  its  applauses  malicious ;  its 
silence  criminal;  its  gestures,  motions, 
and  looks,  have  all  their  venom,  and 
spread  it  each  in  their  way.  Still  more 
dreadful  is  this  e\  il  when  it  is  found 
among  those  who  are  the  professed  dis- 
ciples of  Jesus  Christ.  Ah !  the  church 
formerly  held  in  horror  the  exhibitions 
of  gladiators,  and  denied  that  believers, 
brought  up  in  the  tenderness  and  be- 
nignity of  Jesus  Christ,  could  innocently 


SOB 


566 


SOC 


feast  their  eyes  with  the  blood  and  death 
of  these  unfortunate  slaves,  or  form  an 
harmless  i-ecreation  of  so  inhuman  a 
pleasure  ;  but  these  renew  more  detest- 
able shows ;  for  they  bring  upon  the 
stage  not  infamous  wretches  devoted  to 
death,  but  members  of  Jesus  Christ, 
their  brethren  ;  and  thei'e  they  enter- 
tain the  spectators  with  wounds  which 
they  inflict  on  persons"  who  have  de- 
voted themselves  to  God.  Barroiv^s 
Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  17,  18;  Massilon's 
Serrnons,  vol.  i.  ser.  v.  English  ti-ans. 
and  avticle  Evil  Speaking. 

SOBRIETY,  freedom  from  any  inor- 
dinate passion.  "  Sobriety,"  as  one  ob- 
serves, "is  both  the  ornament  and  the 
defence  of  a  Christian.  It  is  requisite 
in  every  situation,  and  in  every  enter- 
prise ;  indeed  nothing  can  be  done  well 
without  it.  The  want  of  sobriety  is  seen 
and  felt  by  multitudes  every  day.  With- 
out sobriety  a  man  is  exposed  to  the  toss- 
ing of  the  merciless  waves,  destitute  of  an 
anclior.  Sobriety  is  a  security  against  the 
baneful  intiuence  of  turliulent  passions ; 
it  is  self-possession ;  it  is  self-defence.  It 
is  necessary  on  all  occasions  :  when  we 
read,  when  we  hear,  when  we  pray, 
when  we  converse,  when  we  form 
schemes,  when  we  pursue  them,  when 
we  prosper,  when  we  fail.  Sobriety  is 
necessary  for  all  descriptions  of  charac- 
ter ;  it  is  necessaiy  for  the  ycimg  and 
for  the  old  ;  for  the  rich  and  the  poor, 
for  the  wise  and  for  the  illiterate ;  all 
need  to  '  be  sober.'  The  necessity  of 
sobriety  is  obvious,  1.  In  our  inquunes 
after  truth,  as  op])osed  to  presumption. 
— 2.  In  our  pursuit  of  this  world,  as  op- 
posed to  covetousness. — 3.  In  the  use 
and  estimate  of  the  things  of  this  world, 
as  opposed  to  excess. — 4.  In  trials  and 
afflictions,  as  opposed  to  impatience. — 
5.  In  forming  our  judgment  of  others, 
as  opposed  to  censoriousness. — 6.  In 
speaking  of  one's  self,  as  opposed  to 
egotism. — Many  motives  might  he  urged 
to  this  exercise,  as,  1.  The  general  lan- 
guage of  Scripture,  1  Pet.  v.  8.  Phil.  iv. 
S.  l^it.  ii.  12.  1  Pet.  iv.  7.-2.  Our  profes- 
sion as  Christians. — 3.  The  example  of 
Jesus    Clirist,    and    4.    The  near  ap- 

£  roach  of  death  and  judginent."    See 
iRUNKENNKSS,  MODERATION. 

SOCINIANS,  a  sect  so  called  from 
Faustus  Sociuus,  who  died  in  Poland  in 
1604.  There  were  two  who  bore  the 
name  Socinus,  uncle  and  nephew,  and 
both  disseminated  the  same  doctrine ; 
but  it  is  the  nephew  who  is  generally 
considered  as  the  founder  of  this  sect. 
They  maintain  "  that  Jesus  Christ  was 
a  mere  man,  who  had  no  existence  be- 
fore he  was  conceived  by  the   Virgin 


Mary ;  that  the  Holy  Ghost  is  no  dis- 
tinct person;  but  that  the  Father  is 
truly  and  properly  God.  They  own 
that  the  name  of  God  is  given  in  the 
hoi)'  Scriptures  to  Jesus  Christ,  but  con- 
tend that  it  is  only  a  deputed  title,  which, 
however,  mvests  him  with  a  great  au- 
thority over  all  created  beings.  They 
deny  the  doctrines  of  satisfaction  and 
imputed  righteousness,  and  say,  that 
Christ  only  preached  the  truth  to  man- 
kind, set  before  them  in  himself  an  ex- 
ample of  heroic  virtue,  and  sealed  his 
doctrines  with  his  blood.  Original  sin 
and  absolute  predestination  they  esteem 
scholastic  chimeras.  Some  of  them 
likewise  maintain  the  sleep  of  the  soul, 
which,  they  say,  becomes  insensible  at 
death,  and  is  raised  again  with  the  body 
at  the  resurrection,  when  the  good  shall 
be  established  in  the  possession  of  eter- 
nal felicity,  while  the  wicked  shall  be 
consigned  to  a  fire  that  will  not  tor- 
ment them  eternally,  but  for  a  certain 
duration  proportioned  to  their  deme- 
rits." 

There  is  some  difference,  however, 
between  ancient  and  modern  Socinians. 
The  latter,  indignant  at  the  name  So- 
cinian,  have  appropriated  to  themselves 
that  of  Unitarians,  and  reject  the  no- 
tions of  a  miraculous  conception  and 
the  worship  of  Christ ;  both  wliich  were 
held  by  Socinus.  Dr.  Priestly  has  la- 
boured hard  in  attempting  to  defend 
this  doctrine  of  the  Unitarians,  but  Dr. 
Horsley,  bishop  of  Rochester,  has  ably 
refuted  the  doctor  in  his  Theological 
Tracts,  which  are  worthy  the  perusal 
of  every  Christian,  and  especially  every 
candidate  for  the  ministry. 

Dr.  Price  agreed  with  the  Socinians 
in  tlie  main,  yet  his  system  was  some- 
what different.  He  believed  in  the 
pre-existence  of  Christ,  and  likewise 
that  he  was  more  than  a  human  being  ; 
and  took  upon  him  human  nature  for  a 
higher  purpose  than  merely  revealing 
to  mankind  the  will  of  God,  and  in- 
structing them  in  their  duty  and  in  the 
doctrines  of  religioii. 

Tlie  Socinians  flourished  greatly  in 
Poland  about  the  year  1551:  and  J. 
Siemienius,  palatine  of  Podolia,  built 
purposely  for  their  use  the  city  o^  Ra- 
cow.  A  famous  catechism  was  pubHsh- 
ed,  called  the  liacovian  catechism  :  and 
their  most  able  writers  are  known  by 
the  title  of  the  Folunes  Fratres,  or  Po- 
lonian  Brethren.  Their  writings  were 
re-published  together,  in  the  year  1656, 
in  one  great  collection,  consisting  of  six 
volumes  in  folio,  uncler  the  title  of 
Bibliotheca  Fratrum.  An  account  of 
these  authors  may  be  seen  m  Dr.  Toui- 


SOR 


567 


SOU 


nim's  Life  of  Socinus.  Some  of  the 
writers  on  the  Socinian  clocti-ine,  be- 
sides the  above-mentioned,  have  been, 
Hayncs  in  Ins  ScrijUiire  Account  of  the 
Attributes  and  IVorshifi  of  GocLand  of 
the  Character  and  Offices  of  Jesus 
Christ;  Dr.  Lardner'on  the  Logos  ; 
Priestly's  Hist,  of  early  Ojiinions  and 
Dis{/uisitio?is ;  Lindsay  in  his  Himori- 
cal  Fienu  of  Unitarianism  ;  Carjienter's 
Unitarianisni  ;  and  Belsham^s  Ansivci- 
to  Wilberforce.  Against  the  Socinian 
doctrine  may  be  consulted,  Dr.  Hornc's 
ScrnioJi  on  the  Duty  of  conter.ding  for 
the  Faith  ;  Dr.  Owen  ugai?ist  Biddle  ; 
Dr.  Hor?ibeck's  Confuiation  of  Soci- 
Tiianism  :  Calovius^s  Ditto  ;  Macgow- 
an's  Sociiuanism  brought  to  the  Test ; 
and  books  under  aiticles  Arians  and 
Jesus  Christ. 

SOLDINS,  so  called  from  their  lead- 
er, one  Soldin  a  Greek  priest.  The) 
appeared  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  in  the  kinp,doms  of  Saba  and 
Godolia.  They  altered  the  manner  of 
the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  ;  their  priests 
offered  gold,  their  deacons  incense,  and 
their  sub-deacons  mj  rrh ;  and  this  in 
memoiy  of  the  like  ofFcrings  made  to 
the  infant  Jesus  by  the  wise  men. 

Very  few  authors  mention  the  Soldins, 
neither  do  we  know  whether  they  still 
subsist. 

SOLFIDIANS,  those  who  rest  on 
faith  alone  for  salvation,  without  any 
connexion  with  works;  or  who  judge 
themselves  to  lie  Christ's  because  they 
believe  they  are. 

SON  OF  GOD,  a  term  applied  in  the 
Scriptures  not  only  to  magisti-ates  and 
saints,  but  more  particularl)^  to  Jesus 
Christ.  Christ,  says  Bishop  Pearson, 
has  a  fourfold  right  to  this  title.  1.  By 
generation,  as  begotten  of  God,  Luke  i. 
35. — 2.  By  commission,  as  sent  by  him, 
John  X.  34,  36. — 3.  By  resurrection,  as 
the  first  born,  Acts  xiii.  32,  33. — 4.  By 
actual  possession,  as  heir  of  all,  Heb.  i. 
2,  5.  But,  besides  these  four, many  think 
that  he  is  called  the  Son  of  God  m  such 
a  way  and  manner  as  never  any  other 
was,  is,  or  can  be,  because  of  his  ov,n 
divine  nature,  he  being  the  trae,  proper, 
and  natural  Son  of  God,  begotten  by 
him  before  all  worlds,  John  iii.  16.  Rom. 
viii.  3.  1  John  iv.  9.  See  article  Ge- 
neration Eternal,  and  books  there 
referred  to. 

SORCERY,  magic,  conjuration.  See 
Charms  and  Witchcraft. 

SORROW,  uneasiness  or  grief,  arising 
from  the  privation  of  some  good  we  ac- 
tually possessed.  It  is  the  opposite  to 
joy.  Though  sorrow  may  be  allowable 
under  a  sense  of  sin,  and  when  involved 


in  troubles,  yet  we  must  beware  of  an 
extreme.  Sorrow,  indeed,  becomes 
sinful  and  excessive  when  it  leads  us  to 
slight  our  mercies ;  causes  us  to  be  in- 
sensible to  public  evils ;  when  it  diverts 
us  from  duty  ;  so  opi)resses  our  bodies 
as  to  endanger  our  lives ;  sours  the 
s])ivit  with  discontent,  and  makes  us  in- 
attentive to  the  precepts  of  (iod's  word, 
and  advice  of  our  friends.  In  order  to 
moderate  our  soitows,  we  should  con- 
sider that  we  are  under  the  dii-ection  of 
a  wise  and  merciful  Being;  that  heper- 
n>its  no  evil  to  come  upon  us  without  a 
gracious  design ;  that  he  can  make  our 
troubles  sources  of  spiritual  advantage; 
that  he  might  have  afflicted  us  in  a  far 
greater  degree ;  that,  though  he  has 
taken  some,  yet  he  has  left  many  other 
comforts ;  that  he  has  given  many  pi-o- 
mises  of  relief:  that  he  has  supported 
thousands  in  as  great  troubles  as  ours : 
and,  finally,  that  the  time  is  coming 
when  he  will  wipe  away  all  tears,  and 
give  to  them  that  love  him  a  crown  of 
;i,lory  that  fadeth  not  awaj^  See  Re- 
signation. 

SOUL,  that  vital,  immaterial,  active 
sul)stance,  or  principle,  in  man,  where- 
by he  perceives,  remembers,  reasons, 
and  wills.  It  is  rather  to  be  described 
as  to  its  operations,  than  to  be  defined 
as  to  its  essence.  Various,  mdeed,  have 
been  the  opinions  of  philosophers  con- 
cetTiing  its  substance.  The  Epicureans 
thought  it  a  subtile  air,  composed  of 
atoms,  or  primitive  corpuscles.  The 
Stoics  maintained  it  was  a  flame,  or  por- 
tion of  heavenly  light.  The  Cartesians 
make  thinking  the  essence  of  the  soul. 
Some  hold  that  man  is  endowed  with 
three  kinds  of  soul,  viz.  the  rational, 
which  is  purely  spiritual,  and  infused  by 
the  immediate  inspiration  of  God:  the 
irrational  cr  sensitixT,  which  being 
common  to  man  and  bnites,  is  supposed 
to  be  formed  of  the  elements :  and, 
lastly,  the  vegetative  soul,  or  principle 
of  gl'owth  and  nutrition,  as  the  first  is  of 
understanding,  and  the  second  of  ani- 
mal life. 

The  rational  soul  is  simple,  uncom- 
pounded,  and  immateiial,  not  composed 
of  matter  and  foiTn  ;  for  matter  can 
never  think  and  move  of  itself  as  the 
soul  does.  In  the  fotirth  volume  of  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Literarj-  and  Philoso- 
phical Society  of  Manchester,  the  reader 
will  find  a  very  valuable  paper,  by  Dr. 
Ferrier,  proving  by  evidence  appa- 
rently complete,  that  eveiy  part  ot  the 
brain  has  been  injured  without  affecting 
the  act  of  thought.  It  will  be  difficult 
for  any  man  to  peruse  this  without  being 
convinced  that  the  modem  theorj'  of  the 


sou 


568 


SOtJ 


Materialists  is  shaken  from   its   very 
foundation. 

The  immortality  of  the  soul  may  be 
argued  from  its  vast  capacities,  bound- 
less desires,  great  impi'ovements,  dis- 
satisfaction with  the  present  state,  and 
desire  of  some  kind  of  religion.  It  is 
also  argued  from  the  consent  of  all  na- 
tions ;  the  consciousness  that  men  have 
of  sinning ;  the  sting  of  conscience  ;  the 
justice  and  providence  of  God.  How 
far  these  arguments  are  conclusi\^e  I 
will  not  say  ;  but  the  safest,  and,  in  fact, 
the  only  sure  ground  to  go  upon  to  prove 
this  doctrine  is  the  word  of  God,  where 
■we  at  once  see  it  clearly  established. 
Matt.  X.  28.  Matt.  xxv.  46.  Dan.  xii.  2. 
2  Tim.  i.  10.  1  Thess.  iv.  17,  18.  John 
X.  28.  But  as  this  article  belongs  rather 
to  metaphysics  than  to  theology,  we  re- 
fer the  reader  to  A.  Baxter  on  the 
Soul;  Locke  on  the  Understanding ; 
TVatts's  Ontology  ;  Jackson  on  Matter 
and  Spirit ;  Flavel  on  the  Soul;  More's 
Immortality  of  the  ^oul ;  Hartley  on 
Man  ;  Bji.  Porteus's  Sermons,  ser.  5, 
6,  7.  vol.  i.  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee. 
92,  93,  94,  95,  96,  97 ;  Drew's  Essay 
on  the  Immateriality  and  Immortality 
of  the   Soul.     Care  of  the  Soul.    See 

SOUTHCOTTERS:  the  followers 
of  Joanna  Southcot,  well  known  at  this 
time  in  the  south  of  England  as  a  pro- 
phetess. 

The  book  in  which  Joanna  published 
her  prophecies,  is  dated  London,  April 
25,  1804 ;  and  she  begins  by  declaring 
she  herself  did  not  understand  the  com- 
munications given  her  by  the  Spirit,  till 
they  were  afterwards  explained  to  her. 
In  November  1803,  she  was  told  to 
mark  the  weather  during  the  twenty- 
four  first  days  of  the  succeeding  ycni', 
and.  then  the  Spirit  irsrorms  her  that  the 
weather  each  day  was  typical  of  the 
events  of  each  succeeding  month :  New 
year's  day  to  correspond  with  January, 
January  2  with  Febi-nary,  &c. 

After  this  she  relates  a  dream  she 
had  in  1792,  and  declares  she  foretold 
the  death  of  Bishop  BuUer,  and  appeals 
to  a  letter  put  into  the  hands  of  a  cler- 
gyman whom  she  names. 

"One  night  she  heard  a  noise  as  if  a 
ball  of  iron  was  rolling  down  the  stairs 
thi-ce  steps  ;  and  the  Spirit  afterwards, 
she  says,  told  her  this  was  a  sign  of  three 
great  evils  which  were  to  fall  upon  this 
land,  the  sword,  the  plague,  and  the 
famine.  She  affirms  that  the  late  war, 
and  that  the  extraordinary  harvest  of 
1797  and  1800,  happened  agreeably  to 
the  predictions  which  she  had  pre- ' 
viously  made  known  j  and  particularly  { 


appeals  to  the  people  of  Exeter,  -where 
jt  seems  she  was  brought  up  from  her 
uifancy. 

In  November  1803,  she  says  she  was 
ordered  to  open  her  Bible,  which  she 
did  at  Eccles.  ch.  i.  9  ;  and  then  follows 
a  long  explanation  of  that  chapter. 

V/hen  she  was  at  Stockton  upon  Tees 
in  the  next  month,  she  informs  us  three 
methodist  preachers  had  tlie  confidence 
to  tell  her  she  uttered  lies ;  and  she 
then  refers  them  to  four  clergymen  who 
could  prove  she  and  her  friends  were 
not  liars. 

After  this  she  gives  us  a  long  com- 
munication on  Gen.  xlix.  wherein  Ja- 
cob warns  his  sons  of  what  should  befall 
them  in  the  last  days,  and  which  she 
applies  to  our  present  times.  She  then 
favours  her  i-eaders  with  a  long  essay 
on  the  marriage  of  the  Lamb,  and  as 
variety  is  always  pleasing,  it  commences 
in  sober  prose,  but  ends  in  jiiigling 
rhyme. 

The  following  is  the  conclusion  of  a 
communication  which  she  had  at  Stock- 
fort  :  "  As  wrong  as  they  are,  saying 
thou  hast  children  brought  up  by  the 
parish,  and  that  thou  art  Bonaparte's 
brother,  and  that  thou  hast  been  in  pri- 
son ;  so  false  is  their  sayings,  thy  writ- 
ings came  from  the  devil  or  any  spirit 
but  the  SPIRIT  of  the  living  God;  and 
that  every  soul  in  thui  nation  shall  know 
before  the  five  years  I  mentioned  to 
tliee  in  1802  are  expired ;  and  then  I 
will  turn  as  c\  diadem  of  beauty  to  the 
residence  of  my  people,  and  they  shall 
praise  the  God  of  thetr  salvation." 

In  March  1805,  we  find  Joanna  pub- 
lished a  pamphlet  in  London,  endea- 
vouring to  confute  "Five  Charges" 
ae-'uni't  her,  which  had  appeared  in  the 
L"eeds  Mercury,  and  four  of  which  she 
says  were  absolutely  false.  The  ^^rst 
charge  was  respecting  the  sealing  of  her 
disciples.  The  second  on  the  invasio?;. 
The  third  on  the  famine.  The  fourth 
on  her  7}iission.  The  ff/h  on  her 
death.  Sealing  is  the  grand  peculiarity 
and  ordinance  of  these  people.  Joanna 
gives  those  who  profess  belief  in  her 
mission,  and  will  subscribe  to  the  things 
revealed  in  her  "  Warning,"  a  sealed 
written  paper  with  her  signature,  and 
by  which  they  are  led  to  think  they  are 
sealed  against  the  day  of  redemption, 
and  that  all  those  who  are  possessed  of 
these  seals  will  be  signally  honoured  by 
the  Messiah  when  he  comes  this  spring 
It  is  said  they  looked  upon  Joanna  to  be 
the  bride,  the  Lamb's  wife ;  and  that 
as  man  fell  by  a  woman,  he  will  be  re- 
stored by  a  woman.  Some  of  her  fol- 
lowers pretended  also  to  have  visions  and 


SPI 


5G9 


SPO 


revelations.  At  present,  It  seems,  both 
warning  and  sealing  have  subsided ;  they 
are  v/aiting,  probably  in  awful  suspense, 
for  the  commencement  of  the  thousand 
years'  reign  on  the  earth,  when  peace 
■vvill  universally  prevail.  Yet  it  is  said 
they  do  not  mean  that  Christ  will  come 
in  person,  but  in  spirit,  and  that  the 
sealed  Avho  are  dead  before  this  time, 
"will  be  raised  from,  their  gi-aves  to  par- 
take in  this  happy  state. 

SOVEREIGNTY  OF  GOD,  is  his 
power  and  right  of  dominion  over  his 
creatures,  to  dispose  and  detennine 
them  as  seemeth  him  good.  This  at- 
tribute is  evidently  demonstrated  in  the 
systems  of  creation,  providence,  and 
grace  ;  and  may  be  considered  as  abso- 
lute, universal,  and  everlasting,  Dan. 
iv.  35.  Eph.  i.  11.  See  Dominion, 
Government,  Power,  and  Will  of 
God  ;  Coles  on  the  Sovereignty  of  God; 
and  Charnock  on  the  Dominion  of  God, 
in  his  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  690 ;  Ediuards's 
Sermons,  sei*.  4. 

SPINOSISM,  the  doctrines  of  Spino- 
za, who  was  born  a  Jew  at  Amsterdam 
in  1632.  The  chief  articles  in  his  sys- 
tem are  such  as  these :  that  there  is 
but  one  substance  in  nature,  and  that 
this  only  substance  is  endued  with  an 
infinite  variety  of  attributes,  among 
which  are  extension  and  cogitation ; 
that  all  the  bodies  in  the  universe  are 
modifications  of  this  substance,  con- 
sidered as  extended:  and  that  all  the 
souls  of  men  are  modifications  of  the 
same  substance,  considered  as  cogita- 
tive :  that  God  is  a  necessary  and  infi- 
nitely perfect  Being,  and  is  the  cause  of 
all  things  that  exist,  but  not  a  different 
Being  from  them  :  that  there  is  but  one 
Being,  and  one  nature ;  and  that  this 
nature  produces  within  itself,  by  an  im- 
manent act,  all  those  which  we  call 
creatures ;  and  that  this  Being  is,  at  the 
same  timt;,  both  agent  and  patient,  effi- 
cient cause  and  subject,  but  that  he 
produces  notliing  but  modifications  of 
himself.  Thus  is  the  Deity  made  the 
sole  agent  as  well  as  patient,  in  all  evil, 
both  physical  and  moral.  If  this  im- 
pious doctrine  be  not  Atheism,  (or,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called.  Pantheism,)  I  know 
not  what  is.    See  Pantheism. 

SPIRIT,  an  incorporeal  being  or  intel- 
ligence ;  in  wliich  sense  God  is  said  to 
be  a  Spirit,  as  are  angels  and  the  human 
soul. 

HOLY  SPIRIT.    See  Holy  Ghost. 

SPIRITUALITY  OF  GOD,  is  his 
immateriality,  or  being  without  bodv. 
It  expresses  an  idea  (says  Dr.  Paley) 
made  up  of  a  negative  part  and  of  a  po- 
sitive part.    The  negative  part  consists 


in  the  exclusion  of  some  of  the  known 
propeities  of  matter,  especially  of  soli- 
dity, of  the  vis  inertia;,  and  of  gravitation. 
The  positive  part  comprises  perception, 
thought,  wUl,  power,  action,  by  which 
last  term  is  meant  the  origination  of  mo- 
tion. A'at.  Theol.  p.  481.   See  Incorpo- 

REALITY  OF  GOD. 

SPIRITUAL-MINDEDNESS,  that 
disposition  implanted  in  the  mind  by  the 
Holy  Spii'it,  by  which  it  is  inclined  to 
love,  delight  in,  and  attend  to  spiritual 
things.  The  spiritual  minded  highly 
appreciate  spiritual  blessings — are  en- 
gaged in  spiritual  exercises — pursue 
spiritual  objects — are  influenced  bv  spi- 
ritual moti\es — and  experience  spiritual 
joys.  To  be  spiintually-minded,  says 
St.  Paul,  is  life  and  peace,  Rom .  viii.  6. 
See  Dr.  Owen^s  excellent  Treatise  on 
this  subject. 

SPONSORS,  are  those  persons  who, 
in  the  office  of  baptism,  answer,  or  are 
sureties  for  the  persons  baptised.  See 
Godfathers. 

SPORTS,  Book  of,  a  book  or  decla- 
ration drawn  up  by  Bp.  Moi'ton,  in  the 
reign  of  K.  James  I.  to  encourage  re- 
creations and  sports  on  the  Lord's  day. 
It  was  to  this  effect :  "  That  for  his  good 
people's  reci'eation  his  Majesty's  plea- 
sure was,  that,  after  the  end  of  divine 
ser\'ice,  they  should  not  be  disturbed, 
letted,  or  discouraged,  from  any  lawful 
recreations ;  such  as  dancing,  either  of 
men  or  women ;  archery  for  men ;  leap- 
ing, vaulting,  or  any  such  harmless  re- 
creations ;  nor  having  of  may -games, 
'ivhitsonales,  or  morrice  dances;  or  set- 
ting up  of  May  poles,  and  other  sports 
therewith  used,  so  as  the  same  may  be 
had  in  due  and  convenient  time,  without 
impediment  or  let  of  divine  service ;  and 
that  women  should  have  leave  to  carry 
rjishes  to  the  chui'ch  for  the  decorating 
of  it,  according  to  their  old  customs; 
wthal  prohibiting  all  unlawful  games 
to  be  used  on  Sundcnjs  only  ;  as  bear- 
baiting,  bull-baiting,  interludes,  and  at 
all  times  (in  the  meaner  sort  of  people 
prohibited)  bowling."  Tv\'o  or  three 
restraints  were  annexed  to  the  declara- 
tion, which  deserve  the  reader's  notice : 
1st.  "  No  recusant  (i.  e.  Papist)  was  to 
hrive  the  benefit  of  this  declaration. — . 
2dly.  Nor  such  as  were  not  present  at 
the  whole  of  divine  service. — Nor,  3dly. 
such  as  did  not  keep  to  their  own  parish 
churches,  that  is,  Puritans." 

This  declaration  was  ordered  to  be 
read  in  all  the  parish  churches  of  Lan- 
casMre,  which  abound  with  Papists; 
and  Wilson  adds,  that  it  was  to  have 
been  read  in  all  the  churches  of  Eng- 
land, but  that  Archbishop  Abbot,  being 
4  C 


STO 


570 


SUB 


at  Croydon,  flatly  forljadc  its  being  read 
there.  In  the  reign  of  King  Charles  I. 
Archbishop  Laud  put  the  king  upon  re- 
publishing this  declaration,  which  was 
accordingly  done.  The  court  had  their 
balls,  nuxsquerades,  and  plays,  on  the 
Sunday  evenings,  wliile  the  youth  of 
the  country  were  at  their  morrice- 
dances,  Mav-games,  church  and  clerk 
ales,  and  all  such  kind  of  revelling. 
The  severe  pressing  of  this  declaration 
made  sad  ha^•oc  among  the  Puritans,  as 
it  was  to  be  read  in  the  churches. 
Many  poor  clergymen  strained  theii- 
consciences  in  submission  to  their  supe- 
riors. Some,  after  publishing  it,  imme- 
diately read  the  fourth  commandment 
to  the  people  : — "  Remember  the  Sab- 
bath day,  to  keep  it  holy :"  adding, 
"  This  is  the  law  of  God :"  the  ether, 
"  The  injunction  of  man."  Some  put 
it  upon  their  curates,  v/hilst  great  num- 
bers absolutely  refused  to  comply :  the 
cmisequence  of  which  was,  that  several 
clergymen  were  actually  suspended  for 
not  reading  it. — Such,  alas,  v/as  the  aw- 
ful state  ol  the  times ! 

STATUTE  BLOODY,  or  the  law  of 
the  six  articles;  a  law  enacted  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  wliich  denounced 
death  against  all  those  v-,'ho  should  deny 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  ;  oi- 
maintain  the  necessity  of  receiving  the 
sacrament  in  both  kinds,  or  affirm  that 
it  was  lawful  for  priests  to  marry,  that 
vows  of  celibacy  might  be  broken,  that 
private  masses  were  of  no  avail,  and 
that  auricular  confession  to  a  priest  was 
not  necessarv  to  salvation. 

STEADFASTNESS.      See    Con- 

ST.'VNCY. 

STOICS,  heathen  philosophers,  Avho 
took  their  names  from  the  Greek  word 
stoa,  signifying  a  poi'ch,  or  portico,  be- 
cause Zeno,  the  head  of  the  Stoics,  kept 
his  school  in  a  porch  of  the  city  of 
Athens.  It  is  supposed  that  Zeno  boi-- 
rowed  many  of  his  opinions  from  the 
Jev/ish  Scriptures ;  but  it  is  certain  that 
Socrates  and  Plato  had  taught  much  of 
them  before.  The  Stoics  generally 
maintained  that  nature  impels  every 
man  to  pursue  whatever  appears  to 
him  to  be  good.  According  to  them, 
s*;lf-preservation  and  defence  is  the  first 
law  of  animated  nature.  All  animals 
necessarilv  derive  pleasure  from  those 
things  which  are  suited  to  them ;  but  the 
first^)bjcct  of  pursuit  is  not  pleasure,  but 
conformity  to  nature.  Every  one,  there- 
fore, who  has  a  right  discernment  of 
what  is  good,  will  be  chiefly  concerned 
to  conform  to  nature  in  all  his  actions 
and  pursuits.  This  is  the  origin  of  mo- 
I'al  obligation.    With  respect  to  happi- 


ness or  good,  the  stoical  doctrine  was 
altogether  extravagant:  they  taught 
that  all  external  things  are  indifferent 
and  cannot  affect  the  happiness  of  man ; 
tliat  pain,  which  does  not  belong  to  the 
mind,  is  not  evil ;  and  that  a  wise  man 
will  be  happy  in  the  midst  of  torture, 
because  virtue  itself  is  happiness. 

Of  all  the  sects  howcA^er  of  the  an- 
cient philosophers,  it  is  said  that  the 
Stoics  came  nearest  the  Christian ;  and 
that  not  only  with  respect  to  their  strict 
regard  to  moral  virtue,  but  also  on  ac- 
count of  their  moral  principles ;  inso- 
much, that  Jerome  affirms  that  in  many 
things  they  agree  with  us.  They  as- 
serted the"  unity  of  the  Divine  Being — 
the  creation  of  the  world  by  the  ^3701, 
or  Word — the  doctrine  of  Providence — 
and  the  conflagration  of  the  universe. 
They  believed  in  the  doctiine  of  fate, 
wliich  they  represented  as  no  other 
than  the  will  and  purpose  of  God,  and 
held  that  it  had  no  tendency  to  loose- 
ness of  life. 

STYLITES,  pillar  saints;  an  appel- 
lation given  to  a  kind  of  solitaries,  who 
stood  motionless  upon  the  tops  of  pillars, 
raised  for  the  exercise  of  their  patience, 
and  remained  there  for  several  )-ears, 
amidst  the  admiration  and  applause  of 
the  stupid  populace.  Of  these,  we  find 
several  mentioned  in  ancient  writers, 
and  even  as  low  as  the  twelfth  century^ 
when  they  were  totally  suppressed. 

The  founder  of  tlie "order  was  St.  Si- 
meon Stylites,  a  famous  anchoret  in  the 
fifth  century,  who  first  took  up  his  abode 
on  a  column  six  cubits  high  ;  then  on  a 
second  of  twelve  cubits ;  a  third  of 
twenty-two;  a  fourth  of  thirt)--six  ;  and 
on  another  of  forty  cubits,  where  he 
thus  passed  thirty-seven  years  of  his 
life.  The  tops  of  these  columns  were 
only  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  were 
defended  by  a  rail  that  reached  almost 
to  the  girdle,  somewhat  resembling  a 
pulpit.  There  was  no  lying  down  in  it. 
The  Faquirs  or  devout  people  of  the 
East,  imitate  this  extraordinary  kind  of 
life  to  this  day. 

SUB  DEACON,  an  inferior  minister, 
vv^ho  anciently  attended  at  the  altar, 
prepared  the  sacred  vessels,  delivei-ed 
them  to  the  deacons  in  time  of  divine 
service,  attended  the  doors  of  the  church 
during  communion  service,  went  on  the 
bishop's  embassies  with  his  letters,  or 
messages,  to  foreign  churches,  and  was 
invested  with  the  first  of  the  holy  or- 
ders. They  were  so  subordinate  to  the 
superior  rides  of  the  church,  that,  by 
a  canon  of  the  council  of  Laodicea,  they 
were  forbidden  to  sit  in  the  presence  of 
a  deacon  without  his  leave. 


SUB 


571 


sue 


SUBLAFSARIANS;  those  who  hoL-l 
VhatGocl  permitted  the  iirst  !i!:in  to  fall 
into  transgression  witliout  al)solutely 
predetermining  his  fall ;  or  that  the  de- 
cree of  predestination  rcgai'ds  man  as 
fallen,  by  an  abuse  of  that  freedom  which 
Adam  had,  into  a  state  in  which  all  were 
to  be  left  to  necessary  and  unavnidaljle 
ruin,  who  were  not  exempted  fi-om  it 
by  predestination.    See  Supralapsa- 

EIANS. 

SUBMISSION  TO  GOD  implies  an 
entire  giving  up  of  our  vmderstanding, 
will,  and  affections,  to  him  ;  or,  as  I)r. 
Owen  observes,  it  consists  in,  1.  An 
acquiescency  in  his  right  and  sove- 
reignty.— 2.  An  acknowledgment  of  his 
righteousness  and  wisdom. — 3.  A  sense 
or  his  love  and  care. — 4.  A  diligent  ap- 
plication of  ourselves  to  his  mind  and 
Avill. — 5.  Keeping  our  souls  by  faith  and 
patience  from  weariness  and  despon- 
dency.— 6.  A  full  resignation  to  his  will. 
See  Resignation,  Sorrow. 

SUBSCRIPTION,  CLERICAL— 
Subscription  to  articles  of  religion  is  re- 
quired of  the  clergy  of  every  establish- 
ed church,  and  of  some  churches  not 
established.  But  it  has  been  a  matter 
of  dispute  whether  it  answers  any 
valuable  pui'pose  as  to  religion,  how- 
ever necessary  as  a  test  to  loyalty.  All 
language  is  more  or  less  ambiguous,  so 
that  it  is  difficult  always  to  understand 
the  exact  sense,  or  the  animus  iinfio- 
nentis,  especially  when  creeds  have  been 
long  established.  It  is  said  that  the  cler- 
gy of  the  churches  of  England  and  Scot- 
land seldom  consider  themselves  as 
fettered  with  the  Thu'ty-nine  Articles, 
or  the  Confession  of  Faith,  when  com- 
posing instnictions  for  their  parishes,  or 
the  public  at  large. 

It  is  to  be  feared,  indeed,  that  many 
subscribe  merely  for  the  sake  of  emolu- 
ment ;  and  though  it  be  professedly  ex 
ani?no,  it  is  well  known  that  it  is  not  so 
in  reality.  How  such  will  answer  to  the 
Great  He*i  of  the  church,  we  must 
leave  them  to  judge.  They  who  think 
subscription  to  be  proper,  should  re- 
member that  it  approaches  veiy  near 
the  solemnity  of  an  oath,  and  is  not  to  be 
trifled  with.  "  Great  care,"  says  Dod- 
dridge, "  ought  to  be  taken  that  we  sub- 
scribe nothing  that  we  do  not  firmly  be- 
lieve. If  the  signification  of  the  words 
be  dubious,  and  we  believe  either  sense, 
and  that  sense  in  which  we  do  believe 
them  is  as  natural  as  the  other,  we  may, 
consistently  with  integrity,  subscribe 
them ;  or  if  the  sense  in  which  we  do 
believe  them  to  be  less  natural,  and  we 
explain  that  sense,  and  that  explication 
be  admitted  by  the  person  requiring  the 


sul.'scription  in  his  own  rit^ht,  there  can 
be  no  just  foundation  for  a  scruple. 
Some  have  added,  that,  if  we  have  rea- 
son to  Ix-lieve  (though  it  is  not  expressly 
declared)  that  he  who  imposes  the  sub- 
scri])tion  does  not  intend  that  we  should 
hereby  declare  our  assent  to  those  ar- 
ticles, but  only  that  we  should  pay  a 
compliment  to  his  authority,  and  engage 
ourselves  not  openly  to  contradict  them, 
we  may,  in  this  case,  subscribe  what  is 
most  directly  contrary  to  our  belief;  or 
that,  if  we  declare  bur  belief  in  any 
Ijook,  as,  for  instance,  the  Bible,  it  is  to 
be  supposed  that  we  subscribe  other  ar- 
ticles only  so  far  as  they  are  consistent 
with  that ;  because  we  cannot  imagine 
that  the  law  would  require  us  to  profess 
GUI'  belief  of  contrary  propositions  at  the 
same  time.  But  subscription  upon  these 
principles  seems  a  very  dangerous  at- 
tack upon  sincerity  and  public  virtue, 
especially  in  those  designed  for  public 
ofiices."  If  the  reader  be  desirous  of  in- 
vestigating the  subject,  he  may  consult, 
Fairy's  A/or.  P/iil.  vol.  i.  p.  218  ;  Dyer 
on  Subscrijtthn  ;  Doddridge's  l.cct. 
lect.  70 ;  C'onijdearv's  Sermon  on  Siib- 
scriptioii ;  Free  and  Candid  Disquisi- 
tions relating  to  the  Church  of  England; 
and  The  Confessional. 

SUCCESSION  UNINTERRUPT- 
ED, a  term  made  use  of  by  the  Roman- 
ists, and  others,  in  I'eference  to  those 
bisliops  who  are  supposed  to  have  de- 
rived their  authority  from  the  apostles, 
and  so  communicated  that  authority 
to  others  in  a  line,  or  succession.  It  is 
a  very  precarious  and  uncomfoitable 
foundation  for  Christian  hope  (says  Dr. 
Doddridge)  which  is  laid  in  the  doctrine 
of  an  uninierrufited  succession  of  bi- 
shops, and  which  makes  the  validity  of 
the  administration  of  Christian  ministers 
depend  upon  such  a  succession,  since 
there  is  so  great  a  darkness  upon  many 
periods  of  ecclesiastical  history,  inso- 
much that  it  is  not  agreed  who  were 
the  seven  first  bishops  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  though  that  church  was  so  cele- 
brated ;  and  Eusebius  himself,  from 
whom  the  greatest  patrons  of  this  doc- 
trine have  made  their  catalogues,  ex- 
pressly owns  that  it  is  no  easy  matter  to 
tell  who  succeeded  the  apostles  in  the 
government  of  the  churches,  excepting 
such  as  may  be  collected  from  St.  Paul's 
own  words.  [See  Episcopacy.]  Con- 
tested elections,  in  almost  all  consider- 
able cities,  make  it  very  dubious  which 
were  the  true  bishops ;  and  decrees  of 
councils,  rendering  all  tliose  ordinations 
null  where  any  simoniacal  contract  was 
the  foundation  of  them,  makes  it  impos- 
sible to  prove  that  there  is  now  upon 


SUF 


572 


SUP 


earth  any  one  person  who  is  a  legal 
successor  of  the  apostles;  at  least  ac- 
cording to  the  principles  of  the  Romish 
church.  Consequently,  whatever  sys- 
tem is  built  on  this  doctrine  must  be 
very  precarious.  Hoive's  Ejiiscojiacy, 
p.  170, 183 ;  Doddridge's  Lcc.  lee.  197 ; 
Chandler's  Serinons  against  Popery, 
p.  34. — 37 ;  Pierce's  Sermons,  pref.  and 
article  Ordination. 

SUFFERINGS  OF  CHRIST.  To 
form  an  idea  of  Christ's  sufferings,  we 
should  consider  the  poverty  of  his  birth  ; 
the  reproach  of  his  character ;  the  pains 
of  his  body;  the  power  of  his  enemies ; 
the  desertion  of  his  friends  ;  the  weight 
of  his  people's  sins ;  the  slow,  ignomi- 
nious, and  painful  natiu'e  of  his  death  ; 
and  the  hidings  of  his  Fatlier's  face. 
All  these  rendei'ed  his  sufferings  ex- 
tremely severe  ;  yet  some  heretics  said, 
that  the  suiierings  of  Christ  were  only 
in  appearance,  and  not  real :  but,  as  Bi- 
shop Pearson  obscrxes,  "  If  hunger  and 
thirst ;  if  revilings  and  contempt ;  if 
soiTows  and  agonies ;  if  stripes  and  buf- 
feting ;  if  condemnation  and  cnicifixion, 
be  sufferings,  Jesus  suffered.  If  the  in- 
firmities of  our  nature ;  if  the  weight  of 
our  sins ;  if  the  m.alice  of  men ;  if  the 
machinations  of  Satan ;  if  the  hand  of 
God,  could  make  him  suffer,  our  Sa- 
viour suffered.  If  the  annals  of  time ; 
if  the  writings  of  the  apostles ;  if  the 
death  of  his  martyrs  ;  if  the  confession 
of  Gentiles ;  if  the  scoffs  of  the  Jews,  be 
testimonies,  Jesus  suffered."  Pearson 
on  the  Creed;  Dr.  Rambach's  Medita- 
tions on  the  Sufferings  of  Christ.  For 
the  end  of  Christ's  sufferings,  see 
Death  of  Christ. 

SUNDAY,  or  the  Lord's  Day,  a  so- 
lemn festival  observed  by  Christians  on 
the  firet  day  of  every  week  in  memory  of 
our  Saviour's  resurrection.  See  Sabbath. 

It  has  been  contended  whether  Sun- 
day is  a  name  that  ought  to  Ije  used  by 
Christians.  The  words  Sabbath  and 
Lord's  Day,  say  some,  ai'e  the  only 
names  mentioned  in  Scrip tm-e  respecting 
this  day.  To  call  it  Sunday,  is  to  set  our 
wisdom  before  the  wisdom  of  God,  and 
to  give  that  glory  to  a  Pagan  idol  which 
is  due  to  him  alone.  The  ancient  Sax- 
ons ciilled  it  by  this  name,  because  upon 
it  they  worshipped  the  Sun ;  and  .shall 
Christians  keep  up  the  memory  of  that 
which  was  highly  displeasing  to  God, 
by  calling  the  Sabbath  by  tiiat  name 
i-ather  than  by  either  of  those  he  hath 
ap])ointed  ?  It  is,  indeed,  called  Sunday, 
only  because  it  is  customary ;  but  this, 
say  they,  will  not  justify  men  in  doing 
that  which  is  contrary  to  the  example 
and  conimuud  of  God  in  his  wcixl. 


Others  observe,  that  although  it  was 
originally  called  Sunday,  by  the  Hea- 
thens, yet  it  may  very  jiroperly  retain 
that  name  among  Christians,  because  it 
is  dedicated  to  the  honour  of  the  true 
light,  which  lighteth  every  man  that 
Cometh  into  the  world,  of  Him  who  is 
styled  by  the  prophet  "  the  Sun  of  Right- 
eousness," and  who  on  this  day  arose 
from  the  dead.  But  although  it  was  in 
the  primitive  times  indifferently  called 
the  Lord's  Day,  or  Sunday,  yet  it  was 
never  denominated  the  Sabbath ;  a  name 
constantly  appropriate  to  Saturday, 
or  the  seventh  day,  both  by  sacred 
and  ecclesiastical  writers.  See  Sab- 
bath. 

SUPEREROGATION,  what  a  man 
does  beyond  his  duty,  or  more  than  he 
is  commanded  to  do.  The  Romanists 
stand  up  strenuously  for  works  of  su- 
perei-ogation,  and  maintain  that  the  ob- 
ser\"ance  of  evangelical  councils  is  such. 
By  means  hereof  a  stock  of  merit  is  laid 
up,  which  the  church  has  the  disposal 
ot,  and  which  she  distributes  in  indul- 
gences to  such  as  need. 

This  absurd  doctj-ine  was  first  invent- 
ed towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  modified  and  embellished  by 
St.  Thomas  in  the  thirteenth :  accord- 
ing to  which,  it  was  pretended  that  there 
actually  existed  an  immense  treasure 
of  merit,  composed  of  the  pious  deeds 
and  virtuous  actions  which  the  saints 
had  performed  beyond  what  was  neces- 
saiy  for  their  own  salvation,  and  which 
were,  therefore,  applicable  to  the  bene- 
fit of  others ;  that  the  guardian  and 
dispenser  of  this  precious  treasure  was 
the  Roman  pontiff;  and  that,  of  conse- 
quence, he  was  empowered  to  assig-n  to 
such  as  he  thought  proper,  a  portion  of 
this  inexhaustible  source  of  merit,  suit- 
able to  their  respective  guilt,  and  suffi- 
cient to  deliver  them  from  the  punish- 
ment due  to  tlieir  crimes. 

SUPERINTENDENT,  an  eccle- 
siastical superior  in  several  reformed 
churches  where  episcopacy  is  not  ad- 
mitted, particularly  among  the  Lu- 
therans in  Germany,  and  the  Calvinists 
in  some  other  places.  The  superin- 
tendent is  similar  to  a  bishop,  only  his 
power  is  somewhat  more  restrained 
than  that  of  our  diocesan  bishops.  He 
is  the  chief  pastor,  and  has  the  direction 
of  all  the  inferior  pastors  within  his  dis- 
trict or  diocess. 

SUPERSTITION  is  a  word  that  has 
I  been  used  so  indefinitely,  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  determine  its  precise  meaning. 
'From  its  resemblance  in  sound  to  the 
j  Latin  word  superstet;  a  survivor,  it  if= 
;  c\  idently  dexix  ed  from  it ;  and  differen'' 


SUP 


i73 


SUP 


I 


attempts  have  been  made  to  trace  their 
connexion  in  signification,  but  Avithout 
any  degree  of  certainty.  It  is  gene- 
rally defined  to  be,  the  observance  of 
unnecessaiy  and  uncommanded  rites 
and  practices  in  religion  ;  reverence  of 
objects  not  fit  for  worship ;  too  great 
nicety,  fears,  or  sci'upulousness ;  or  ex- 
travagant devotions ;  or  religion  Avrong 
directed  or  conducted.  The  word  may 
be  applied  to  the  idolatry  of  the  Hea- 
thens, the  traditions  of  tire  Jews,  the 
unscriptural  rites  of  the  Catholics ;  to 
the  dependence  placed  by  many  on  bap- 
tism, the  Loi'd's  supper,  and  other  cere- 
monies. It  may  be  extended  to  those, 
who,  without  any  evidence,  believe  that 
prophecies  are  still  uttered,  or  miracles 
are  performed.  It  is  also  applied  to 
those  Avho  believe  in  witchci'aft,  magic, 
omens,  &c. 

Supei'stition,  says  Claude,  usually 
springs  either,  1.  From  servile  fear, 
which  makes  people  believe  tliat  God 
is  always  wrathful,  and  invents  means 
to  appease  him. — 2.  Or  from  a  natural 
inclination  we  all  have  to  idolatry, 
v>liich  makes  men  think  they  see  some 
ray  of  the  Divinity  in  exti-aordinary 
creatures,  and  on  this  account  worship 
them. — Or,  3.  From  hypocrisy,  which 
makes  men  willing  to  discharge  their 
obligations  to  God  by  grimace,  and  by 
zeal  for  external  services. — Or,  4.  From 
presumlttion,  which  makes  men  serve 
God  after  their  own  fancies.  Claude'' s 
Essay  on  the  Composition  of  a  Serinon, 
vol.  ii.  p.  49  and  299 ;  Saurin^s  Sermons, 
vol.  V.  p.  49,  Eng.  edit.  Gregory's  Es- 
says, essay  iii. 

SUPR AL APSARIANS,  persons  who 
liold  that  God,  without  any  regard  to 
the  good  or  evil  works  of  men,  has  re- 
solved, by  an  eternal  decree,  supra  lap- 
sum,  antecedently  to  any  knowledge  of 
the  fall  of  Adam,  and  independently  of 
it,  to  save  some  and  reject  others  :  oi-, 
in  other  words,  that  God  intended  to 
glorify  his  justice  in  the  condemnation 
of  some,  as  well  as  his  mercy  m  the  sal- 
A  ation  of  others;  and,  for  that  purpose, 
decreed  that  Adam,  should  necessarily 
fall. 

Dr.  Gill  gives  us  the  following  account 
of  Supralapsarianism. — The  xjuestion 
■which  he  proposes  to  discuss,  is,  "  Whe- 
ther men  were  considered  in  the  mind 
of  God  in  the  decree  of  election  as  fallen 
or  unfallen,  as  in  the  coiTupt  mass 
through  the  fall,  or  in  the  pure  mass  of 
creatureship,  previous  to  it,  and  as  to  be 
created  ?"  There  are  some  who  think 
that  the  latter,  so  considered,  were  the 
objects  of  election  in  the  divine  mind. 
These     are    culled     Supralapsarians, 


tiiough  of  these,  some  are  of  opinion 
that  man  was  considered  as  to  be  created 
or  creatable,  and  others  as  ci'eated  but 
not  fallen.  The  former  seems  best,  that, 
of  the  vast  number  of  individuals  which 
came  up  in  the  divine  mind  whom  his 
power  could  create,  those  whom  he 
meant  to  bring  into  being  lie  designed 
to  glorify  himself  b)'  them  in  some  way 
or  otlier.  The  decree  of  election  re- 
specting any  part  of  them,  may  be  dis- 
tmguished  into  the  decree  of  the  end 
and  the  decree  of  the  means.  The  de- 
cree of  the  end  respecting  some  is  ei- 
ther subordinate  to  their  eternal  happi- 
ness, or  ultimate,  which  is  more  proper- 
ly the  end,  the  gloiy  of  God;  and  if 
both  are  put  together,  it  is  a  state  of 
everlasting  communion  with  God,  for 
the  glorifying  of  the  riches  of  his  grace. 
The  decree  of  the  means  includes  the 
decree  to  create  men  to  permit  them  to 
fall,  to  recover  them  out  of  it  through 
redemption  by  Christ,  to  sanctify  them 
by  the  gi-ace  of  the  Spirit,  and  com- 
pletely save  them ;  and  which  are  not 
to  be  reckoned  as  materially  many  de- 
crees, but  as  making  one  formal  decree ; 
or  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  sub- 
ordinate, but  as  co-ordinate  means,  and 
as  making  up  one  entii-e  complete  me- 
dium ;  for  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
God  decreed  to  create  man,  that  he 
might  perm.it  him  to  fall,  in  order  to  re- 
deem, sanctify,  and  save  him  ;  but  he 
decreed  all  this  that  he  might  gloinfy 
his  grace,  mercy,  and  justice.  And  in 
this  way  of  considering  the  decrees  of 
God,  they  think  that  they  sufficiently 
obviate  and  remove  the  slanderous 
calumny  cast  upon  them  with  i-espect 
to  the  other  branch  of  predestination, 
which  leaves  men  in  the  same  state 
when  others  are  chosen,  and  that  for 
the  gloiy  of  God.  Vl'hich  calumny  is, 
that,  according  to  them,  God  made  man 
to  damn  him ;  whereas,  according  to  their 
real  sentiments,  God  deci'eed  to  make 
man,  and  made  man  neither  to  damn 
him  nor  save  him,  but  for  his  own  glory, 
which  end  is  answered  in  them  some 
way  or  other. — Again  ;  they  argue  that 
the  end  is  first  in  view  before  the  means, 
and  the  decree  of  the  end  is,  in  order  of 
nature,  before  the  decree  of  the  means ; 
and  what  is  first  in  intention,  is  last  in 
execution.  Now,  as  the  glory  of  God 
is  last  in  execution,  it  must  be  first  in 
intention,  wherefore  men  must  be  con- 
sidered in  the  decree  of  the  end  as  not 
yet  created  and  fallen  ;  since  the  crea- 
tion and  permission  of  sin  belong  to  the 
decree  ot  the  means,  which  in  order  of 
nature  is  after  the  decree  of  the  end. 
And  they  add  to  this,  that  if  God  first 


SUP 

decreed  to  create  man,  and  suffered  him 
to  fall,  and  then  out  of  the  fall  chose 
some  to  grace  and  glory,  he  must  de- 
cree to  create  man  without  an  end, 
which  is  to  make  God  to  do  what  no 
wise  man  would;  for  when  a  man  is 
about  to  do  any  thijig,  he  proposes  an 
end,  and  then  contrives  and  fixes  on 
ways  and  means  to  bring  about  that  end. 
They  think  also  that  this  way  of  con- 
ceiving and  speaking  of  these  things, 
best  expresses  the  so^^ereignty  of  God 
in  them,  as  declared  in  the  9th  of  Ro- 
mans, where  he  is  said  to  will  such  and 
such  things,  for  ho  other  reason  but  be- 
cause he  wills  them. 

The  opponents  of  this  doctrine  con- 
sider, however,  that  it  is  attended  with 
insuperable  difficulties.  We  demand, 
say  they,  an  explanation  of  what  they 
mean  by  this  principle,  "  God  hath 
made  all  things  for  his  own  glory."  If 
they  mean  that  justice  I'equires  a  crea- 
ture to  devote  himself  to  the  worship 
and  glorifying  of  his  Ci-eator,  we  grant 
it ;  if  they  mean  that  the  atti'ibutes  of 
God  are  displayed  in  all  his  works,  we 
grant  this  too  :  but  if  the  proposition  be 
intended  to  affirm  that  God  had  no 
other  view  in  creating  men,  so  to  speak, 
than  his  own  mterest,  we  deny  the  pro- 
})osition,  and  affirm  that  God  ci'eated 
men  for  their  own  happiness,  and  in  or- 
der to  have  subjects  upon  whom  he 
might  bestow  favours. 

We  desire  to  be  informed,  in  the  next 
place,  say  they,  how  it  can  be  qonceived 
that  a  determination  to  damn  million.s  of 
men  can  contribute  to  the  glory  of  GodP 
We  easily  conceive,  that  it  is  for  the 
glory  of  divine  justice  to  punish  guilty 
men  :  but  to  resolve  to  damn  men  witli- 
out  the  consideration  of  sin,  to  create 
them  that  tliey  might  sin,  to  determine 
that  they  should  sin  in  order  to  their  de- 
struction, is  what  seems  to  us  more 
likely  to  tarnish  the  glory  of  God  than 
to  display  it. 

Again;  we  demand  how,  according 
to  this  hypothesis,  it  can  be  conceived 
that  God  is  not  the  author  of  sin  ?  In  the 
general  scheme  of  our  churches,  God 
ojily  permits  men  to  sin,  and  it  is  the 
abuse  of  liberty  that  plunges  man  into 
miseiy  :  even  this  principle,  all  lenified 
as  it  seems,  is  yet  subject  to  a  gi-cat 
number  of  difficulties;  but  in  tliis 
scheme,  God  wills  sin  to  produce  the 
end  he  proposed  in  creating  the  world, 
and  it  was  necessary  that  men  should 
sin  :  God  created  them  for  that.  If  this 
be  not  to  make  God  the  author  of  sin, 
we  must  renounce  the  most  distinct  and 
clear  ideas. 

Again ;  we  x'equire  them  to  reconcile 


74 


sus 


this  system  with  many  express  declara- 
tions of  Scripture,  which  inform  us  that 
God  ivoiild  have  all  meii  to  be  saved. 
How  doth  it  agree  with  such  pressing 
entreaties,  such  cutting  reproofs,  such 
tender  expostulations,  as  God  discovers 
in  regard  to  the  unconverted  i*  Matt, 
xxiii.  37. 

Lastly,  we  desire  to  know,  how  is  it 
possible  to  conceive  a  God,  Avho,  being 
m  the  actual  enjoyment  of  perfect  hap- 
piness, incomprehensible,  and  supreme, 
could  determine  to  add  this  decree, 
though  useless,  to  his  felicity,  to  create 
men  without  number  for  the  purpose  of 
confining  them  for  ever  in  the  chains  of 
darkness,  and  burning  them  for  ever  in 
unquenchable  flames.  Gill's  Body  of 
JDiv.  vol.  i.  p.  299;  Bri}ie^s  Works; 
Saurin's  Sermojis,  vol.  v.  p.  336.  Eng. 
trans. 

SUPREMACY  OF  THE  POPE,  a 
doctrine  held  by  the  Roman  Catholics, 
who  beliexe  that  the  bishop  of  Rome  is, 
under  Christ,  supreme  pastor  of  the 
whole  church  ;  and,  as  such,  is  not  only 
the  first  bishop  in  order  and  dignity, 
but  has  also  a  power  and  jurisdiction 
over  all  Christians.  This  doctrine  is 
chiefly  built  upon  the  supposed  primacy 
of  St."  Peter,  of  whom  the  bishop  of 
Rome  is  the  pretended  successor;  a 
primacy  we  no  where  find  commanded 
or  countenanced,  but  absolutely  prohi- 
bited, in  the  word  of  God,  Luke  xxii. 
14,  24.  Mark  ix.  35.  See  Infallibi-  '^ 
LiTY,  Primacy,  Pope,  and  Popery;  § 
Dr.  Barroiv's  Treatise  on  the  Pojie's  :. 
Supremacy ;  Chillingworth's  Religioji 
of  the  Protestants  ;  and  Smith's  Er- 
rors of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

SUlPREMACY,  Oath  of.  See 
Oath. 

SUSPICION  consists  in  imagining 
evil  of  others  without  proof.  It  is  some- 
times opposed  to  charity,  which  think- 
eth  no  evil.  "  A  suspicious  temper 
checks  in  the  bud  every  kind  affection  ; 
it  hardens  the  heart,  and  estranges  man 
from  man.  What  friendship  can  we 
expect  from  him  who  views  all  our  con- 
duct with  distnistful  eyes,  and  ascribes 
every  benefit  we  confer  to  artifice  and 
stratagem  ?  A  candid  man  is  accustomed 
to  view  the  characters  of  his  neigh- 
bours in  the  most  favourable  light,  and 
is  like  one  who  dwells  amidst  those 
beautiful  scenes  of  nature  on  which  the 
eye  rests  with  pleasure.  Whereas  the 
suspicious  man,  having  his  imagination 
filled  with  all  the  shocking  forms  of  hu- 
man falsehood,  deceit,  and  treaclicry, 
resembles  the  traveller  in  the  wilder- 
ness, who  discerns  no  objects  around 
him  but  what  are  either  dreaiy  or  ter- 


SWE 


575 


SWE 


vible ;  cavei'ns  that  open,  seipents  that 
hiss,  and  beasts  of  prev  that  howl." 

SWEARING.    See  Oath. 

Cursing  and  Swearing  is  an  offence 
against  God  and  religion,  and  a  sin  of 
all  others  the  most  extravagant  and  un- 
accountable, as  having  no  benefit  ov  ad- 
vantage attending  it.  It  is  a  contempt 
of  God ;  a  violation  of  his  law ;  a  great 
breach  of  good  behaviour ;  and  a  mark 
of  levity,  weakness,  and  wickedness. 
How  those  who  live  in  the  habitual  prac- 
tice of  it  can  call  themselves  men  of 
sense,  of  character,  or  of  decency,  I 
know  not.  By  the  last  statute  against 
this  crime,  19  George  II.  which  repeals 
all  foiTTier  ones,  eveiy  labourer,  sailor, 
or  soldiei",  profanely  cursing  or  swear- 
ing, shall  forfeit  one  shilling ;  every 
other  person,  under  the  rank  of  a  gen- 
tleman, two  shillings;  and  every  gen- 
tleman, or  person  of  superior  rank,  five 
shillings,  to  the  poor  of  the  parish  ;  and 
on  a  second  conviction,  double,  and  for 
even'  subsequent  offence  treble  the  sum 
first  forfeited,  with  all  charges  of  con- 
\'iction;  and,  in  default  of  payment, 
shall  be  sent  to  the  house  of  correction 
for  ten  days. 

SWEDENBORGIANS,  the  follov^- 
ers  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg,  a  Swedish 
nobleman,  born  at  Stockholm  in  1689. 
He  appears  to  have  had  a  good  educa- 
tion ;  for  his  learning  was  extensive  in 
almost  eveiy  branch.  He  professed 
himself  to  be  the  founder  of  the  New 
Jerusalem  Church,  alluding  to  the  New 
Jerusalem  spoken  of  m  the  book  of  the 
Revelation.  He  assei'ts  that,  in  the  year 
1743,  the  Lord  manifested  himself  to 
him  by  a  personal  appearance,  and  at 
the  same  time  opened  his  spiritual  eyes, 
so  that  he  was  enabled  constantly  to  see 
and  converse  with  spirits  and  angels. 
Fi"om  that  time  he  began  to  print  and 
publish  various  wonderful  tilings,  which, 
he  says,  were  revealed  to  him,  relating 
to  heaven  and  hell,  the  state  of  men  af- 
ter death,  the  worship  of  God,  the  spi- 
ritual sense  of  the  Scriptures,  the  va- 
rious earths  in  the  universe,  and  their 
inhabitants;  with  many  other  str.uige 
particulars. 

Swedenborg  lived  and  died  in  the 
Lutheran  communion,  but  always  pro- 
fessed the  highest  respect  for  the  church 
of  England.  He  can-ied  his  respect  for 
the  person  and  di\Tnity  of  Jesus  Christ 
to  the  highest  point  of  veneration,  con- 
sidering him  altogether  as  "  God  mani- 
fested in  the  flesh,  and  as  the  fulness  of 
the  Godhead  united  to  the  man  Christ 
Jesus."  With  respect,  therefore,  to  the 
sacred  Trinity,  though  he  rejected  the 
idea  of  three  distinct  pei-sons  as  de- 


structive of  the  unity  of  the  Godhead, 
he  admitted  three  distinct  essences,  prin- 
ciples, or  characters,  as  existing  in  it ; 
namel}^,  the  divine  essence  or  cha- 
racter, in  virtue  of  which  he  is  called 
the  Father  or  Creator ;  the  human  es- 
sence, principle,  or  character,  united  to 
the  divine  in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ, 
in  virtue  of  which  he  is  called  the  Son 
and  Redeemer ;  and,  lastly,  the  pro- 
ceeding essence  or  principle,  in  virtue  of 
which  he  is  called  the  Holy  Ghost.  He 
farther  maintains,  that  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tui'e  contains  three  distinct  senses, 
called  celestial,  spiritual,  and  natural, 
which  are  united  by  correspondences ; 
and  that  in  each  sense  it  is  divine  truth 
accommodated  respectively  to  the  an- 
gels of  the  three  heavens,  and  also  to 
men  on  earth.  This  science  of  corres- 
pondence (it  is  said)  has  been  lost  for 
some  thousands  of  years,  viz.  ever  since 
the  time  of  Job,  but  is  now  re\ived  by 
Emanuel  Swedenborg,  Avho  uses  it  as  a 
key  to  the  spiritual  or  internal  sense  of 
the  sacred  Scripture ;  every  page  of 
which,  he  says,  is  written  by  corres- 
pondence, that  is,  by  such  things  in  the 
natural  world  as  correspondent  unto  and 
signify  things  in  the  spiritual  world.  He 
denies  the  doctrine  of  atonement,  or  vi- 
caiious  sacrifice;  together  with  the 
docti'ines  of  predestmation,  uncondi- 
tional election,  justification  by  faith 
alone,  the  resurrection  of  the  material 
body,  &c.  and,  in  opposition  thereto, 
maintains  that  man  is  possessed  of  free 
v/ill  in  spiritual  things ;  that  salvation  is 
not  attainalile  without  repentance,  that 
is,  abstaining  from  evils,  because  the}- 
are  sins  against  God,  and  living  a  life  of 
charity  and  faith,  according  to  the  com- 
maridments  ;  that  man,  immediately  on 
his  decease,  rises  agahi  in  a  spiritual  bo- 
dy, which  was  enclosed  in  his  material 
body  ;  and  that  in  this  spiritual  body  he 
lives  as  a  man  to  eternity,  either  in  hea- 
ven, or  in  liell,  according  to  the  quality 
of  his  past  life.  That  all  those  passages 
in  the  Scrijjture  generally  supposed  to 
signiiy  the  deiti-^jction  of  the  world  by 
fire,  and  commonly  called  the  last  judg- 
ment, m.'i  "  be  understood  according  to 
tlie  ajus'e-mentioned  science  of  cor- 
respondences, which  teaches,  that  by 
the  end  of  the  v/orld,  or  consummation 
of  the  age,  is  not  signified  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  world,  but  the  destraction 
or  end  of  the  present  Christian  church, 
both  among  Roman  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants, of  every  description  or  deno- 
mmation;  and  that  this  last  judgment 
actually  took  place  in  the  spiritual 
world  in  the  year  1757;  from  which 
jcra  is  dated  the  second  advent  of  the 


* 


TAB 


576 


TAL 


Lord,  and  the  commencement  of  a  new 
Christian  church,  which,  they  say,  is 
meant  by  the  new  heaven  and  new 
earth  in  the  Revelation,  and  the  New 
Jerusalem  thence  descending.  They 
use  a  liturgy,  and  insti-umental  as  well 
as  vocal  music,  in  then-  public  worship. 
Sum?nary  View  of  Sivede7}borg''s  Doc- 
trines ;  S-wedenSorg^s  Works;  Dia- 
logues on  S%vedenhorg''s  Theological 
Writings. 

SYMBOL,  an  abstract  or  compen- 
dium ;  a  sign  or  representation  of  some- 
thing moral  by  the  figures  or  properties 
of  natural  things.  Hence  symbols  are 
of  various  kinds ;  as  hieroglyphics, 
tj^pes,  enigmas,  parables,  fables,  &c. 
See  Dr.  Lancaster's  Dictionarij  of  Scrifi- 
ture  Syjubols;  and  Bicheiio's  Symboli- 
cal Vocabulary  in  his  Signs  of  the 
Times ;  Faber  on  the  Profihecies ;  W. 
Jones's  Works,  vol.  iv.  let.  11. 

SYNAGOGUE,  a  place  where  the 
Jews  meet  to  worship  God. 

SYNERGISTS,  so  called  from  the 
Greek  <tuv£J7£io,  which  signifies  co-ope- 
ration. Hence  this  name  was  given  to 
those  in  the  sixteenth  century  who  de- 
nied that  God  was  the  sole  agent  in  the 
conversion  of  sinful  man,  and  affirmed 
that  man  co-operated  with  divine  grace 
in  the  accom.plishment  of  this  salutaiy 
pm'pose. 

SYNOD,  a  meeting  or  assembly  of 
ecclesiastical  persons  to  consult  on  mat- 
ters of  religion.  Of  these  there  are  four 
kinds,  viz.  1.  General,  where  bishops, 
&c.  meet  from  all  nations.  These  were 
first  called  by  the  emperors  ;  afterwards 
by  Christian  princes ;  till  in  later  ages, 
the  pope  usurped  to  himself  the  great- 
est shai-e  in  this  business,  and  by  his  le- 
gates presided  in  them  when  called. — 2. 
JVational,  where  those  of  one  nation  only 
come  tpgether  to  determine  any  point 


of  doctrine  or  discipline.  The  first  of 
this  sort  Avhich  we  read  of  in  Ejigland 
v\'as  that  of  Herudford,  or  Heitfofd,  id 
673 ;  and  the  last  was  that  held  b) 
Cardinal  Pole,  in  1555. — 3.  Provincial., 
where  those  only  of  one  province  meet^ 
now  called  the  convocation. — 4.  Dio- 
cesan, v/here  those  of  but  one  diocess 
meet,  to  enforce  canons  made  by  ge- 
neral councils,  or  national  and  provincial 
synods,  and  to  consult  and  agree  upon 
rules  of  discipline  for  them  selves.  These 
were  not  wholly  laid  aside,  till,  by  the 
act  of  submission,  25  Hen.  VHI.  c.  19. 
it  was  made  unlawful  for  any  synod  to 
meet,  but  by  royal  authority.  See  Coun- 
cil and  Convocation. 

SYRL\N  CHRISTL\NS.  The  num- 
ber of  Syrian  churches  is  greater  than 
has  been  supposed.  There  are,  at  this 
time,  fifty-five  churches  in  iSIalayala, 
acknowledging  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 
The  church  was  erected  by  the  present 
bishop,  in  1793.  See  JLvang.  Mag.  foi- 
1807,  p.  480. 

The  Syrian  Christians  are  not  Nesto- 
rians.  Formerly,  indeed,  they  had  bi- 
shops of  that  communion ;  but  the  li- 
turgy of  the  present  church  is  derived 
from  that  of  the  early  church  of  Anti- 
och, called  Liturgia  Jacobi  Ap.ostoU. 
They  are  usually  denominated  Jaco- 
bitse;  but  they  differ  in  ceremonial 
from  the  church  of  that  name  in  Syria, 
and  indeed  from  any  existing  church  in 
the  world.  Their  proper  designation, 
and  that  Avhich  is  sanctioned  by  their 
own  use,  is,  Syrian  Christians,  or  the 
Syrian  Church  of  Malayala. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Syrian  church 
are  contained  in  a  very  few  articles; 
and  are  not  at  variarce,  in  essential^, 
with  the  doctrmes  of  the  church  of 
England. 


T. 


TABERNACLE,  among  the  He- 
brews, a  kind  of  building,  in  the  form  of 
a  tent,  set  up  by  the  express  command 
of  God  for  the  performance  of  religious 
worship,  sacrifices,  &c.  Exod.  xxvi. 
xxvii. 

Feast  of  Tabernacles,  a  solemn  festi- 
val of  the  Hebrews,  observed  after 
harvest,  on  the  15th  day  of  the  month 
Tisri,  instituted  to  commemorate  the 
goodness  of  God,  who  protected  the  Is- 
raelites in  tlie  wilderness,  and  made 


them  dwell  in  booths  when  they  came 
out  of  Egvpt. 

TABOftlTES.  See  Bohemian  Bre- 
thren. 

TALAPOINS,  or  Talopins,  priests 
of  Siam.  They  enjoy  great  privileges, 
but  are  enjoined  celibacy  and  austerity 
of  life.  They  li\  e  in  monasteries  con- 
tiguous to  the  temples;  and,  what  is 
singular,  any  one  may  enter  into  the 
priesthood,  and,  after  a  certain  age,  may 
quit  it  to  marry,  and  return  to  society. 


It 


TAL 


577 


TAL 


'I'hei-e  are  Talapoinesses,  too,  or  nuns, 
who  live  in  the  same  convents,  but  are 
not  admitted  till  they  have  passed  their 
fortieth  year.  The  Talapoins  educate 
children,  and  at  every  new  and  full 
moon  explain  the  precepts  of  their  re- 
ligion in  their  temples  ;  and,  during  the 
i-ainy  season,  they  pi-each  from  six  in 
the  morning  till  noon,  and  from  one  in 
the  afternoon  till  five  in  the  evening. 
They  dress  in  a  very  mean  garb,  and  go 
bare-headed,  and  bare-footed  ;  and  no 
person  is  admitted  among  them  who  is 
not  well  skilled  in  the  Baly  langiiage. 
They  believe  that  the  universe  is  eter- 
nal, but  admit  that  certain  parts  of  it, 
as  this  world,  may  be  destroyed,  and 
again  regenerated.  They  beUeve  in  a 
universal  pervading  spirit,  and  in  the 
immortality  and  transmigration  of  the 
soul ;  but  they  extend  this  last  doctrine 
not  only  to  animals,  but  to  vegetables 
and  rocks.  They  have  their  good  and 
evil  genii,  and  particular  local  deities, 
who  preside  over  forests  and  rivers,  and 
intei-fere  in  all  sublunary  affairs. 

TALENT,  figuratively,  signifies  any 
gift  or  opportunity  God  gives  to  men  for 
the  promotion  of  his  glory.  "  Every 
thing  almost,"  says  Mr.  Scott,  "  that 
we  are,  or  possess,  or  meet  with,  may 
be  considered  as  a  talent;  for  a  good  or 
a  bad  use  may  be  made  of  every  natural 
endowment,  or  pi'ovidential  appoint- 
ment, or  they  may  remain  unoccujjied 
through  inactivity  and  selfishness.  Time, 
health,  vigour  of  body,  and  the  power  of 
exertion  and  enduring  fatigue — the  na- 
tural and  acquired  abilities  of  the  mind, 
skill  in  any  lawful  art  or  scieiice,  and 
the  capacity  for  close  mental  applica- 
tion— the  gift  of  speech,  and  that  of 
speaking  with  fluency  and  propriety, 
and  in  a  convincing,  attractive,  or  per- 
suasive manner — wealth,  influence,  or 
authority — a  man's  situation  in  the 
church,  the  community,  or  relative  life 
— and  the  various  occurrences  Avhich 
make  way  for  him  to  attempt  any  thing 
of  a  beneficial  tendency;  these,  and 
many  others  that  can  scarcely  be  enu- 
merated, are  talents  which  the  consist- 
ent Christian  will  improve  to  the  gloiy 
of  God,  and  the  benefit  of  mankind. 
Nay,  this  improvement  procures  an  in- 
crease of  talents,  and  gives  a  man  an 
accession  of  influence,  and  an  accumu- 
lating power  of  doing  good ;  because  it 
tends  to  establish  his  reputation  for  pru- 
dence, piety,  integrity,  sincerity,  and 
disinterested  benevolence :  it  gradually 
forms  him  to  an  habitual  readiness  to 
engage  in  the  beneficent  designs,  and  to 
conduct  them  in  a  gentle,  unobtrusive, 
and  unassuming  manner:   it  disposes 


others  to  regai'd  him  Avith  increasing 
confidence  and  afiTection,  and  to  approach 
him  with  satisfaction ;  and  it  procures 
for  him  the  countenance  of  many  per- 
sons, whose  assistance  he  can  employ  in 
accomplishing  his  own  salutary  pur- 
poses. 

TALMTJD,  a  collection  of  Jewish 
writings.  There  are  two  works  which 
bear  this  name-^the  Talmud  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  Talmud  of  Babylon. 
Each  of  these  ai-e  composed  of  two 
parts — the  Mishna,  which  is  the  text, 
and  is  common  to  both;  and  the  Gema- 
ra,  or  commentary. 

The  Mishna,  which  comprehends  all 
the  laws,  institutions,  and  rules  of  life 
(wliich,  besides  the  ancient  Hebi'ew 
Scriptures,  the  Jews  thought  themselves 
bound  to  observe,)  was  composed,  ac- 
cording to  the  unaninious  testimony  of 
the  Jews,  about  th.e  close  of  the  second 
century.  It  was  the  work  of  rabbi  Jc- 
liuda  (or  Juda)  Kakkadosh,  who  was 
the  ornament  of  the  school  of  Tiberias, 
and  is  said  to  have  occupied  him  forty 
jears.  The  commentaries  and  addi- 
tions which  succeeding  i-abbies  made, 
were  collected  by  rabbi  Jochanan  Ben 
Eliezer,  some  say  in  the  fifth,  others  in 
the  sixth,  and  others  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, imder  the  name  of  Gemara,  that 
is,  comjtletion,  because  it  completed  tht> 
Talmud.  A  similar  addition  was  made 
to  the  Mishna  by  the  Babjdonish  doc- 
tors in  tlie  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, according  to  Enfi.eld ;  and  in  the 
seventh,  according  to  others. 

'^ilie  Mishna  is  divided  into  six  parts, 
of  which  every  one  A\"hich  is  entitle(l 
order,  is  formed  of  treatises :  e\'ery  trea- 
tise is  di\ided  into  chapters  ;  and  cxery 
chapter  into  n\ishnas  or  aphorisms.  In 
the  Jirst  pa.rt  is  discussed  whate\'er  re- 
lates to  seeds,  fruits,  and  trees :  in  the 
second,  feasts:  in  the  third,  women, 
their  duties,  their  disorders,  marriages, 
divorces,  coritracts,  and  nuptials  ;  in  the 
fourth,  are  treated  the  damages  or  losses 
sustained  by  beasts  or  men,  of  things 
found,  deposits,  usuries,  rents,  farms, 
partnership  in  commerce,  inheritance, 
sales  and  purchases,  oatlis,  witnesses, 
arrests,  idolatry;  and  here  are  named 
those  by  whom  the  oral  law  was  receiv- 
ed and  preserved :  in  the  Jifih  part  are 
noticed  what  regards  sacrifices  and  holy 
things:  and  the  sixth  treats  on  puri- 
fications, vessels,  furniture,  clothes, 
houses,  leprosy,  baths,  and  numerous 
other  articles :— all  this  forms  the  Mishna. 
As  the  learned  readei'  may  wish  to  ob- 
tain some  notion  of  rabbinical  composi- 
tion and  judgment,  we  shall  gratify  his 
curiosity  sufficiently  bv  the  following 
4  1) 


TAN 


57S 


TAR 


specimen :  "  Adam's  body  was  made  of 
tlie  earth  of  Babylon,  his  head  of  the 
land  of  Isi-ael,  his  other  members  of 
other  parts  of  the  world.  R.  Meir 
thought  he  was  compact  of  the  earth 
gauieied  out  of  the  whole  eaith :  as  it 
is  written,  thine  eyes  did  see  my  sub- 
siuncc.  Now  it  is  elsewhere  written, 
the  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  over  all  the 
earth.  R.  Aha  expVessly  marks  the 
twelve  hours  hi  which  liis  vai'ious  parts 
were  formed.  -  His  stature  was  trom 
one  end  of  the  world  to  the  other ;  and 
it  was  for  his  transgression  tliat  the 
Creator,  laying  his  hand  in  anger  on 
hi  ill,  lessened  him;  'for  before,'  says 
R.  Eleazer,  '  with  his  hand  he  reached 
the  firmament.'  R.  Jelmda  thinks  his 
sin  was  heresy ;  but  R.  Isaac  thinks 
that  it  was  neurisliing  his  foreskin." 

The  Talmud  of  Balyrlon  is  most  va- 
lued by  tlie  Jews ;  and  this  is  the  book 
Avhich  the)'  mean  to  express  wiien  they 
talk  of  tne  Talmud  in  general.  An 
alii'idgment  of  it  was  made  by  Maimo- 
nidcs  in  tlie  12th  century,  in  wliich  he 
rejected  some  of  its  greatest  absurdi- 
ties. The  Gemai-a  is  stuffed  with  dreams 
and  cliimeras,  with  many  ignorant  and 
impertinent  questions,  and  the  style 
very  coarse.  Tlie  Mi'-dina  is  written  in 
a  style  comparatively  pure,  and  may  be 
.very  useful  in  explaining  passages  of 
the  New  Testament,  where  the  phrase- 
ology is  similar.  This  is,  indeed,  tlie 
only  use  to  which  Christians  can  apply 
it :  "but  this  renders  it  valuable. — Lignt- 
foot  has  judiciously  availed  himselt  of 
such  information  as  he  could  derive 
from  it.  Some  of  the  popes,  with  a 
barbarous  zeal,  and  a  timiiiity  of  spirit, 
for  the  success  of  the  Christian  religion, 
wliich  the  belief  of  its  divinity  can  ne- 
ver excuse,  ordered  great  numbers  of 
the  Talmud  to  be  burned.  Gregory  IX. 
burned  about  twenty  cai't-loads;  and 
Paul  IV.  ordered  12,000  copies  of  the 
Talmud  to  be  destroyed.  See  ivIiscHN.\, 
the  last  edition  of  the  Tabnud  of  Baby- 
lon, printed  at  Amsterdam,  m  12  vols, 
folio :  the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem  is  in  one 
large  volume  folio. 

TANQUELINIANS,  so  called  from 
Tanquelinus,  who  formed  a  numerous 
cleuomination  in  Brabant  and  Antwerp 
in  the  twelfth  century.  He  treated 
with  contempt  the  external  worship  of 
Cio.l,  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  sup- 
]:cr,  and  the  rite  of  baptism,  and  held 
clandestine  assemblies  to  propagate  his 
opinions.  He  declaimed  against  the 
vices  of  the  clergy  with  vehemence  and 
intrepidity. 

'I'ARCiUlVI,  a  name  given  to  the 
Chaldee  j^avaphrases  of  the  books  of  the 


Old  Testament.  They  are  called  Jiara- 
jihrases,  or  exfiositions,  because  they 
are  rather  comments  and  explications, 
than  literal  translations  of  the  text. 
They  are  written  in  the  Chaldee  toiig-ue, 
which  became  familiar  to  the  Jews  after 
the  time  of  their  captivity  in  Babylon, 
and  was  more  known  to  them  than  the 
Hebrew  itself;  so  that  when  the  He- 
brev/  text  was  read  in  the  synagog-ue,  or 
in  the  temple,  they  generally  added  to 
it  an  explication  in  the  Chaldee  tongue 
for  tlie  service  of  the  people,  who  had 
but  a  very  imperfect  knowledge  of  the 
Hebrew  tongue.  It  is  probable,  that 
even  trom  the  time  of  Ezra,  this  custom 
began :  since  this  learned  sci'ibe,  read- 
ing the  law  to  the  people  in  the  tem- 
ple, explained  it,  with  the  other  priests 
that  v/cre  with  him,  to  make  it  under- 
stood by  the  people,  Neh.  viii.  7,  9. 

But  though  the  custom  of  making 
these  sorts  of  expositions  in  the  Chal- 
dee language,  be  very  ancient  among 
the  Hebrews,  yet  they  have  no  written 
paraphrases  or  Targums  before  the  aeiii 
of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan,  who  li\'ed 
about  the  time  of  our  Saviour.  Jona- 
tli.m  is  placed  about  thirty  years  be- 
fore Chiist,  under  tlie  reign  of  Herod 
the  Great.  Onkelos  is  something  mere 
modem.  The  Targum  of  Onkelos  is 
the  most  of  all  esteemed,  and  copies  arc 
to  be  found  in  wliich  it  is  inserted  verse 
for  verse  Avith  the  Hebrew.  It  is  so 
short,  and  so  simple,  that  it  cannot  be 
suspected  of  being  coi-nipted.  This 
paraplirast  wrote  only  upon  the  books  of 
Moses  ;  and  his  style  approaches  nearly 
to  the  purity  of  the  Chaldee,  as  it  is 
found  in  Daniel  and  Ezra.  This  Tar- 
gum is  quoted  in  the  Misna,  but  was  not 
known  either  to  Eusebius,  St.  Jerom,  or 
Origen. 

The  Targum  of  Jonathan,  son  of 
Uziel,  is  upon  the  greater  and  lesser 
prophets.  He  is  much  more  diffuse 
than  Onkelos,  and  especially  upon  the 
lesser  prophets,  where  he  takes  greater 
liberties,  and  runs  on  in  allegories.  His 
style  is  pure  enough,  and  anproaclics 

fretty  near  to  the  Chaldee  ot  Onkelos. 
t  is  thought  that  tlie  Jewish  doctors, 
who  lived  above  seven  hundred  years 
after  him,  made  some  additions  to  liini. 

T  he  Targum  of  Joseph  the  blind  is 
upon  the  Hagiographia.  This  author  is 
much  more  modern,  and  less  esteemed, 
than  those  v,e  have  now  mentioned.  He 
has  written  upon  the  Psalms,  Job,  the 
ProN'crbs,  the  Canticles,  Ecclesiastes, 
Ruth,  and  Esthei*.  His  style  is  a  very 
corrupt  Chaldee,  with  a  great  mixture 
of  v/ords  from  foreign  l.inguages. 

The    Targum  oi  Jenisulem  is  only 


"^Pv^ 


TEM 


57.9 


TEM 


upon  the  Pentateuch  ;  npv  is  that  entire 
oi-  perfect.  There  are  whole  verses 
wanting,  others  transposed,  others  mu- 
tilated; which  has  made  many  of  opi- 
nion that  this  is  only  a  fragment  of  some 
ancient  paraphrase  tliat  is  now  lost. 
There  is  no  Targum  upon  Daniel,  or 
upon  the  books  of  Ezia  and  Nehe- 
miah. 

These  Targums  are  of  great  use  for 
the  better  understanding  not  only  of  the 
Old  Testament,  on  which  they  are 
written,  but  also  of  the  New.  As  to  the 
Old  Testament,  they  serve  to  vindicate 
the  genuineness  of  the  present  Hebrew 
text,  by  proving  it  to  be  the  same  that 
Avas  in  use  when  these  Targiims  were 
made  ;  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  those 
who  think  the  Jews  corrupted  it  after 
our  Saviour's  time.  They  help  to  ex- 
pjain  many  words  and  phrases  in  the 
Hebrew  original,  and  they  hand  down 
to  us  many  of  the  ancient  customs  of 
the  Jews.  And  some  of  them,  with  the 
phraseologies,  idioms,  and  peculiar  forms 
of  speech,  which  we  find  in  them,  do,  in 
many  instances,  help  as  much  for  the 
better  illustration  and  better  understand- 
ing of  the  New  Testament,  as  of  the 
Old ;  the  Jerusalem  Chaldee  dialect,  in 
which  they  are  written,  being  the  vul- 
gar language  of  the  Jews  in  our  Sa- 
viour's time.  They  also  very  much 
serve  the  Christian  cause  agamst  the 
Jews,  by  interpreting  many  ot  the  pro- 
phecies of  the  Messiah  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament in  the  same  manner  as  the  Chris- 
tians do.  Many  instances  are  produced 
to  this  purpose  bv  Dr.  Prideaux  in  his 
Comiejcions  of  the  History  of  the  Old 
and  A'ew  Testament.  These  Targums 
are  published  to  the  best  advantage  in 
the  second  edition  of  the  great  Hebrew 
Bible  set  forth  at  Basil  by  Buxtorf,  the 
fatlier,  anno  1610. 

TEMPER,  the  disposition  of  the 
mind,  whether  natural  or  acquired.  I'he 
word  is  seldom  used  by  good  writers 
without  an  epithet,  as  a  good  or  bad 
temper.  Temper  must  be  distinguish- 
ed from  passion.  The  passions  are 
quick  and  sti-ong  emotions  which  by  de- 
grees subside.  Temper  is  the  disposi- 
tion which  remains  after  these  emotions 
are  past,  and  which  forms  the  habitual 
propensity  of  the  soul.  See  Dr.  Ex^ans^s 
Practical  Discourses  on  (he  Christian 
Temper;  and  the  various  articles,  Love, 
Patience,  Humility,  Fortitude, 
&c.  in  this  work. 

TEiVIPERANCE,  that  virtue  which 
a  man  is  said  to  possess  who  modei-ates 
and  restrains  his  sensual  appetites.  It 
is  often,  however,  used  in  a  much  more 
general  sense,  as  synonymous  with  mo- 


deration, and  is  then  applied  indiscri- 
minately to  all  the  passions. 

"  Temperance,"  says  Addison,  "  has 
those  particular  advantages  above  all 
other  means  of  health,  that  it  may  be 
jiractiscd  by  all  ranks  and  conditions  at; 
any  season  or  in  anyplace.  It  is  a  kind 
of  i-egimen  into  which  every  man  may 
put  liiinself  without  interiiiplion  to  bu- 
siness, expense  of  money,  or  loss  of 
time.  Physic,  for  the  niost  part,  is 
nothing  else  but  the  substitute  of  exer- 
cise, or  temperance"  In  order  to  ob- 
tain and  practice  this  virtue,  we  should 
consider  it :  1.  As  a  divine  command, 
Phil.  iv.  5.  Luke  xxi.  34.  Prov.  xxiii. 
1 — 3. — 2.  As  conducive  to  health. — 3.  As 
advantageous  to  the  powers  of  the  mind. 
— 4.  As  a  defence  against  injustice,  lust, 
imprudence,  detraction,  poverty,  6cc. 
— And,  lastly,  the  example  of  Chvis^ 
should  be  a  most  powerful  stimulus  to 
it.    See  Intemperance,  Sobriety. 

TEMPLARS,  Templers,  or 
Knights  of  the  Temple,  a  religious 
order  instituted  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  be- 
giiming  of  the  twelfth  century,  for  the 
defence  of  the  holy  sepulchre^  and  the 
protection  of  Christian  pilgrims.  They 
were  first  called  Tlie  poor  of  the  Holy 
Citif,  and  afterwards  assumed  the  ap- 
pelia.tion  of  Templars,  because  their 
house  was  near  the  temple.  The  or- 
der was  founded  by  BaldwJTi  II.  then 
king  of  Jerusalem,  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  pope  :  and  the  princ'ij'al  articles 
of  their  rule  were,  that  they  should 
hear  the  holy  office  througlxjut  every 
da)- ;  or  that,  when  tlieii'  military  du- 
ties should  pre\'ent  this,  they  should 
supply  it  by  a  certain  number  of  pa- 
ternosters ;  that  they  should  abstain 
from  flesh  four  da}  s  in  the  weuk,  and  on 
Fridays  from  eggs  and  milk  meats  ;  that 
each  knight  might  have  three  horses 
and  one  squire,  and  that  they  should 
neither  hunt  nor  fowl.  After  the  ruin 
of  Jerusalem,  about  1186,  they  spread 
themselves  through  Germany  and  other 
countries  of  Europe,  to  v/hich  they  were 
invited  by  the  liberality  of  the  Chris- 
tians. In  the  year  1228  this  order  ac- 
quii'ed  stability,  by  being  confirm.ed  in 
the  council  of  Troyes,  and  subjected  to 
a  rule  of  discipline  drawn  up  by  St.  Ber- 
nard. In  every  nation  they  had  a  par- 
ticular governor,  called  Master  of  the 
Temple,  or  of  the  militia  of  the  tehiple. 
Their  grand  master  had  his  residence 
at  Paris.  The  order  of  Tem])lars  flou- 
rished for  some  time,  and  acquii'ed,  by 
the  valour  of  its  knights,  immense  riclies, 
and  an  eminent  degree  of  military  re- 
nown ;  but,  as  their  pi-o.sperity  increas- 
ed, their  vices    were    multiplied,  and 


TEM 


580 


TES 


tlicir  arrcgance,  luxury,  and  ci'uelty, 
rose  at  last  to  such  a  great  height,  that 
their  priviU'ges  v/cre  revoked,  and  their 
order  supprei!.scd  v/ith  the  most  terrible 
circumstances  of  infamy  and  severity. 

TEMPLE,  a  public  "building  erected 
for  the  purpose  of  religious  v/orship. 

TEMPORAL,  a  term  often  used  for 
secular,  as  a  distinction  from  spiritual  or 
ecclesiastical;  hkewise  for  anything  be- 
longing to  time  in  conti-ast  with  eternity. 

TEMPORALITIES  OF  BISHOPS 
arc  the  revenues,  lands,  tenements,  and 
lay  fees  belonging  to  bishops,  as  they 
are  barons  and  lords  of  parliament. 

TEMPTATION,  the  enticement  of 
a  person  to  commit  sin  by  offering  some 
seeming  advantage.  There  are  four 
things,  says  one,  in  temptation  :  1.  De- 
ception.—2.  Infection. — 3.  Seduction. — 
4.  Perdition.  The  sources  of  tempta- 
tion, are  Satan,  the  world,  and  the  flesh. 
W^e  are  exposed  to  them  in  every  state, 
in  every  place,  and  in  every  time  of 
life.  They  may  be  wisely  permitted  to 
show  us  cur  weakness,  to  try  our  faith, 
to  promote  our  humility,  and  to  learn  us 
to  place  our  dependence  on  a  superior 
power  :  yet  we  must  not  ran  into  them, 
but  watch  and  pray  ;  avoid  sinful  com- 
pany :  consider  the  love,  sufferings,  and 
constancy  of  Christ,  and  the  awful  con- 
sequences of  falling  a  victim  to  them. 
The  following  rules  have  been  laid 
down,  by  which  we  may  in  some  mea- 
sure know  when  a  temptation  comes 
from  Satan. — 1.  ^Vhen  the  temptation  is 
unnatural,  or  contrary  to  the  general 
l)ias  or  temp*  of  our  minds. — 2.  When 
it  is  opposite  to  the  present  frame  of  the 
mind. — 3.  When  the  temptation  itself  is 
irrational ;  being  contrary  to  whatever 
we  could  imagine  our  own  minds  would 
suggest  to  us. — 4.  When  a  temptation 
is  detested  in  its  first  rising  and  appear- 
ance.— 5.  Lastly,  when  it  is  violent.  See 
Satan.  Brooh,  Ovjen,  Gilpin,  Cajiel 
and  Gille.ifiie  on  Tcmjitation ;  Soiith^s 
Seven  Sermojis on  T('mptation,'vLiX}[\Q6t\\ 
V- ol.  of  hi.';  St'rinonfi;  Pike  and  Huynvard'^ 
Cases  of  Conscience;  and  Bishofi  Por- 
tei/s^s  Se7'?nons,  ser.  S  and  4,  vol.  i. 

TEMPTATION  OF  CHRIST. 
The  temptation  of  Christ,  of  which  we 
read  in  the  4th  chap,  of  Matthew,  has 
been  nuich  the  subject  of  infidel  ridi- 
cule, and  some  ingenious  writers,  to 
avoid  the  difficulties  of  a  literal  inter- 
pretation, have  reduced  the  whole  to 
vision  and  allegory.  But  perhaps  this 
has  increased  rather  than  removed  those 
difficulties.  Is  it  not  best  always  to  ad- 
here as  close  as  possible  to  the  langiuige 
of  in.spiration,  without  glossing  it  with 
fancies  of  our  own  .>  .\nd,  after  all,  what  j 


is  there  so  inconsistent  with  reason  in 
this  account  ?  That,  when  our  Lord  re- 
tired to  the  interior  part  of  the  wilder- 
ness, the  enemy  of  mankind  should  as- 
sume a  disguise  (whether  human  or  an- 
gelic is  not  important,)  and  present  the 
most  plausible  temptation  to  our  Re- 
deemer, under  these  trying  circum- 
stances, is  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
malevolence  of  his  character;  but  how 
far  he  was  permitted  to  exert  his  power 
in  forming  them,  is  not  necessary  to  be 
inquired.  I'he  grand  objection  is, 
why  was  Satan  suffered  thus  to  insult . 
the  Son  of  God  >  Wherefore  did  the 
Redeemer  suffer  his  state  of  retirement 
to  be  thus  disturbed  with  the  malicious 
suggestions  of  the  fiend  ^  May  it  not  be 
answered  that  herein,  1.  He  gave  an  in- 
stance of  his  own  condescension  and 
humiliation. — 2.  He  hereby  proved  his 
power  over  the  tempter. — 3.  He  set  an 
example  of  firmness  and  virtue  to  his 
followers. — And,  4.  He  here  affords  con- 
solation to  his  suffering  people,  by  show- 
ing not  only  that  he  hmiself  was  tempt- 
ed, but  is  able  to  succour  those  who  are 
tempted,  Heb.  ii.  13.  Heb.  iv.  15.  Par- 
mer  on  Christ's  Temfitation;  Ed- 
wards's Hist.  ofRedeinption,  note  334 ; 
Heiirij,  Gill,  and  Macknight,  in  loc. 

TERAPHIM,  a  word  m  the  Hebrew 
language  which  has  much  exercised  the 
ingenuity  of  the  critics.  It  is  commonly 
interpreted  idols.  It  would  be  useless 
hei-e  to  trouble  the  reader  with  the  nu- 
merous conjectures  which  have  been 
formed  respecting  its  meaning.  Pei^ 
haps  the  best  way  to  determine  it  would 
be  to  examine  and  compare  all  the  pas- 
sages in  which  it  occurs,  and  to  consult 
the  ancient  translations. 

TESTAMENT,  OLD.  See  Biblk, 
Scripture. 

TESTAMENT,  NEW.  The  reli- 
gious institution  of  Jesus  Christ,  says 
Mr.  Campbell,  is  frequently  denomi- 
nated n  Haivn  SiaOnxn,  which  is  almost  al- 
ways rendered  the  Kew  Testament: 
yet  the  word  SiaSTixTi  by  itself,  is  generally 
translated  covenant.  It  is  the  Greek 
word,  whereby  the  Seventy  have  uni- 
formly translated  the  Hebrew  word 
Bcrit/i,  which  our  translators  have  inva- 
riably translated  covenant.  That  the 
Hebrew  term  corresponds  much  better 
to  the  English  word  cove7iant  than  to 
testament,  there  can  be  no  question ; 
yet  the  word  SiaOnxti  in  classical  use  is 
more  frequently  rendered  Testament. 
The  proper  (Ji-eek  word  for  covenant 
is  ouvSnxTi,  which  is  not  found  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  occurs  only  thrice  in  the 
Scptuagint,  where  it  is  never  employed 
for  rendermg  the  word  Berith. 


5S1 


THA 


The  term  New  is  added  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Old  Co\-cniuit,  that  is,  the 
dispensation  of  Moses.  The  two  cove- 
irnnts  are  always  in  Sci-ipture  the  two 
dispensations  :  that  under  Moses  is  the 
old,  that  under  the  Messiah  is  the  new. 
In  the  latitude  wherein  the  term  is 
used  in  holy  writ,  the  command  under 
the  sanction  of  death,  which  God  gave 
to  Adam,  may,  with  sufficient  propriety, 
be  termed  a  Covenant ;  but  it  is  I^e^  er 
so  called  in  Scripture  ;  and  when  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  two  co\enants,  the 
old  and  the  new,  or  the  first  cuid  the  se- 
cond, there  appears  to  be  no  reference 
to  any  thing  that  related  to  Adam.  In 
air  such  places,  Moses  and  Jesus  ai'e 
contrasted, — the  Jewish  economy,  and 
tlie  Christian :  mount  Sinai,  in  Arabia, 
-where  the  law  was  promulgated;  and 
mount  Sion  in  Jei-usalem,  where  the 
Gospel  was  first  published. 

These  terms,  from  signifying  the  two 
dispensations,  came  soon  to  denote  the 
books  wherein  they  Vvere  written,  the 
saci'ed  v/ritings  of  the  Jews  being  called 
the  Old  Testament ;  and  the  writings 
superadded  by  the  apostles  and  evange- 
lists, the  New  Testament.  An  exam- 
ple of  the  use  of  the  former  application 
we  have  in  2  Cor.  iii.  14.  "  Until  this 
day  I'emaineth  the  veil  untaken  awa}" 
in  the  readmg  of  the  Old  Testament." 
See  Dr.  Campbell's  Pract.  Uisser. 
part  3. 

TEST  ACT,  is  the  statute  25  Car. 
II.  cap.  2,  which  dii'ects  all  officers, 
civil  and  military,  to  take  the  oaths,  and 
make  the  declaration  against  ti'ansub- 
stantiation,  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench 
or  chancery,  the  next  term,  or  at  the 
next  quarter  sessions,  or  (by  subsequent 
statutes)  within  six  m.ontlis  after  their 
admission ;  and  also  within  the  same 
time  to  receive  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  supper,  according  to  the  usage  of 
the  church  of  England,  in  some  pubUc 
church,  immediately  after  divine  ser- 
vice or  sermon,  and  to  deliver  into  court 
a  certificate  thereof,  signed  by  the  mi- 
nister and  church-warden  :  and  also  to 
prove  the  same  by  two  credible  vnt- 
nesses,  upon  forfeiture  of  five  hundred 
pounds,  and  disability  to  hold  the  said 
office.  The  avowed  object  of  this  act 
was,  to  exclude  ft-om  places  of  ti'ust  all 
mem.bers  of  the  church  of  Rome  ;  and 
hence  the  Dissenters  of  that  age,  if  they 
did  not  suppoi-t  the  bill  when  passing 
through  the  two  houses  of  parliament, 
ga.ve  it  no  opposition.  For  this  part  of 
their  conduct  they  have  been  often  cen- 
sured with  severity,  as  having  beti'ayed 
their  rights  from  resentment  to  their 
enemies. 


To  make  the  ordinance  of  the  Lord  s 
supper  a  qualification  of  admittance  to 
any  off.ce  in  or  under  the  civil  govern- 
ment, is  evidently  a  profanation  of  the 
ordinance  itself;  not  to  insist  upon  the 
impropi'iety  of  excluding  peaceable  and 
Injal  subjects  from  places  of  tinist  and 
profit,  merely  on  account  of  their  reli- 
gious opinions.  Various  tracts  have  been 
written  on  the  subject  of  a  repeal  of  this 
act  by  Priestly,  Englefield,  Walker, 
Wakefield,  Bristow,  Palmer,  and  others. 
On  the  contrary  side,  by  a  great  num- 
ber of  anon\-mcus  writers. 

THANKFULNESS.  See  Grati- 
TUDK,  and  the  next  article. 

THANKSGIVING,  that  part  of  di- 
vine wcrsliip  wherein  we  acknowledge 
benefits  received.  "  It  implies,"  saj^'S 
Dr.  Barrow,  (vol.  i.  ser.  8  and  9.)  "  1.  'A 
right  apprehension  of  the  benefits  con- 
ferred.— 2.  A  faithful  retention  of  bene- 
fits in  the  memory,  and  frequent  reflec- 
tions upon  them.-^3.  A  due  esteem  and 
valuation  of  benefits. — 4.  A  reception  of 
those  benefits  with  a  w'illing  mind,  a  ve- 
hement affection. — 5.  Due  acknowledg- 
ment of  our  obligations. — 6.  Endeavours 
of  real  compensation ;  or,  as  it  respects 
the  Divine  Being,  a  Avillingness  to  ser\'e 
t  and  exalt  him. — 7.  Esteem,  veneration, 
and  love  of  the  benefactor."  The  bless- 
ings for  which  we  should  be  thankful 
are,  1.  Temfioral;  such  as  health,  food, 
raiment,  rest,  &c. — 2.  Sfiiritiial;  suck 
as  the  Bible,  ordinances,  the  Gospel  and 
its  blessings ;  as  free  grace,  adoption, 
pardon,  justification,  calling,  &c. — 3, 
Eternal,  or  the  enjoyment  of  God  in  a 
future  state. — Also  for  all  that  is  past, 
what  we  now  enjoy,  and  what  is  pro- 
mised :  for  private  and  public,  for  ordi- 
nary, and  extraordinary  blessings  ;  for 
prosperity,  and  even  adversity,  so  far  as 
rendered  subservient  to  our  good.  The 
excellency  of  this  duty  appears,  if  we 
consider,  1.  Its  antiquity :  it  existed  in 
Paradise  before  Adam  fell,  and  there- 
fore prior  to  the  gi-aces  of  faith,  re- 
pentance, &c. — 2.  Its  sphere  of  opera- 
tion :  being  far  beyond  many  other  graces 
which  are  confi.ned  to  time  and  place. 
— 3.  Its  felicity ;  sfome  duties  are  pain- 
ful ;  as  repentance,  conflict  with  sin, 
&c.  but  this  is  a  source  of  sublime 
pleasui'e. — 4.  Its  reasonableness. — x\nd, 
5.  Its  perpetuity.  This  will  be  in  exei'- 
cise  for  ever,  when  other  graces  will  not 
be  necessaiy,  as  faith,  j'e.pentance,  Sec. 
The  obligation  to  this  duty  arises,  1. 
From  the  relation  we  stand  in  to  God. 
— 2.  The  divine  command. — 3.  The 
promises  God  hath  made. — 4.  The 
example  of  all  good  men. — 5.  Our 
unwortliiness  of  the  blessings  we  re- 


THE 


582 


THE 


cei\e.    And,  6.  The  prospect  of  eternal 
glorv. 

THEFT,  the  taking  away  the  pro- 
perty of  another  without  liis  knowledge 
or  consent.  This  is  not  only  a  sin 
agamst  ovu-  neighbour,  but  a  direct  vio- 
lation of  that  part  of  the  decalogue, 
which  says,  "Thou  shalt  not  steal." 
This  law  requires  justice,  truth,  and 
faithfulness  in  all  our  dealings  with 
men;  to  owe  no  man  any  thing,  but  to 
give  to  all  their  dues  ;  to"  be  true  to  all 
engagements,  promises,  and  contracts ; 
and  to  be  faithful  in  whatever  is  com- 
mitted to  our  care  tmd  trust.  It  for- 
bids all  unjust  ways  of  increasing  our 
own  and  hurting  our  neighbour's  sub- 
stance by  using  false  balances  and  mea- 
sures ;  by  over-reaching  and  circum- 
venting m  trade  and  commerce ;  by 
taking  away  bj'  force  or  fraud  the  goods, 
persons,  and  properties  of  men  ;  by  boi-- 
rowing  and  not  paying  again;  by  op- 
pression, extortion,  and  unlawful  usury. 
It  may  include  in  it  also,  what  is  very 
seldom  called  by  this  name,  i.  e.  the 
robbing  of  ourselves  and  families,  by 
neglecting"  our  callings,  or  imprudent 
management  thereof;  lending  larger 
sums  of  money  than  our  circumstances 
will  bear,  when  there  is  no  prospect  of 
payment ;  by  being  profuse  and  exces- 
sive in  our  expenses ;  indulging  unlaw- 
ful pleasures,  and  thereby  reducing  our 
families  to  po\"erty ;  or  even,  on  the 
other  hand,  by  laying  up  a  great  deal 
for  the  time  to  come,  while  our  families 
are  left  to  starve,  or  reduced  to  the 
greatest  inconvenience  and  distress. 

THEODOSIAKS.  See  Angelites. 

THEOLOGY  signifies  tliat  science 
which  treats  of  the  being  and  attributes 
of  God,  his  relations  to  us,  the  dispensa- 
tions of  his  providence,  his  will  with  re- 
spect to  our  actions,  and  his  puiposes 
\vith  respect  to  our  end.  The  word  was 
first  used  to  denote  the  systems,  or  ra- 
ther the  heterogeneous  fables,  of  those 
poets  and  philosophers  who  wrote  of  the 
genealogy  and  exploits  of  the  gods  of 
Greece.  Hence  Orpheus,  Museus, 
Hesiod,  Sec.  were  called  theologians; 
and  the  same  epithet  was  given  to  Plato, 
on  account  of  his  sublime  speculations 
on  tlie  same  subject  It  was  afterwards 
adopted  by  tlie  earliest  wi'iters  of  the 
Christian  Church,  who  styled  the  author 
of  the  Apocalypse,  by  way  of  eminence, 
0  ^i^Kcyct,  tlie  divine.  As  the  various 
bi'anches  of  theology  are  considered  in  | 
their  places  in  this  work,  they  need  not 
be  insisted  on  here.  The  theological 
student  will  find  the  following  books  on 
the  subject  of  utility ;  Grotius  de 
Veritate  Rciigionis   Christianse ;    Stil- 


/ing'J!eet''s  0riffi)ips  Sacree ;  Turre- 
tine's  Institiitio  Theologiee  Mlenclicx ; 
Butler's  Analogy;  Picteti  Theologia 
Christiana;  Stu;ifm  Institutiones  Theo- 
logiee; JVitsius  on  the  Covenants;  Usher, 
Boston,  Watson,  Gill,  and  Jiidgley's 
Divinity ;  Doddridge's  Lectures ; 
Brown's  Comfiendium  of  J\,''atural  and 
Revealed  Religion;  and  Ryaii's  Effects 
of  Religion  on  Mankind.  See  also  ar- 
ticles Christianity,  Religion,  Re- 
velation, Scriptures. 

THEOPASCHITES,  a  denomina- 
tion in  the  fifth  century,  who  held  that 
Christ  had  but  one  natui-e,  which  was 
the  divine,  and  consequently  that  this 
divine  nature  suffered. 

THEOPHILANTHROPISTS,  a 
sect  of  deists,  who,  in  September  1796, 
published  at  Paris  a  sort  of  catechism  or 
directory  for  social  worship,  under  the 
title  of  Manuel  des  Theanthrojihiles. 
This  religious  breviary  found  favour; 
the  congregation  became  numerous ; 
and  in  the  second  edition  of  their  Manual 
they  assumed  the  less  harsh  denomina- 
tion of  Theofihilanthropists,  i.  e.  lovers 
of  God  and  man. — According  to  them, 
the  temple  the  most  worthy  of  the  Di- 
vinity IS  the  universe.  Abandoned 
sometimes  under  the  vault  of  heaven  to 
the  contemplation  of  the  beauties  of  na- 
ture, they  render  its  Author  the  homage 
of  adoration  and  gi-atitude.  They  ne- 
vertheless have  temples  erected  by  the 
hands  of  men,  in  which  it  is  more  com- 
modious for  them  to  assemble,  to  hear 
lessons  concerning  his  wisdom.  Certain 
moral  inscriptions ;  a  simple  altar,  on 
v.'hich  they  deposit,  as  a  sign  of  grati- 
tude for  the  benefits  of  the  Creator, 
such  flov>'ers  or  fruits  as  the  season  af- 
ford ;  a  tribune  for  the  lectures  and  dis- 
courses, form  the  whole  of  the  oi-na- 
ments  of  their  temples. 

The  first  inscription,  placed  above 
the  altar,  recalls  to  remembrance  tlie 
two  religious  dogmas  wliicli  are  the 
foundation  of  their  moral. 

First  inscrijition.  We  believe  in  the 
existence  of  God,  in  the  immortality  of 
the  soul. — Second  inscrijition.  Worship 
God,  cherish  your  kind,  render  vour- 
selves  useful  to  your  country. —  Third 
inscription.  Good  is  everything  which 
tends  to  the  preservation  or  the  perfec- 
tion of  man.  Evil  is  every-  thing  which 
tends  to  destroy  or  deteriorate  him. — 
Fourth  inscription.  Children,  honour 
your  fathers  and  mothers ;  obey  theni 
with  affection,  comfort  their  old  age. 
Fathers  and  mothers,  instinct  jour 
children. — Fifth  inscription.  Wives, 
regard  your  husbands,  the  chiefs  of 
your  houses.  Husbands,  love  your  wives, 


THE 


583 


THE 


and  render  yourselves  reciprocally 
happy. 

From  the  concluding  part  of  the  Ma- 
nuel of  the  Theophilanthropists,  we  may 
leavn  something  more  of  their  senti- 
ments. "  If  any  one  ask  you,"  say  they, 
"  what  is  the  origin  of  your  religion  and 
of  your  worship,  you  can  answer  him 
thus :  Open  tlie  most  ancient  books 
which  are  known,  seek  there  what  was 
the  religion,  what  the  worship  of  tlie 
first  liuman  beings  of  which  history  has 
preserved  the  remembrance.  There 
you  will  see  that  their  religion  was  what 
we  now  call  natural  religmi,  because  it 
has  for  its  principle  even  the  Author  of 
nature.  It  is  he  that  has  engraven  it  in 
the  heart  of  the  first  human  beings,  in 
ours,  in  that  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth ;  this  religion,  wliich  consists  in 
worshipping  God  and  cherishing  our 
kind,  is  what  \ve  express  by  one  single 
word,  that  of  Thcofihilanthrofnj .  Thus 
our  relia;ion  is  that  of  our  first  parents  ; 
it  is  yours;  it  is  ours;  it  is  the  universal 
religion.  :Vs  to  our  worship,  it  is  also 
th^t  of  our  ^first  fathers.  See  even  in 
the  most  oncient  writings,  that  the  ex- 
terior signs  by  which  tliey  rendered 
their  honiage  to  the  Creator,  were  of 
great  simplicity.  They  dressed  for  him 
au  altar  of  eartli ;  they  offered  him,  in 
sign  of  their  gratitude  and  of  their  sub- 
mission, some  of  the  productions  wliiclj 
tliey  held  of  his  liberal  hand.  The  fa- 
thers exhorted  their  cliildren  to  virtue  ; 
they  all  encouraged  one  another,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Divinity,  to  the  ac- 
complishment of  their  duties.  This 
simple  woi'ship,  the  sages  of  all  nations 
ha\'e  not  ceased  to  profess,  and  they 
have  ti-ansmittcd  it  down  to  us  without 
interruption. 

'■'  If  they  yet  ask  you  of  whom  you 
hold  your  mission,  answer,  we  hold  it 
of  God  himself,  who,  in  giving  us  two 
arms  to  aid  our  kind,  has  also  given  us 
intelligence  to  miitually  enlighten  us, 
and  the  love  of  good  to  bring  us  together 
to  virtue  ;  of  God,  who  has  given  expe- 
rience and  wisdom  to  the  aged  to  guide 
the  young,  and  authority  to  fathers  to 
onduct  their  childi'en. 

"  If  the)-  are  not  struck  with  the  force 
of  these  reasons,  do  not  farther  discuss 
the  subject,  and  do  not  engage  yourself 
in  controversies,  which  tend  to  diminish 
the  love  of  our  neighbours.  Our  prin- 
ciples are  the  Eternal  Truth  ;  they  will 
subsist,  whatever  individuals  may  sup- 
port or  attack  them,  and  the  efforts  of 
the  wicked  will  not  even  prevail  against 
them.  Rest  firmly  attached  to  them, 
iv'ithout  attacking  or  defending  any  re- 
ligious system ;  and  remember,  that  si- 


milar discussions  have  never  produced 
good,  and  that  they  have  often  tinged 
the  earth  with  the  blood  of  men.  Let 
us  lay  aside  systems,  and  apply  oui'- 
selves  to  doing  good  :  it  is  the  only  road 
to  happiness."  So  much  for  the  di- 
vinity of  the  Theophilanthropists :  a 
system  entirely  detective,  because  it 
wants  the  true  foundation, — the  woixl  of 
God ;  the  grand  I'ule  of  all  our  actions, 
and  the  only  basis  on  which  our  hopes 
and  prospects  of 'success  can  be  built. 

THEOSOPHISTS,  a  sect  who  pre- 
tend to  dei-i\e  all  their  knowledge  trom 
divine  illumination.  They  boast  that, 
by  means  of  this  celestial  light,  they  are 
not  only  admitted  to  the  intimate  know- 
ledge of  God,  and  of  all  divine  trutl), 
but  have  access  to  the  most  sublime  se- 
crets of  nature.  They  ascribe  it  to  the 
singular  manifestation  of  divine  bene- 
volence, thot  they  are  able  to  make 
such  a  use  of  the  element  of  fii-e  in  the 
chemical  art,  as  enables  them  to  dis- 
cover the  essential  principles  of  bodies, 
and  to  disclose  stupendous  mysteries  in 
the  physical  world.  To  this  class,  it  is 
said,  belonged  Paracelsus,  R.  Fludd, 
Van  Helmont,  Peter  Poiret,  and  the 
Rosicrusians. 

TFIERAPEUTaE,  so  called  from  the 
extraordinary  purity  of  their  religious 
worship,  were  a  Jewish  sect,  who,  with 
a  kind  of  religious  frenzy,  placed  their 
whole  felicity  ni  the  contemplation  of  the 
divine  nature.  Detaching  themselves 
wholly  from  secular  affairs,  they  trans- 
ferred their  property  to  their  relations 
or  friends,  and  withdi*ew  into  solitary 
places,  where  they  devoted  themselves 
to  a  holy  life.  The  principal  society  of 
this  kind  was  formed  near  Alexandria, 
where  they  lived,  not  far  from  each 
other,  in  separate  cottages,  each  of 
which  had  its  ov/n  sacred  apartment,  to 
which  the  inhabitants  retired  for  the 
purposes  of  devotion.  After  their 
morning  prayers,  they  spent  the  day  in 
studying  the  law  and  the  prophets,  en- 
deavouring, by  the  help  of  the  commen- 
taries of  their  ancestors,  to  discove  r  som  e 
allegorical  meaning  in  every  part.  Be- 
sides this,  they  entertained  themselves 
with  composing  sacred  hymns  in  various 
kinds  of  metre.  Six  days  of  the  week 
were,  in  this  manner,  passed  in  solitude. 
On  the  seventh  day  they  met,  clothed 
in  a  decent  habit,  in  a  public  assemblj^ : 
where  taking  their  places  according  to 
their  age,  they  sat  with  the  right  hand 
between  the  breast  and  the  chin,  and  the 
left  at  the  side.  Then  some  one  of  the 
elders,  stepping  forth  into  the  middle  ot 
the  asseiTibly,  discoursed  with  a  grave 
countenance  and  a  calm  tone  of  voice, 


THO 


5S4 


TIM 


-'■n  the  docti'ines  of  the  sect ;  the  audi- 
>  !ice,  m  the  mean  time,  remaining  in 
perfect  silence,  and  occasionally  ex- 
pressing their  attention  and  approbation 
by  a  nod.  The  chapel  where  they  met 
was  divided  into  two  apartments,  one 
for  the  men,  and  the  other  for  the  wo- 
men. So  strict  a  regard  was  paid  to  si- 
lence in  these  assemblies,  that  no  one 
"was  permitted  to  whisper,  nor  even  to 
breathe  aloud ;  but  when  the  discourse 
was  finished,  if  the  question  which  had 
been  proposed  for  solution  had  been 
treated  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  audi- 
ence, they  expressed  their  approbation 
by  a  mi\rmur  of  applause.  Then  the 
speaker,  rising,  sung  a  hymn  of  praise 
to  God ;  in  the  last  verse  of  which  the 
whole  assembly  joined.  On  great  fes- 
tivals, the  meeting  was  closed  Avith  a 
vigil,  in  which  sacred  music  was  per- 
formed, accompanied  with  solemn  dan- 
cing ;  and  these  vigils  were  continued  till 
iTiorning,  when  the  assembly,  after  a 
morning  prayer,  in  which  their  faces 
were  directed  towards  the  rising  sun, 
was  broken  up.  So  abstemious  were 
these  ascetics,  that  they  commonly  ate 
nothing  before  the  setting  sun,  and  often 
fasted  two  or  tliree  days.  They  abstain- 
ed from  wine,  and  their  ordinary  food 
was  bread  and  herbs. 

Much  dispute  has  arisen  among  the 
learned  concerning  this  sect.  Some 
have  imagined  them  to  have  been  Judai- 
zing  Gentiles ;  but  Philo  supposes  them 
to  be  Jews,  by  speaking  of  them  as  a 
branch  of  the  sect  of  Essenes,  and  ex- 
pressly classes  them  among  the  follow- 
ers of  Moses.  Others  have  maintained, 
that  the  Thcrapeutx  were  an  Alexan- 
drian sect  of  Jewish  converts  to  the 
Christian  faith,  who  devoted  themselves 
to  a  monastic  life.  But  this  is  inypossi- 
ble  ;  for  Philo,  who  wrote  before  Chris- 
tianity appeared  in  Egypt,  speaks  of  this 
as  an  established  sect.  From  com- 
paring Philo's  account  of  tliis  sect  with 
the  state  of  philosophy  in  tlie  country 
where  it  flourished,  it  seems  likely  that 
the  Therapeutx  were  a  body  of  Jewish 
fanatics,  who  suffered  themselves  to  be 
drawn  aside  from  the  simplicity  of  their 
ancient  religion  bv  the  example  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Pythagoreans.  IIow 
long  this  sect  continued  is  uncertain ; 
but  it  is  not  improbclljlc  that,  after  the 
appearance  of  Christianity  in  Egypt,  it 
soon  became  extinct. 

THOUGHT,  an  image  of  any  thing 
formed  in  the  mind  ;•  sentiment,  reflec- 
tion, opinion,  design.  As  the  thoughts 
are  the  prime  movers  of  the  conduct ; 
as  in  the  sight  of  the  Divine  Being,  they 
bear  tlie  character  of  good  or  evil ;  and 


as  tliey  are  therefore  cogn.izable  at  his 
tribunal;  the  moral  regulation  of  i.hc;n 
is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  is  uf 
consequence  to  inquire  what  thoughts 
ought  to  be  rejected  and  what  to  be  in- 
dulged. Those  of  an  evil  nature,  which 
ought  to  be  banii/icd,  are,  1.  Fretful  and 
discontented  thoughts. — 2.  Anxious  and 
apprehensive  thcAights. — .3.  Angry  and 
wrathful  thoughts. — 4.  Malignant  and 
reverigef'd  thoughts. — 5.  Such  as  ai-e 
foolish,  trifling,  and  unreasonable. — 6. 
Wild  and  extravagant,  vain  and  fantas- 
tical.— 7.  Romantic  and  chimerical. — 8. 
Impure  and  lasci\ious. — 9.  Gloomy  and 
melancholy. — 10.  Hasty  and  volatile. — 
11.  Profane  and  blasphemous.  The 
thoughts  nve  onght  to  indulge,  are  those 
which  give  the  mind  a  rational  or  re- 
ligious pleasure;  tend  to  improve  the 
undci'Stand'ng ;  raise  the  affectioris  to 
di\"ine  objects ;  to  pi-omcte  the  welfare 
of  our  fellow  crcatuies,  and  withal  tlie 
divine  glory.  To  bring  the  irdnd  into 
a  habit  of  tliinking  as  we  ought  to  think, 
there  should  by  a  constant  dependence 
on  and  imploring  of  divine  grace ;  an 
increasing  acquaintance  with  tlie  sacred 
Scripttires ;  and  improvement  of  every 
opportunity  of  serious  conversation ;  "a 
constant  observance  of  the  works  of 
God  in  creation,  providence,  and  grace  ; 
and,  lastly,  a  deep  sense  of  the  I'ealitie'i 
of  an  eternal  world  as  revealed  in  the 
word  of  God.  ]S'Iason  on  Se!f-kno--j- 
Icclge  ;  Watts  on  the  Mind ;  Goodwin's 
Fanity  of  Thoughts.  See  Ms  Works, 
vol.  iii.  p.  232. 

TIARA,  the  name  of  the  pope's 
triple  crown.  The  tiara  and  keys  aie 
the  badges  of  the  papal  dignity,  the 
tiara  of  his  civil  rank,  and  the  keys  of 
his  jurisdiction  ;  for  as  soon  as  the  pope 
is  dead,  his  arms  are  represented  with 
the  tiara  alone,  without  the  keys.  The 
ancient  tiara  wa.s  a  j'ound  high  cap. 
John  XIII.  first  encompassed  it  with  a 
crown.  Boniface  VIII.  added  a  second 
crown  ;  and  Benedict  XII.  a  third. 

TIME,  mode  of  duration  marked  by 
certnin  periods,  chiefly  by  the  motion 
and  revolution  of  the  sun.-  The  ge- 
neral idea  which  time  gives  ui  every 
thing  to  which  it  is  applied,  is  that  of 
limited  duration.  Thus  we  cannot  say 
of  the  Deity  that  he  exists  in  time,  be- 
cause eternity,  which  he  inhabits,  is  ab- 
solutely uniform,  neither  admitting  linu- 
tation  nor  succession. 

Time  is  said  to  be  redeemed  or  im- 
proved when  it  is  properly  filled  up,  or 
employed  in  the  conscientious  discliarge 
of  all  trie  duties  which  devolve  upon 
us,  as  it  respects  the  Divine  Being,  our- 
selves, and  our  fellow-creatures.    Time 


TOL 


585 


TOL 


may  be  said  to  be  lost  when  it  is  not  de- 
voted to  some  good,  useful,  or  at  least 
some  innocent  purpose ;  or  when  op- 
portunities of  impro\ement, business,  or 
devotion,  are  neglected.  Time  is  wasted 
by  excessive  sleep,  unnecessaiy  recrea- 
tions, indolent  liabits,  useless  visits,  idle 
reading,  vain  conversation,  and  all  those 
actions  which  have  no  good  end  in 
them.  We  ought  to  improve  the  time, 
when  we  consider,  1.  That  it  is  short. 
— 2.  Swift. — 3.  Irrecoverable. — 4.  Un- 
ceitain. — 5.  That  it  is  a  talent  com- 
mitted to  our  trust. — And,  6.  That  the 
improvement  of  it  is  ad^'antageous  and 
interesting  in  every  •  respect.  See 
Shower  on  Time  and  Eternity;  Fox  on 
Time;  J.  Edwards's  Posthumous  Ser- 
mons, ser.  24,  25,  26 ;  Hale's  Contem- 
plations, p.  211 ;  Hervey's  Medita- 
tions;  Young's  JSfight  Thoughts; 
Blair's  Gra-ue. 

TOLERATION,  in  matters  of  re- 
Tigion,  is  either  civil  or  ecclesiastical. 
Civil  toleration  is  an  impunity,  and 
safely  granted  by  the  state  to  every  sect 
that  does  not  maintain  doctrines  incon- 
sistent with  the  public  peace.  Ecclesi- 
astical toleration  is  the  allowance  which 
the  church  grants  to  its  members  to 
differ  in  certain  opinions  not  reputed  es- 
sential. See  Dr.  Owen,  Locke,  and  Dr. 
Furneaux,  on  Toleration;  Milton's  Ci- 
vil Power  in  Ecclesiastical  Causes; 
Hints  on  Toleration,  by  Pliilagathar- 
ches;  Reflexions  Philosophkjues  et  Po- 
liticiues  mr  la  Tolerance  Religieuse,iiar 
J.  P.  DejY"**. 

TOLERATION  ACT,  an  act  for 
exempting  their  Majesties'  Protestant 
Subjects,  dissenting  from  the  Church  of 
England,  fi'om  the  Penalties  of  certain 
Laws. 

The  pi'eamble  states,  "That  foras- 
much as  some  ease  to  scrupulous  con- 
sciences, in  the  exercise  of  rehgion,  may 
be  an  effectual  means  to  unite  their 
Majesties'  Protestant  Subjects  in  in- 
terest and  affection,"  it  enacts  as  fol- 
lows: viz. 

Sect.  II.  That  neither  the  statute 
made  in  the  23d  of  EUzabeth,  intituled 
An  act  to  retain  the  Queen's  Ma- 
jesty's Subjects  in  their  due  obedience  ;" 
nor  the  statute  made  in  the  20th  year  of 
the  said  Queen,  "  for  the  more  speedy 
and  due  execution  of  certain  branches 
of  the  former  act ;"  nor  that  clause  of 
a  statute  made  in  the  1st  year  of  the 
said  Queen,  intituled  "An  act  for  the 
Uniformity  of  Common  Prayer,"  &c. 
whereby  all  persons  are  required  to  re- 
sort to  their  parish  church  or  chapel, 
upon  pain  of  punishment  by  the  cen- 
sures of  the  ehurch ;  and  also  upon  pain 


that  eveiy  person  so  offending,  shall  for- 
feit for  every  such  offence  twelvepence; 
nor  the  statute  made  in  the  3d  year  of 
the  late  King  James,  intituled  "  An  act 
for  the  better  discovering  and  repress- 
ing Popish  Recusants  ;"  nor  that  other 
statute,  intituled  "An  act  to  prevent 
and  avoid  dangers  which  may  gi-ow  by 
Popish  Recusants ;"  nor  any  other  law 
or  statute  of  this  realm  made  against 
Papists  or  Popish  Recusants,  shall  be 
construed  to  extend  to  any  person  or 
persons  dissentmg  from  the  Church  of 
England,  that  shall  take  the  oaths  (of 
allegiance  and  supremacy)  and  shall 
make  and  subscribe  the  declaration 
(against  Popery  ;)  which  oaths  and  de- 
claration the  justices  of  the  peace  at  the 
general  sessions  of  the  peace  for  the 
county,  or  place  where  such  persons 
shall  live,  are  hereby  required  to  ad- 
minister to  such  persons  as  shall  offer 
themselves  to  make  and  subscribe  the 
same,  and  thereof  to  keep  a  register ; 
and  likewise,  none  of  the  persons  afore- 
said shall  gi\e  or  pay,  as  any  fee  or  re- 
ward, to  any  ofhcer  belonging  to  the 
court,  above  the  sum  of  sixpence,  for 
his  entry  of  his  taking  the  said  oaths, 
&c.  nor  above  the  further  sum  of  six- 
pence for  any  certificate  of  the  same. 

Sect.  IV.  That  eveiy  person  that 
shall  take  the  said  oaths  and  make  and 
subscribe  the  declaration  afoi-esaid, 
shall  not  be  liable  to  any  pains,  penal- 
ties, or  forfeitures,  mentioned  m  an  act 
made  in  the  35th  of  the  late  Queen 
Elizabeth,  nor  in  an  a.ct  made  in  the 
22d  of  Charles  the  Second,  intituled 
"  An  act  to  prevent  and  suppress  Sedi- 
tious Conventicles ;"  nor  shall  any  of 
the  said  persons  be  prosecuted  in  any 
ecclesiastical  court  for  their  noncon- 
forming to  the  Church  of  England. 

Sect.  V.  Provided  that  if  any  assem- 
bly of  persons,  dissentmg  from  the 
Church  of  England,  shall  be  held  in  any 
place  for  religious  worship  with  the 
doors  locked,  barred,  or  bolted,  during 
luiy  time  of  such  meeting  together,  such 
persons  shall  not  receive  any  benefit 
from  this  law,  but  be  liable  to  all  the 
pains  and  penalties  of  all  the  aforesaid 
laws. 

Sect.  VI.  Provided  that  nothing 
herein  contained  shall  be  construed  to 
exempt  any  of  the  persons  aforesaid 
from  paying  of  tithes,  or  other  pa- 
rochial duties;  nor  from  any  prosecu- 
tion in  any  ecclesiastical  court  or  else- 
where, for  the  same. 

Sect.  VII.   That  if  any  person  dis- 
senting, 8cc.  as   aforesaid,   shall  here- 
after be  chosen  high  constable,  or  petit 
constable,  church-warden;  overseer  of 
4  E 


TOL 


586 


TOL 


tire  poor,  or  any  other  parocliial  or  wai-d 
officer,  and  such  person  shall  scruple  to 
take  upon  him  any  of  the  said  offices,  in 
regard  of  the  oaths,  or  any  other  mat- 
ter or  thing  required  by  the  law  to  be 
taken  or  done  in  respect  of  such  office, 
every  such  person  shall  and  may  exe- 
cute such  office  by  a  sufficient  deputy, 
that  shall  comply  with  the  laws  on  this 
behalf. 

Sect.  VIII.  That  no  person  dissenting 
from  the  church  of  England  hi  holy  or- 
ders, or  pretended  holy  orders,  or  pre- 
tending to  holy  orders,  nor  any  preach- 
er or  teacher  of  any  congregation  of 
Dissenting  Protestants,  that  ahaU  make 
and  subscribe  the  declaration  aforesaid, 
and  take  the  said  oaths  at  the  General 
or  Quarter  Sessions  of  the  Peace,  to  be 
held  for  the  county,  town,  parts,  or  di- 
vision where  such  person  lives,  which 
©ourt  is  hereby  empowered  to  administer 
the  same,  and  shall  also  declare  his  ap- 
probation of  and  subscribe  the  Articles 
of  Religion  mentioned  in  the  statute 
made  in  the  13th  of  Q.  Elizabeth,  ex- 
cept the  34th,  35th,  and  36th,  and  these 
W()rds  in  the  20lh  article ;  viz.  "  The 
church  hath  power  to  decree  rites  or 
ceremonies,  and  authority  in  contro- 
versies of  faith," — shall  be  liable  to  any 
of  the  pains  or  penalties  mentioned  in 
former  acts. 

Sect.  X.  recites,  That  some  Dissent- 
ing Protestants  scruple  the  baptising  of 
infants;  and  then  proceeds  to  enact, 
That  every  person  in  pi'etended  holy 
orders,  &c.  &c.  that  shall  subscribe  the 
aforesaid  Articles  of  Religion,  except 
before  excepted,  and  also  except  part 
of  the  27th  ai'ticle  touching  infant  bap- 
tisin,  and  shall  take  the  said  oaths,  gcc. 
&;c.  shall  enjoy  all  the  privileges,  bene- 
hts,  and  advantages  which  any  other 
Dissenting  Minister  might  enjoy. 

Sect.    XI.    That    every   teacher    or 

i Treacher  in  holy  orders,  or  pretended 
loly  orders,  that  is,  a  minister,  preach- 
er, or  teacher  of  a  congregation,  that 
shall  take  the  oaths  herein  I'equircd, 
and  make  and  subscribe  the  declaration 
aforesaid,  &c.  &c.  shall  be  exempted 
fi"om  serving  upon  any  jury,  or  from 
being  appomted  to  bear  the  office  of 
churchwarden,  overseer  of  the  poor,  or 
any  other  parochial  or  ward  office,  or 
other  office  in  any  hundred  of  any  shire, 
city,  town,  parish,  division,  or  wapen- 
take. 

Sect.  XII.  That  every  justice  of  the 
peace  may,  at  any  time,  require  any 
person  that  goes  to  any  meeting  for  ex- 
ercise of  religion,  to  make  and  sub 
scribe  the  declaration  aforesaid,  and 
also  to  take  the  said  oaths  or  declara- 


tion of  fidelity  hereinafter  mentioned  '. 
in  case  such  person  scruples  the  taking 
of  an  oath,  and  upon  refusal,  such  jus- 
tice of  the  peace  is  required  to  commit 
such  person  to  prison,  and  to  certify  the 
name  of  such  person  to  the  next  Ge- 
neral or  Quarter  Sessions  of  the  Peace, 
&c. 

Sect.  XIII.  recites,  That  there  are 
certain  other  Dissenters  who  scruple  the 
taking  of  any  oath  ;  and  then  proceeds 
to  enact.  That  every  such  person  shall 
make  and  subscribe  the  aforesaid  de- 
claration, and  also  this  declaration  of 
fidelity  following ;  viz.  "  I,  A.  B.  do 
sincerely  promise  and  solemnly  declare, 
before  God  and  the  world,  that  I  will 
be  true  and  faithful  to  King  William 
and  Queen  Mary ;  and  I  do  solemnly 
profess  and  declare,  that  I  do  from  my 
heart  abhor,  detest,  and  renounce,  as 
impious  and  heretical,  that  damnable 
doctrine  and  position,  'I'hat  princes  ex- 
communicated or  deprived  by  the  Pope, 
or  any  authority  of^  the  see  of  Rome, 
may  be  deposed  or  murthered  by  their 
subjects,  or  any  other  whatsoever ;  and 
I  do  declare.  That  no  foreign  prince, 
person,  prelate,  state,  or  potentate,  hath, 
or  ought  to  have,  any  power,  jurisdic- 
tion, superiority,  pre-eminence,  or  au- 
tlioritj,  ecclesiastical  or  spiritual,  with- 
in th)s  realm  ;"  and  shall  subscril^e  a 
profession  of  their  Christian  belief  in 
these  words  :  "  I,  ji.  B.  profess  faith  in 
God  the  Father,  and  in  Jesus  Christ  his 
eternal  Son,  the  true  God,  and  in  the 
•Holy  Spirit,  one  God  blessed  for  ever- 
more ;  and  do  acknowledge  the  Holy 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment to  be  given  by  divine  inspiration:" 
— which  declai'ations  and  subscriptions 
shall  be  entered  of  record  at  the  Ge- 
neral Quarter  Sessions,  &;c.  and  every 
such  person  shall  be  exemjjted  from  all 
the  pains  and  penalties  of  all  and  every 
the  aforementioned  statutes,  &c. 

Sect.  XVI.  Provided,  That  all  the 
laws  made  and  pro\-ided   for  the  fre- 

Iiicnting  of  divine  service  on  the  Lord's 
(ay,  commonly  called  Sunday,  shall  be 
still  in  force,  and  executed  against  all 
persons  that  offi2nd  .igainst  the  said  laws, 
except  such  persons  come  to  some 
congregation  or  assembly  of  religious 
worship,  allowed  or  permitted  by  this 

Sect.  XVII.  Provided,  That  neither 
this  act,  nor  any  clause,  article,  or  thing 
herein  contained,  shall  extend,  or  be 
construed  to  extend,  to  give  any  ease, 
beiTefit,  or  advantage  to  any  Papist  or 
Popish  Recusant  whatsoever,  or  any 
person  that  shall  deny  in  his  preaching 
or  writing  the  doctrine  of  the  blesset? 


TON 


587 


TRA 


Tiiiiity,  as  it  is  declared  in  ihe  afore- 
said Articles  of  Religion. 

Sect.  XVIII.  Provided,  That  if  any 
person  or  persons  do  and  shall  willingly, 
maliciously,  or  contemptuously,  come 
into  any  cathedral  or  parish-church, 
chapel,  or  other  congregation  permitted 
by  this  act,  and  disquiet  or  disturb  the 
same,  or  misuse  any  preacher  or  teach- 
er, such  person  or  persons,  upon  proof 
thereof  before  any  justice  of  the  peace, 
Dy  two  or  more  sufficient  witnesses, 
shall  find  two  sureties,  to  be  bound  by 
recognizance  in  the  penal  sum  of  50/. 
and  m  default  of  such  sureties,  shall  be 
committed  to  prison,  there  to  remain 
fill  the  next  General  or  Quarter  Ses- 
sions ;  and,  upon  conviction  of  the  said 
offence  at  the  said  General  or  Quarter 
Sessions,  shall  suffer  the  pain  and  pe- 
nalty of  20/.  to  the  use  of  the  King's  and 
Queen's  Majesties,  their  heirs  and  suc- 
cessors. 

Sect.  XIX.  That  no  congregation  or 
assembly  for  religious  worship  shall  be 
permitted  or  allowed  by  this  act  until 
the  place  of  such  meeting  shall  be  cer- 
tified to  the  Bishop  of  the  diocess,  or  to 
the  Archdeacon  of  that  archdeaconry, 
or  to  the  justices  of  the  peace  at  the 
General  or  Quarter  Sessions  of  the 
peace  for  the  county,  city,  or  place  in 
%vhich  such  meeting  shall  be  held,  and 
registered  in  the  said  Bishop's  or  Arch- 
deacon's court  respecti^^ely,  or  recorded 
at  the  said  General  or  Quai-ter  Sessions ; 
the  register  or  clerk  of  the  peace  where- 
of respectively  is  hereby  requii'ed  to  re- 
gister the  same,  and  to'  give  certificate 
thereof  to  such  person  as  shall  demand 
the  same  ;  for  which  there  shall  be  no 
greater  fee  or  reward  taken  than  the 
sum  of  sixpence." 

Lord  Sidmouth.  has  lately  attempt- 
ed to  introduce  a  bill  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  proposing  some  amendment  or 
explanation  of  this  famous  Act,  in  order 
to  prevent  abuses ;  but  the  fact  appear- 
ed to  be  the  prevention  of  Sectarianism 
by  means  or  itinerant  preachers ;  and 
to  clog  the  exertions  of  those  who  wish 
to  instruct  their  neighbours.  Vast  num- 

ers  of  petitions  from  all  parts  of  the 
countiy  were  presented  agamst  the  bill ; 
so  that  when  it  was  brought  forward  on 
Ma^  21,  1811,  (after  a  considerable  dis- 
cussion,) the  question  for  a  second 
reading  was  put  and  negatived  without 
a  division.  The  bill  was  therefore 
thrown  out.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this 
will  be  the  last  effort  ever  made  to  in- 
fringe the  Act  of  Toleration. 

TONGUE,  Duties  of  the.  "  1. 
To  glorify  God  by  magnifying  his  name. 
—2.  To  sing  his  praises.— 3.  To  declare 


to  others  Gnd's  goodn&ss. — 4,  To  pray 
to  him  for  what  we  want. — 5.  To  make 
open  profession  of  our  subj.ection  to  him. 
— 6.  To  pre;i.ch  his  word. — 7.  To  defend 
the  truth.— 8.  To  exhort  men  to  par- 
ticular duties. — 9.  To  confess  our  sins 
to  God. — 10.  To  crave  the  advice  of 
others. — 11.  To  praise  that  which  is 
good  in  others. — 12.  To  bear  witness  to 
the  truth. — 13.  To  defend  the  cause  of 
the  innocent  and  just. — 14.  To  commu* 
nicate  to  others  the  same  good  impres- 
sions we  have  I'eceived." 

TONGUES,  GIFT  OF.  See  Gift 
OF  Tongues. 

IRADITION,  something  handed 
down  from  one  generation  to  another. 
Thus  the  Jews  pretended  that,  besides 
their  written  law  contained  in  the  Old 
Testament,  Moses  had  delivered  an  oral 
law,  which  had  been  conveyed  down 
from  father  to  son ;  and  thus  the  Ro- 
man Catholics  are  said  to  value  par- 
ticular doctrines,  supposed  to  have  de- 
scended from  the  apostolic  times  by 
tradition. 

TRANSLATION,  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical sense  of  the  word,  is  the  removing 
of  a  bishop  from  one  see  to  another.  It 
is  also  used  for  the  vei'sion  of  a  book  or 
writing  into  a  different  language  from 
that  in  which  it  was  written. 

In  translating  the  Scriptures,  great 
knowledge  and  caution  are  necessary. 
Dr.  Campbell  lays  down  three  funda- 
mental rules  for  translating:  1.  The 
translation  should  give  a  complete  trans- 
cript of  the  ideas  of  the  original. — 2. 
The  style  and  manner  of  the  original 
should  be  preserved. — 3.  The  transla- 
tion should  have  all  the  ease  of  original 
composition.  He  observes  that  the  dif- 
ficulties found  in  translating  the  Scrip- 
tui'es  ai'ise,  1.  From  the  singulai'ity  of 
Jewish  customs. — 2.  From  the  poverty 
(as  appears)  of  their  native  langiiage. — - 
3.  From  the  fewness  of  the  books  ex- 
tant in  it. — 4.  From  the  symbolical  style 
of  the  prophets. — 5.  From  the  excessive 
influence  which  a  previous  acquaintance 
with  translations  have  occasioned. — 
And,  6.  From  pre-possessions,  in  what 
way  soever  acquired,  in  regard  to  re- 
ligious tenets. 

Notwithstanding  these  difficulties, 
however,  the  divines  employed  by  King 
James  to  translate  the  Old  and  New; 
Testaments,  have  given  us  a  translation 
which,  with  a  very  few  exceptions,  can 
scarcely  be  improved.  These  divines 
were  profoundly  skilled  in  the  learning 
as  well  as  in  the  languages  of  the  East ; 
whilst  some  of  those  who  have  presumed 
to  improve  their  version,  seem  not  to 
have  possessed  a  critical  knowledge  ef 


TRE 


58S 


TRl 


the  Greek  tongue,  to  have  known  still 
less  of  the  Hebrew,  and  to  have  been 
absolute  strangers  to  the  dialect  spoken 
ill  Judea  in  the  days  of  our  Saviour,  as 
well  as  to  the  manners,  customs,  and 
peculiar  opinions  of  the  Jewish  sects. 
"  Neither,"  as  one  observes,  "  meta- 
physical acuteness,  nor  the  most  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  transla- 
tion in  general,  will  enable  a  man  who 
is  ignorant  of  these  things  to  improve 
the  authorised  \ersion  either  of  the  Gos- 
pels or  Epistles,  for  such  a  man  knows 
not  accurately,  and  therefore  cannot 
give  a  complete  transcript  of  the  ideas 
of  the  original  work."  See  Bible; 
Mr.  Tytler's  Essay  on  the  Princijilcs 
of  Translation;  and  Dr.  Catnjibell's 
Preliminary  Dissertations  to  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Gosiicls. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION,  the 
conversion  or  change  of  the  substance 
of  the  bread  and  wine  in  the  euchanst 
into  the  body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ, 
which  the  Romish  church  suppose  to  be 
wrought  by  the  consecration  of  the 
priest.  Nothing  can  be  more  contra- 
dictory to  Scripture,  or  to  common 
sense,  than  this  doctrine.  It  must  be 
evident  to  every  one  who  is  not  blinded 
by  ignorance  and  prejudice,  that  our 
Lord's  words,  "  This  is  my  body,"  are 
mere  figurative  expressions :  besides, 
such  a  transubstantiation  is  so  oppo- 
site to  the  testimony  of  our  senses,  as 
completely    to   undermine    the    whole 

t)roof  of  all  the  miracles  by  which  God 
lath  confirmed  revelation.  According 
to  such  a  transubstantiation,  the  same 
body  is  alive  and  dead  at  once,  and  may 
be  in  a  million  of  different  places  whole 
and  entire  at  the  same  instant  of  time ; 
accidents  remain  without  a  substance, 
and  substance  without  accidents;  and 
that  a  part  of  Christ's  body  is  equal  to 
the  whole.  It  is  also  contraiy  to  the 
end  of  the  sacrament,  which  is  to  re- 
present and  commemorate  Christ,  not 
to  believe  that  he  is  corporeally  present, 
1  Cor.  ix.  24,  25.  But  we  need  not 
waste  time  in  attempting  to  refute  a 
doctrine  which  by  its  impious  conse- 
quences refutes  itself.  See  Smith's  Er- 
rors of  the  Church  of  Rome,  dial.  6; 
A  Dialogue  between  Philulethes  and  Be- 
7ievolus;  Kidder's  Messiah,  part  iii.  p. 
80;  ?avdi  Broivn's  Com/iendiu?n,  p.  613. 
TRENT,  Council  of,  denotes  the 
council  assembled  by  Paul  III.  in  1545, 
and  continued  by  twenty-five  sessions 
till  the  year  1563,  under  Julius  III. 
and  Pius  IV.  in  order  to  correct,  illus- 
trate, and  fix  with  perspicuity,  the  doc- 
trine of  the  church,  to  restore  the  vi- 
gour of  its  discipline,  and  to  reform  the 


lives  of  its  ministers.  The  decrees  oh 
this  council,  together  with  the  creed  of 
pope  Pius  IV.  contain  a  summary  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  See 
Moshei?n's  Church  History;  The  Mo- 
dern Universal  History,  \o\.  23;  Fra. 
Paolo  Sarin's,  and  Father  Paul's  His- 
tories of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
.  TRIERS,  a  society  of  ministers,  with 
some  others,  chosen  by  Cromwell  to  sit 
at  Whitehall.  They"  were  mostly  In- 
dependents, though  some  Presbyterians 
Avere  joined  with  them.  They  had 
power  to  try  all  that  came  for  institu- 
tion and  induction;  and  without  their 
approbation  none  were  admitted.  They 
examined  all  who  were  able  to  come  up 
to  London ;  but  if  any  were  unable,  or 
of  doubtful  qualifications,  th6v  referred 
them  to  some  mmisters  in  the  county 
where  they  lived.  They  rejected  all 
those  who  ditl  not  live  according  to  their 
profession,  and  placed  in  Lheir  room  able 
serious  preaciiers  who  lived  godly  lives, 
though  of  different  opinions. 

TRIN  IT  ARI ANS,  those  Avho  believe 
in  the  Trinity.  See  next  article,  and 
the  162d  Lee.  of  Doddridge,  where  the 
reader  wUl  find  a  statement  of  the  opi- 
nions of  the  ancients  on  this  doctrine,  as 
likewise  many  of  the  moderns ;  such  as 
Baxter,  Dr.  Clarke,  Burnet,  Howe,  Wa- 
terland,  Taylor,  Pearson,  Bull,  Wallis, 
Watts,  and  Jeremy  Taylor. 

TRINITY,  the  union  of  three  in  one ; 
generally  applied  to  the  ineffable  mys- 
tery of  three  persons  in  one  God, — Fa- 
ther, Son,  and  Holy  Spirit.  This  doc- 
trine is  rejected  by  many  because  it  is 
incomprehensible;  but,  as  Mr.  Scott 
observes,  if  distinct  personality,  agency, 
and  divine  perfections,  be  in  Sct'ipture 
ascribed  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son, 
and  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  no  words  can 
more  exactly  express  the  doctrine, 
which  must  unavoidably  be  thence  in- 
ferred, than  those  commonly  used  on 
this  subject,  viz.  that  there  are  three 
distinct  Persons  in  the  Unity  of  the 
Godhead.  The  sacred  oracles  most  as- 
suredly teach  us,  that  the  One  living 
and  true  God  is,  in  some  inexplicable 
miuiner,  Triune,  for  he  is  spoken  of,  as 
One  in  some  respects,  and  as  Three  in 
others,  Gen.  i.  26,  Gen.  ii.  6,  7.  Is.  xlviii. 
16.  Is.  xxxiv.  16.  2  Cor.  xiii.  14.  John 
xiv.  23.  Matt,  xxviii.  19.  2  Thess.  iii.  3. 
1  John  V.  7.  Acts,  v.  3,  4.  The  Trinity 
of  Persons  in  the  Diety  consists  with 
the  Unity  of  the  Divine  Essence ;  though 
Me  pretend  not  to  explain  the  modus  of 
it,  and  deem  those  reprehensible  who 
have  attempted  it;  as  the  modus  in 
which  any  being  subsists,  according  to 
its  distinct  nature  and  known  properties, 


TRI 


589 


TRU 


is  a  secret  to  the  most  learned  natural- 
ists to  this  present  day,  and  probubl)- 
will  always  continue  so.  But  if  the 
most  common  of  God's  works,  with 
which  we  are  the  most  conversant,  be 
in  this  respect  incomprehensible,  how 
can  men  think  that  the  modus  cjcistendi 
for  manner  of  existence)  of  the  infinite 
Creator  can  be  level  to  their  capacities  ? 
— The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  indeed 
a  mystery,  but  no  man  hath  yet  shown 
that  it  involves  in  it  a  real  coiitradiction. 
Many  have  ventured  to  say,  that  it 
ought  to  be  ranked  with  transubstan- 
tiation,  as  equally  absurd.  But  Arch- 
bishop Tillotson  has  shown,  by  the 
most  convincing  arguments  imaginable, 
that  transubstantiation  includes  the 
most  palpable  contradictions ;  and  that 
we  have  the  evidence  of  our  eyes,  feel- 
ing, and  taste,  that  what  we  receive  in 
the  Lord's  supper  is  bread,  and  not  the 
body  of  a  man;  whereas  we  have  the 
testimony  of  our  eyes  alone,  that  the 
words  "This  is  my  body,"  are  at  all  in 
the  Scriptures.  Now  this  is  intelligible 
to  the  meanest  capacity :  it  is  fairly  made 
out,  and  perfectly  unanswerable :  but 
V  ho  ever  attempted  thus  to  prove  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  to  be  self-con- 
tradictory ?  What  testimony  of  our 
senses,  or  what  demonstrated  ti'uth, 
does  it  contradict?  Yet  till  this  be 
shown,  it  is  neither  fair  nor  convincing, 
to  exclaim  against  it  as  contradictory, 
absurd,  and  irrational."  See  articles 
Jesus  Christ  and  Holy  Ghost;  also 
Owen,  Watts,  Jones,  S.  Browne,  Faiv- 
cett,  A.  Taylor,  J.  Scott,  Simfisoii,  and 
Wesley's  Pieces  on  the  Subject;  Bull's 
Defensio  Fidei  JViceeme ;  Dr.  Allix's 
Testimonies  of  the  Jewish  Church;  Dis- 
play of  the  Trinity  by  a  I^ymaii; 
Scott's  Essays. 

TRITHEISTS,  a  sect  of  the  sixth 
century,  whose  chief  was  John  Ascu- 
nage,  a  Syrian  piiilosopher,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  Monophysite.  This  man 
imagined  in  the  Deity  three  natures  or 
substances  absolutely  equal  in  all  re- 
spects, and  joined  together  by  no  com- 
mon essence;  to  which  opinion  his  ad- 
versaries gave  the  name  of  Tritheism. 
One  of  the  warmest  defenders  of  this 
doctrine  was  John  Philoponus,  an  Alex- 
andrian philosopher  and  grammarian  of 
the  highest  reputation;  and  hence  he 
has  been  considered  by  many  as  the 
author  of  this  sect,  whose  members 
have  consequently  derived  from  him 
the  title  of  Philop'onists. 

This  sect  was  divided  into  two  par- 
ties, the  Philoponists  and  the  Conomtes ; 
the  latter  of  whom  were  so  called  from 
Conon,  bishop  of  Tarsus,  their  chief. 


They  agreeed  in  the  doctrine  of  three 
fiersons  in  the  Godhead,  and  differed 
only  in  their  manner  of  explaining  what 
the  Scriptures  taught  concerning  the 
resurrection  of  the  bodv.  Philoponus 
maintained,  that  the/o?v7;  as  well  as  the 
matter  of  all  bodies  was  generated,  and 
corrupted,  and  that  both,  therefore, 
were  to  be  restored  in  the  i-esurrection. 
Conon  held,  on  the  contrarj',  that  the 
body  never  lost  its  form;  that  its  matter 
alone  was  subject  to  corruption  and  de- 
cay, and  was  consequently  to  be  re- 
stored when  this  mortal  shall  put  o?i 
immortality. 

TRUCE  OF  GOD,  a  scheme  set  on 
foot  for  the  puipose  of  quelling  the  vio- 
lence and  preventing  the  frequency  of 
private  wars,  occasioned  by  the  fierce 
spirit  of  the  barbarians  m  the  middle 
ages.  In  France,  a  general  peace  and 
cessation  from  hostilities  took  place 
A.  D.  1032,  and  continued  for  seven 
}'ears,  in  consequence  of  the  methods 
which  the  bishop  of  Aquataine  success- 
fully employed  to  work  upon  the  super- 
stition ot  the  times.  A  resolution  was 
formed,  that  no  man  should,  in  time  to 
come,  attack  or  molest  his  adversaries 
during  the  seasons  set  apart  for  cele- 
brating the  great  festivals  of  the  church, 
or  from  the  evening  of  Thursday  in 
each  week  to  the  morning  of  Monday  in 
the  week  ensuing,  the  intervening  days 
being  consecrated  as  particularly  holy ; 
our  Lord's  passion  having  happened  on 
one  of  those  da\s,  and  his  resurrection 
on  another.  A'  change  in  the  disposi- 
tions of  men  so  sudden,  and  which  pro- 
posed a  resolution  so  unexpected,  was 
considered  as  miraculous ;  and  the  res- 
pite from  hostilities  which  followed 
iroon  it  was  called  the  Truce  of  God. 
This  cessation  from  hostilities  during 
three  complete  days  every  week,  allow- 
ed a  considerable  space  for  the  passions 
of  the  antagonists  to  cool,  and  for  the 
people  to  enjoy  a  I'espite  from  the  cala- 
mities of  war,  and  to  take  measures  for 
their  owni  security. 

TRUST  IN  GOD,  signifies  that  con- 
fidence in,  or  dependence  we  place  on 
him.  This  trust  ought  to  be,  1.  Sin- 
cere and  unreserved,  not  hi  idols,  in 
men,  in  talents,  riches,  power,  in  our- 
selves part,  and  him  part,  Pi-ov.  iii.  5, 
6. — 2.  Universal;  body,  soul,  circum- 
stances, 1  Peter  v.  7. — 3.  Perpetual,  Is. 
xxvi.  4. — 4.  With  a  lively  expectation  of 
his  blessing,  Mic.  vii.  7.  The  encourage- 
ment ive  have  to  trust  in  him  arises, 
1.  From  his  liberality,  Rom.  viii.  32. 
Ps.  Ixxxiv.  11. — 2.  His  ability,  James  i. 
17. — 3.  His  relationship,  Psv  ciii.  13. — 
4.  His  promise,  Isa.  xxxiii.  16. — 5.  His 


TYP 


590 


VAL 


conduct  in  all  ages  to  those  \\'ho  have 
trusted  him,  Gen.  xlviii.  15,  16.  Ps. 
xxxvii.  25.  The  hajijwiess  of  those 
who  trust  in  him  is  great,  if  we  consi- 
der, 1.  Their  safety,  Ps.  cxxv.  1. — 2. 
Their  courage,  Ps.'xx\ii.  1. — 3.  Their 
peace,  Isa.  xxvi.  3. — 4.  Their  character 
and  fiuitfulness,  Ps.  i.  3. — 5.  Their  end, 
Ps.  xxxvii.  37.  Job  v.  26. 

TRUTH,  a  term  used  in  opposition  to 
falsehood,  and  applied  to  propositions 
which  answer  or  accord  to  the  nature 
and  reality  of  the  thing  whereof  some- 
thing is  affirmed  or  denied.  A'atural  or 
physical  truth  is  said  to  be  the  agree- 
ment of  our  sentiments  with  the  nature 
of  things.  Moral  truth, is  the  confor- 
mity of  our  words  and  actions  to  our 
sentiments.  £va7ige/ical  or  Gospel 
truth  is  taken  for  Christ ;  the  doctrines 
of  the  Gospel ;  substance  or  reality,  in 
opposition  to  the  shadows  and  ceremo- 
nies of  the  law,  John  i.  17.  For  this 
tnith  Ave  ought  to  be  sincere  in  seeking, 
zealous  in  defending,  and  active  in  pro- 
pagating; highly  to  prize  it,  constantly 
to  rejoice  in  it,  and  uniformly  to  be  obe- 
dient to  it.  See  Lying,  Sincerity; 
Tat/iam's  Scale  of  Truth;  Locke  on 
the  Understanding;  Beattie  on  Truth; 
Dr.  Stennet's  Sermon  on  propagating 
the  Truth;  Saurin's  Sermo7is,  Eng. 
trans,  vol.  ii.  ser.  1.  and  14. 

TURLUPINS,  a  denomination  which 
appeared  about  the  year  1372,  princi- 
pally in  Savoy  and  Dauphiny.  They 
taught  that  when  a  man  is  arrived  at  a 
certain  state  of  perfection,  he  is  freed 
fi'om  all  subjection  to  the  divine  law.  It 
is  said,  they  often  went  naked,  and  they 
allowed  of  no  prayer  to  God  but  men- 
tal. They  called  themselves  the  fra- 
•ternitij  of  the  poor. 

TYPE,  an  impression,  image,  or  re- 
presentation of  some  model,  which  is 
termed  the  antitype.  In  this  sense  we 
often  use  the  word  to  denote  the  pre- 


figuraticn  of  the  gi-eat  events  of  man's 
redemption  by  persons  or  things  in  the 
Old  Testament.  Types  are  distinguish-* 
ed  into,  1.  Such  as  were  directly  ap- 
pointed for  that  end ;  as  the  sacrifices. 
— 2.  Such  as  had  only  a  providential  or- 
dination to  that  end  ;  as  the  story  of  Ja- 
cob and  Esau. — And  3.  Things  that  fell 
out  of  old,  so  as  to  illustrate  present 
things  from  a  similitude  between  them ; 
as  the  allegory-  of  Hagar  and  Sai-ah. 
Some  distinguish  them  into  real  and  per- 
sonal ;  by  the  former  intending  the  ta- 
bernacles, temples,  and  religious  insti- 
tutions ;  and  under  the  latter,  including 
what  are  called  providential  and  per- 
sonal types.  While  we  may  justly  con- 
sider the  death  of  Christ,  and  his  resur- 
rection from  the  dead,  as  events  that  > 
are  typified  in  the  Old  Testament,  we 
should  be  careful  not  to  consider  every 
thing  mentioned  in  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
ture as  a  type,  for  this  will  expose  the 
whole  doctrine  of  types  to  ridicule :  for  in- 
stance, what  can  be  a  greater  burlesque 
on  the  Scriptures  to  suppose,  as  some 
have  done,  that  the  extraction  of  Eve 
fi'om  the  side  of  Adam,  while  he  was  in 
a  deep  sleep,  was  intended  as  a  type  of 
the  Roman  soldiers'  piercing  our  Sa- 
viour's side  while  he  slept  the  sleep  of 
death  ?  Such  ideas  as  these,  vented  some- 
times by  novices,  and  sometimes  by  more 
aged  divines,  give  a  greater  pi-oof  of 
the  wildness  of  their  fancies  than  the 
correctness  of  their  judgments.  See 
Mather  and  M'Eiven  on  the  Types; 
Rids^ley's  Div.  quest.  35. 

TYTHE,  the  tenth  part  of  all  fruits, 
Sec.  a  revenue  payable  to  the  clergy. 
The  tythes  among  the  Jews  were  of  three 
sorts.  The  first  to  the  Levites,  for  their 
maintenance.  Numb,  xviii.  21. — 24.  The 
second  for  the  feasts  and  sacrifices, 
Deut.  xiv.  22 ;  and  the  third  for  the 
poor  evci-v  third  vear.  Deut.  xiv.  28, 
29.    See  Supp.  Papers. 


v&  u. 


VALENTINIANS,  a  sect  who 
sprung  up  in  the  second  century,  and 
were  so  called  from  their  leader  Valen- 
tiinis.  The  Valentinians  were  only  a 
branch  of  the  Gnostics,  who  realized  or 
personified  the  Platonic  ideas  concern- 
ing the  Deity,  whom  they  called  Flero- 
ma,  or  Plenitude.  Their  system  was 
this :  the  fir.st  principle  is  iiythos,  i.  e. 
Depth,  which  ixmiained  many  ages  un- 
known, having  with  it  Ennoc  or  Thought, 


and  Siege  or  Silence :  from  these  sprung 
the  Nous  or  Intelligence,  which  is  the 
only  Son,  equal  to  and  alone  capable  of 
comprehending  the  Bythos.  The  sister 
of  Nous  they  called  Aletheia  or  Tiiith ;  ■ 
and  these  constituted  the  first  quaterni- 
ty  of  /Eons,  which  were  the  source  and 
original  of  all  the  rest ;  for  Nous  and 
Aletheia  produced  the  world  and  life, 
and  from  these  two  proceeded  man  and 
the  chai'ch.    But,  besides  these  eight 


VAT 


591 


UBI 


principal  ^ons  there  were  twenty-two 
more  ;  the  last  of  which,  called  Sofihia, 
being  desirous  to  arrive  at  tlie  know- 
ledge of  Bythos,  gave  herself  a  great 
deal  of  uneasiness,  which  created  in  her 
Anger  and  Fear,  of  which  was  born 
Matter.  But  the  Horos  or  Bounder 
stopped  her,  preserved  her  in  the  Ple- 
roma,  and  restored  her  to  perfection. 
Sophia  then  produced  the  Christ  and 
the  Holy  Spirit,  which  brought  the  jEons 
to  their  last  perfection,  and  made  every 
one  of  them  contribute  their  utmost  to 
form  a  Saviour.  Her  Enthymese  or 
Thought,  dwelling  near  the  Pleroma, 
perfected  by  the  Christ,  produced  every 
thing  that  is  in  this  world  by  its  divers 
passions.  The  Christ  sent  into  it  the 
Saviour,  accompanied  with  angels,  who 
delivered  it  f;-om  its  passions  without 
annihilating  it:  from  thence  was  formed 
corporeal  matter.  And  in  this  manner 
did  they  romance  concerning  God,  na- 
ture, and  the  mysteries  of  the  Christian 
religion. 

VATICAN  MANUSCRIPT,  one  of 
the  principal  Greek  manuscripts  now 
extant.  It  contained  origiivdly  the  whole 
Greek  Bible.  The  age  of  this  manu- 
script is  supposed  to  be  no  higher  than 
the  fifth  century.  See  No.  29,  aiticle 
Bible. 

VANITY,  emptiness.  It  is  often  ap- 
plied to  the  man  who  wishes  you  to  think 
more  highly  of  him  tlian  what  he  really 
deserves ;  hence  the  vain  man  flatters 
in  order  to  be  flattered ;  is  always  fond 
of  praise,  endeavours  to  bribe  others 
into  a  good  opinion  of  himself  by  his 
complaisance,  and  sometimes  even  by 
good  offices,  though  often  displayed  with 
unnecessary  ostentation.  The  term  is 
likewise  applied  to  this  world,  as  unsa- 
tisfactory, Ecc.  i.  2  ;  to  lying,  Ps.  iv.  2  ; 
to  idols,  Deut.  xxxii.  21 ;  to  whatever 
disappoints  our  hopes,  Ps.  Ix.  11.  See 
Pride. 

UBIQUITARIANS,  formed  from 
ribique,  "  every  wliere,"  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal history,  a  sect  of  Lutherans  which 
rose  and  spread  itself  in  Germany  ;  and 
whose  distinguishing  doctrine  was,  that 
the  body  of  Jesus  Christ  is  every  where, 
or  in  every  place. 

Brentius,  one  of  the  earliest  reformers, 
is  said  to  have  first  broached  this  error 
in  1560.  Luther  himself,  in  his  contro- 
versy with  Zuinglius,  had  thrown  out 
some  unguarded  expressions  that  seem- 
ed to  imply  a  belief  of  the  omnipresence 
of  the  body  of  (Mirist ;  but  he  became 
sensible  afterwards  that  this  opinion  was 
attended  with  great  difficulties,  and  par- 
ticularly that  it  ought  not  to  be  made 
use  of  as  a  proof  of  Christ's  corporeal 


presence  in  the  cucharist.  Howe\'er, 
after  the  death  of  Luthci-,  this  absurd 
hypothesis  was  renewed,  and  di'essed  up 
in  a  specious  and  plausible  form  by 
Brentius,  Chemnitius,  and  Andrxas, 
who  maintained  the  communication  of 
the  properties  of  Christ's  divinity  to  his 
human  nature.  It  is,  indeed,  obvious, 
that  every  Lutheran  who  believes  the 
doctrine  of  consubstantiation,  whatever 
he  may  pretend,  must  be  an  Ubiquita- 
I'ian. 

UBIQUITY,  omnipresence;  an  at- 
tribute of  the  Diety,  whereby  he  is  al- 
ways intimately  pi'esent  to  all  things. 
See  OiMNisciExcE. 

UCKEWALLISTS,  a  sect  which 
derived  its  denomination  from  Uke- 
Walles,  a  native  of  Friesland,  who  pub- 
lished his  sentiments  in  1637.  He  en- 
tertained a  favourable  opinion  of  the 
tternal  state  of  Judas  and  the  I'est  of 
Christ's  murderers.  His  argument  was 
this,  that  the  period  of  time  which  ex- 
tended from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  a  time  of 
deep  ignorance,  during  wliich  the  Jews 
were  destitute  of  d:v'ine  light;  and 
that,  of  consequence,  the  sins  and  enor- 
mities wliich  were  committed  during 
this  interval  were  in  a  great  measure 
excusable,  and  could  not  merit  the  se- 
verest displays  of  the  divine  justice. 
This  denomination  strictly  adhered  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  Mennonites. 

VEDAS,  the  sacred  books  of  the  Him- 
doos,  believed  to  be  revealed  by  God, 
and  called  immortal.  They  are  consi- 
dered as  the  fountain  of  all  knowledge, 
human  and  divine,  and  are  four  in  nvmi- 
ber.  The  principal  part  of  them  is  that 
which  explains  the  duti.esof  man  in  me- 
thodical arrangement.  The  fourth  book 
contains  a  system  of  divine  ordinances. 
See  the  Jirst  volume  of  the  Asiatic  Re- 
searches. 

VENERATION,  an  aflfection  com- 
pounded of  awe  and  love,  and  whicli  of 
all  others  becomes  creatures  to  bear  to- 
ward their  infinitely  perfect  Creator. 
See  Devotion. 

VERACITY  OF  GOD,  is  his  tiirth, 
or  an  exact  correspondence  and  con- 
formity between  his  word  and  his  mind. 
Moses  says,  "He  is  a  God  of  ti-uth." 
He  is  true  in  and  of  himself;  he  truly 
and  really  exists ;  he  is  the  true  and 
living  God :  all  his  perfections  are  true 
and  real ;  truth  is  essential  to  him  ;  it  is 
pure  and  perfect  in  him  ;  it  is  the  fii-st 
and  original  in  him  ;  he  is  the  fountain 
of  truth  :  all  his  works  in  creation,  pro- 
vidence, and  grace,  are  according  to 
truth.     See  Faithfulness   of   God. 

VERSCHO"PJSTS,  %  sect  that  de- 


VIC 


593 


UNB 


rived  its  denomination  from  Jacob  Ver- 
sclioor,  a  native  of  Flushing,  who  in  the 
year  1680,  out  of  a  perverse  and  hetero- 
geneous mixture  of  the  tenets  of  Coc- 
ceius  and  Spinosa  produced  a  new  ioxxn 
of  rehgion,  equally  remarkable  for  its 
extravagance  and  impietv.  His  disci- 
ples and  followers  were  called  Hebrews, 
on  account  of  the  zeal  and  assiduit}^ 
with  which  they  ail,  without  distinction 
of  age  or  sex,  applied  themselves  to  the 
study  of  the  Hebrew  language.  Their 
sentiments  were  nearly  the  same  as  the 
Hattcmists.    See  Hattemists. 

VICAR,  a  priest  of  a  parish,  the  pre- 
dial t\tlies  whereof  are  impropriate  or 
appropriated  ;  that  is,  belcjng  either  to  a 
chapter,  religious  house.  Sec.  or  to  a  lay- 
man, who  receives  them,  and  only  al- 
lows tlie  vicar  the  small  tythes,  or  a 
eonven  ent  salary. 

VICE,  a  fciult ;  the  opposite  to  virtue. 

VIGIL,  the  eve  or  day  before  any  so- 
len'.n  least,  because  th..n  Christians  were 
Avoat  to  watch,  fast  and  pray  in  their 
churches. 

VIRTUE,  a  term  used  in  various  sig- 
nmcations.  Soa.e  define  it  to  be  "  living 
acc<jruing  to  riature ;"  others,  "  univer- 
sal bene/olence  to  being."  Some,  again, 
place  it  "  m  regard  to  truth  ;"  others  in 
"  the  moral  sense."  Some  place  it  in 
"  the  imitation  of  God ;"  others,  "  in 
the  love  of  God  and  our  fellow-crea- 
tures." SomiC,  agivin,  think  it  consists 
"  in  mediocrity,"  supposing  vice  to  con- 
sist in  extremes ;  othei-s  have  placed  it 
in  "a  wise  regard  to  our  own  interest." 
Dr.  Smith  refers  it  to  the  principle  of 
sympathy;  and  Paley  defines  it  to  be 
the  doing  good  to  mankind,  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  will  of  God,  and  for  the 
sake  of  everlasting  happiiiess.  Sornc  of 
these  definitions  are  certainly  objection- 
able. Perhaps  those  vrho  place  it  in 
the  love  of  God  and  our  fellow-crea- 
tures, may  come  as  near  to  the  trntli  as 
any.  See  Edwards  and  Jameson  o?i  Vir- 
tue ;  Grove's  and  Fuley's  Moral  Phil. 
Cianber land's  Law  of  A'anire,  cap.  1. 
5  4;  Seattle's  Elements  of  Moral  Sci- 
ence, vol.  ii.  p.  8,  77;  Dr.  Watts'  Self- 
Love  and  Virtue  Reconciled,  2d  vol.  of 
his  work,  last  edition. 

VISION,  the  supernatural  represen- 
tation on  an  object  to  a  man  when  waking, 
as  ia  a  glass  which  places  the  visage  be- 
fore him.  It  was  one  of  tUe  ways  in 
which  the  Almighty  was  pleased  to  re- 
veal himself  to  the  prophets.  Is.  i.  1.  Is. 
xxi.  2. 

VISITATION,  the  sun'ey  or  uispcc- 
tion  performed  by  a  bisho])  in  his  dio- 
cess,  to  examine  into  the  state  of  the 
church.    In  a  divine  or  sjnrituul  sense. 


it  is  taken  either  for  a  communication  of 
divine  lo\e,  or  tor  any  calamity  affecting 
a  nation. 

UNBELIEF,  the  refusing  assent  to 
testimony.  It  is  often  taken  for  distrust 
of  God's  faithfulness,  but  more  parti- 
cularly for  the  discrediting  the  testimo- 
ny of  God's  word  concerning  his  Son, 
John  iii.  IS,  19.  John  xvi.  9.  "It  in- 
cludes," says  Dr.  Guise,  "disaffec- 
tion to  God,  disregard  to  his  word,  pre- 
judices against  the  Redeemer,  readiness 
to  give  credit  to  any  other  than  him,  in- 
ordinate love  to  the  world,  and  prefer- 
ring of  the  applause  of  men  to  the  ap- 
probation of  God." — "  Unbelief,"  says 
the  great  Charnock,  "is  the  greatest 
sin,  as  it  is  the  fountain  of  all  sin  :  it  was 
Adam's  first  sin ;  it  is  a  sin  against  the 
Gos})el,  against  the  highest  testimony; 
a  refusal  to  accept  of  Christ  upon  the 
terms  of  the  Gospel.  It  strikes  pecu- 
liarly at  God  ;  is  the  greatest  reproach 
of  him,  robs  him  of  his  glory,  a  contra- 
diction to  his  will,  and  a  contempt  of  his 
authority."  The  causes  of  unbelief  are 
Satan,  ignorance,  pride,  and  sensualit)-. 
The  danger  of  it  is  gi-eat ;  it  hardens  the 
heart,  fills  with  presumption,  cieates 
impatience,  deceives  with  error,  and 
finally  exposes  to  condemnation,  John 
iii.  11.  C/iarnock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p. 
601  ;  Case's  Sermons,  ser.  2 ;  Bis/io/i 
Porteus's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser.  2 ;  Dr. 
Owen's  Reasons  of  Faith  ;  Hannam's 
Compendium,  vrl.  K.^p.  26;  Churchill's 
Essay  on  Unbtluf. 

i:'NBELiEVERS  are  of  three  sorts. 
1.  Those  who,  ha\ing  heard  the  Gos- 
pel, reject  it. — 2.  Those  who  verbally 
assent  to  it,  yet  know  not  to  what  thc\' 
assent,  or  why  they  believe. — 3.  They 
who,  whatever  knowledge  they  ma_)" 
have  of  certain  speculative  points  of  di- 
vinity, yet  obey  not  the  truth,  but  live 
in  sin. 

The  following  is  a  striking  descrip- 
tion given  by  Masilon  of  an  unbeliest.;r 
(Ser.  i.  vol.  iii.  Eng.  trans.)  "  He  is  a 
man  without  morals,  probity,  faith,  or 
character;  who  owns  no  rule  but  his 
passions,  no  law  but  his  iniquitous 
thouglits,  no  master  but  his  desires,  no 
check  but  the  dread  of  authority,  no 
God  but  himself;  an  unnatural  child  ; 
since  he  believes  that  chance  alone  hatli 
given  him  fathers ;  a  faithless  friend, 
seeing  he  looks  upon  men  merely  as  the 
wretched  fruits  of  a  wild  and  fortliitous 
concurrence  to  wliom  he  is  connected 
only  by  tritnsitory  ties :  a  cniel  master, 
seeing  he  is  coiu'inced  that  the  strong- 
est and  the  most  fortunate  have  alway:- 
reason  on  their  side.  Who  could  hence- 
forth place  any  dependence  on  such  ' 


UNC 


593 


UNI 


They  no  longer  fear  a  God;  they  no 
longer  respect  men  ;  they  look  forward 
to  nothing  after  this  Ute :  virtue  and 
vice  are  merely  prejudices  of  education 
in  their  eyes,  and  the  consequences  of 

gopular  ci-edulity.  Adulteries,  revenge, 
lasphemies,  the  blackest  treacheries, 
abominations  which  we  dare  not  even 
name,  are  no  longer  in  their  opinion  but 
human  prohibitions  established  through 
the  policy  of  legislators.  According  to 
them,  the  most  horrible  crimes  or  the 
purest  virtues  are  all  equally  the  same, 
since  an  eternal  annihilation  shall  soon 
equalise  the  just  and  the  impious,  and 
for  ever  confound  them  both  in  the 
dreary  mansion  of  the  tomb.  What 
monsters,  then,  must  such  be  upon  the 
earth !" 

UNCHANGEABLENESS  OF 
GOD.  See  Faithfulness  and  Immu- 
tability OF  God. 

UNCTION,  in  matters  of  religion,  is 
used  for  the  character  conferred  on  sa- 
cred things  by  anointing  them  with  oil. 
Unctions  were  very  frequent  among  the 
Hebrews.  They  anointed  both  tlieir 
kings  and  high  priests  at  the  ceremony 
of  their  inauguration.  They  also  anoint- 
ed the  saci-ed  vessels  of  the  tabernacle 
and  temple,  to  sanctify  and  consecrate 
them  to  the  service  of  God.  In  the  an- 
cient Christian  church,  unction  accom- 
panied the  ceremonies  of  baptism  and 
confirmation.  Extreme  unction,  or  the 
anointing  pereons  in  the  article  of  death, 
was  also  practised  by  the  ancient  Chris- 
tians, in  compliance  with  the  precept  of 
St.  James,  chap.  v.  14,  15  ;  and  this  ex- 
treme unction  the  Romish  church  has 
advanced  to  the  dignity  of  a  sacrament. 
It  is  administered  to  none  but  such  as 
are  affected  with  some  mortal  disease, 
or  in  a  decrepit  age.  It  is  refused  to  im- 
penitent persons,  as  also  to  criminals. 
The  parts  to  be  anomted  are,  the  eyes, 
the  ears,  the  nostrils,  the  mouth,  'the 
hands,  the  feet,  and  the  reins.  The 
laity  are  anointed  in  the  palms  of  the 
hands,  but  priests  on  the  back  of  it,  be- 
cause the  palms  of  their  hands  have 
been  already  consecrated  by  ordination. 
The  oil  with  which  the  sick  person  is 
anointed,  i-epresents,  it  is  said,  the 
grace  of  God,  which  is  poured  down 
into  the  soul ;  and  the  prayer  used  at 
the  time  of  anointing,  expresses  the  re- 
mission of  sins  thereby  granted  to  the 
sick  person :  for  the  prayer  is  this — "  By 
this  holy  unction,  and  his  own  most  pious 
mercy,  may  the  Almighty  God  forgive 
thee  whatever  sins  thou  hast  committed 
by  the  sight,"  when  the  eyes  are  anoint- 
ed ;  by  the  hearing,  when  the  ears  are 
anointed :  and  so  of  the  other  senses. 


The  passage  before-mentioned  from 
St.  James  respecting  the  anointing  with 
oil,  has  been  a  source  of  difficulty  to  some 
pious  minds;  but  in  order  to  under- 
stand it,  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that 
anointing  with  oil  was  an  ordinance  for 
the  miraculous  cure  of  sick  persons 
(Mark  vi.  13.)  But  since  those  extra- 
oixlinary  gifts  are  ceased,  as  being  no 
longer  necessary  for  the  confirmation  of 
the  Gospel,  of  course  there  is  no  war- 
rant now  for  using  that  ceremony. 

UNDERSTANDING,  the  faculty  of 
perceiving  things  distinctly ;  or  that 
power  of  the  mind  by  which  we  arrive 
at  a  proper  idea  or  judgment  of  things. 
See  Judgment,  Mind,  Soul. 

UNIFORMITY,  regularity ;  a  simi- 
litude or  resemblance  between  the  parts 
of  a  whole.  The  word  is  particularly 
used  for  one  and  the  same  form  of  pub- 
lic prayers,  administration  of  sacra- 
ments, and  other  rites,  &c.  of  the  church 
of  England,  prescribed  by  the  famous 
Stat.  1  Eliz.  and  13,  14,  Carol  II.  cap.  4. 
called  the  Act  of  Uniformity. 

UNION  TO  CHRIST,  that  act  of 
diviue  grace  by  which  we  are  joined  to 
Christ ;  and  is  considered,  1.  As  virtua!, 
or  that  which  was  formed  from  all  eter- 
nity, Eph.  i.  4. — 2.  Vital,  or  spiritual, 
formed  in  the  moment  of  our  regenera- 
tion, John  xvii.  26,  1  John  iv.  13.  It  is 
represented  in  the  Scripture  by  the 
strongest  expressions  language  can  ad- 
mitof,  and  even  compared  to  the  union 
between  the  Father  and  the  Son,  John 
xvii.  11,  21,  8cc.  It  is  also  compared  to 
the  union  of  a  vine  and  its  branches, 
John  XV.  4,  5.  To  the  union  of  our  food 
with  our  bodies,  John  vi.  56,  57.  To 
the  union  of  the  body  with  the  head, 
Eph.  iv.  15,  16.  To  the  conjugal  union, 
Eph.  V.  23,  30.  To  the  union  of  a  king 
and  his  subjects.  Matt.  xxv.  34, 40.  To 
a  building,  1  Pet.  ii.  4,  5.  Eph.  ii.  21, 
22.  It  is  also  represented  by  an  identity 
or  sameness  of  spirit,  1  Cor.  vi.  \7.  By 
an  identity  of  body,  1  Cor.  xii.  12,  27. 
By  an  identity  of  interest,  Matt.  xxv. 
40.  John  XX.  17.  This  union  must  be 
considered  not  as  a  mere  mental  union 
only  in  comfort  or  notion  ;  nor  a  physi- 
cal union  as  between  the  head  and  the 
members ;  nor  as  an  essential  union,  or 
union  with  the  divine  nature ;  but  as  a 
mystical  union,  Eph.  v.  32.  Honourable 
union,  1  John  iii.  1,  2.  Supernatural 
union,  1  Cor.  i.  30.  Holy,  1  John  iii. 
24.  Necessary,  John  xv.  4.  Invix)Ia- 
ble,  Rom.  viii.  38,  39.  Some  state  it 
thus :  1.  An  union  of  natures,  Heb.  ii, 
11. — 2.  Of  actions,  his  obedience  being 
imputed  to  us,  and  our  sins  reckoned  to 
him,  2  Cor.  v.  21—3.  Of  life.  Col.  iii.  4.— 
4  F 


UNI 


394 


UNI 


4.  Of  sentiment,  2  Cor.  v.  17.— 5.  Of  in- 
terest, Matt.  XXV.  34,  &c. — 6.  Of  affec- 
tion, 2  Cor.  V.  14. — 7.  Of  residence,  John 
xvii.  24.  The  advardages  of  it  are 
knowledge,  Eph.  i.  18.  Fellowship, 
1  Cor.  i.  9.  Security,  John  xv.  Felicity, 
1  Pet.  i.  8.  Spirituality,  John  xv.  8.  and 
indeed,  all  the  rich  communications  of 

Siritual  blessings  here  and  hereafter, 
3l.  i.  22.  The  evidences  of  union  to 
Christ  are,  light  in  the  imderstanding, 
1  Pet.  ii.  9.  AiYectiou  to  him,  John  xiv. 
21.  Frequent  communion  with  him, 
1  John  i.  3.  Delight  in  his  word,  ordi- 
nances, and  people,  Psal.  xxvii.  4.  Psal. 
cxix.  Submission  to  his  will,  and  con- 
formity to  his  image,  1  John  ii.  5.  Dick- 
inson's Letters,  let.  17 ;  Fla-vtVs  Me- 
thod of  Grace,  ser.  2 ;  PolMll  on  Lhiion; 
Brecon's  Comfiend.  b.  5.  ch.  1. 

UNION  HYPOSTATICAL,  is  the 
union  of  the  hum;m  nature  of  Christ 
with  the  divine,  constituting  two  natures 
in  one  person.  Not  consiwsta-ntially ,  as 
the  three  persons  in  the  Godhead  ;  nor 
physicallij,  as  soul  and  body  united  in 
one  person :  nor  mysticalbj,  as  is  be- 
tween Christ  and  belie\ers ;  but  so  as 
that  the  manhood  subsists  in  the  second 
person,  yet  withcait  making  confusion, 
both  making  but  one  person.  It  was 
miraculous,  Luke  i.  34,  35.  Comjilete 
and  real :  Christ  took  a  real  human  body 
and  soul,  and  not  in  appearance.  Inae- 
parable,  Heb.  vii.  25.  For  the  reasons 
of  this  uiiion,  see  article  Mebiator. 

UNITARIANS,  those  who  confine 
the  glory  and  attnbutes  of  divinity  to  the 
Father,  and  not  allowing  it  to  the  Son  or 
Holy  Spirit.  They  are  the  same  as  the 
Socinians.     See  Sociniaxs. 

UNITED  BRETHREN.  See  Mo- 
ravians. 

UNITY  OF  GOD,  a  term  made  use 
of  to  denote  that  there  is  but  one  God  or 
self-existent  Being.  The  unity  of  God 
is  argued  from  his  necessary  existence, 
self-sufficiency,  perfection,  indepen- 
dence, and  omnipotence  ;  from  the 
unity  of  design  in  the  works  of  nature  ; 
and  from  there  being  no  necessity  of 
having  more  gods  than  one :  but  the 
Scriptures  set  it  beyond  all  doubt,  Deut. 
vi.  4.  Psalm  Ixxxvi.  10.  Isa.  xliii.  10. 
Mark  xii.  29.  John  xvii.  3.  Rom.  iii. 
30.  1  Cor.  viii.  4,  6.  1  Tim.  ii.  5.  See 
PoLYTHKisM ;  jibemethy  on  the  At- 
tributes of  God,  vol.  i.  ser.  5  ;  Wilkins''i 
Mitural  Religion,  p.  113,  14;  Howe's 
Works,  vol.  i.'  p.  72,  73  ;  Gili's  Divini- 
ty, vol.  i.  8vo.  edit.  p.  183;  Ridg-ley's 
Drv.  question  8. 

UNIVERSALISTS,  those  who  sup- 
pose that,  as  Christ  died  for  all,  so,  be- 
fore he  shall  have  delivered  up  his 


mediatorial  kingdom  to  the  Father,  all 
shall  be  brought  to  a  participation  ot 
the  benefits  ot  his  death,  in  their  resto- 
ration to  holiness  and  happiness.  They 
teach,  that  the  wicked  will  receive  a 
punishment  apportioned  to  their  crimes; 
that  punishment  itself  is  a  mediatorial 
work,  and  founded  upon  mercy  ;  that  it 
is  a  mean  of  humbling,  subduing,  and 
finally  reconciling  the  sinner  to  God. 
They  suppose  that  the  words  eternal, 
everlasting,  &c.  as  they  sometimes  apply 
to  the  things  which  have  ended,  so  they 
cannot  apply  to  endless  misery.  They 
say,  tliis  doctrine  is  the  most  consonant 
to  the  perfections  of  the  Deity,  most 
worthy  of  the  character  of  Christ,  and 
that  the  Scriptures  cannot  be  recon- 
ciled upon  any  other  plan.  They  teach 
their  followers  ardent  love  to  God ;  and 
peace,  meekness,  candour,  and  univer- 
sal love  to  men,  they  observe,  ai-e  the 
natural  result  of  these  views. 

The  sentiments  of  the  Universalists 
were  embraced  by  Origen  in  the  3d  cen- 
tuiy,  and  in  more  modern  times  by  Che- 
valier Ramsay,  Dr.  Cheyne,  Mr.  Hart- 
ley, and  others.  But  one  of  the  great- 
est advocates  for  this  doctrine  was  Dr. 
Chaimcy.  His  arguments  are  these :  1. 
Christ  died  not  for  a  select  number  of 
men  onlv,  but  for  mankind  universally, 
and  without  exception  or  limitation,  for 
the  sacred  Scriptures  are  singularly 
emphatical  in  expressing  this  truth,  1 
Tlies.  V.  10.  1  Cor.  xv.  3.  Rom.  v.  6.  1 
Pet.  iii.  18.  John  i.  29.  John  iii.  16,  17. 
1  John  ii.  2.  Heb.  ii.  9.-2.  It  is  the 
purpose  of  God  according  to  his  good 
pleasure  that  mankind  universally,  in 
consequence  of  the  death  of  his  Son  Je- 
sus Christ,  shall  certainlv  and  finally  be 
saved,  Rom.  v.  12,  &c.  Rom.  viii.  19 — 
24.  Col.  i.  19,  20.  Eph.  iv.  10.  Eph.  i.  9, 
10.  2  Tim.  i.  4. — 3.  As  a  mean,  in  or- 
der to  men's  being  made  meet  for  sal- 
vation, God  will  sooner  or  later,  in  this 
state  or  another,  reduce  them  all  under 
a  willing  and  obedient  subjection  to  his 
moral  government,  1  John  iii.  8.  John 
i.  29.  Matt.  i.  21.  Psalm  viii.  5,  6.  Heb. 
ii.  6,  9.  Phil.  ii.  9—11.  1  Cor.  xv.  24 — 
29. — 4.  The  Scripture  language  con- 
cerning the  reduced  or  i-estored,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  mediatory  interposition 
of  Jesus  Christ,  is  such  as  leads  us  int» 
the  thought,  that  it  is  compi-ehensiveof 
mankind  universally.  Rev.  v.  13. 

The  opponents,  however,  of  Dr. 
Chauncv,  aid  this  doctrine,  observe,  on 
the  contrar)  side,  that  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures expressly  declare  that  the  punish- 
ment of  the  finally  impenitent  shall  be 
eternal,  Matt.  xvii.  8.  Matt.  xxv.  41, 
46.  Mark  ix.  43.  Rev.  xiv.  11.  2  Thes. 


vow 


5d5 


usu 


I.  9.  Eph.  ii.  17.  Jude  15.  Rev.  ix.  3. 
Rev.  XX.  10.  Matt.  xii.  31,  32.  Luke 
xii.  10.  Mark  iii.  29.  1  Jnhu  v.  16. 
Heb.  i.  4,  6.  Heb.  x.  26,  27.  Mutt.  xxvi. 
24.  See  articles  Destructionists, 
Hell. 

The  title  of  Universalists  distinguishes 
those  who  embrace  the  sentinients  of 
Mr.  Relly.  See  Rellyanists.  Dr. 
Joseph  Huntingdon  was  a  great  advoc  ate 
also  for  universal  salvation,  as  may  be 
seen  from  a  posthumous  work  of  his, 
entitled,  "  Calvinism  improved ;  or  the 
Gospel  illustrated  in  a  System  of  real 
Grace  issuing  in  the  Salvation  of  all 
Men."  This  work  was  answered  by 
Mr.  Nathan  Strong,  minister  of  Hart- 
ford, in  Connecticut,  in  which  he  en- 
deavours to  reconcile  the  doctrine  of 
eternal  misery  with  the  infinite  benevo- 
lence of  God. 

This  doctrine  of  universal  salvation, 
or  restoration,  besides  being  generally 
acknowledged  by  the  Socmians,  has 
been  defended  in  England  by  Mr.  Win- 
chester, and  after  him  by  Mr.  Vidler 
and  others.  The  latter  has  been  op- 
posed by  Mr.  A.  Fuller  and  Mr.  C. 
Jerram.  Dr.  Chaimcij's  Salvatioji  of 
all  J\Ien;  White's  Restoration  of  all 
Things;  Hartlij  on  Alan;  Univtrsal- 
rsts'  JVIiscellany ;  Fuller's  Letters  to 
Vidler;  and  Letters  to  an  Universalist, 
containing  a  Review  of  that  Contro- 
versij,  by  Scrutator;  mr.  Sfiaulding's 
Treatise  on  Universalism,  published  in 
America. 

UNPARDONABLE  SIN.  See  Sin, 
J  8. 

VOW,  a  solemn  and  religious  pro- 
mise or  oath.  [See  Oath.]  It  is  more 
particularly  taken  foi-  a  solemn  pro- 
mise made  to  God,  in  which  we  bind 
ourselves  to  do  or  forbear  somewhat  for 
the  promoting  of  his  gloiy.  Under  the 
Old  Testament  dispensation,  vows  were 
very  common.  Judges  xi.  Numbers 
XXX.  But  in  the  New  Testament  there 
is  no  command  whatever  for  the  obser- 
vation of  them.  Hence  it  is  supposed 
that  vows  belong  more  to  the  ceremo- 
nial law  than  to  the  Gospel ;  and  that 
we  are  to  be  more  dependent  on  divine 
grace  to  keep  us,  than  to  make  resolu- 
tions and  vows  which  we  do  not  know 
that  we  shall  be  able  to  perfoirn ;  and 
we  cei-tainly  ought  not  to  vow  any  thing 
but  what  we  are  able  to  perform. 

URIM  AND  THUMMIM  (light  and 
perfection,)  among  the  ancient  Hebrews, 
a  certain  oracular  manner  of  consulting 
God,  wliich  was  done  by  the  high 
priest,  dressed  in  his  robes,  and  having 
on  his  pectoral,  or  breast- plate.  There 
have  been  a  variety  of  opinions   re- 


specting the  Ui'im  and  Thiunmim,  and 
after  ail  we  cannot  determine  what 
tliey  were.  The  use  made  of  thcni  was, 
to  consult  God  in  diflicult  cases  relating 
to  the  whole  state  of  Israel,  and  some- 
times in  cases  relating  to  the  kuig,  thi 
sanhedrim,  the  general  of  the  army,  or 
some  otlu'r  great  personage. 

L^RSULINES,  an  order  of  nuns, 
founded  originally  by  St.  Angela,  of 
Brescia,  in  the  year  1537,  and  so  called 
from  St.  Ursula,  to  whom  they  were 
dedicated. 

At  first,  these  religious  did  not  live  in 
community,  but  abode  separately  in 
their  fathers'  houses ;  and  their  em- 
ployment was  to  search  for  the  afflicted, 
to  comfort  them ;  for  the  ignorant,  to 
instmct  them  ;  and  for  the  poor,  to  re- 
lieve them  ;  to  visit  the  hospitals,  and 
to  attend  upon  the  sick ;  in  short,  to  be 
always  ready  to  do  acts  of  charity  and 
compassion.  In  1544,  pope  Paul  III. 
confirmed  the  institution  of  the  Ursu- 
lines.  Sir  Charles  Borromeo  brought 
some  of  them  from  Brescia  to  Milan, 
where  they  nmltiplied  to  the  number  of 
four  hundred.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  and 
his  successors  Sixtus  V.  and  Paul  V 
granted  new  privileges  to  this  congre- 
gation In  process  of  time,  the  Ursu- 
lines,  \\A\o  before  lived  separately,  be- 
gan to  live  in  community,  and  embrace 
the  regular  life.  The  first  who  did  so 
were  the  Ursulines  of  Paris,  established 
there  in  1604,  who  entered  into  the 
cloister  in  the  year  1614,  by  virtue  of  a 
bull  of  pope  Paul  V.  The  foundress  of 
the  Ursulines  of  France  was  Madame 
Frances  de  Bemiond,  who,  in  1574,  en- 
gaged about  twenty-five  young  -women 
of  Avignon  to  embrace  the  institute  of 
St.  Angela  of  Brescia.  The  principal 
employ  of  the  Ursulines,  since  their  es- 
tablishment into  a  regular  order,  were 
to  instruct  young  women;  and  their 
monasteries  were  a  kind  of  schools, 
where  young  ladies  of  the  best  families- 
received  then*  education. 

USURY,  the  gain  taken  for  the  loan 
of  money  or  wares.  The  Jews  were  al- 
lowed to  lend  money  upon  usury  to 
strangers,  Deut.  xxiii.  20;  but  were 
prohibited  to  take  usury  from  their 
brethren  of  Israel,  at  least,  if  they  were 
poor,  Exod.  xxii.  25.  Lev.  xxv.  35,  37. 
From  the  Scriptures  speaking  against 
the  practice  of  usury,  some  have  thought 
it  unlawful,  Psal.  xv.  5.  Prov.  xxviii.  8. 
Ezek.  xrai.  8.  But  it  is  replied,  that 
usury  there  only  means  immoderate  in- 
terest, or  oppression,  by  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  indigent  circumstances  of 
our  neighbour;  and  that  it  seems  as 
lawful  for  a  man  to  receive  interest  for 


WAL 


596 


AVAL 


money,  Avhich  another  takes  pain  witli,  I 
improves,   and  runs  the  hazard  of  in 
trade,  as  it  is  to  receive  rent  for  our  land 
which  another  takes  pain  with,  improves, 
but  i-uns  the  hazard  of  in  liusbandrj^.       [ 


VULGATE,  a  very  ancient  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible,  and  the  onlv  one  ac- 
knowledged by  the  church  of 'Rome  to 
be  authentic.    See  Bible,  No.  32. 


w. 


WALDENSES,  or  Valdenses,  a 
sect  of  reformers,  who  made  their  first 
appearance  about  the  year  1160.  They 
were  most  numerous  about  the  valleys 
of  Piedmont ;  and  hence,  some  say,  they 
were  called  Valdenses,  or  Vaudois,  and 
not  from  Peter  Valdo,  as  others  suppose. 
Mosheim,  however,  gives  this  account 
of  them  :  he  says,  that  Peter,  an  opu- 
lent merchant  of  Lyons,  surnamed  f  al- 
densis,  or  Validisius,  from  Vaux,  or 
Waldum,  a  town  in  the  marquisate  of 
Lyons,  being  extremelj-  zealous  for  the 
advancement  of  time  piety  and  Chris- 
tian knowledge,  employed  a  certain 
priest,  called  Stephanua  de  jEvisa,  about 
the  year  1160,  in  translating,  from  La- 
tin into  French,  the  four  Gospels,  with 
other  books  of  holy  Scripture,  and  the 
most  remarkable  sentences  of  the  an- 
cient doctors,  which  were  so  highly  es- 
teemed in  this  century.  But  no  sooner 
had  he  perused  these  sacred  books  with 
a  proper  degree  of  attention,  than  he 
perceived  that  the  religion  which  was 
now  taught  in  the  Roman  church,  dif- 
fered totally  from  that  which  was  ori- 
ginally inculcated  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles.  Struck  with  this  glaring  con- 
tradiction between  the  doctrines  of  the 
pontiifs  and  the  truths  of  the  Gospel, 
and  animated  with  zeal,  he  abandoned 
his  mercantile  vocation,  distributed  his 
riches  among  the  poor  (whence  the 
Waldenses  were  called  poor  men  of  Ly- 
o?is,)  and  forming  an  association  with 
other  pious  men  who  had  adopted  his 
sentiments  and  his  turn  of  devotion,  he 
began,  in  the  year  1180,  to  assume  the 
quality  of  a  public  teacher,  and  to  in- 
struct the  multitude  in  the  doctrines  and 
precepts  of  Christianity. 

Soon  after  Peter  had  assumed  the  ex- 
ercise of  his  ministry,  the  archbishop 
of  Lyons,  and  the  other  rulers  of  the 
church  in  that  province,  vigorously  oj)- 
posed  him.  However,  their  opposition 
was  unsuccessful ;  for  the  purity  and 
simplicity  of  that  religion  which  these 
good  men  taught,  the  spotless  iiino 
cence  that  shone  forth  in  their  lives  and 
actions,  and  the  noble  contemj)t  of 
riches   and   honours   which  was  con 


spicuous  in  the  whole  of  their  conduct 
and  con^  ersation,  appeared  so  engaging 
to  all  such  as  had  any  sense  of  true 
piety,  that  the  number  of  their  follow- 
ers daily  increased.  They  accordingly 
formed  religious  assemblies,  first  in 
France,  and  afterwards  in  Lombai'dy; 
from  whence  they  propagated  their  sect 
throughout  the  other  provinces  of  Eu- 
rope with  incredible  rapidity,  and  with 
such  invincible  fortitude,  that  neither 
fire  nor  sword,  nor  the  most  cruel  in- 
ventions of  merciless  persecution,  could 
damp  their  zeal,  or  entirely  ruin  their 
cause. 

The  attempts  of  Peter  Waldus  and 
his  followers  were  neither  employed 
nor  designed  to  introduce  new  doctrines 
into  the  church,  nor  to  propose  new  ar- 
ticles of  faith  to  Christians.  All  they 
aimed  at  was,  to  reduce  the  form  of 
ecclesiastical  government,  and  the  man- 
ners both  of  the  clergy  and  people,  to 
that  amiable  simplicity  and  primitive 
sanctity  that  characterized  the  apostolic 
ages,  and  which  appear  so  stronglv  re- 
commended in  the  precepts  and  in- 
junctions of  the  Divine  Author  of  our 
holy  religion.  In  consequence  of  this 
design,  thev  complained  that  the  Ro- 
man churcVi  had  degenerated,  under 
Constantine  the  Great,  from  its  primi- 
tive purity  and  sanctity.  They  denied 
the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  pontiff, 
and  maintained  that  the  rulers  and  mi- 
nisters of  the  church  were  obliged,  by 
their  vocation,  to  imitate  the  poverty 
of  the  apostles,  and  to  procure  for  them- 
selves a  subsistence  by  the  work  of  their  i 
hands.  They  considered  every  Chris-  ' 
tian  as,  in  a  certain  measure,  qualified  • 
and  authorised  to  instruct,  exhort  and  ' 
confirm  the  brethren  in  their  Christian  | 
course ;  and  demanded  the  rcstoration 
of  the  ancient  penitential  discipline  of 
the  church,  i.  e.  the  expiation  of  trans- 
gressions by  pi'a}'cr,  fasting,  and  alms, 
which  the  new-invented  doctrine  of  in- 
dulgences had  almost  totally  abolished. 
They  at  the  same  time  affirmed,  that 
every  pious  Christian  was  quafified  and 
entitled  to  prescribe  to  the  penitent  the 
kind  or  degree  of  satisfaction  or  expia- 


WAT 


597 


WAT 


tion  that  theii-  transgressions  required ; 
that  confession  made  to  priests  was  by 
no  means  necessary,  since  the  humble 
offender  might  acKnowledge  his  sins 
and  testify  his  repentance  to  any  true 
believer,  and  might  expect  from  such 
the  counsel  and  admonition  which  his 
case  demanded.  They  maintained,  that 
the  power  of  delivering  sinners  frc  m  the 
guilt  and  punishment  of  their  offences 
belonged  to  God  alone ;  and  that  in- 
dulgences of  consequence,  were  the 
criminal  inventions  of  sordid  avarice. 
I'hey  looked  upon  the  prayers  and  other 
ceremonies  that  were  instituted  in  be- 
half of  the  dead,  as  vain,  useless,  and 
absurd,  and  denied  the  existence  of  de- 
parted souls  in  an  intermediate  state  of 
purification  ;  afiRrming,  that  they  were 
immediately,  upon  their  separation  from 
the  body,  received  into  heaven,  or 
thrust  down  to  hell.  These  and  other 
tenets  of  a  like  nature,  composed  the 
svstem  of  doctrine  propagated  by  the 
Waldenses.  It  is  also  said,  that  several 
of  the  Waldenses  denied  the  obligation 
of  irifant  baptism,  and  that  others  re- 
jected water  baptism  entii'ely ;  but  Wall 
has  laboured  to  prove  that  infant  baptism 
was  generally  practised  among  them. 

Their  rules  of  practice  were  extreme- 
ly austere  ;  for  they  adopted  as  the  mo- 
del of  their  moral  discipline,  the  sermon 
of  Christ  on  the  mount,  which  they  in- 
terpi-eted  and  explained  in  the  most  ri- 
gorous and  literal  manner ;  and  conse- 
(juently  prohibited  and  condemned  in 
their  society  all  wars,  and  suits  of  law, 
and  all  attempts  towards  the  acquisition 
of  wealth  ;  the  inflicting  of  capital  pu- 
nishments, self-defence  against  unjust 
violence,  and  oaths  of  all  kinds. 

During  the  greatest  part  of  the  se- 
venteenth century,  those  of  them  who 
lived  in  the  A^alleys  of  Piedmont,  and 
who  had  embraced  the  doctrine,  disci- 
pline, and  worship  of  the  church  of  Ge- 
neva, were  oppressed  and  persecuted 
in  the  most  barbarous  and  inhuman 
manner  by  the  ministers  of  Rome.  This 

{)ersecution  was  carried  on  with  pecu- 
iar  marks  of  rage  and  enormity  m  the 
years  1655,  1656,  and  1696,  and  seemed 
to  portend  nothing  less  than  the  total 
extinction  of  that  unhappy  nation.  The 
most  hoiTid  scenes  of  violence  and 
bloodshed  were  exhibited  in  this  thec.tre 
of  papal  tyranny ;  and  the  few  Wal- 
denses that  survived,  were  indebted  for 
their  existence  and  support  to  the  in- 
tercession made  for  them  by  the  En- 
glish and  Dutch  governments,  and  also 
by  the  Swiss  cantons,  who  solicited  the 
clemency  of  the  duke  of  Savoy  on  their 
behalf. 


WATCHERS.    See  Acoemetve. 

WATCHFULNESS,  vigilance,  or 
care  to  avoid  sun-ounding  enemies  and 
dangers.  We  are  to  Avatch  against  the 
insinuations  of  Satan;  the  allurements 
of  the  world ;  the  deceitfulness  of  our 
heaits ;  the  doctrines  of  the  erroneous ; 
and,  uideed,  against  e\ery  thhig  that 
would  pro^e  mimical  to  our  best  in- 
terests. We  are  to  exercise  this  duty 
at  all  times,  in  all  places,  and  under  all 
circumstances,  1  Cor.  xvi.  13.  Luke 
xii.  37. 

To  Kvatch,  is  also  to  wait  for  and  ex- 
pect :  thus  we  are,  1.  To  watch  the 
providence  of  God. — 2.  The  fulfilment 
of  the  prophecies. — 3.  God's  time  for 
our  deliverance  from  troubles,  Psalm 
cxxx. — 4.  W'e  are  to  watch  unto  prayer, 
Eph.  vi.  18. — 5.  For  death  and  judg- 
ment, ?.Iark  xiii.  37. 

\\*ATERLANDL\NS,  a  sect  of 
Anabaptists  in  Holland.  They  are  thus 
called  in  distinction  from  the  Flemin- 
gians,  or  Flandrians,  and  likewise  be- 
cause they  consisted  at  first  of  the  in- 
habitants of  a  district  in  Xoith  Holland, 
called  ^^'aterland.  The  Flemingians 
were  called  the  Jine  or  rigid,  and  the 
Waterlandians  the  gross  or  moderate 
Anabaptists.  The  former  obsen'e,  with 
the  most  religious  accuracy  and  venera- 
tion, the  ancient  doctrine  and  disciplme 
of  the  purer  sort  of  Anabaptists ;  the 
latter  depart  much  more  from  the  pri- 
mitive sentiments  and  manners  of  their 
sect,  and  approach  nearer  to  the  Pro- 
testant churches.  These  latter,  how- 
ever, are  divided  into  two  distinct  sects, 
the  Waterlanders  and  the  Friesland- 
ers;  but  this  difference,  it  is  said,  merely 
respects  their  place  of  abode.    Neither 

Earty  have  any  bishops,  but  only  pres- 
yters  and  deacons.  Each  congregation 
is  independent  of  all  foreign  jurisdiction, 
havmg  its  own  court  ot  government, 
composed  of  the  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons. But  the  supreme  power  being  in 
the  hands  of  the  people,  nothing  of  im- 
portance can  be  transacted  without  their 
consent.  The  presbyters  are  generally 
men  of  learning  ;  and  they  have  a  public 
professor  at  Amsterdam  for  instructing 
their  youth  in  the  different  branches  of 
erudition,  sacred  and  profane.  About 
1664,  the  W^aterlanders  were  split  into 
the  two  factions  of  the  Galenists  and  the 
Apostoolians.  Galen,  Abraham  Haan, 
doctor  of  physic,  and  pastor  of  the 
Mennonites  at  Amsterdam,  a  man  of 
uncommon  penetration  and  eloquence, 
inclined  towards  the  Arian  and  Socuiian 
tenets,  and  insisted  for  the  reception  of 
all  such  into  their  church  fellowship  as 
acknowledged  the  divine  authority  of 


WES 


598 


WHI 


the  Scrii'tures,  and  led  virtuous  lives. 
He  and  his  followers  renounced  the 
designation  of  the  Mennonites.  They 
were  witli  great  zeal  opposed  by  Samuel 
Apostool,  another  physician  and  emi- 
nent pastor  at  Amsterdam,  who,  with 
his  followers,  admitted  none  to  their 
communion  but  such  as  professed  to  be- 
lieve all  the  points  of  doctrine  contained 
in  their  public  Confession  of  Faith. 

WEDNESDAY,  ASH.  The  first 
day  of  Lent,  when,  in  the  primitive 
church,  notorious  sinners  were  put  to 
open  penance  thus :  They  appeared  at 
the  church  door  bai-efooted,  and  clothed 
in  sackcloth,  where,  being  examined, 
their  discipline  was  proportioned  ac- 
cording to  their  offences ;  after  which, 
being  brought  into  the  church,  the  bi- 
shop singing  the  seven  penitential 
psalms,  they  prostrated  themselves, 
and  with  tears  begged  absolution ;  the 
whole  congregation  having  ashes  on 
their  heads,  to  signify,  that  they  were 
both  mortal  and  deserved  to  be  burnt  to 
ashes  for  their  sins. 

WESTMINSTER  ASSEMBLY,  a 
name  given  to  the  synod  of  divines  call- 
ed by  parliament  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
I.  for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  go- 
vernment, liturgy,  and  doctrine  of  the 
church  of  England.  They  were  confined 
in  their  debates  to  such  things  as  the 
parliament  proposed.  Some  counties 
had  two  members,  and  some  but  one. 
And  because  they  would  seem  impar- 
tial, and  give  each  party  the  liberty  to 
speak,  they  chose  many  of  the  most 
learned  episcopal  divines ;  but  few  of 
them  came,  because  it  was  not  a  legal 
convocation,  the  king  having  declared 
against  it.  The  divines  were  men  of 
eminent  learning  and  godliness,  minis- 
terial abilities,  and  fidelity.  Many  lords 
and  commons  were  joined  with  them,  to 
see  that  they  did  not  go  beyond  their 
o<3mmission.  Six  or  seven  Independents 
were  also  added  to  them,  that  all  sides 
might  be  heard.  This  assembly  first 
met,  July  1, 1643,  in  Henry  the  Seventh's 
Chapel.  The  most  i-emarkable  hints 
concerning  their  debates  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Life  of  Dr.  Lightfoot,  before  his 
works,  in  folio,  and  in  the  Preface  to  his 
Remauis,  in  octavo.  See  also  the  As- 
srindiij's  Cotiftssion  of  Faith ;  jYca/'s 
Hhst.  of  the  Puritans ;  and  article  Di- 
RKCTOKY  in  this  work.  There  is  a  pub- 
lication, which  is  commonly  but  unjustly 
ascribed  to  this  assembly,  viz.  The  ybi- 
7iotations  on  the  Bible.  The  truth  is, 
the  same  parliament  that  called  the  as- 
sembly, employed  the  authors  of  that 
work,  and  several  of  them  were  mem- 
bers of  the  assembh-. 


\VHIPPERS,  or  Flagellaxtes,  a 
sect  of  wild  fanatics,  who  chastised  and 
disciplined  themselves  with  whips  in 
public.  It  had  its  rise  in  Italy  in  the  year 
1260  :  its  author  was  one  Rainer,  a  her- 
mit ;  and  it  was  propagated  from  hence 
through  almost  all  the  countries  of  Eu- 
rope. A  great  number  of  persons,  of  all 
ages  and  sexes,  made  processions,  walk- 
ing two  by  two,  with  their  shoulders 
bare,  which  they  whipped  till  the  blood 
ran  down,  in  order  to  obtain  mercy  from 
God,  and  appease  his  indignation  agains 
the  wickedness  of  the  age.  They  were 
then  called  the  ZJexiOM/y  and  having  es- 
tabhshed  a  superior,  he  was  called  Ge- 
nei'al  cf  the  Devotion.  Though  the  pri- 
mitive Wliippers  were  exemplary  in 
point  of  moi-als,  yet  they  were  joined  by 
a  turbulent  rabble,  who  were  infected 
with  tlie  most  ridiculous  and  impious 
opinions  :  so  that  the  emperors  and  pon- 
tiflFs  thought  proper  to  put  an  end  to  this 
religious  frenzy,  by  declaring  all  devout 
whipping  contrary  to  the  divine  law, 
and  prejudicial  to  the  soul's  eternal  in- 
terest. 

However,  this  sect  revived  in  Ger- 
many towards  the  middle  of  the  next 
century,  and,  rambling  through  many 
pi'ovinces,  occasioned  great  disturbances. 
They  held,  among  other  things,  that 
whi])ping  was  of  equal  virtue  with  bap- 
tism, and  the  other  sacraments ;  that  the 
forgiveness  of  all  sins  was  to  be  obtamed 
by  it  from  God  without  the  merits  of 
Jesus  Christ ;  that  the  old  law  of  Christ 
was  soon  to  be  abolished,  and  that  a  new 
law,  enjoining  the  baptism  of  blood  to  be 
administered  by  whipping,  v/as  to  be 
substituted  in  its  place :  upon  which 
Clement  VII.  by  an  injudicious  as  well 
as  unrighteous  policy,  thundered  out 
anathemas  against  the  W'hippers,  who 
were  burnt  by  the  inquisitors  m  several 
places :  but  they  were  not  easily  extir- 
pated. They  appeared  again  in  Thu- 
ringia  and  Lower  Saxony  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  rejected  not  only  the  sa- 
craments, but  every  branch  of  external 
worship ;  and  placed  their  only  hopes 
of  salvation  in  faith  and  whipping,  to 
which  they  added  other  strange  doc- 
trines concerning  evil  spirits.  Their 
leader,  Conrad  Schmidt,  and  many 
others,  were  committed  to  the  flames  by 
German  inquisitors,  in  and  after  the 
year  1414. 
WHITE  BRETHREN.    See  Bre- 

THRKN  WhITK. 

WHITSUNDAY,  a  solemn  festival 
of  the  Christian  church,  observed  on 
the  fiftieth  day  after  Easter,  in  memory 
of  the  descent  of  the  Holy  (ihost  upon 
the  apostles  in  the  visible  appearance 


WIL 


599 


WIL 


of  fiery  cloven  tongues,  and  of  those  mi- 
raculous powers  which  were  then  con- 
ferred upon  them. 

It  is  called  Whitsunday  or  White- 
Sunday,  because  this  being  one  of  the 
stated  times  for  baptism  in  the  ancient 
church,  those  who  were  baptised  put 
on  white  garments,  as  types  of  that 
spiritual  purity  they  received  in  bap- 
tism. As  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
upon  the  apostles  happened  on  that  day 
which  the  Jews  called  Pentecost,  this 
festival  retained  the  name  of  Pentecost 
among  the  Christians. 

WICKEDNESS.    See  Sin. 

WICKLIFFITES,  the  followers  of 
the  famous  John  Wickliffe,  called  "  the 
first  reformer,"  who  was  bom  m  York- 
shire in  the  year  1324.  He  attacked 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  and  the  bi- 
shops. He  was  for  this  twice  summoned 
to  a  council  at  Lambeth,  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  his  doctrines ;  but  being  coun- 
tenanced by  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  was 
both  times  dismissed  without  condem- 
nation. Wickliffe,  therefore,  continued 
to  spread  his  new  principles  as  usual, 
adding  to  them  doctrines  still  more 
alarming ;  by  which  he  drew  after  him 
a  great  number  of  disciples.  Upon 
this,  William  Courtney,  abp.  of  Can- 
terbury, called  another  council  in  1382, 
which  condenmed  24  propositions  of 
Wickliffe  and  his  disciples,  and  obtain- 
ed a  declaration  of  Richard  II.  against 
all  who  should  preach  them  :  but  while 
these  proceedings  were  agitating,  Wick- 
liffe died  at  Lutterworth,  leaving  many 
works  behind  him  for  the  establishment 
of  his  doctrines.  He  was  buried  in  his 
own  church,  at  Lutterworth,  in  Lei- 
cestershire, where  his  bones  were  suf- 
fered to  rest  in  peace  till  the  year  1428, 
when,  by  an  order  from  the  pope,  the\' 
were  taken  up  and  burnt.  Wickliffe 
was  doubtless  a  very  extraordinary 
man,  considering  the  times  in  which  he 
lived.  He  discovered  the  absurdities 
and  impositions  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
and  had  the  honesty  and  resolution  to 
promulgate  his  opinions,  which  a  little 
more  support  would  probably  have  ena- 
bled him  to  establish :  they  were  evi- 
dently the  foundation  of  the  subsequent 
reformation. 

WILHELMINIANS,  a  denomina- 
tion in  the  13th  century,  so  called  from 
Wilhelmina,  a  Bohemian  woman,  who 
resided  in  the  territory  of  Milan.    She 

})ei'suaded  a  large  number  that  the  Ho- 
y  Ghost  was  become  incarnate  in  her 
person  for  the  salvation  of  a  great  part 
of  mankind.  According  to  her  doctnnes 
none  were  saved  by  the  blood  of  Jesus 
but  true  and  pious  Christiims ;  while  the 


Jews,  Saracens,  and  unworthy  Chris- 
tians, were  to  obtain  salvation  through 
the  Holy  Spirit  which  dwelt  in  her,  and 
that,  in  consequence  thereof,  all  which 
happened  in  Christ  during  his  appear- 
ance upon  earth  in  the  human  nature, 
was  to  be  exactly  renewed  in  her  per- 
son, or  rather  in  that  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
which  was  united  to  her. 

WILKINSONIANS,  the  followers 
of  Jemima  Wilkinson,  who  was  born  in 
Cumberland  in  America.  In  October 
1776,  she  asserted  that  she  was  taken 
sick,  and  actually  died,  and  that  her 
soul  went  to  heaven,  where  it  still  con- 
tinues. Soon  after,  her  body  Avas  re- 
animated with  the  spirit  and  power  of 
Christ,  upon  which  she  set  up  as  a  pub- 
lic teacher;  and  declared  she  had  an 
immediate  revelation  for  all  she  dehver- 
ed,  and  was  arrived  to  a  state  of  abso- 
lute perfection.  It  is  also  said  she  pre- 
tended to  foretel  future  events,  to  dis- 
cern the  secrets  of  the  heart,  and  to 
have  the  power  of  healing  diseases: 
and  if  any  person  who  had  made  appli- 
cation to  her  was  not  healed,  she  attri- 
buted it  to  his  want  of  faith.  She  assert- 
ed that  those  who  refused  to  believe 
these  exalted  things  concerning  her, 
will  be  in  the  state  of  the  unbelieving 
Jews,  who  rejected  the  coimcil  of  God 
against  themselves;  and  she  told  her 
hearers  that  was  the  eleventh  hour,  and 
the  last  call  of  mercy  that  ever  should 
be  granted  them :  for  she  heard  an  in- 
quiry in  heaven,  saying,  "  Who  will  go 
and  preach  to  a  dying  world  i"'  or  woi'ds 
to  tliat  import ;  and  she  said  she  an- 
swered, "  Here  am  I — send  me  ;"  and 
that  she  left  the  realms  of  light  and 
glory,  and  the  company  of  the  heavenly 
host,  who  are  continually  jM'aising  and 
worshipping  God,  in  order  to  descend 
upon  earth,  and  pass  through  many  suf- 
ferings and  trials  for  the  happiness  of 
mankind.  She  assumed  the  title  of  the 
universal  friend  of  mankind;  hence  her 
followers  distinguished  themselves  by 
the  name  of  Friends. 

WILL,  that  faculty  of  the  soul  by 
which  it  chooses  or  refuses  any  thing 
offered  to  it.  When  man  was  created, 
he  had  liberty  and  power  to  do  what 
was  pleasing  m  the  sight  of  God ;  but 
by  the  fall,  he  lost  all  ability  of  will  to 
any  spiritual  good ;  nor  has  he  any  will 
to  that  which  is  good  until  divine  grace 
enlightens  the  understanding  and 
changes  the  heai't.  "  The  nature  of 
the  will,  indeed,  is  in  itself  indisputably 
free.  Will,  as  will,  must  be  so,  or  there 
is  no  such  faculty ;  but  the  human  will, 
being  finite,  hath  a  necessary  bound, 
which  indeed  so  far  may  be  said  to  cor- 


WIL 


600 


WIS 


fine  it,  because  it  cannot  act  beyond  it ; 
yet  within  the  extent  of  its  capacity  it 
necessarily  is  and  evex*  will  be  sponta- 
Heoiis. 

"  The  limits  of  the  will,  therefore,  do 
not  take  away  its  inherent  liberty.  The 
exercise  of  its  powers  may  be  confined, 
•as  it  necessaiily  must,  in  a  finite  being ; 
but  where  it  is' not  confined,  thai  exer- 
cise will  correspond  with  its  nature  and 
situation. 

"  This  being  understood,  it  is  easy  to 
perceive  that  man  in  his  fallen  state  can 
only  will  according  to  his  fallen  capaci- 
ties, and  that,  however  freely  his  voli- 
tions may  flow  within  their  exterit,  he 
eannot  possibly  overpass  them.  He, 
therefore,  as  a  sinful,  canial,  and  per- 
verse apostate,  can  ivlll  only  according 
to  the  nature  of  his  apostacy,  which  is 
continually  and  invariably  evil,  without 
capacity  to  exceed  its  bounds  into  good- 
ness, pui*it)r,  and  truth ;  or  otherwise  he 
would  will  contrary  to  or  bejond  his 
nature  and  situation,  which  is  equally 
impossible  in  itself,  and  contradictoiy 
to.  the  revelation  of  God.  See  Ed- 
wards on  the  Will;  Theol.  Misc.  vol. 
iv.  p.  391 ;  Gill's  Cause  of  God  and 
Truth;  To/ilady's  Historic  Proof; 
Watts'  Essay  on  the  Freedom  of  the 
Will ;  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  175, 
and  187 ;  Locke  on  the  l/nder6tandi?ig; 
Keid  on  the  Active  Powers,  p.  267,  291 ; 
and  articles  Liberty  and  Necessity 
in  this  work. 

WILL  WORSHIP,  the  invention  and 
practice  of  such  expedients  of  appeasing 
or  of  pleasmg  God,  as  neither  reason  nor 
revelation  suggest. 

WILL  OF  GOD  is  taken,  1.  For 
that  which  he  has  from  all  eternity  de- 
termined, which  is  unchangeable,  and 
must  certainly  come  to  puss;  this  is 
called  his  secret  will. — 2.  It  is  taken 
for  what  he  has  prescribed  to  us  in  his 
word  as  a  mle  of  duty :  this  is  called  his 
revealed  will.  A  question  of  very  great 
importance  respecting  our  duty  deserves 
here  to  be  considered.  The  question  is 
this:  "How  may  a  person  wiio  is  de- 
sirous of  following  the  dictates  of  Pro- 
vidence in  every  respect,  know  the  muid 
and  will  of  God  in  any  particular  cir- 
cumstance, whether  temporal  or  spi- 
ritual.'' Now,  in  order  to  come  at  the 
knowledge  of  that  which  is  proper  and 
needful  for  us  to  be  acquainted  with,  we 
are  taught  by  prudence  and  conscience 
to  make  use  of,  1.  Deliberation. — 2. 
Consultation. — 3.  Supplication;  but,  1. 
We  should  not  make  our  inclinations  the 
rule  of  our  conduct. — 2.  We  should  not 
make  our  particular  frames  the  rule  of 
Our  judgment  and    determination. — 3. 


We  are  not  to  be  guided  by  any  unac- 
countable impulses  and  impvesbions. — 
4.  We  must  not  make  the  event  our 
rule  of  judgment.  1.  Unless  something 
difterent  from  our  present  situation  ot- 
fer  itself  to  our  serious  consideration, 
we  are  not  to  be  desirous  of  changixig 
our  state,  except  it  is  unprofitable  or 
unlawful. — 2.  When  an  altera.t;on  of 
circumstance  is  proposed  to  us,  or  Pi-o- 
vidence  lays  two  or  more  things  before 
our  eyes,  we  should  endeavour  to  take 
a  distinct  view  of  each  case,  compare 
them  with  one  another,  and  then  de- 
termine by  such  maxims  as  these: — Of 
two  natiiral  evils  choose  the  least ;  of 
two  moral  evils  choose  neither ;  of  two 
moral  or  spiritual  good  things  choose 
the  greatest. — 3.  When  upon  due  con- 
sideration, nothing  appeal's  in  the  ne- 
cessity of  the  case  or  the  leadings  of 
Providence  to  make  the  way  clear,  we 
must  not  hurry  Pro\idence,  but  remain 
in  a  state  of  suspense ;  or  abide  wiiere 
we  are,  waiting  upon  the  Lord  by  pray- 
er, and  waiting  for  the  Lord  in  the  way 
of  his  providence.  In  idl  cases,  it  should 
be  our  perpetual  concern  to  keep  as 
much  as  possible  out  of  the  way  of 
temptation  to  omit  any  duty,  or  conmiit 
any  sin.  We  should  endea\  our  to  keep 
up  a  reverence  for  the  word  and  pro- 
vidence of  God  upon  our  hearts,  and  to 
have  a  steady  eye  to  his  glory,  and  to 
behold  God  in  convenant,  as  managing 
every  providential  circumstance  in  sub- 
serviency to  his  gracious  purposes  in 
Christ  Jesus."  Pike  and  Hayivard's 
Cases  of  Conscience,  p.  156. 

WISDOM  denotes  a  high  and  refined 
notion  of  things,  immediately  presented 
to  the  mind,  as  it  were,  by  intuition, 
without  the  assistance  of  reasoning.  In 
a  moral  sense,  it  signifies  the  same  as 
prudence,  or  that  knowledge  by  wluch 
we  connect  the  best  means  with  the  best 
ends.  Some,  however,  distinguish  wis- 
dom from  prudence  thus:  wisdom  leads 
us  to  speidc  and  act  what  is  most  proper ; 
prudence  prevents  our  speaking  or 
acting  improperly.  A  wise  man  employs 
the  most  proper  means  for  success ;  a 
prudent  man  the  safest  means  for  not 
being  brought  uito  danger. 

S/iiriiual  nvisdoni  consists  in  the  know- 
Ledge  and  fear  of  God.  It  is  beautiful- 
ly described  by  St.  James,  "  as  pure, 
peaceable,  gentle,  easy  to  be  entreated, 
lull  of  mercy  and  good  fruits,  without 
partiality,  and  \\ithout  hypocrisy." 
James  iii.  17.  See  Devotion,  Re- 
ligion. 

WISDOM  OF  GOD,  is  that  grand 
attribute  of  his  nature  by  which  he 
knows  and  orders  all  things  for  the  pro- 


WIT 


601 


WOR 


motion  of  his  gloiy  and  the  good  of  his 
creatures.  This  appeal's  in  all  the 
works  of  his  hands,  Psal.  civ.  24  ;  in  the 
dispensations  of  his  providence,  Psal. 
xcvii.  1,  2 ;  in  the  work  of  redemption, 
Eph.  iii.   10 ;  in  the   government  and 

Preservation  of  his  church  in  all  ages, 
s.  cvii.  7.  This  doctrine  should  teach 
us  admiration,  Rev.  xv.  3,  4  ;  trust  and 
confidence,  Psal.  ix.  10 ;  prayer,  Prov. 
iii.  5,  6  ;  submission,  Heb.  xii.  9  ;  praise, 
Psal.  ciii.  1 — 4.  See  C/iarnock's  Works, 
vol.  i. ;  Saiirin's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  p.  157, 
Eng.  Trans. ;  GilPs  Divinity,  vol.  i.  p. 
93 ;  j^bernethey's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser. 
10  ;  Ray's  Wisdom  of  God  in  Creation; 
fa  ley's  A'atural  Theology. 

WITCHCRAFT,  a  supernatural 
power  which  pei'sons  were  formerly 
supposed  to  obtain  the  possession  of,  by 
entering  into  a  compact  with  the  Devil. 
Witchcraft  was  universally  believed  in 
Europe  till  the  16th  -century,  and  eveli 
maintained  its  ground  with  tolerable 
firmness  till  the  middle  of  the  17th. 
The  latest  witchcraft  plirensy  was  in 
New  England  in  1692,  when  the  exe- 
cution of  witches  became  a  calamity 
more  dreadful  than  the  sword  or  the 
pestilence.  Some  have  denied  the  ex- 
istence of  witchcraft  altogether.  That 
such  persons  have  been  found  among 
men  seems,  however,  evident  from  the 
Scriptures,  Dent,  xviii.  10.  Exod.  xxii. 
18.  Gal.  V.  20.  Lev.  xix.  13.  Lev.  xx. 
6.  The  inconsistency  of  holding  such 
persons  in  estimation,  or  having  re- 
course to  fortune-tellers,  diviners, 
charmers,  and  such  like,  appear  in  this, 
1.  It  is  imitating  the  heathens,  and 
giving  countenance  to  the  foolish  super- 
stition and  absurd  practices  of  pagans. 
— 2.  Such  characters  are  held  in  ab- 
horrence by  the  Lord,  and  their  very 
existence  forbidden.  Lev.  xx.  6.  Exod. 
XX.  18. — 3.  He  threatens  to  punish  those 
who  consult  them.  Lev.  xx.  6. — 4.  It  is 
wrong  to  have  any  thing  to  do  with 
them,  as  it  is  setting  an  awful  example 
to  others. — 5.  It  is  often  productive  of 
the  greatest  evils,  deception,  discord, 
disappointment,  and  incredible  mis- 
cliief.  See  Hawkins's  Two  Sermons  on 
Witchcraft;  Enc.  Brit. ;  Moore's  Theo- 
logical Works, -p.  24:0,  251;  Hutchinson 
on  Witchcraft. 

WONDER,  any  thing  which  causes 
surprise  by  its  strangeness.  "It  ex- 
presses," says  Mr.  Cogan,  "  an  embar- 
rassment of  the  mind  after  it  is  some- 
what recovered  from  the  first  percus- 
sion of  sui-prise.  It  is  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  an  interesting  subject  which 
has  been  suddenly  presented  to  the 
mind,  but  concerning  which  there  are 


many  intricacies,  either  respecting  the 
cause  or  manner  in  Avhich  any  event  has 
taken  place,  motives  of  extraordinary 
conduct,  Sec."  How  it  differs  from  ad- 
miration, see  Admiration. 

WORKS  OF  GOD.  See  Bible, 
Revelation,  Scripture. 

WORKS,  GOOD,  are  those  actions 
which  are  conformable  to  ti-uth,  jus- 
tice, or  propriety ;  whether  natui-al, 
civil,  relative,  moral,  or  religious.  The 
circumstances  requisite  to  a  good  work, 
are,  1.  That  it  be  according  to  the  will 
of  God. — 2.  That  it  spring  from  love  to 
God,  1  Tim.  i.  5. — 3.  It  must  be  done 
in  faith,  Rom.  xiv.  23. — 4.  It  must  be 
done  to  the  glory  of  God,  1  Cor.  x.  31. 
Phil.  i.  11.  The  causes  of  good  works 
are,  1.  God  himself,  Heo.  xiii.  21. — 2. 
By  union  to  Christ,  Eph.  ii.  10. — 3. 
Through  faith,  Heb.  xi.  4,  6. — 4.  By  the 
word  and  Spirit,  Luke,  viii.  15.  Is.  iii.  3. 
2  Tim.  iii.  16.  jis  to  the  ?iature  arid 
/iroherties  of  good  woi'ks,  1.  They  are 
imperfect,  Ecc.  vii.  20.  Rev.  iii.  2.-2. 
Not  meritorious.  Tit.  iii.  5.  Luke,  xvii. 
10. — 3.  Yet  found  only  in  the  regenerate. 
Matt.  vii.  17.  The  ?iecessary  uses  of  good 
works,  1.  They  show  our  gratitude,  Ps, 
cxv.  12, 13. — 2.  Are  an  ornament  to  our 
profession.  Tit.  ii.  10. — 3.  Evidence  our 
regeneration.  Job,  xv.  5. — 4.  Profitable 
to  others,  Titus  iii.  8.  See  Holiness, 
Obedience,  Sanctification.  Gill's 
Bodii  of  Divinity,  book  iv.  vol.  iii.; 
Ridgley's  Body  of  Div.  q.  92 ;  Mar- 
shall on  Sarictijication. 

WORLD,  the  whole  system  of  cre- 
ated things.  [See  Creation.]  It  is 
1  taken  also  for  a  secular  life,  the  present 
{  state  of  existence,  and  the  pleasure  and 
!  interests  which  steal  away  the  soul  from 
God.  The  lo-ve  of  the  World  does  not 
consist  in  the  use  and  enjoyment  of  the 
comforts  God  gives  us, but  in  an  inordi- 
nate attachment  to  the  things  of  time 
and  sense.  "  1.  We  love  the  world  too 
much,"  says  Dr.  Jortin,  "  when,  tor  the 
sake  of  any  profit  or  pleasure,  we  wil- 
fully, knowingly,  and  deliberately  trans- 
gress the  commands  of  God. — 2.  When 
we  take  more  pains  about  the  firesent 
life  than  the  next. — 3.  W^hen  we  can- 
not be  contented,  patient,  or  resigned, 
under  low  and  inconvenient  circum- 
stances.— 4.  We  love  the  world  too 
much  when  we  cannot  part  with  any 
thing  we  possess  to  those  who  want,  de- 
serve, and  have  a  right  to  it. — 5.  W^hen 
we  envy  those  who  are  more  fortunate 
and  more  favoured  by  the  world  than 
we  are. — 6.  When  we  honour,  and  es- 
teem, and  favour  persons  purely  ac- 
cording to  their  birth,  fortunes,  and  sucf 
cess,  measarin.s:  our  judgment  and  api 
4(;  " 


WOR 


602 


WOR 


probation  bj'  their  outward  appearance 
and  situation  in  life. — 7.  When  worldly 
prosperity  makes  us  proud,  and  vain, 
and  arrogant. — 8.  When  we  omit  no 
opportunity  of  enjoying  the  good  things 
of  this  life  ;  when  our  great  and  chief 
business  is  to  divert  ourselves  till  we 
contract  an  indifference  for  rational  and 
nianlv  occupations,  deceiving*  ourselves, 
and  fancving  that  we  are  not  in  a  bad 
condition  because  others  are  worse  than 
we."  See  Jor/in's  Her.  vol.  iii.  ser.  9. ; 
Bishop  Hojikins  on  the  VanUy  of  the 
IVortd;  Dr.  Stejinet's  Serjnon  on  Con- 
formity to  the  World  ;  H.  Moore  on 
Education,  chap.  9.  vol.  ii.;  R.  Tlulkcr's 
Sermons,  vol.  iv.  ser.  20. 

W'ORLD,  Jgcs  of.  Tlie  time  pre- 
ceding the  birth  of  Christ  has  generally 
been  divided  into  six  ages.  The  lirst 
extends  from  the  beginning  of  the  world 
to  the  deluge,  and  comprehends  one 
thousand  six  hundred  and  hfty-six  years. 
The  second,  fi'om  the  deluge  to  Abra- 
ham's entering  the  Land  of  Promise  in 
2082,  comprehends  four  hundred  and 
twenty-six  years.  The  third  from 
Abraham's  entrance  into  the  promised 
land  to  the  Exodus  in  2523,  four  hun- 
dred and  thirty  years.  The  fourth,  from 
the  going  out  of  Egypt  to  tlie  foundation 
of  the  temple  by  Solomon  in  2992,  four 
hundred  and  seventy-nine  years.  Tlie 
fifth,  from  Solomon's  foundation  of  the 
temple  to  the  Babylonish  captivity  in 
3416,  four  hur.dred  and  twenty-one 
years.  The  sixth,  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity  to  the  birlh  of  Christ,  A.  M. 
4000,  the  fourth  year  before  the  vulgar 
xra,  includes  five  hundred  and  eighty- 
four  years. 

WORLD,  DISSOLUl  ION  OF.  See 
Conflagration,  Dissoi.iition. 

WORLD,  Eternity  of.  See  Eter- 
nity OF  THE  World. 

WORSHIP,  D.liMON,  the  worship 
of  a  class  of  spirits  which  were  tliought 
to  be  supei-ior  to  the  soul  of  man  ;  but 
inferior  to  those  intelligences  which  ani- 
mated the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  pla- 
nets, and  to  whom  wei-e  committed  tlie 
government  of  the  world,  paiticular 
nations,  &c.  Though  they  were  gene- 
rally invisible,  they  were  not  supposed 
to  be  pure  disembodied  spirits, 'but  to 
have  some  kind  of  ethereal  vehicle. 
They  were  of  various  orders,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  situation  over  whicli  they 
presided,  had  diflerent  names.  Hence 
the  Greek  and  Roman  poe,ts  talk  of 
satyrs,  dryads,  nymphs,  fawns,  5ic.  &c. 
'I'hese  ditfci-eut  orders  of  intelligences 
which,  though  worsliipped  as  gods  or 
demigods,  were  yet  ijelie^ed  to  partake 
of  human  passions  and  appetites,  led  the 


way  to  the  deification  of  departed  he- 
rocs,  and  other  eminent  benefactors  of 
the  human  race ;  and  from  this  latter 
probably  arose  the  belief  of  natural  and 
tutelar  gods,  as  well  as  tiie  practice  of 
worshipping  these  gods  through  the 
medium  of  statues  cut  into  a  human 
figure.  See  Idolatry  and  Polythe- 
ism. JVarbnrton's  Divine  Legation; 
Farmer  071  the  Worshi/i  of  Deemons  ; 
Gale's  Court  of  the  Gevtiles. 

WORSHIP  OF  GOD  {ciiltus  Dei) 
amounts  to  the  same  with  what  we 
otherwise  call  religion.  This  worship 
consists  in  paying  a  due  respect,  vene- 
ration, and  homage  to  the  Deity  under 
a  sense  of  an  obligation  to  him.  And 
this  internal  respect,  &c.  is  to  be  shown 
and  testified  by  external  acts  ;  as  pray- 
ers, thanksgivings,  &c. 

Private  IVorshiJi  should  be  condacted 
with,  1.  Reverence  and  veneration. — 2. 
Self-abasement  and  confession. — 3.  Con- 
templation of  the  perfections  and  pro- 
mises of  God. — 4.  Supplication  for  our- 
selves and  others. — 5.  Earnest  desire 
of  the  enjoyment  of  God. — 6.  Frequent 
and  regular.  Some  who  have  acknow- 
ledged the  propriety  of  private  worship 
have  objected  to  that  of  a  public  nature, 
but  without  any  sufficient  ground.  For 
Christ  attended  public  worsliip  himself, 
Luke,  iv.  he  prayed  with  his  disciples, 
Luke,  ix.  28,  29.  Luke,  xi.  1  ;  he  pro- 
mises his  presence  to  social  worship- 
pers, Matt,  xviii.  20.  It  may  be  argued 
also  from  the  'conduct  of  the  apo-itles. 
Acts  i.  24.  Acts  ii.  Acts  iv.  24.  Acts 
vi.  4.  Rom.  XV.  30.  1  Cor.  xiv.  Acts 
xxi.  2  Thess.  iii.  1,  2.  1  Cor.  xi.  and 
from  general  precepts,  1  Tim.  ii.  2,  8. 
Hebrews  x.  25.  Deut.  xxxi.  12.  Ps. 
c.  4. 

Puhlic  worshi/i  is  of  great  utility,  as, 
1.  It  gives  Cluistians  an  opportunity  of 
openlv  professing  their  fait  1 1  in  and  love 
to  Christ. — 2.  It  preserves  a  sense  of 
religion  in  the  mind,  without  which  so- 
ciety could  not  well  exist. — 3.  It  en- 
livens devotion  and  promotes  zeal. — 4. 
It  is  the  mean  of  receiving  instruction 
and  consolation. — 5.  It  affords  an  excel- 
j  lent  example  to  others,  and  excites 
them  to  fear  God,  ^c. 

Public  ivorshi/i  should  be,  1.  Solemn, 
not  light  and  trifling,  Ps.  Ixxxix.  7. — 2. 
Simple,  not  pompous  and  ceremonial, 
Isa.  Ixii.  2. — 3.  Cheerful,  and  not  with 
forbidding  aspect.  Ps.  c. — 4.  Sincere, 
and  not  hypoci-itical,  Isaiah,  i.  12.  Matt, 
xxiii.  13.  John  iv.  24. — 5.  Pui"e  and  not 
superstitious,  Isaiah,  Ivii.  1.5. 

We  cannot  conclude  this  article  with- 
out taking  notice  of  the  shameful  and 
cxcccdijigly  impropei*  practice  of  com- 


ZAC 


603 


ZEN 


ing  in  late  to  public  worship.  It  evi- 
dently manifests  a  state  of  lukewarm- 
ness ;'  it  is  a  breach  of  order  and  de- 
cency; it  is  a  disturbance  to  both  minis- 
ters and  people ;  it  is  slighting  the  ordi- 
nances which  God  has  appointed  for  our 
good;  and  an  affront  to  God  himself! 
How  such  can  be  in  a  devotional  frame 
themselves,  when  thev  so  often  spoil  the 
devotions  of  others,  I  know  not.  See 
JVatts's  Holiyieiss  of  Time  and  Places  ; 
Kinghorn  and  Loader  on  Public  IVor- 
shiji  ;  Parry's,  Barbaidd's,  Si?n/ison's 
and  lVilso?i's  Answer  to  Wakejield's 
Enquiry  on  the  jluthority,  Profiriety, 
and  Utility  of  Public  Worship  ;  TVew- 
Tnan  on  early  Attendance. 

WTIATH,    \iolent    and  permanent 
angei-.    See  Anger. 


\\'HATH  OF  «:i(3D  is  his  indigna- 
tion at  sin,  and  punibhment  of  it,  Rom. 
i.  18.  The  o!)jects  of  God's  anger  or 
wrath  arc  the  ungodly,  whom  he  has 
declared  he  will  pXmish.  His  wi-ath  is 
sometimes  manifested  in  this  life,  and 
that  hi  an  awful  degree,  as  we  see  in  the 
case  of  the  old  world,  Sodom  and  Go- 
morrah, tlie  plagues  of  Ec^ypt,  the  pu- 
nishment and  captivity  of  the  Jews,  and 
the  many  strikingjudgments  on  nations 
and  individuals.  But  a  still  more  awful 
punisliment  awaits  the  impenitent  in  the 
world  to  come ;  for  the  wicked,  it  is 
said,  shall  go  away  into  everlasting  pu,- 
nishment,  where  the  worm  dieth  not, 
and  the  fire  is  not  quenched.  Matt. 
zxv.  46.  Rom.  ii,  8,  9.  Rom.  i.  18.  See 
Hell,  Sin. 


z. 


ZACHEANS,  the  disciples  of  Za- 
cheus,  a  native  of  Palestine,  who,  about 
the  year  350,  retired  to  a  mountain  near 
the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  there  per- 
formed his  devotions  in  secret ;  pre- 
tending that  prayer  was  only  agreeable 
to  God  when  it  was  performed  secretly, 
and  in  silence. 

ZE^AL,  a  passionate  ai-dour  for  any 
person  or  cause.  There  are  various 
kinds  of  zeal ;  as,  1.  An  ignorant  zeal, 
Rom.  X.  2,  3. — 2.  A  persecuting  zeal, 
Phil,  iii.  6. — 3.  A  superstitious  zeal, 
1  Kings,  xviii.  Gal.  i.  14. — 4.  An  hypo- 
critical zeal,  2  Kings  x.  16. — 5.  A  con- 
tentious zeal,  1  Cor.  xi.  16. — 6.  A  par- 
tial zeal,  Hos.  vii.  8. — 7.  A  temporary 
zeal,  2  Kings,  xii.  and  xiii.  Gal.  iv.  15, 
16.— 8.  A  genuine  zeal,  which  is  a  sin- 
cere and  warm  concern  for  the  glory  of 
God,  and  the  spiritual  welfare  of  man- 
kmd.  This  is  generally  compounded  of 
sound  knowledge,  strong  faith,  and  dis- 
interested regard  ;  and  will  manifest  it- 
self by  self-denial,  patient  endurance, 
and  constant  exertion.  The  motives  to 
true  zeal  are,  1.  The  divine  command, 
Rev.  iii.  19. — 2.  The  example  of  Christ, 
Acts  X.  38. — 3.  The  importance  of  the 
service  of  Christ. — 4.  The  advantage 
and  pleasure  it  brings  to  the  possessor. 
—5.  The  instances  and  honourable  com- 
mendation of  it  in  the  Scriptures  :  Mo- 
ses, Phineas,  Caleb,  David,  Paul,  &c. 
Gal.  iv.  18.  Rev.  iii.  15,  &c.  Tit.  ii.  14.— 
6.  The  incalculable  good  effects  it  pro- 
duces on  others,  James  v  20.  See 
Reynolds  and  Orton  on  Sacred  Zeal ; 


JSvans's  Christian  Temper,  ser.  37 : 
Hug-hes's  Sermon  on  Zeal;  MasoTi's 
Christ.  Mor.  ser.  28. 

ZEALOT,  an  ancient  sect  of  the 
Jews,  so  called  fi-om  their  pretended 
zeal  for  God's  law,  and  the  honour  of 
religion. 

ZEND,  or  Zendavesta,  a  book  as- 
cribed to  Zoroaster,  and  containing  his 
pretended  revelations,  wliich  the  an- 
cient Magicians  and  modem  Persees 
observe  and  re^'erence  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  Christians  do  the  Bible, 
making  it  the  sole  rule  of  their  faith  and 
manners.  The  Zend  contains  a  reformed 
system  of  magianism,  teaching  that  there 
is  a  Supreme  Being,  eternal,  self-ex- 
istent, and  independent,  who  created 
both  light  and  darkness,  out  of  which  he 
made  all  other  things;  that  these  are  in 
a  state  of  conflict,  which  will  continue 
to  the  end  of  the  world ;  that  then  there 
shall  be  a  general  I'esurrection  and 
judgment,  and  that  just  retribution 
shall  be  rendered  unto  men  according 
to  their  works  ;  that  the  angel  of  dark- 
ness, with  his  followers,  shall  be  con- 
signed to  a  place  of  everlasting  darkness 
and  punishment ;  and  the  angel  of  light, 
with  his  disciples,  introduced  into  a  state 
of  everlasting  light  and  happiness :  after 
which,  light  and  darkness  shall  no  more 
interfere  with  each  other.  It  is  evi- 
dent, from  these,  and  various  other  sen- 
timents contained  in  the  Zend,  that  ma- 
ny parts  of  it  are  taken  out  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Dr.  Baumgarten  asserts 
that  this  work  contains  doctrines,  opi- 


ZUI 


604 


ZUI 


nions,  and  facts,  actually  borrowed  from 
the  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mahometans  ; 
whence  and  from  other  circumstances, 
he  concludes,  that  botli  the  history  and 
writings  of  this  prophet  wei'e  probably 
invented  in  the  later  ages. 

ZUINGLIANS,  a  branch  of  the  Re- 
formers, so  called  from  Zuinglius,  a 


noted  divine  of  Switzerland.  His  chief 
difference  from  Luther  was  concerning 
the  eucharist.  He  maintained  that  the 
bread  and  wine  were  only  significations 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ, 
whereas  Luther  believed  in  consub- 
stantiation. 


APPENDIX 

To  the  article  Methodist,  being  an  Account  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  in  the  United  States ;  (not  in  the  body  of  the  work,) 
for  which  the  editor  of  this  complete  edition  of  Buck's  Dictionary, 
is  indebted  to  Messrs.  N.  Bangs  &  I  Emory,  publishers  for  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States ;  and  which  he 
presumes  will  be  gratifying  to  the  friends  of  the  progress  of 
religion. 


MET 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAL 
CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  History  o/— The  first  Me- 
thodist society  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  was  formed  in  the  City  of 
New- York,  in  the  year  1766,  bv  a  few 
Methodist  emigrants  from  Ireland. 
Among  these  was  a  local  preacher,  by 
the  name  of  Philip  Embury.  He  preach- 
ed the  first  Methodist  sermon  in  a  pri- 
vate room,  to  those  only  who  had  ac- 
companied him  to  this  country.  The 
name  of  Methodist  and  his  manner  of 
preaching,  being  a  novelty  in  this  coun- 
try, soon  attracted  attention,  and  many 
came  to  hear  the  stranger  for  them- 
selves ;  and  the  number  of  hearers  so 
increased  that  the  house  in  which  they 
assembled  very  soon  became  too  small 
to  contain  all  who  wished  to  hear.  They 
accordingly  procured  a  larger  place. 
About  this  time  considerable  attention 
■was  excited  by  the  preaching  of  Capt. 
■\Vebb,  who  came  from  Albany,  where 
he  was  stationed,  to  the  help  of  Mr. 
Embury.  This  gentleman  had  been  con- 
verted to  God  under  the  preaching  of 
Mr.  Wesley  in  Bristol,  England,  and 
being  moved  with  compassion  towards 
his  fellow  men,  although  a  soldier,  he 
now  employed  his  talent  in  calling  sin- 
ners to  repentance.  Through  his  and 
the  labours  of  Mr.  Embury,  the  work  of 
God  prospered,  and  the  societv  increas- 
ed in  number  and  stability.  Prom  the 
Elace  they  now  occupied,  which  soon 
ecame  too  small  to  accommodate  all 
who  wished  to  attend  their  meetings, 
they  removed  to  a  rigging-loft,  in  Wil- 
liam-street, which  they  hired,  and  fitted 
up  for  a  preaching  room.  I 

Such  was  their  continual  increase  that, 
after  contending  with  a  variety  of  diffi-  j 
cul ties,  for  want  of  a  convenient  place  of  i 
worship,  they  succeeded  in  erecting  a  I 


MET 

meeting-house    in  John-street,  in   the 
year  1768. 

About  the  same  time  that  this  society 
was  establishing  in  New- York,  Mr. 
Strawbiidge,  a  local  preacher  from  Ire- 
land, commenced  preaching,  and  form- 
ed a  small  class  in  Frederick  County, 
Marj'^land. 

In  October,  1769,  two  preachers, 
Messrs.  Richard  Boardman  and  Joseph 
Pilmore,  being  sent  under  the  direction 
of  Mr.  Wesley,  landed  in  America :  and 
in  1771,  Messrs.  Fi'uncis  Asbury  and 
Richard  Wright  came  over.  The  first 
regular  conference  was  held  in  Phila- 
delphia, in  the  year  1773,  under  the  su- 
perintendence of  Mr.  Thomas  Rankin, 
who  had  been  sent  by  Mr.  Wesley  to 
take  the  general  oversight  of  the  socie- 
ties in  this  countiy.  These  zealous  mis- 
sionaiies,  spreading  themselves  in  dif- 
ferent directions  through  the  countiy, 
cities  and  villages,  were  instrumental 
in  extending  the  influence  of  evangeli- 
cal prmciples  and  holiness  among  the 
people. 

During  the  revolutionary  war,  all  the 
preachers  from  Europe,  except  Mr. 
Asburv,  returned  to  their  native  land. 
But  prior  to  this  event,  the  Head  of  the 
church  had,  under  the  energetic  labours 
of  Mr.  Asbury  and  his  colleagues,  called 
forth  some  zealous  young  men  into  the 
ministry,  whose  labours  were  owned  of 
God  in  the  awakening  and  conversion 
of  souls.  These  men  of  God,  under  the 
superintendence  of  Mr.  Asbury,  who 
laboured  hard  and  suffered  much  during 
the  sanguinary  conflict,  continued  in  the 
field  o^  Gospel  labour ;  and,  notwith- 
standing the  evils  inseparable  from  war, 
they  witnessed  the  spread  of  pure  reli- 
gion in  many  places. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  revolution,  in 
the  year  1784,  Dr.  Thomas  Coke  came 


INIET 


606 


MET 


to  America  with  powers  to  constitute 
■■the  Methodist  societies  in  this  country 
into  an  independent  church.  Hitherto 
the  societies  had  been  dependent  on 
other  churches  for  the  ordinances  of 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper,  as  the 
Methodist  preachers  were  considered 
only  la}"-preachers,  and  according  to  the 
uniform  advice  of  Mr.  Wesley,  had  de- 
clined administering  the  ordinances. 
This  had  occasioned  much  uneasiness, 
among  both  preachers  and  people,  in 
this  country.  They  therefore  earnestly 
I'equested  Mr.  Wesley  to  interpose  his 
authority,  and  furnish  them  with  the 
ordinances  independently  of  other  de- 
nominations. After  maturely  weighing 
the  subject  in  his  own  mind,  he  finally 
resolved,  as  the  United  States  had  be- 
come independent  of  both  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  polity  of  Great  Britain, 
%o  send  them  the  help  they  so  much 
needed.  Accordingly,  being  assisted 
by  other  presbyters  "of  the  Church  of 
England,  by  prayer  and  imposition  of 
hands,  he  set  apart  Thomas  Coke, 
L.  L.  D.  and  a  presbyter  of  said  church, 
as  a  superintendent  of  the  Methodist 
societies  in  America ;  and  directed  him 
to  consecrate  Mr.  Francis  Asbury  for 
the  same  office.  In  conformity  to  these 
instructions,  after  his  an'ival  in  the 
United  States,  a  conference  of  preach- 
ers Avas  assembled  in  Baltimore,  De- 
cember 25,  1784,  amounting  in  all  to  61. 
Having  communicated  his  instructions, 
and  the  contemplated  plans  for  the  fu- 
ture government  of  the  societies,  which 
were  generally  approved,  Mr.  Asbury, 
being  first  elected  by  the  unanimous 
voice  of  the  preachers,  was  ordained  by 
Dr.  Coke  first  to  the  office  of  deacoji, 
then  elder,  and  then  superintendent  or 
bishop.  Twelve  of  the  preachers  were 
elected  and  oi'dained  elders  at  the  same 
conference. 

These  proceedings  gave  very  general 
satisfaction  to  preachers  and  people. 
The  number  of  members  in  society  at 
this  time  was  14,988,  and  of  preachers 
83.  And  as  an  evidence  of  the  benefits 
jesulting  from  the  recent  organization 
of  tlie  church,  the  work  of  God  grew 
and  multiplied  more  than  ever,  and 
many  were  added  to  the  church.  Mr. 
Asbury  being  thus  commended  to  the 
grace  of  God  and  the  affections  of  his 
people,  took  a  more  genei-al  oversight 
of  the  whole  church,  travelling  from 
one  part  of  the  continent  to  another, 
preaching  the  Gospel  of  the  kingdom, 
and  assembling  the  preachers  at  differ- 
ent times  and  places,  and  appointing 
them  to  their  several  stations.  In  conse- 
quence of  extending  over  so  large  a  ter- 


ritory, for  they  soon  s'pread  over  all  the 
settlements  in  the  United  States,  it  be- 
came inconvenient  for  all  the  preachers 
to  convene  at  one  time  and  place  ;  they 
were  therefore  divided  into  several  an- 
nual conferences,  at  a  suitable  time  and 
distance  from  each  other,  for  the  super- 
intending bishop  to  meet  with  them, 
direct  their  councils  and  assign  each 
man  to  his  work.  But  these  separate 
assemblies,  unless  they  all  agreed  in 
each  others  regulations,  could  ordain 
nothing  that  should  be  binding  upon  the 
whole ;  and  therefore,  to  supply  this 
deficiency  of  the  government,  a  general 
conference,  composed  of  all  the  travel- 
ling elders,  was  found  expedient  and 
necessaiy.  But  from  the  continual  in- 
crease of  preachers  and  extension  of 
their  work,  it  became  quite  burdensome 
for  so  many  elders  to  convene  together, 
from  so  great  a  distance,  and  at  such  an 
expense  of  both  time  andmonev:  hence, 
to  exonerate  the  church  from  this  unne- 
cessary burden,  in  the  year  1808,  notice 
being  previously  given  to  tlie  annual 
conferences  of  the  intention,  the  gene- 
ral conference  resolved  on  a  delegated 
general  conference,  whose  powers  and 
privileges  VN^ere  defined  and  restricted 
in  the  following  words  : 

"  1.  The  general  conference  shall  be 
composed  of  one  member  for  every  five 
or  seven*  members  of  each  annual  con- 
ference, to  be  appointed  either  J)y  se- 
niority or  choice,  at  the  discretion  of 
such  annual  conference :  yet  so  that 
such  i-epresentatives  shall  have  travel- 
led at  least  four  fidl  calendar  years  from 
the  time  that  they  were  received  on 
trial  by  an  annual  conference,  and  are 
in  full  "connexion  at  the  time  of  holding 
the  conference. 

2.  The  general  conference  shall  meet 
on  the  first  day  of  May,  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  1812,  in  the  city  of  New- York, 
and  thenceforward  on  the  first  day  of 
May,  once  in  four  years  perpetually,  in 
such  place  or  places  as  shall  be  fixed 
on  by  the  general  conference  from  time 
to  time :  but  the  general  superinten- 
dents, with  or  by  the  advice  of  all  the 
annual  conferences,  or  if  thei'e  be  no 
general  superintendent,  all  the  annual 
conferences  respectively,  shall  have 
power  to  call  a  general  conference,  if 
they  judge  it  necessary  at  any  time. 

3.  At  all  times  when  the  general  con- 
ference is  met,  it  shall  take  two-thirds 
of  the  representatives  of  all  the  annual 


*Thc  last  g-eneral  confprence  fixed  the  num- 
ber of  dclti^att.s  at  one  for  every  seven  ijiein- 
bers  of  the  annual  conferences. 


I 


MET 


607 


MET 


conferences  to  make  a  quoinim  for  trans-  I 
acting  business.  I 

4.  One  of  the  general  superintendents  \ 


This  number  has  been  raised  up,  ex- 
clusi\e  of  the  thousands  who  have  gone 
to  rest,  bv   the  labours  of  Methodist 


shall  preside  in  the  general  conference  ; :,  preachers,  without  funds,*  without  col- 


but  in  case  no  general  superintendent 
be  present,  the  general  conference  shall 
choose  a  president  pi"o  tempore. 


leges,  often  in  the  midst  of  persecutions 
and  reproaches,  in  the  short  space  of 
56  years.  Upon  a  moderate  calculation. 


5.  The  genei'al  conference  shall  have  j  there  are  not  less  than  one  million  who 
full  powers  to  make  rules  and  regula-  |1  are  constant  attendants  upon  the  Mo- 
tions for  our  church,  under  the  follow- 'I  thodistministiy,  which  is  about  the  tenth 
ing  limitations  and  restrictions,  viz.  |i  part  of  the  population  of   the  United 

1.  The  general  conference  shall  not  !|  States-f 
revoke,  alter,  or  change  our  articles  of ,[     In  1819  the  Missionary  Society  of  the 
religion,  nor  establish  any  new  standards  '  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was  form- 


er rules  of  doctrine  contrary  to  our  pre- 
sent existing  and  establislied  standards 
of  doctrine. 

2.  They  shall  not  allow  of  more  than 
one  representative  for  every  five  mem- 


I  ed ;  and  it  received  the  sanction  of  the 
general 'confeijence  in  1820,  according 
j  to  the  following-  constitution  : 
I  "  1.  This  association  shall  be  denomi- 
nated *  T/ie  Missionary  Society  of  the 
bers  of  the  annual  conference,  nor  allow  |'  Methodist  Eliiscofiai  Church  ;'  the  ob- 
of  a  less  number  than  one  for  everj- liject  of  which  is,  to  enable  the  several 
seven.  !i  annual  conferences  more  effectually  to 

3.  They  shall  not  change  or  alter  any  i  extend  their  missionaiy  labours  through- 
part  or  rule  of  our  government,  so  as  to  do  !j  out  the  I'nited  States,  and  elsewhere, 
away  episcopacy,  or  destroy  the  plan  of  ji     2.  The  ijusiness  of  this  society  shall 
our  itinerant  general  supermtendency.    :;  be  conducted  by  a  president,  thirteen 

4.  They  shall  not  revoke  or  change  ;  vice-presidents,  clerk,  recording  and 
the  general  rules  of  the  united  societies,  i  corresponding  secretary,  treasurer,  and 

5.  They  shall  not  do  away  the  privi-  ';  thirty-two  managers,  all  of  whom  shall 
leges  of  our  ministers  or  preachers  of_|be  members  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
trial  by  a  committee,  and  of  an  appeal : :  pal  Church.  Tlie  president,  first  two 
Neither  shall  they  do  away  the  privi-  j  vice-presidents,  clerk,  secretaries,  trea- 


leges  of  our  members  of  trial  before  the 
society,  or  by  a  committee,  and  of  an 
appeal. 

6.  They  shall  not  appropriate  the 
produce  of  the  book  concern,  or  of  the 
charter  fund,  to  any  purpose,  other  than 
for  the  benefit  of  the  tra^•elling,  super- 
numerary,   superannuated    and    worn- 


surer,  and  the  thirty-two  managers, 
shall  be  elected  by  the  society  annually, 
and  each  annual  conference  shall  ha\e 
the  privileges  of  appointing  one  vice- 
president  fi-om  its  own  body. 


*  Perhaps  the  charter  fund  may  be  consi- 


OUt  preachers,  their  wives,  widows  and  '  dered  an  exception  to  this  remark.     But  when 


children.  Provided  nevertheless,  that 
upon  the  joint  recommendation  of  all 
the  annual  conferences,  then  a  majority 
of  two-thirds  of  the  general  conference 
succeeding,  shall  suffice  to  alter  any  of 
the  above  restrictions." 


it  is  known  that  it  yields  only  about  1200  dol- 
lars annually,  and  is  divided  among  seventeen 
conferences  containing'  1272  preachers,  be- 
sides a  number  of  widows,  it  may  be  asked, 
What  is  thatumong  so  many? 

t  From  the  Minutes  of  the  conference  held 


This   conference   was    composed    of  j  in  Sheflield,  England,  July  30,  1823;  it  ap 
about   120  members  from  the  several !'  ¥^^l^  there  were 
annual  conferences.    At  that  time  there  I 
were  but    seven    annual   conferences ; ' 
but  in  consequence  of  the  great  increase  j 
of  preachers  and  people,  scattered  all 
over  the  United  States  and  their  terri-  • 


tories,  including  Upper  Canada,  it  be- 
came necessary  to  multiply  these  con- 
ferences, so  that  there  are'  now  (1824,) 
seventeen.  These  include,  according  to 
the  Minutes  of  their  conferences  for 

1824,  

Travelling  preachers 1,272  ||      ^otal  under  the  care  of  the  Bri- 

White  members 280,427  I  jish  and  Irish  conferences 272,348 

Coloured 48,040  j      Travelling  preachers  in  the  Bri- 

tish    and    Irish    conferences   inclu- 

Total  preachers  and  people  . .  329,739  jj  ding  those  on  .*breign  stations i,02i 


Members,  in  Great  Britain 219,398 

in  Ireland 22,039 

The  nv.mber  in  Foreigv  Stations. 

in  Gibraltar  and  France 144 

in  Ceylon  and  Continental 

India 490 

in  New  South  Wales  and 

Van  Dieman's  land 178 

in  Africa 352 

in  the  West  Indies 26,171 

in  British  North  America, 

including  Newfoundland 4.076 


MET 


60S 


MET 


3.  Thirteen  membei-s  at  all  meetings 
of  the  board  of  managers,  and  twenty- 
five  at  all  meetings  of  the  society,  shall 
be  a  qiioi-um. 

4.  The  board  shall  have  authority  to 
make  by-laws  for  regulating  its  own 
proceedings,  fill  up  vacancies  that  may 
occur  during  the  year,  and  shall  present 
a  statement  of  its  transactions  and  funds 
to  the  society  at  its  annual  meeting : 
and  also  lay  befoi-e  the  general  confer- 
ence, a  report  of  its  transactions,  for  the 
four  preceding  years,  and  state  of  its 
funds. 

5.  Ordained  ministers  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church,  ^hether  travel- 
ling or  local,  being  menftbers  of  the  so- 
ciety, shall  be  ex  officio  members  of  the 
board  of  managers,  and  be  entitled  to 
vote  in  all  meetings  of  the  board. 

6.  The  board  of  managers  shall  have 
authority,  whenever  they  may  deem  it 
expedient  and  requisite,  to  procure 
Bibles  and  Testaments  for  distribution, 
on  such  terms  as  they  may  judge  most 
advisable,  provided  they  shall  not  at 
any  time  apply  to  this  object  more  than 
one-third  of  the  amovint  of  the  funds  re- 
ceived for  the  cun-ent  year. 

7.  Each  subscriber  paying  two  dollars 
annually,  shuU  be  a  member ;  and  the 
payment  of  twenty  dollars  at  one  time, 
shall  constitute  a  member  for  life. 

8.  Auxiliary  societies,  embracing  the 
same  objects  with  this,  shall,  if  tliey  re- 
quest it,  be  supplied  with  Bibles  and 
Testaments  at  cost :  provided  the  same 
shall  not  amount  to  more  than  one-third 
of  the  moneys  received  from  such  Aux- 
iliary societies,  and  that  after  supplying 
their  own  districts  with  Bibles  and  Tes- 
taments, they  shall  agree  to  ])lacc  their 
surplus  funds  at  the  disposal  of  this 
society. 

9.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  society 
shall  be  held  on  the  third  Monday  in 
April. 

10.  The  president,  vice-presidents,' 
clerk,  secretarits,  and  treasurer  for  the 
time  being,  shall  be  ex  officio  members 
of  the  board  of  managers. 

1 1.  At  all  meetings  of  the  society,  and 
of  the  board,  the  president,  or  in  his  ab- 
sence, tlie  vice-president  first  on  the  list 
then  present,  and  in  the  absence  of  all 
the  vice-presidents,  such  member  as 
shall  be  appointed  by  the  meeting  for 
that  purpose,  shall  preside. 

12.  The  minutes  of  each  meeting  shall 
be  signed  by  the  chairman. 

13.  The  treasurer  of  this  society,  un- 
«lei-  the  direction  of  the  board  of  mana- 
gers, shall  give  information  to  tiie  su- 
perintendents annually,  or  oftener,  if 
flie  managers  judge  it  expedient,  of  the 


state  of  the  funds  and  of  the  amount  for 
which  drafts  may  be  made  thereon,  for 
the  missionaiy  purposes  contemplated 
by  this  constitution  ;  agreeably  to  which 
information,  the  superintendents  shall 
have  authority  to  draw  on  the  treasui'er 
for  the  same,  and  to  pay  over  the 
amount  to  the  missionary  or  missiona- 
ries appointed  by  them,  either  wholly  at 
once,  or  by  instalments,  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  superintendents ;  provided 
the  drafts  of  all  the  superintendents  to- 
gether shall  not  amount  to  more  than 
the  sum  thus  authorised  to  be  drawn 
for,  and  that  the  appropriation  for  the 
support  of  any  missionaiy  or  missiona- 
ries shall  always  be  regulated  by  the 
rules  which  now  are  or  hereafter  may 
be  established  for  the  suppoi-t  of  other 
itinerant  ministers  and  preachers  of  the 
Methodist  episcopal  church  ;  and  pro- 
vided also,  that  the  appropriations  and 
payments  which  may  be  made  by  the 
superintendents  under  tills  article,  shall 
be  communicated  as  soon  as  practicable 
thereafter  to  the  board  of  managers  for 
insertion  in  their  annual  report. 

14.  This  constitution  shall  not  be  al- 
tered but  by  the  general  conference,  on 
the  recommendation  of  the  board  of 
managers." 

A  number  of  auxiliary  and  branch 
societies  have  been  formed,  and  their 
numljer  is  increasing.  In  1819  a  mission 
was  established  among  the  \^'yandott 
Indians  at  Upper  Sanduskv ;  and  in  1821 
another  among  the  Creeks.  Several 
other  missionaries  are  employed  in  des- 
titute parts  of  the  country  luider  the  pa- 
tronage of  the  society. 

Doctrine!^  of. — At  the  time  of  the  or- 
ganization of  the  church,  the  following 
articles  of  religion  were  adopted  as  the 
doctrines  of  the  church  : — 

I.  Of  Faith  in  the  Holy  Trinity. — 
"  There  is  but  one  living  and  time  God, 
everlasting,  without  body  or  parts,  of  in- 
finite power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  ;  the 
maker  and  preserver  of  all  things,  visi- 
ble and  invisible. — And  in  unity  of  this 
Godhead,  there  are  three  persons,  of 
one  substance,  power,  and  eternity ; — 
the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

II.  Of  the  Word,  or  Son  of  God,  ivho 
was  made  very  Alan. — The  Son,  who 
is  tlie  Word  of  "the  Father,  the  very  and 
eternal  God,  of  one  substance  with  the 
Father,  took  man's  natui'e  in  the  womb 
of  the  blessed  virgin  ;  so  that  two  whole 
and  perfect  natures,  that  is  to  saj',  the 

I  Godhead  and  manhood,  were  joined  to- 
gether in  one  person,  never  to  be  divi- 
I  ded,  whereof  is  one  Christ,  veiy  God 
1  and  veiy  man,  who  truly  suffered,  was 


MET 


609 


MET 


crucified,  dead  and  buried,  to  reconcile 
his  Father  to  us,  and  to  be  a  sacrifice, 
not  only  for  original  guilt,  but  also  for 
actual  sins  of  men. 

III.  Of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ. — 
Christ  did  truly  rise  again  from  the 
dead,  and  took  again  his  bod}^  with  all 
things  appertaining  to  the  perfection  of 
man's  nature,  wherewith  he  ascended 
into  heaven,  and  thei-e  sitteth  until  he 
return  to  judge  all  men  at  the  last  day. 

IV.  Of  the  Holy  Ghost.— The  Holy 
Ghost,  proceeding  from  the  Father  and 
the  Son,  is  of  one  substance,  majesty, 
and  glory  with  the  Father  and  the  Son, 
veiy  and  eternal  God. 

V.  The  sufficiency  of  the  Holy  Scri/i- 
tures  for  Salvation. — The  Holy  Scrip- 
tures contain  all  things  necessary  to  sal- 
vation :  so  that  whatsoever  is  not  read 
therein,  nor  may  be  proved  thereby,  is 
not  to  be  required  of  any  man.  that  it 
should  be  believed  as  an  article  of  faith, 
or  be  thought  requisite  or  necessary  to 
salvation.  In  the  name  of  the  Holy 
Scripture,  we  do  understand  those  ca- 
nonical books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament, of  whose  authority  was  never 
any  doubt  in  the  church. 

TTie  names  of  the  ca7ionical  Books. — 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers, 
Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  the 
Fii-st  Book  of  Samuel,  the  Second  Book 
of  Samuel,  the  First  Book  of  Kings,  the 
Second  Book  of  Kings,  the  First  Book 
of  Chronicles,  the  Seco'id  Book  of  Chro- 
nicles, tlie  Book  of  Ezra,  the  Book  of 
Nehemiah,  the  Book  of  Esther,  the  Book 
of  Job,  the  Psalms,  the  Proverbs,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  or  the  Preacher,  Cantica,  or 
Songs  of  Solomon,  Four  Prophets  the 
gi'eater.  Twelve  Prophets  the  less  :  all 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  as 
they  are  commonly  received,  we  do  re- 
ceive and  account  canonical. 

VI.  Of  the  Old  Testament.— The  0X6. 
Testament  is  not  contrary  to  the  New  ; 
for  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, everlasting  life  is  ofFe^-ed  to  man- 
kind by  Chi-ist,  who  is  the  only  Media- 
tor between  God  and  man,  being  both 
God  and  man.   Wherefore,  thev  are  not 

o  be  heard,  who  feign  that  the  old  Fa- 
thers did  look  only  for  transitory  pro- 
mises. Although  the  law  given  from 
God  by  Moses,  as  touching  ceremonies, 
and  rites,  doth  not  bind  Christians,  nor 
ought  the  civil  precepts  thereof  of  ne- 
cessity be  received  in  anv  common- 
•wealth:  yet,  notwithstanding,  no  Chris- 
tian whatsoever  is  free  from  the  obedi- 
ence of  the  commandments,  which  are 
called  moral. 

VII.  Of  Original  or  Birth  5m.— Ori- 
ginal sin  standeth  not  in  the  following  of 


Adam  (as  the  Pelagians  do  vainly  talk) 
but  it  is  tiie  corruption  of  the  natui'e  of 
every  niaii,  that  naturally  is  engendered 
of  the  offspring  of  Adam,  vifhereby  man 
is  very  far  gone  from  original  righteous- 
ness, and  of  his  own  nature  inclined  to 
evil,  and  that  continually. 

MIX.  Of  Free-  JVil/.—The  condition 
of  man  after  the  fall  of  Adam  is  such, 
that  he  cannot  turn  and  prepare  him- 
self, by  his  own  natural  strength  and 
works,"  to  faith,  and  calling  upon  God ; 
wherefore  we  have  no  power  to  do  good 
works,  pleasant  and  acceptable  to  God, 
without  the  grace  of  God  by  Christ  pre- 
venting us,  that  we  may  have  a  good 
will,  and  working  with  us,  when  we 
have  that  good  will. 

IX.  Of  the  Justification  of  Man. — 
We  are  accounted  righteous  before 
God  only  for  the  merit  of  our  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ  by  faith,  and  not  for 
our  own  works  or  desers'ings  ; — whore- 
fore,  that  we  are  justified  by  faith  only, 
is  a  most  wholesome  doctrine  and  very 
full  of  comfort. 

X.  Of  Good  Works. — Although  good 
works  which  are  the  fruits  of  faith,  and 
follow  after  justification,  cannot  put 
away  our  sins,  and  endure  the  severity 
of  God's  judgments:  yet  are  they  pleas- 
ing and  acceptable  to  God  in  Christ, 
and  spring  out  of  a  ti-ue  and  lively  faith, 
insomuch  that  by  them  a  lively  faith 
may  be  as  evidently  known,  as  a  tree  is 
discerned  by  its  fruits. 

XI.  Of  Works  of  Supererogation. — 
Voluntary  works,  besides,  over  and 
above  God's  commandments,  which  are 
called  w^orks  of  supererogation,  cannot 
be  taught  without  arrogancy  and  im- 
piety. For  by  them  men  do  declare, 
that  they  do  not  only  render  unto  God 
as  much  as  they  are  bound  to  do,  but 
that  they  do  more  for  his  sake  than  of 
bounden  duty  is  requived :  whei'eas 
Christ  saith  plainly,  Whep  ye  have 
done  all  that  is  commanded  you,  say. 
We  are  unprofitable  servants. 

XII.  Of  Sin  after  Justif  cation. — Not 
eveiy  sin  willingly  committed  after  jus- 
tification, is  the  sin  against  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  unpardonable.  Wherefore 
the  grant  of  repentance  is  not  to  be  de- 
nied to  su,ch  as  fall  into  sin  after  justifi- 
cation: after  we  have  received  the  Holy 
Ghost,  we  may  depart  fi-om  grace  given, 
and  fall  into  sin,  dnd  by  the  grace  of 
God,  rise  again  and  amend  our  lives. 
And  therefore,  they  ai-e  to  be  condemn^ 
ed,  who  say  they  can  no  mce  sin  as 
long  as  they  live  here :  or  deny  the  place 
of  foreiveness  to  such  as  truly  repent. 

Xirt.    Of  the  Church.— Tac  visible 
church  of"^  Christ  is  a  congregation  of 
4H 


MET 


GiO 


MET 


faithful  men,  in  which  the  pure  word  of 
(iod  is  preached,  and  the  sacraments 
duly  administered  according-  to  Christ's 
ordinance,  in  all  those  things  that  of  ne- 
cessity ai'c  requisite  to  the  same. 

Xly.  Of  Purs^atory. — The  Romish 
doctrine  concerning  purgatorj',  pai'don, 
ATCirshipping,  and  adoration,  as  well  of 
images  as  of  relics,  and  also  invocation 
of  saints,  is  a  fond  thing,  vainly  invent- 
ed, and  grounded  ni)on  no  warrant  of 
Scripture,  but  repugnant  to  the  word  of 
God. 

XV.  Of  s/ieaking  iii  the  congregation 
in  such  a  tongue  as  the  peojile  uyider- 
stand. — It  is  a  thing  plainly  repugnant 
to  the  word  of  God,  and  the  custom  of 
the  primiti^-e  church,  to  have  public 
prayer  in  the  church,  or  to  minister  the 
sacraments,  in  a  tongue  not  understood 
bjf  the  people. 

XVI.  Of  the  Sacraments. — Sacra- 
ments ordained  of  Christ,  are  not  only 
badges  or  tokens  of  Christian  men's 
]?rofession :  but  rather  they  are  certahi 
signs  of  grace,  and  God's  good  will  to- 
Vv'arcis  us,  by  the  which  he  doth  work 
invisibly  in  us,  and  doth  not  only  quick- 
en, but  also  strengthen  and  confirm  our 
faith  in  him. 

There  are  two  sacraments  ordained 
of  Christ  our  Lord  in  tlie  Gospel;  that 
is  to  say.  Baptism  and  the  Supper  of  the 
Lord. 

Those  five  commonly  called  sacra- 
ments ;  that  is  to  say,  confirmation,  pe- 
nance, orders,  matrimony,  and  extreme 
unction,  are  not  to  be  counted  for  sa- 
craments of  the  Gospel,  being  such  as 
have  partly  grown  out  of  the  corrupt 
following  of  tlie  apostles:  and  partly  are 
states  of  life  allowed  in  the  Scriptures, 
but  yet  have  not  the  like  natui-e  of  Bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Su])per,  because 
they  have  not  any  visible  sign,  or  cere- 
mony ordained  of  God. 

The  sacraments  were  not  ordained  of 
Christ  to  bft  gazed  uiDon,  or  to  be  cai-- 
ried  about ;  but  tliat  we  should  duly  use 
them.  And  in  such  only  as  worthily  re- 
ceive the  same,  they  have  a  wholesome 
effect  or  operation :  but  they  that  re- 
ceive them  unworthily,  pui'chase  to 
themselves  condemnation,  as  St.  Paul 
saith,  1  Cor.  xi.  29. 

XVII.  Of  Baptism. — Baptism  is  not 
only  a  sign  of  profession,  and  mark  of 
difference,  whereby  Christians  are  dis- 
tinguished from  others  that  are  not  bap- 
tized :  but  it  is  also  a  sign  of  regenera- 
tion, or  the  new  birth.  The  baptism  of 
young  children  is  to  be  retained  in  the 
church. 

XVIII.  Of  the  Lord's  Sujiper.— The 
Supper  of  the  Lord  is  not  only  a  sign 


that  Christians  ought  to  have  among 
themselves  one  to  another,  but  rather 
is  a  sacrament  of  our  redemption  by 
Christ's  death  ;  insomuch,  that  to  such 
as  rightly,  worthily,  and  Avith  faith  re- 
ceive the  same,  the  bread  which  we 
break  is  a  partaking  of  the  body  of 
Christ;  and  likewise  the  cup  of  blessing 
is  a  partaking  of  the  blood  of  Christ. 

Transubstantiation,  or  the  change  of 
the  substance  of  bread  and  wine  in  the 
supper  of  our  Lord,  cannot  be  proved 
by  holy  writ,  but  is  repugnant  to  the 
plain  words  of  Scripture,  overthroweth 
the  nature  of  a  sacrament,  and  hath 
given  occasion  to  many  superstitions. 

The  body  of  Christ  is  given,  taken, 
and  eaten  in  the  supper,  only  after  a 
heavenly  and  scriptural  manner.  And 
the  means  whereby  the  body  of  Christ 
is  received  and  eaten  m  the  supper,  is 
faith. 

The  saci-ament  of  the  Lord's  supper 
was  not  by  Christ's  oi-dinance  reserv- 
ed, cai'ried  about,  lifted  up,  or  worship- 
ped. 

XIX.  Of  both  kinds.— The  cup  of  the 
Loi'd  is  not  to  be  denied  to  the  lay-peo- 
ple :  for  both  the  parts  of  the  Lord's 
supper  by  Christ's  ordinance  and  com- 
mandment, ought  to  be  administered  to 
all  Christians  alike. 

XX.  Of  the  o?ie  Oblation  of  Christ, 
finished^  upon  the  cross. — The  offering 
of  Christ  once  made,  is  that  perfect  re- 
demption, pi'opitiation,  and  satisfaction 
for  all  the  sins  of  the  whole  world,  both 
original  and  actual :  and  there  is  none 
other  satisfaction  for  sin  but  that  alone. 
Wherefore  the  sacrifice  of  masses,  in 
the  which  it  is  commonly  said,  that  the 
priest  doth  offer  Christ  for  the  quick 
and  the  dead,  to  have  remission  of  pain 
or  guilt,  is  a  blasphemous  fable,  and 
dangerous  deceit. 

XXI.  Of  the  Marriage  of  Ministers. 
— The  ministers  of  Christ  are  not  com- 
manded by  God's  law  either  to  vow  the 
estate  of  single  life,  or  to  abstain  from 
marriage ;  therefore  it  is  lawful  for 
them,  as  for  all  other  Christians  to 
marry  at  their  own  discretion,  as  they 
shall  judge  the  same  to  serve  best  to 
godliness. 

XXII.  Of  the  Rites  a7id  Ceremonies 
of  churches. — It  is  not  necessary  that 
rites  and  ceremonies  should  in  all  places 
be  the  .same,  or  exactly  alike  :  for  they 
have  been  always  different,  and  may  be 
changed  according  to  the  diversity  of 
countries,  times,  and  men's  manners,  so 
that  nothing  he  ordained  u.g..inst  God's 
wo'd. — Whosoe\'er,  througli  his  private  , 
judgment,  willingly  and  purposely  doth 
openly  break  the  rites  and  ceremonies 


MET 


611 


MET 


of  the  church  to  wliich  he  belongs, 
which  are  not  repugnant  to  the  word  of 
God,  and  are  ordained  and  approved  l)y 
common  authorit)-,  ought  to  be  rebuked 
openly,  that  others  may  fear  to  do  the 
like,  as  one  that  ofFendcth  against  the 
common  order  of  the  church,  and 
woundeth  the  consciences  of  weak 
brethren. 

Every  particular  church  may  oi^dain, 
change,  or  abolish  rites  and  ceremonies, 
so  that  all  things  may  be  done  to  edifi- 
cation. 

XXIII.  Of  the  Rulers  of  the  United 
States  of  America. — The  president,  the 
congress,  the  general  assemijlies,  the 
governors,  and  the  councils  of  state,  an 
the  delegates  of  the  people,  are  the  ru- 
lers of  the  United  States  of  America,  !l 
according  to  the  division  of  power  made 
to  them  by  the  constitution  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  by  the  constitutions  of 
their  respective  states.  And  the  said 
states  are  a  sovereign  and  independent 
nation,  and  ought  tint  to  be  subject  to 
any  foreign  jurisdiction.* 

XXIV."  Of  Christian  Men's  Goods.— 
The  riches  and  goods  of  Christians  are 
not  common  as  touching  the  right,  title, 
and  possession  of  the  same,  as  somo  do 
falsely  boast.  Notwithstanding,  every 
man  ouglit,  of  such  things  as  he  pos- 
sesseth,  liberally  to  give  alms  to  the 
poor,  according  to  his  ability. 

XXV.  Of  a  Christian  Man's  Oath. — 
As  we  confess  that  vain  and  rash  swear- 
ing is  forbidden  Christian  men  by  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  James  his  apos- 
tle ;  so  we  judge  that  the  Christian  re- 
ligion doth  not  prohibit  but  that  a  man 
may  swear  when  the  magistrate  re- 
quireth,  in  a  cause  of  faith  and  charity, 
so  it  be  done  according  to  the  prophet's 
teaching,  in  justice,  judgment,  and 
truth." 

Government  of. — The  general  rules 
for  the  government  of  the  societies,  are 
the  same  as  those  in  England,  termed, 
"  The  nature,  design,  and  general  rules 
of  our  United  Societies."  (See  Metho- 
dists, government  and  discipline  of,  p. 
365.)  As  to  the  government,  the  title 
sufficiently    ascertains    its    distinctive 


*  As  far  as  it  respects  civil  affairs,  we  be- 
lieve it  the  duty  of  Christians,  and  especially 
all  Christian  ministers,  to  be  subject  to  the  su- 
preme aiithoi'it3'  of  the  country  where  they 
may  reside,  and  to  use  all  Lindablc  means  to 
enjoin  obedienct>  to  the  powers  thai  be :  and 
therefore  it  is  expected  that  all  our  preachers 
and  ))fople,  who  may  be  under  the  British  or 
any  other  government,  will  behave  themselves 
as  peaceable  and  orderly  subjects. 


cliaractcr,  it  being,  in  fact  and  name, 
Efiiscopal.  Three  orders  cf  ministers 
are  recognized,  and  tlie  duties  peculiar 
to  each  are  clearly  defined. 

But  to  give  a  correct  view  of  the 
ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  it  is  necessary  to  show  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  formed.  A  man 
tliinking  himself  moved  by  the  Holy- 
Ghost  to  preach  the  Gospel,'first  makes 
known  his  views  and  exercises  to  the 
preacher  having  charge  of  the  circuit 
or  station,  who,  if  he  judge  the  appli- 
cant a  fit  person,  grants  him  license  to 
exhort.  After  improving  his  talent  as 
an  exhortcr,  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
for  his  brethren  to  judge  of  his  compe- 
tency to  so  important  a  work,  he  makes 
apijlication  to  the  quarterly  meeting 
conference,  which  is  composed  of  all 
the  preachers,  travelling  and  local, 
stewards,  leaders  and  exhorters  of  the 
circuit,  and  if  considered  fit  for  the  work, 
he  is  recommended  by  this  body  to  the 
local  preachers'  conference,  where  he 
is  examined  on  his  belief  in  the  doctrines 
and  discipline  of  the  church  ;  and  they, 
if  they  think  pro})er,  grant  him  license 
as  a  local  preacher ;  and  if  such  licen- 
tiate desire  to  enter  the  travelling  mi- 
nistry, he  must  be  recommended  to  an 
annual  conference,  both  by  a  quarterly 
nieeting  and  district  conference,  except 
in  those  circuits  where  no  district  con- 
ference is  held.  When  presented  to  an 
annual  conference,  his  reception  on  trial, 
depends  on  a  majority  of  votes.  After 
travelling  as  a  preacher  on  probation 
two  years,  if  po  objection  be  made 
against  him,  he  is  admitted  as  a  member 
of  conference,  and  ordained  a  deacon. 
The  approved  exercise  of  the  deacon's 
office  tor  tno  years,  entitles  him  to  the 
office  of  an  elder. 

The  following  quotations  from  the 
Methodist  Discipline,  will  show  the  du- 
ties peculiar  to  each  order  of  ministers 
in  their  church  : — 

Of  the  Election  and  Consecration  of 
Bishops,  and  of  their  duty. 

"  Quest.  1.  How  "is  a  bishop  to  be 
constituted? 

Answ.  By  the  election  of  the  general 
conference,  and  the  laying  on  of  the 
hands  of  three  bishops,  or  at  least  of 
one  bishop  and  two  elders. 

Quest.  2.  If  b}-  death,  expulsion,  or 
otherwise,  there  be  no  bishop  remain- 
ing in  our  church,  what  shall  we  do  ? 

yj/isw.  The  general  conference  shall 
elect  a  bishop ;  and  the  elders,  or  any 
tlu'ee  of  them,  who  shall  be  appointed 
by  the  general  conference  for  that  pur- 
pose, shall  ordain  \um  according  to  our 
form  of  ordination. 


MET 


612 


MET 


QuesL  G.  \Miat  are  the  duties  of  a 
bishop  ? 

j^/isw.  1.  To  preside  in  our  confer- 
ences. 

2.  To  fix  tlie  appointments  of  the 
pi'eacliers  for  tlie  several  circuits,  pro- 
vided he  shall  not  allow  any  preacher 
to  remain  in  the  same  station  more  than 
two  years  successively ;  except  the  pre- 
siding elders,  the  editor  and  general 
book  stewai'd,  the  assistant  editor  and 
general  book  steward,  the  supemu- 
merarj-,  supei-annuated  and  worn-out 
preacliers,  missionaries  among  the  In- 
dians, and  tlie  presidents,  principals,  or 
teachers  of  seminaries  of  learning, 
which  are  or  may  be  under  our  super- 
intendence. 

3.  In  the  intervals  of  the  conferences, 
to  change,  receive,  and  suspend  preach- 
ers, as  necessity  may  require,  and  as  the 
discipline  directs. 

4.  To  travel  through  the  connexion 
at  large. 

5.  To  oversee  the  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral busuiess  of  our  church. 

6.  To  ordain  bishops,  elders,  and 
deacons." 

Of  (he  JLlecthn  and  Ordination  of  tra- 
velling Elders,  and  of  their  duty. 

"Quest.  1.  How  is  an  elder  consti- 
tuted ? 

jinsw.  By  the  election  of  a  majority 
of  the  yearly  conference,  and  by  the 
laying  on  of  the  hands  of  a  bishop,  and 
some  of  the  elders  that  are  present. 

Quest.  2.  WTiat  is  the  duty  of  a  tra- 
velling elder  ? 

jinsi<'.  1.  To  administer  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  suppei-,  and  to  perform  the 
office  of  matrimony,  and  all  parts  of  di- 
vine worship. 

2.  To  do  all  the  duties  of  a  travelling 
pi'eacher. 

No  elder  that  ceases  to  ti'^.vel,  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  j'early  confei'ence, 
certified  under  the  hand  of  the  presi- 
dent of  the  conference,  except  in  case 
of  sickness,  debility,  or  other  unavoida- 
ble circumstance,  shall,  on  any  account, 
exercise  the  peculiar  functions  of  his 
office,  or  even  be  allowed  to  preach 
among  us  ;  nevertheless  the  final  deter- 
mination in  all  such  cases  is  with  the 
yearly  conference. 

Of  the  Election  and  Ordinatiott  of  tra- 
velling Deacons,  and  of  their  duty. 

"  Quest.  1.  How  is  a  travelling  dea- 
con constituted  ? 

yfnsw.  By  the  election  of  the  majority 
of  the  yearly  conference,  and  the  laying 
on  of  the  hands  of  a  bishop. 

Quest.  2.  Wliat  is  the  duty  of  a  tra- 
velling deaco7i? 


Ausir.  1.  To  baptize,  and  perform 
the  office  of  matrimony,  in  the  absence 
of  the  elder. 

2.  To  assist  the  elder  in  administer- 
ing the  Lord's  supper. 

3.  To  do  all  the  duties  of  a  travelling 
preacher. 

Quest.  3.  What  shaU  be  the  time  of 
probation  of  a  travelling  deacon  for  the 
office  of  an  elder  ? 

Ansnv.  Every  travelling  deacon  shall 
exercise  that  office  for  two  years,  be- 
fore he  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  elder; 
except  in  the  case  of  missions,  when 
the  annual  conference  shall  have  autho- 
rity to  elect  for  the  elder's  office  sooner, 
if  they  judge  it  expedient. 

No  deacon  who  ceases  to  travel  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  annual  confer- 
ence, certified  under  the  hand  of  the 
president  of  the  conference,  except  in 
case  of  sickness,  debility,  or  other  un- 
avoidable circumstances,  shall  on  any 
account,  exercise  the  peculiar  functions 
of  his  office,  or  even  be  allowed  to 
preach  aiuung  us :  nevertheless,  the 
final  determination  in  all  such  cases  is 
with  the  annual  conference." 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  Metho- 
dist church  recognizes  an  officer  deno- 
minated a  presiding  elder,  who  is  ap- 
pointed to  that  office  by  a  bishop. 

Of  presiding  Elders,  and  of  their  duty^ 

"  Quest.  1.  By  whom  are  the  presi- 
ding elders  to  be  chosen  ? 

jlnsw.  By  the  bishops. 

Quest.  2.  What  are  the  duties  of  a 
presiding  elder? 

Answ.  1.  To  travel  through  his  ap- 
pointed district. 

2.  In  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  to 
take  charge  of  all  the  elders,  and  dea- 
cons, ti'avelling  and  local  preachers, 
and  exhoiters  in  his  district. 

3.  To  change,  receive,  and  suspend 
preachers  in  his  district  during  the  in- 
tervals of  the  conferences,  and  in  the 
absence  of  the  bishop,  as  the  discipline 
directs. 

4.  In  the  absence  of  a  bishop,  to  pre- 
side in  the  conference  ;  but  in  case  there 
are  two  or  more  presiding  elders  be- 
longing to  one  conference,  the  bishop  or 
bishops  may  by  letter  or  otherwise  ap- 
point the  president ;  but  if  no  appoint- 
ment be  made,  or  if  the  presiding  elder 
appointed  do  not  attend,  the  conference 
shall  in  either  of  these  cases  elect  the 
president  by  ballot,  without  a  debate, 
from  among  the  presiding  elders. 

5.  To  be  present,  as  far  as  practicable, 
at  all  the  quarterly  meetings ;  and  to 
call  together  at  each  quarterly  meet- 

I  ing,  a   quarterly  meeting   conference, 


MET 


consisting  of  all  the  travelling. and  local 

t)reachers,  exhorters,  stewards,  and 
eaders  of  the  circuit,  and  none  else,  to 
hear  complaints,  and  to  receive  and  tiy 
appeals.  The  quarterly  meeting  con- 
ference shall  appoint  a  secretary  to  take 
do%vn  the  proceedings  thereof,  in  a  book 
kept  by  one  of  the  stewards  of  the  cir- 
cuit for  that  purpose. 

6.  To  oversee  the  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral business  of  the  church  in  his  dis- 
trict. 

7.  To  take  care  that  every  part  of 
cur  discipline  be  enforced  m  his  dis- 
trict. 

8.  To  attend  the  bishops  when  pre- 
sent in  his  district ;  and  to  give  them, 
when  absent,  all  necessary  information, 
by  letter,  of  the  state  of  his  district." 

For  the  particular  duties  of  preachers, 
to  God,  to  themselves  and  each  other, 
us  well  as  to  the  people  of  their  charge, 
see  Discipline,  sections,  8,  9,  11,  12,  14, 
15,  16,  17. 

Besides  the  travelling  ministiy,  the 
Methodists  have  a  large  and  useful  body 
of  ministers,  whom  they  distmguisli  by 
the  name  of  local  fireachers.  These  at- 
tend to  secular  business  for  a  livelihood  ; 
and  preach  generally  on  Sabbath  days, 
and  occasionally,  as  time  and  opportu- 
nity will  permit,  on  other  days.  Tlie 
following  section  from  the  discipline 
will  clearly  show  their  duties,  powers, 
and  privileges; 

Of  the  Local  Preachers. 

Quest.  1.  \Miat  directions  shall  be 
given  concerning  local  preachers. 

Ansiv.  1.  There  shall  be  held  annual- 
ly in  each  presiding  elder's  disti'ict, 
a  district  conference,  of  which  all  the 
local  preachers  in  the  district,  who  shall 
have  been  licensed  two  years,  shall  be 
members ;  and  of  which  the  presiding 
elder  of  the  district  for  the  time  being 
shall  be  president ;  or  in  case  of  his  ab- 
sence, the  conference  shall  have  autho- 
rity to  elect  a  president  pro  tem.  It  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  presiding  elder  of 
each  district  to  appoint  the  time  and 
place  of  the  first  conference,  after  which 
the  presiding  elder  shall  appoint  the 
time,  and  the  conference  the  place  of 
its  own  sitting. 

2.  The  said  district  conference  shall 
have  authority  to  license  proper  per- 
sons to  preach,  and  renew  their  license ; 
to  recommend  suitable  candidates  to  tlie 
annual  conference  for  deacons  or  el- 
ders' orders,  in  the  local  connexion,  for 
admission  on  trial  in  the  travelling  con- 
nexion, and  to  try,  suspend,  expel,  or 
acquit  any  local  preacher  in  the  district 
against  whom  charges  may  be  brought. 
Provided,  that  no  person  shall  be  li- 


613  MET 

censed  without  being  first  recommendtid 
by  the  quarterly  conference  of  the  cir- 
cuit or  station  to  which  he  belongs  ;  nor 
shall  any  one  be  licensed  to  preach,  or 
recommended  to  the  annual  conference 
for  ordination,  without  first  being  ex- 
amined in  the  district  conference  on  the 
subjects  of  doctruie,  and  discipline. 

3.  The  district  conference  shall  take 
cognizance  of  all  the  local  preachers  ia 
the  district,  and  shall  inquire  into  the 
gifts,  labours,  and  usefulness  of  eack 
preacher  by  name. 

4.  When  charges  are  preferred  against 
any  local  preacher,  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  preacher  in  charge  to  call  a  com- 
mittee consisting  of  three  or  more  local 
preachers  within  the  station,  circuit,  or 
district,  before  whom  it  .shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  accused  to  appear,  and  by 
wliom  he  shall  be  acquitted,  or,  if  found 
guilty,  be  suspended  until  the  meeting 
of  t'ne  next  district  conference.  And 
the  president  of  the  said  district  con- 
ference shall,  at  the  commencem.ent  of 
the  trial,  appoint  a  secretary,  who  shall 
take  down  regular  minutes  of  the  evi- 
dence, and  proceedings  of  the  trial ; 
which  minutes,  when  read  and  approved, 
shall  be  signed  by  the  said  president, 
and  also  by  the  members  of  the  said 
district  conference,  or  by  a  majority  of 
them. 

And  in  case  of  condemnation,  the 
local  preacher,  deacon,  or  elder,  con- 
demned, shall  be  allowed  an  appeal  to 
the  next  annual  conference,  provided 
that  he  signify  to  the  said  district  coa- 
ference,  his  determination  to  appeal ; 
in  which  case  the  said  president  shall 
lay  the  minutes  of  the  trial  above-men- 
tioned before  the  said  annual  conference, 
at  which  the  local  preacher,  deacon,  or 
elder,  so  appealing  may  appear:  and 
the  said  annual  conference  shall  judge 
and  fina'dy  determine  from  the  minutes 
of  the  said  trial,  so  laid  before  them. 

5.  A  licensed  local  preacher  shall  be 
eligible  to  the  office  of  a  deacon,  after 
he  has  preached  for  four  years  from  the 
time  he  received  a  regular  license,  and 
has  obtained  a  testimonial  from  the  dis- 
trict conference  to  which  he  belongs, 
after  proper  examination,  signed  by  the 
president,  and  countersigned  by  the  se- 
cretary, and  his  cliaracter  has  passed 
in  examination  before,  and  he  has  ob- 
tained the  approbation  of  the  annual 
conference. 

6.  A  local  deacon  shall  be  eligible  to 
the  office  of  an  elder,  after  he  lias 
preached  four  years  from  the  time  he 
was  ordained  a  deacon,  and  has  obtain- 
ed a  recommdhdation  from  the  district 
conference  of  which  he  is  a  member. 


MET 


614 


:met 


certifying  his  qualifications  in  doctrine, 
discipline,  talents  and  usefulness,  and 
the  necessity  of  his  official  ser\  ices  as 
an  elder  in  the  circuit  where  he  resides ; 
signed  by  the  president,  and  counter- 
signed by  the  secretary.  He  shall,  if  he 
cannot  attend,  send  to  the  annual  con- 
ference such  recommendation,  and  a 
note  certifying  his  belief  in  the  doc- 
trine and  discipline  of  our  church  :  the 
whole  being  examined  by  the  annual 
conference,  and  if  approved  he  may  be 
ordained ;  provided,  nevertheless,  no 
slave  holder  shall  be  eligible  to  the  of- 
fice of  an  elder  or  deacon,  where  the 
laws  will  admit  of  emancipation,  and 
permit  the  liberated  slave  to  enjoy  free- 
dom. 

7.  Every  local  elder,  deacon,  and 
preacher,  shall  have  his  name  recorded 
on  the  journal  of  the  quartei'ly  meeting 
conference  of  which  he  is  a  member. 
And  every  local  preacher  shall  have 
his  name  enrolled  on  a  class  paper,  and 
meet  in  class,  if  the  distance  of  his  place 
of  residence  from  any  class  be  not  too 
great;  or,  in  neglect  thereof,  the  dis- 
trict conference,  if  they  judge  it  proper, 
may  deprive  him  of  his  ministerial  office. 

Wlienever  a  local  preacher  shall  re- 
move from  one  circuit  to  another,  he 
shall  procure  from  the  presiding  elder 
of  the  district,  or  the  preacher  having 
the  charge  of  the  circuit,  a  certificate 
of  his  official  standing  in  the  church  at 
the  time  of  his  removal,  without  which 
he  shall  not  be  received  as  a  local 
preacher  in  other  places. 

No  preacher  among  us  shall  distil  or 
retail  spirituous  liquors,  without  forfeit- 
ing his  official  standing." 

The  supreme  legislative  power  of  the 
church  is  concentrated  in  a  general 
conference,  which  is  composed  of  dele- 
gates from  each  annual  conference,  who 
meet  together  on  the  first  day  of  May 
of  every  fourth  year.  For  its  powers 
see  under  histo)-y  of.  In  addition  to  the 
powers  there  enumerated,  the  general 
conference  possesses  an  appellate  juris- 
diction over  all  ministers  who  may  have 
appealed  from  the  decisions  of  an  annual 
conference,  and  the  final  determination 
of  all  disputes  that  may  arise  on  any 
question  of  rights,  which  relate  either  to 
the  people  or  preachers ;  elects  and 
fixes  the  salary  of  the  book  agents  ; 
elects  the  bisliops,  and  may  create  any 
new,  or  divide  any  of  the  old  annual 
conferences. 

I'o  the  annual  conference  is  com- 
mitted the  oversight,  in  subordination 
to  the  episco]jal  authority,  of  all  the 
preachers  and  people  within  their  re- 
spective bounds,  the  standhig  of  their 


own  mciubers,  the  hearing  of  appeals 
of  local  preachers,  and  the  original 
jurisdiction  of  the  members  of  their 
own  bodies,  and  the  adoption  of  such 
measures  as  they  may  think  expedient, 
for  raising  monies  to  carry  on  the  work 
of  God.  The  following  questions  will 
show  the  powers  and  privileges,  as  well 
as  the  particular  business  of  an  annual 
conference : — 

Of  the  Annual  Conferences. 

"  Quest.  3.  Who  shall  attend  the 
yearly  conferences  ? 

Answ.  All  the  travelling  preachers, 
who  are  in  full  connexion,  and  those 
who  are  to  be  received  into  full  con- 
nexion. 

Quest.  4.  Who  shall  appoint  the  times 
of  holding  the  yearly  conference  ? 

Answ.  The  bishops;  but  they  shall 
allow  the  annual  conferences  to  sit  a 
week  at  least. 

Quest.  5.  Who  shall  appoint  the  place 
of  holding  the  annual  conferences? 

Answ.  Each  annual  conference  shall 
appoint  the  place  of  its  own  sitting. 

Quest.  6.  What  is  the  method  wherein 
we  usually  proceed  in  the  yearly  con- 
ference .'' 

Answ.  We  inquire, 

1.  What  preachers  are  admitted  oi> 
trial  ? 

2.  Who  remain  on  trial  ? 

3.  Who  are  admitted  into  full  con- 
nexion ? 

4.  \Mio  are  the  deacons  ? 

5.  Who  have  been  elected  and  or- 
dained elders  this  year  ? 

6.  Who  have  been  elected,  by  the  suf- 
frages of  the  general  conference,  to 
exercise  the  episcopal  office,  and  super- 
intend the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  America  .■* 

7.  XA'^ho  ha\e  located  this  year  ? 

8.  Who  are  the  supernumeraries.' 

9.  Who  are  the  superannuated  or 
worn-out  preachers  i" 

10.  Who  have  been  expelled  from  the 
connexion  this  year  ? 

11.  Who  have  withdrawn  from  the 
connexion  this  vear  ? 

12.  Are  all  the  preachers  blameless 
in  life  and  con\-ersation  ^ 

13.  Who  have  died  this  year  ? 

14.  What  numbers  are  in  society? 

15.  What  has  been  collected  for  the 
contingent  expenses,  for  the  making  up 
the  allowances  of  the  preachors,  Sec.  ? 

16.  How  has  this  been  expended? 

17.  Where  are  the  preachers  station- 
ed this  vear  ? 

18.  Where  and  when  shall  our  next 
conferences  be  held  ? 

Quest.  7.  Is  there  any  other  business 
to  be  done  in  the  yearly  conferences  ? 


MET 


615 


MET 


Ansiu.  The  electing  and  ordaining  of 
deacons  and  eldevs. 

Quest.  8.  Are  there  any  other  direc- 
tions to  be  given  concen^ing  the  yearly- 
conferences  ? 

Ansiv.  There  shall  be  twelve  con- 
ferences in  the  year.  A  record  of  the 
proceedings  of  each  annual  conference 
shall  be  kept  by  a  secretary,  chosen  for 
that  purjjose,  and  shall  be  signed  by  the 
president  and  secretary  :  and  let  a  copy 
of  the  sakl  record  be  sent  to  the  general 
conference. 

Sujifiort  of  the  ministry. — The  minis- 
try is  supported  by  the  voluntary  con- 
tributions of  the  people.  For  this  pur- 
pose, a  collection  is  made  in  all  the 
classes  and  large  congregations  in  the 
country  circuits  once  a  quarter ;  in  the 
cities,  in  addition  to  the  quarterly  col- 
lections, a  monthly,  and  m  some  cities 
a  weekly  collection  is  made,  which  is 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  stewards 
at  each  leaders'  meeting,  or  at  the 
quarterly  meeting  of  the  circuit :  the 
stewards  keep  a  record  of  all  monies 
collected,  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  appropriated. 

Character  of. — Each  denomination  of 
Christians  have  some  peculiarity  of 
character,  by  which  it  is  distinguished 
from  others.  And  the  preceding  outline 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  will, 
it  is  presumed,  enable  the  reader  to 
form  a  tolerably  correct  idea  of  its  cha- 
racteristic distinction.  And  those  who 
have  witnessed  the  rise  and  progress  of 
the  church,  in  the  midst  of  a  vai'iety.of 
reproaches  and  oppositions,  will  be 
ready  to  admit  that  a  remarkable  zeal 
for  the  salvation  of  souls,  has  distin- 
guished the  Methodist  nnnistry  from 
the  beginning ;  and  that  this  zeal,  tem- 
pered with  love  to  God  and  man,  has 


evinced  itself  by  an  extended  and  per- 
severing plan  of  difl'using  the  Gospel, 
by  an  itinerating  ministry  ;  and  also  by 
a  success  in  the  awakening  and  conver- 
sion of  souls,  scarcely  to  be  paralleled, 
in  ecclesiastical  history,  since  the  apos- 
tolic age.  These  are  facts  known  and 
read  of  all  men.  And  no  less  evident 
has  been  their  own  personal  devotion  to 
the  cause  of  God  and  to  the  interests  of 
Jesus  Christ. 

That  particular  doctrine,  which  has 
characterized  all  their  preaching  \%sal- 
vation  by  grace  through  faith  in  the 
atoning  merits  of  Christ ;  and  no  less 
strenuously  have  they  enforced  the  ne- 
cessity of  holiness  of  heart  and  life,  or 
the  entire  sanctification  of  the  soul  and 
body  to  God.  And  bating  somewhat  for 
the  enthusiasm  of  some,  the  ignorance 
and  irregularity  of  others,  perhaps  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say,  that  no  sect  of  Chris- 
tians have  maintained  a  more  unexcep- 
tionable character,  for  strict  adhereijce 
to  the  pi'ecepts  of  Christ.  J 

I     To  undertake  to  estimate  the  coth- 
paratlve  merits  of  the  several  sects  of 
I  Christians  might  seem  invidious  ;  antl  it 
j  would  be  equally  so,  to  draw  a  general 
conclusion,    either  for  or   against  any 
!  body  of  people  from  the  conduct  of  a 
i  few  indi\  Iduals.    All,  however  brght 
they  may  have  shone,  have  had  tSeir 
j  spots ;  aiid  it  is  granted  Avithout  any 
1  disparagement  to  the  character  of  the 
[  main  body,  that  there  have  been  indi- 
viduals among  the  Methodists  who  have 
I  disgraced   themselves  and  their   bre- 
thren ;  while  the  i.  reat  majority  of  aoth 
preachers  and    people,   have    evificed 
deep  devotion  to  God,  and  an  arderi  at- 
tachment  to    truth   and  holiness,  and 
have  done  much  to  advance  the  King- 
dom of  Christ  among  men. 


THE  END. 


•*5^*' 


DATE  DUE 

», 

'■ 

GAYLORD 

PRINTED  IN  US. A. 

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